Abstract Syntax Tree Semantics

WebAssembly code is represented as an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) where each node represents an expression. Each function body consists of exactly one expression. All expressions and operators are typed, with no implicit conversions or overloading rules.

This document explains the high-level design of the AST: its types, constructs, and semantics. For full details consult the formal Specification, for file-level encoding details consult Binary Encoding, and for the human-readable text representation consult Text Format.

Verification of WebAssembly code requires only a single pass with constant-time type checking and well-formedness checking.

WebAssembly offers a set of language-independent operators that closely match operators in many programming languages and are efficiently implementable on all modern computers.

The rationale document details why WebAssembly is designed as detailed in this document.

Order of evaluation

The evaluation order of child nodes is deterministic.

All nodes other than control flow constructs need to evaluate their child nodes in the order they appear in the serialized AST.

For example, the s-expression presentation of the i32.add node (i32.add (set_local $x (i32.const 1)) (set_local $x (i32.const 2))) would first evaluate the child node (set_local $x (i32.const 1)) and afterwards the child node (set_local $x (i32.const 2)).

The value of the local variable $x will be 2 after the i32.add node is fully evaluated.

Traps

Some operators may trap under some conditions, as noted below. In the MVP, trapping means that execution in the WebAssembly instance is terminated and abnormal termination is reported to the outside environment. In a JavaScript environment such as a browser, a trap results in throwing a JavaScript exception. If developer tools are active, attaching a debugger before the termination would be sensible.

Callstack space is limited by unspecified and dynamically varying constraints and is a source of nondeterminism. If program callstack usage exceeds the available callstack space at any time, a trap occurs.

Implementations must have an internal maximum call stack size, and every call must take up some resources toward exhausting that size (of course, dynamic resources may be exhausted much earlier). This rule exists to avoid differences in observable behavior; if some implementations have this property and others don't, the same program which runs successfully on some implementations may consume unbounded resources and fail on others. Also, in the future, it is expected that WebAssembly will add some form of stack-introspection functionality, in which case such optimizations would be directly observable.

Support for explicit tail calls is planned in the future, which would add an explicit tail-call operator with well-defined effects on stack introspection.

Types

WebAssembly has the following value types:

i32: 32-bit integer
i64: 64-bit integer
f32: 32-bit floating point
f64: 64-bit floating point

Each parameter and local variable has exactly one value type. Function signatures consist of a sequence of zero or more parameter types and a sequence of zero or more return types. (Note: in the MVP, a function can have at most one return type).

Note that the value types i32 and i64 are not inherently signed or unsigned. The interpretation of these types is determined by individual operators.

Linear Memory

The main storage of a WebAssembly instance, called the linear memory, is a contiguous, byte-addressable range of memory spanning from offset 0 and extending for memory_size bytes which can be dynamically grown by grow_memory. The linear memory can be considered to be an untyped array of bytes, and it is unspecified how embedders map this array into their process' own virtual memory. The linear memory is sandboxed; it does not alias the execution engine's internal data structures, the execution stack, local variables, or other process memory.

The initial state of linear memory is specified by the module. The initial and maximum memory size are required to be a multiple of the WebAssembly page size, which is 64KiB on all engines (though large page support may be added in the future).

In the MVP, linear memory is not shared between threads of execution. Separate instances can execute in separate threads but have their own linear memory and can only communicate through messaging, e.g. in browsers using postMessage. It will be possible to share linear memory between threads of execution when threads are added.

Linear Memory Accesses

Linear memory access is accomplished with explicit load and store operators. Integer loads can specify a storage size which is smaller than the result type as well as a signedness which determines whether the bytes are sign- or zero- extended into the result type.

i32.load8_s: load 1 byte and sign-extend i8 to i32
i32.load8_u: load 1 byte and zero-extend i8 to i32
i32.load16_s: load 2 bytes and sign-extend i16 to i32
i32.load16_u: load 2 bytes and zero-extend i16 to i32
i32.load: load 4 bytes as i32
i64.load8_s: load 1 byte and sign-extend i8 to i64
i64.load8_u: load 1 byte and zero-extend i8 to i64
i64.load16_s: load 2 bytes and sign-extend i16 to i64
i64.load16_u: load 2 bytes and zero-extend i16 to i64
i64.load32_s: load 4 bytes and sign-extend i32 to i64
i64.load32_u: load 4 bytes and zero-extend i32 to i64
i64.load: load 8 bytes as i64
f32.load: load 4 bytes as f32
f64.load: load 8 bytes as f64

