A directory resembles a dictionary or a phone book. If you know a word, you can look it up its entry in the dictionary to learn its definition or its pronunciation. If you know a name, you can look it up its entry in the phone book to find the telephone number and street address associated with the name. If you are bored, curious, or have lots of time, you can also read through the dictionary, phone book, or directory, entry after entry.
Where a directory differs from a paper dictionary or phone book is in how entries are indexed. Dictionaries typically have one index: words in alphabetical order. Phone books, too: names in alphabetical order. Directories entries on the other hand are often indexed for multiple attributes, names, user identifiers, email addresses, telephone numbers. This means you can look up a directory entry by the name of the user the entry belongs to, but also by her user identifier, her email address, or her telephone number, for example.
Phone companies have been managing directories for many decades. The Internet itself has relied on distributed directory services like DNS since the mid 1980s.
It was not until the late 1980s, however, that experts from what is now the International Telecommunications Union brought forth the X.500 set of international standards, including Directory Access Protocol. The X.500 standards specify Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) protocols and data definitions for general-purpose directory services. The X.500 standards were designed to meet the needs of systems built according to the X.400 standards, covering electronic mail services.
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol has been around since the early 1990s. LDAP was originally developed as an alternative protocol that would allow directory access over Internet protocols rather than OSI protocols, and be lightweight enough for desktop implementations. By the mid 1990s, LDAP directory servers became generally available and widely used.
Until the late 1990s, LDAP directory servers were designed primarily with quick lookups and high availability for lookups in mind. LDAP directory servers replicate data, so when an update is made, that update gets pushed out to other peer directory servers. Thus if one directory server goes down lookups can continue on other servers. Furthermore, if a directory service needs to support more lookups, the administrator can simply add another directory server to replicate with its peers.
As organizations rolled out larger and larger directories serving more and more applications, they discovered that they needed high availability not only for lookups, but also for updates. Around 2000 directories began to support multi-master replication, that is replication with multiple read-write servers. Soon thereafter the organizations with the very largest directories started to need higher update performance as well as availability.
The OpenDJ code base began in the mid 2000s, when engineers solving the update performance issue decided the cost of adapting the existing C-based directory technology for high performance updates would be higher than the cost of building a next generation, high performance directory using Java technology.
LDAP directory data is organized into entries, similar to the entries for words in the dictionary, or for subscriber names in the phone book. A sample entry follows.
dn: uid=bjensen,ou=People,dc=example,dc=com uid: bjensen cn: Babs Jensen cn: Barbara Jensen facsimileTelephoneNumber: +1 408 555 1992 gidNumber: 1000 givenName: Barbara homeDirectory: /home/bjensen l: Cupertino mail: bjensen@example.com objectClass: inetOrgPerson objectClass: organizationalPerson objectClass: person objectClass: posixAccount objectClass: top ou: People ou: Product Development roomNumber: 0209 sn: Jensen telephoneNumber: +1 408 555 1862 uidNumber: 1076
Barbara Jensen's entry has a number of attributes, such as
uid: bjensen
,
telephoneNumber: +1 408 555 1862
, and
objectClass: posixAccount
[1]. When you look up her entry
in the directory, you specify one or more attributes and values to match
in the entries that come back as the result of your search. Typically the
attributes you search for are indexed in the directory, so the directory
server can retrieve them more quickly.[2]
The entry also has a unique identifier, shown at the top of the entry,
dn: uid=bjensen,ou=People,dc=example,dc=com
. DN stands
for distinguished name. No two entries in the directory have the same
distinguished name.[3]
LDAP entries are arranged hierarchically in the directory. The
hierarchical organization resembles a file system on a PC or a web server,
often imagined as an upside-down tree structure, looking similar to a
pyramid.[4]The distinguished name consists of components
separated by commas,
uid=bjensen,ou=People,dc=example,dc=com
. Those components
reflect the hierarchy of directory entries.
Barbara Jensen's entry is located under an entry with DN
ou=People,dc=example,dc=com
, an organization unit and
parent entry for the people at Example.com. The
ou=People
entry is located under the entry with DN
dc=example,dc=com
, the root entry for Example.com.
DC stands for domain component. The directory has other root entries, such
as cn=config
, under which the configuration is accessible
through LDAP, and potentially others such as
dc=mycompany,dc=com
or o=myOrganization
.
