iteration.d

// Written in the D programming language.
/**
This is a submodule of $(LINK2 std_algorithm.html, std.algorithm).
It contains generic _iteration algorithms.

$(BOOKTABLE Cheat Sheet,

$(TR $(TH Function Name) $(TH Description))

$(T2 cache,
        Eagerly evaluates and caches another range's $(D front).)
$(T2 cacheBidirectional,
        As above, but also provides $(D back) and $(D popBack).)
$(T2 chunkyBy,
        $(D chunkyBy!((a,b) => a[1] == b[1])([[1, 1], [1, 2], [2, 2], [2, 1]]))
        returns a range containing 3 subranges: the first with just
        $(D [1, 1]); the second with the elements $(D [1, 2]) and $(D [2, 2]);
        and the third with just $(D [2, 1]).)
$(T2 each,
        $(D each!writeln([1, 2, 3])) eagerly prints the numbers $(D 1), $(D 2)
        and $(D 3) on their own lines.)
$(T2 filter,
        $(D filter!"a > 0"([1, -1, 2, 0, -3])) iterates over elements $(D 1)
        and $(D 2).)
$(T2 filterBidirectional,
        Similar to $(D filter), but also provides $(D back) and $(D popBack) at
        a small increase in cost.)
$(T2 group,
        $(D group([5, 2, 2, 3, 3])) returns a range containing the tuples
        $(D tuple(5, 1)), $(D tuple(2, 2)), and $(D tuple(3, 2)).)
$(T2 joiner,
        $(D joiner(["hello", "world!"], "; ")) returns a range that iterates
        over the characters $(D "hello; world!"). No new string is created -
        the existing inputs are iterated.)
$(T2 map,
        $(D map!"2 * a"([1, 2, 3])) lazily returns a range with the numbers
        $(D 2), $(D 4), $(D 6).)
$(T2 permutations,
        Lazily computes all permutations using Heap's algorithm.)
$(T2 reduce,
        $(D reduce!"a + b"([1, 2, 3, 4])) returns $(D 10).)
$(T2 splitter,
        Lazily splits a range by a separator.)
$(T2 sum,
        Same as $(D reduce), but specialized for accurate summation.)
$(T2 uniq,
        Iterates over the unique elements in a range, which is assumed sorted.)
)

Copyright: Andrei Alexandrescu 2008-.

License: $(WEB boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt, Boost License 1.0).

Authors: $(WEB erdani.com, Andrei Alexandrescu)

Source: $(PHOBOSSRC std/algorithm/_iteration.d)

Macros:
T2=$(TR $(TDNW $(LREF $1)) $(TD $+))
 */
module std.algorithm.iteration;

// FIXME
import std.functional; // : unaryFun, binaryFun;
import std.range.primitives;
import std.traits;

template aggregate(fun...) if (fun.length >= 1)
{
    /* --Intentionally not ddoc--
     * Aggregates elements in each subrange of the given range of ranges using
     * the given aggregating function(s).
     * Params:
     *  fun = One or more aggregating functions (binary functions that return a
     *      single _aggregate value of their arguments).
     *  ror = A range of ranges to be aggregated.
     *
     * Returns:
     * A range representing the aggregated value(s) of each subrange
     * of the original range. If only one aggregating function is specified,
     * each element will be the aggregated value itself; if multiple functions
     * are specified, each element will be a tuple of the aggregated values of
     * each respective function.
     */
    auto aggregate(RoR)(RoR ror)
        if (isInputRange!RoR && isIterable!(ElementType!RoR))
    {
        return ror.map!(reduce!fun);
    }

    unittest
    {
        import std.algorithm.comparison : equal, max, min;

        auto data = [[4, 2, 1, 3], [4, 9, -1, 3, 2], [3]];

        // Single aggregating function
        auto agg1 = data.aggregate!max;
        assert(agg1.equal([4, 9, 3]));

        // Multiple aggregating functions
        import std.typecons : tuple;
        auto agg2 = data.aggregate!(max, min);
        assert(agg2.equal([
            tuple(4, 1),
            tuple(9, -1),
            tuple(3, 3)
        ]));
    }
}

/++
$(D cache) eagerly evaluates $(D front) of $(D range)
on each construction or call to $(D popFront),
to store the result in a cache.
The result is then directly returned when $(D front) is called,
rather than re-evaluated.