Stores have an additional input operand which is the value to store to memory. Like loads, integer stores may specify a smaller storage size than the operand size in which case integer wrapping is implied.

i32.store8: wrap i32 to i8 and store 1 byte
i32.store16: wrap i32 to i16 and store 2 bytes
i32.store: (no conversion) store 4 bytes
i64.store8: wrap i64 to i8 and store 1 byte
i64.store16: wrap i64 to i16 and store 2 bytes
i64.store32: wrap i64 to i32 and store 4 bytes
i64.store: (no conversion) store 8 bytes
f32.store: (no conversion) store 4 bytes
f64.store: (no conversion) store 8 bytes

In addition to storing to memory, store instructions produce a value which is their value input operand before wrapping.

Addressing

Each linear memory access operator has an address operand and an unsigned integer byte offset immediate. The immediate is the same type as the address' index. The infinite-precision unsigned sum of the address operand's value with the immediate offset's value is called the effective address, which is interpreted as an unsigned byte index.

Linear memory operators access the bytes starting at the effective address and extend for the number of bytes implied by the storage size. If any of the accessed bytes are beyond memory_size, the access is considered out-of-bounds.

The use of infinite-precision in the effective address computation means that the addition of the offset to the address never causes wrapping, so if the address for an access is out-of-bounds, the effective address will always also be out-of-bounds.

In wasm32, address operands and offset attributes have type i32, and linear memory sizes are limited to 4 GiB (of course, actual sizes are further limited by available resources). In wasm64, address operands and offsets have type i64. The MVP only includes wasm32; subsequent versions will add support for wasm64 and thus >4 GiB linear memory.

Alignment

Each linear memory access operator also has an immediate positive integer power of 2 alignment attribute, which is the same type as the address' index. An alignment value which is the same as the memory attribute size is considered to be a natural alignment. The alignment applies to the effective address and not merely the address operand, i.e. the immediate offset is taken into account when considering alignment.

If the effective address of a memory access is a multiple of the alignment attribute value of the memory access, the memory access is considered aligned, otherwise it is considered misaligned. Aligned and misaligned accesses have the same behavior.

Alignment affects performance as follows:

Aligned accesses with at least natural alignment are fast.
Aligned accesses with less than natural alignment may be somewhat slower (think: implementation makes multiple accesses, either in software or in hardware).
Misaligned access of any kind may be massively slower (think: implementation takes a signal and fixes things up).

Thus, it is recommend that WebAssembly producers align frequently-used data to permit the use of natural alignment access, and use loads and stores with the greatest alignment values practical, while always avoiding misaligned accesses.

Out of Bounds

Out of bounds accesses trap.

Resizing

In the MVP, linear memory can be resized by a grow_memory operator. The operand to this operator is in units of the WebAssembly page size, which is 64KiB on all engines (though large page support may be added in the future).

grow_memory : grow linear memory by a given unsigned delta of pages. Return the previous memory size in bytes.

As stated above, linear memory is contiguous, meaning there are no "holes" in the linear address space. After the MVP, there are future features proposed to allow setting protection and creating mappings within the contiguous linear memory.

In the MVP, memory can only be grown. After the MVP, a memory shrinking operator may be added. However, due to normal fragmentation, applications are instead expected release unused physical pages from the working set using the discard future feature.

Local variables

Each function has a fixed, pre-declared number of local variables which occupy a single index space local to the function. Parameters are addressed as local variables. Local variables do not have addresses and are not aliased by linear memory. Local variables have value types and are initialized to the appropriate zero value for their type at the beginning of the function, except parameters which are initialized to the values of the arguments passed to the function.

get_local: read the current value of a local variable
set_local: set the current value of a local variable

The details of index space for local variables and their types will be further clarified, e.g. whether locals with type i32 and i64 must be contiguous and separate from others, etc.

Control flow structures

WebAssembly offers basic structured control flow with the following constructs. Since all AST nodes are expressions in WebAssembly, control constructs may yield a value and may appear as children of other expressions.

nop: an empty operator that does not yield a value
block: a fixed-length sequence of expressions with a label at the end
loop: a block with an additional label at the beginning which may be used to form loops
if: if expression with a then expression
if_else: if expression with then and else expressions
br: branch to a given label in an enclosing construct
br_if: conditionally branch to a given label in an enclosing construct
br_table: a jump table which jumps to a label in an enclosing construct
return: return zero or more values from this function

Branches and nesting

The br and br_if constructs express low-level branching. Branches may only reference labels defined by an outer enclosing construct. This means that, for example, references to a block's label can only occur within the block's body.