Thus when you look up entries, you specify the parent entry to look under
in the same way you need to know whether to look in the New York, Paris,
or Tokyo phone book to find a telephone number.[5]
You may be used to web service client server communication, where each time the web client has something to request of the web server, a connection is set up and then torn down. LDAP has a different model. In LDAP the client application connects to the server and authenticates, then requests any number of operations perhaps processing results in between requests, and finally disconnects when done.
The standard operations are as follows.
Bind (authenticate). The first operation in an LDAP session involves the client binding to the LDAP server, with the server authenticating the client. Authentication identifies the client's identity in LDAP terms, the identity which is later used by the server to authorize (or not) access to directory data that the client wants to lookup or change.
Search (lookup). After binding, the client can request that the server
return entries based on an LDAP filter, which is an expression that the
server uses to find entries that match the request, and a base DN under
which to search. For example, to lookup all entries for people with email
address bjensen@example.com
in data for Example.com,
you would specify a base DN such as
ou=People,dc=example,dc=com
and the filter
(mail=bjensen@example.com)
.
Compare. After binding, the client can request that the server compare an attribute value the client specifies with the value stored on an entry in the directory.
Modify. After binding, the client can request that the server change one or more attribute values stored on one or more entries. Often administrators do not allow clients to change directory data, so request that your administrator set appropriate access rights for your client application if you want to update data.
Add. After binding, the client can request to add one or more new LDAP entries to the server.
Delete. After binding, the client can request that the server delete one or more entries. To delete and entry with other entries underneath, first delete the children, then the parent.
Modify DN. After binding, the client can request that the server
change the distinguished name of the entry. For example, if Barbara
changes her unique identifier from bjensen
to something
else, her DN would have to change. For another example, if you decide
to consolidate ou=Customers
and
ou=Employees
under ou=People
instead, all the entries underneath much change distinguished names.
[6]
Unbind. When done making requests, the client should request an unbind operation to release resources right away for other clients.
Abandon. When a request seems to be taking too long to complete, or when a search request returns many more matches than desired, the client can send an abandon request to the server to drop the operation in progress. The server then drops the connection without a reply to the client.
LDAP has standardized two mechanisms for extending the kinds of operations that directory servers can perform. One mechanism involves using LDAP controls. The other mechanism involves using LDAP extended operations.
LDAP controls are information added to an LDAP message to further specify how an LDAP operation should be processed. For example, the Server Side Sort Request Control modifies a search to request that the directory server return entries to the client in sorted order. The Subtree Delete Request Control modifies a delete to request that the server also remove child entries of the entry targeted for deletion.
LDAP extended operations are additional LDAP operations not included in the original standard list. For example, the Cancel Extended Operation works like an abandon operation, but finishes with a response from the server after the cancel is complete. The StartTLS Extended Operation allows a client to connect to a server on an unsecure port, but then start Transport Layer Security negotiations to protect communications.
Both LDAP controls and extended operations are demonstrated later in this guide. OpenDJ directory server supports many LDAP controls and a few LDAP extended operations, controls and extended operations matching those demonstrated in this guide.
[1] The
objectClass
attribute type indicates which types of
attributes are allowed and optional for the entry. As the entries object
classes can be updated online, and even the definitions of object classes
and attributes are expressed as entries that can be updated online, directory
data is extensible on the fly.
[2] Attribute values do not have to be strings. The directory can use base64 encoding, however, to make binary attribute values, such as passwords, certificates, or photos, portable in text format.
[3] Sometimes your distinguished names include characters that you must escape. The following example shows an entry that includes escaped characters in the DN.
$ ldapsearch --port 1389 --baseDN dc=example,dc=com "(uid=escape)" dn: cn=\" # \+ \, \; \< = \> \\ DN Escape Characters,dc=example,dc=com objectClass: person objectClass: inetOrgPerson objectClass: organizationalPerson objectClass: top givenName: " # + , ; < = > \ uid: escape cn: " # + , ; < = > \ DN Escape Characters sn: DN Escape Characters mail: escape@example.com
[4] Hence pyramid icons are associated with directory servers.
[5] The root entry for the directory, technically the entry with DN
""
(the empty string), is called the root DSE, and
contains information about what the server supports, including the other
root entries it serves.
[6] Renaming entire branches of entries can be a major operation for the directory, so avoid moving entire branches if you can.