This can be a useful function to place in a chain, after functions
that have expensive evaluation, as a lazy alternative to $(XREF array,array).
In particular, it can be placed after a call to $(D map), or before a call
to $(D filter).

$(D cache) may provide bidirectional iteration if needed, but since
this comes at an increased cost, it must be explicitly requested via the
call to $(D cacheBidirectional). Furthermore, a bidirectional cache will
evaluate the "center" element twice, when there is only one element left in
the range.

$(D cache) does not provide random access primitives,
as $(D cache) would be unable to cache the random accesses.
If $(D Range) provides slicing primitives,
then $(D cache) will provide the same slicing primitives,
but $(D hasSlicing!Cache) will not yield true (as the $(XREF_PACK _range,primitives,hasSlicing)
trait also checks for random access).
+/
auto cache(Range)(Range range)
if (isInputRange!Range)
{
    return _Cache!(Range, false)(range);
}

/// ditto
auto cacheBidirectional(Range)(Range range)
if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
{
    return _Cache!(Range, true)(range);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.stdio, std.range;
    import std.typecons : tuple;

    ulong counter = 0;
    double fun(int x)
    {
        ++counter;
        // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic_function
        return ( (x + 4.0) * (x + 1.0) * (x - 1.0) * (x - 3.0) ) / 14.0 + 0.5;
    }
    // Without cache, with array (greedy)
    auto result1 = iota(-4, 5).map!(a =>tuple(a, fun(a)))()
                             .filter!"a[1]<0"()
                             .map!"a[0]"()
                             .array();

    // the values of x that have a negative y are:
    assert(equal(result1, [-3, -2, 2]));

    // Check how many times fun was evaluated.
    // As many times as the number of items in both source and result.
    assert(counter == iota(-4, 5).length + result1.length);

    counter = 0;
    // Without array, with cache (lazy)
    auto result2 = iota(-4, 5).map!(a =>tuple(a, fun(a)))()
                             .cache()
                             .filter!"a[1]<0"()
                             .map!"a[0]"();

    // the values of x that have a negative y are:
    assert(equal(result2, [-3, -2, 2]));

    // Check how many times fun was evaluated.
    // Only as many times as the number of items in source.
    assert(counter == iota(-4, 5).length);
}

/++
Tip: $(D cache) is eager when evaluating elements. If calling front on the
underlying range has a side effect, it will be observeable before calling
front on the actual cached range.

Furtermore, care should be taken composing $(D cache) with $(XREF range,take).
By placing $(D take) before $(D cache), then $(D cache) will be "aware"
of when the range ends, and correctly stop caching elements when needed.
If calling front has no side effect though, placing $(D take) after $(D cache)
may yield a faster range.

Either way, the resulting ranges will be equivalent, but maybe not at the
same cost or side effects.
+/
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range;
    int i = 0;

    auto r = iota(0, 4).tee!((a){i = a;}, No.pipeOnPop);
    auto r1 = r.take(3).cache();
    auto r2 = r.cache().take(3);

    assert(equal(r1, [0, 1, 2]));
    assert(i == 2); //The last "seen" element was 2. The data in cache has been cleared.