In practice, outer blocks can be used to place labels for any given branching pattern, except for one restriction: one can't branch into the middle of a loop from outside it. This restriction ensures all control flow graphs are well-structured in the exact sense as in high-level languages like Java, JavaScript, Rust and Go. To further see the parallel, note that a br to a block's label is functionally equivalent to a labeled break in high-level languages in that a br simply breaks out of a block.

Branches that exit a block, loop, or br_table may take a subexpression that yields a value for the exited construct. If present, it is the first operand before any others.

Yielding values from control constructs

The nop, if, br, br_if, and return constructs do not yield values. Other control constructs may yield values if their subexpressions yield values:

block: yields either the value of the last expression in the block or the result of an inner br that targeted the label of the block
loop: yields either the value of the last expression in the loop or the result of an inner br that targeted the end label of the loop
if_else: yields either the value of the true expression or the false expression

`br_table`

A br_table consists of a zero-based array of labels, a default label, and an index operand. A br_table jumps to the label indexed in the array or the default label if the index is out of bounds.

Calls

Each function has a signature, which consists of:

Return types, which are a sequence of value types
Argument types, which are a sequence of value types

WebAssembly doesn't support variable-length argument lists (aka varargs). Compilers targeting WebAssembly can instead support them through explicit accesses to linear memory.

In the MVP, the length of the return types sequence may only be 0 or 1. This restriction may be lifted in the future.

Direct calls to a function specify the callee by index into a main function table.

call: call function directly

A direct call to a function with a mismatched signature is a module verification error.

Like direct calls, calls to imports specify the callee by index into an imported function table defined by the sequence of import declarations in the module import section. A direct call to an imported function with a mismatched signature is a module verification error.

call_import : call imported function directly

Indirect calls allow calling target functions that are unknown at compile time. The target function is an expression of value type i32 and is always the first input into the indirect call.

A call_indirect specifies the expected signature of the target function with an index into a signature table defined by the module. An indirect call to a function with a mismatched signature causes a trap.

call_indirect: call function indirectly

Functions from the main function table are made addressable by defining an indirect function table that consists of a sequence of indices into the module's main function table. A function from the main table may appear more than once in the indirect function table. Functions not appearing in the indirect function table cannot be called indirectly.

In the MVP, indices into the indirect function table are local to a single module, so wasm modules may use i32 constants to refer to entries in their own indirect function table. The dynamic linking feature is necessary for two modules to pass function pointers back and forth. This will mean concatenating indirect function tables and adding an operator address_of that computes the absolute index into the concatenated table from an index in a module's local indirect table. JITing may also mean appending more functions to the end of the indirect function table.

Multiple return value calls will be possible, though possibly not in the MVP. The details of multiple-return-value calls needs clarification. Calling a function that returns multiple values will likely have to be a statement that specifies multiple local variables to which to assign the corresponding return values.

Constants

These operators have an immediate operand of their associated type which is produced as their result value. All possible values of all types are supported (including NaN values of all possible bit patterns).

i32.const: produce the value of an i32 immediate
i64.const: produce the value of an i64 immediate
f32.const: produce the value of an f32 immediate
f64.const: produce the value of an f64 immediate

32-bit Integer operators

Integer operators are signed, unsigned, or sign-agnostic. Signed operators use two's complement signed integer representation.

Signed and unsigned operators trap whenever the result cannot be represented in the result type. This includes division and remainder by zero, and signed division overflow (INT32_MIN / -1). Signed remainder with a non-zero denominator always returns the correct value, even when the corresponding division would trap. Sign-agnostic operators silently wrap overflowing results into the result type.

i32.add: sign-agnostic addition
i32.sub: sign-agnostic subtraction
i32.mul: sign-agnostic multiplication (lower 32-bits)
i32.div_s: signed division (result is truncated toward zero)
i32.div_u: unsigned division (result is floored)
i32.rem_s: signed remainder (result has the sign of the dividend)
i32.rem_u: unsigned remainder
i32.and: sign-agnostic bitwise and
i32.or: sign-agnostic bitwise inclusive or
i32.xor: sign-agnostic bitwise exclusive or
i32.shl: sign-agnostic shift left
i32.shr_u: zero-replicating (logical) shift right
i32.shr_s: sign-replicating (arithmetic) shift right
i32.rotl: sign-agnostic rotate left
i32.rotr: sign-agnostic rotate right
i32.eq: sign-agnostic compare equal
i32.ne: sign-agnostic compare unequal
i32.lt_s: signed less than
i32.le_s: signed less than or equal
i32.lt_u: unsigned less than
i32.le_u: unsigned less than or equal
i32.gt_s: signed greater than
i32.ge_s: signed greater than or equal
i32.gt_u: unsigned greater than
i32.ge_u: unsigned greater than or equal
i32.clz: sign-agnostic count leading zero bits (All zero bits are considered leading if the value is zero)
i32.ctz: sign-agnostic count trailing zero bits (All zero bits are considered trailing if the value is zero)
i32.popcnt: sign-agnostic count number of one bits
i32.eqz: compare equal to zero (return 1 if operand is zero, 0 otherwise)

Shifts counts are wrapped to be less than the log-base-2 of the number of bits in the value to be shifted, as an unsigned quantity. For example, in a 32-bit shift, only the least 5 significant bits of the count affect the result. In a 64-bit shift, only the least 6 significant bits of the count affect the result.

Rotate counts are treated as unsigned. A count value greater than or equal to the number of bits in the value to be rotated yields the same result as if the count was wrapped to its least significant N bits, where N is 5 for an i32 value or 6 for an i64 value.

All comparison operators yield 32-bit integer results with 1 representing true and 0 representing false.

64-bit integer operators

The same operators are available on 64-bit integers as the those available for 32-bit integers.

Floating point operators

Floating point arithmetic follows the IEEE 754-2008 standard, except that:

The sign bit and fraction field of any NaN value returned from a floating point arithmetic operator are deterministic under more circumstances than required by IEEE 754-2008.
WebAssembly uses "non-stop" mode, and floating point exceptions are not otherwise observable. In particular, neither alternate floating point exception handling attributes nor the non-computational operators on status flags are supported. There is no observable difference between quiet and signalling NaN. However, positive infinity, negative infinity, and NaN are still always produced as result values to indicate overflow, invalid, and divide-by-zero conditions, as specified by IEEE 754-2008.
WebAssembly uses the round-to-nearest ties-to-even rounding attribute, except where otherwise specified. Non-default directed rounding attributes are not supported.

In the future, these limitations may be lifted, enabling full IEEE 754-2008 support.

Note that not all operators required by IEEE 754-2008 are provided directly. However, WebAssembly includes enough functionality to support reasonable library implementations of the remaining required operators.

When the result of any arithmetic operation other than neg, abs, or copysign is a NaN, the sign bit and the fraction field (which does not include the implicit leading digit of the significand) of the NaN are computed as follows:

If the operation has exactly one NaN operand, the result NaN has the same bits as that operand, except that the most significant bit of the fraction field is 1.
If the operation has multiple NaN input values, the result value is computed as if one of the operands, selected nondeterministically, is the only NaN operand (as described in the previous rule).
If the operation has no NaN input values, the result value has a nondeterministic sign bit, a fraction field with 1 in the most significant bit and 0 in the remaining bits.

32-bit floating point operations are as follows:

f32.add: addition
f32.sub: subtraction
f32.mul: multiplication
f32.div: division
f32.abs: absolute value
f32.neg: negation
f32.copysign: copysign
f32.ceil: ceiling operator
f32.floor: floor operator
f32.trunc: round to nearest integer towards zero
f32.nearest: round to nearest integer, ties to even
f32.eq: compare ordered and equal
f32.ne: compare unordered or unequal
f32.lt: compare ordered and less than
f32.le: compare ordered and less than or equal
f32.gt: compare ordered and greater than
f32.ge: compare ordered and greater than or equal
f32.sqrt: square root
f32.min: minimum (binary operator); if either operand is NaN, returns NaN
f32.max: maximum (binary operator); if either operand is NaN, returns NaN

64-bit floating point operators:

f64.add: addition
f64.sub: subtraction
f64.mul: multiplication
f64.div: division
f64.abs: absolute value
f64.neg: negation
f64.copysign: copysign
f64.ceil: ceiling operator
f64.floor: floor operator
f64.trunc: round to nearest integer towards zero
f64.nearest: round to nearest integer, ties to even
f64.eq: compare ordered and equal
f64.ne: compare unordered or unequal
f64.lt: compare ordered and less than
f64.le: compare ordered and less than or equal
f64.gt: compare ordered and greater than
f64.ge: compare ordered and greater than or equal
f64.sqrt: square root
f64.min: minimum (binary operator); if either operand is NaN, returns NaN
f64.max: maximum (binary operator); if either operand is NaN, returns NaN

min and max operators treat -0.0 as being effectively less than 0.0.

In floating point comparisons, the operands are unordered if either operand is NaN, and ordered otherwise.

Datatype conversions, truncations, reinterpretations, promotions, and demotions

i32.wrap/i64: wrap a 64-bit integer to a 32-bit integer
i32.trunc_s/f32: truncate a 32-bit float to a signed 32-bit integer
i32.trunc_s/f64: truncate a 64-bit float to a signed 32-bit integer
i32.trunc_u/f32: truncate a 32-bit float to an unsigned 32-bit integer
i32.trunc_u/f64: truncate a 64-bit float to an unsigned 32-bit integer
i32.reinterpret/f32: reinterpret the bits of a 32-bit float as a 32-bit integer
i64.extend_s/i32: extend a signed 32-bit integer to a 64-bit integer
i64.extend_u/i32: extend an unsigned 32-bit integer to a 64-bit integer
i64.trunc_s/f32: truncate a 32-bit float to a signed 64-bit integer
i64.trunc_s/f64: truncate a 64-bit float to a signed 64-bit integer
i64.trunc_u/f32: truncate a 32-bit float to an unsigned 64-bit integer
i64.trunc_u/f64: truncate a 64-bit float to an unsigned 64-bit integer
i64.reinterpret/f64: reinterpret the bits of a 64-bit float as a 64-bit integer
f32.demote/f64: demote a 64-bit float to a 32-bit float
f32.convert_s/i32: convert a signed 32-bit integer to a 32-bit float
f32.convert_s/i64: convert a signed 64-bit integer to a 32-bit float
f32.convert_u/i32: convert an unsigned 32-bit integer to a 32-bit float
f32.convert_u/i64: convert an unsigned 64-bit integer to a 32-bit float
f32.reinterpret/i32: reinterpret the bits of a 32-bit integer as a 32-bit float
f64.promote/f32: promote a 32-bit float to a 64-bit float
f64.convert_s/i32: convert a signed 32-bit integer to a 64-bit float
f64.convert_s/i64: convert a signed 64-bit integer to a 64-bit float
f64.convert_u/i32: convert an unsigned 32-bit integer to a 64-bit float
f64.convert_u/i64: convert an unsigned 64-bit integer to a 64-bit float
f64.reinterpret/i64: reinterpret the bits of a 64-bit integer as a 64-bit float

Wrapping and extension of integer values always succeed. Promotion and demotion of floating point values always succeed. Demotion of floating point values uses round-to-nearest ties-to-even rounding, and may overflow to infinity or negative infinity as specified by IEEE 754-2008.

If the operand of promotion is a NaN, the result is a NaN with the sign bit of the operand and a fraction field consisting of 1 in the most significant bit, followed by all but the most significant bits of the fraction field of the operand, followed by all 0s.

If the operand of demotion is a NaN, the result is a NaN with the sign bit of the operand and a fraction field consisting of 1 in the most significant bit, followed by as many of all but the most significant bit of the fraction field of the operand as fit.

Reinterpretations always succeed.

Conversions from integer to floating point always succeed, and use round-to-nearest ties-to-even rounding.

Truncation from floating point to integer where IEEE 754-2008 would specify an invalid operator exception (e.g. when the floating point value is NaN or outside the range which rounds to an integer in range) traps.

Type-parametric operators.

select: a ternary operator with two operands, which have the same type as each other, plus a boolean (i32) condition. select returns the first operand if the condition operand is non-zero, or the second otherwise.

Unreachable

unreachable: An expression which can take on any type, and which, if executed, always traps. It is intended to be used for example after calls to functions which are known by the producer not to return (otherwise the producer would have to create another expression with an unused value to satisfy the type check). This trap is intended to be impossible for user code to catch or handle, even in the future when it may be possible to handle some other kinds of traps or exceptions.

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