    assert(equal(r2, [0, 1, 2]));
    assert(i == 3); //cache has accessed 3. It is still stored internally by cache.
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range;
    auto a = [1, 2, 3, 4];
    assert(equal(a.map!"(a - 1)*a"().cache(),                      [ 0, 2, 6, 12]));
    assert(equal(a.map!"(a - 1)*a"().cacheBidirectional().retro(), [12, 6, 2,  0]));
    auto r1 = [1, 2, 3, 4].cache()             [1 .. $];
    auto r2 = [1, 2, 3, 4].cacheBidirectional()[1 .. $];
    assert(equal(r1, [2, 3, 4]));
    assert(equal(r2, [2, 3, 4]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    //immutable test
    static struct S
    {
        int i;
        this(int i)
        {
            //this.i = i;
        }
    }
    immutable(S)[] s = [S(1), S(2), S(3)];
    assert(equal(s.cache(),              s));
    assert(equal(s.cacheBidirectional(), s));
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    //safety etc
    auto a = [1, 2, 3, 4];
    assert(equal(a.cache(),              a));
    assert(equal(a.cacheBidirectional(), a));
}

@safe unittest
{
    char[][] stringbufs = ["hello".dup, "world".dup];
    auto strings = stringbufs.map!((a)=>a.idup)().cache();
    assert(strings.front is strings.front);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.range;
    auto c = [1, 2, 3].cycle().cache();
    c = c[1 .. $];
    auto d = c[0 .. 1];
}

@safe unittest
{
    static struct Range
    {
        bool initialized = false;
        bool front() @property {return initialized = true;}
        void popFront() {initialized = false;}
        enum empty = false;
    }
    auto r = Range().cache();
    assert(r.source.initialized == true);
}

private struct _Cache(R, bool bidir)
{
    import core.exception : RangeError;

    private
    {
        import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;
        import std.typetuple : TypeTuple;

        alias E  = ElementType!R;
        alias UE = Unqual!E;

        R source;

        static if (bidir) alias CacheTypes = TypeTuple!(UE, UE);
        else              alias CacheTypes = TypeTuple!UE;
        CacheTypes caches;

        static assert(isAssignable!(UE, E) && is(UE : E),
            algoFormat("Cannot instantiate range with %s because %s elements are not assignable to %s.", R.stringof, E.stringof, UE.stringof));
    }

    this(R range)
    {
        source = range;
        if (!range.empty)
        {
             caches[0] = source.front;
             static if (bidir)
                 caches[1] = source.back;
        }
    }

    static if (isInfinite!R)
        enum empty = false;
    else
        bool empty() @property
        {
            return source.empty;
        }

    static if (hasLength!R) auto length() @property
    {
        return source.length;
    }

    E front() @property
    {
        version(assert) if (empty) throw new RangeError();
        return caches[0];
    }
    static if (bidir) E back() @property
    {
        version(assert) if (empty) throw new RangeError();
        return caches[1];
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        version(assert) if (empty) throw new RangeError();
        source.popFront();
        if (!source.empty)
            caches[0] = source.front;
        else
            caches = CacheTypes.init;
    }
    static if (bidir) void popBack()
    {
        version(assert) if (empty) throw new RangeError();
        source.popBack();
        if (!source.empty)
            caches[1] = source.back;
        else
            caches = CacheTypes.init;
    }

    static if (isForwardRange!R)
    {
        private this(R source, ref CacheTypes caches)
        {
            this.source = source;
            this.caches = caches;
        }
        typeof(this) save() @property
        {
            return typeof(this)(source.save, caches);
        }
    }

    static if (hasSlicing!R)
    {
        enum hasEndSlicing = is(typeof(source[size_t.max .. $]));

        static if (hasEndSlicing)
        {
            private static struct DollarToken{}
            enum opDollar = DollarToken.init;

            auto opSlice(size_t low, DollarToken)
            {
                return typeof(this)(source[low .. $]);
            }
        }

        static if (!isInfinite!R)
        {
            typeof(this) opSlice(size_t low, size_t high)
            {
                return typeof(this)(source[low .. high]);
            }
        }
        else static if (hasEndSlicing)
        {
            auto opSlice(size_t low, size_t high)
            in
            {
                assert(low <= high);
            }
            body
            {
                import std.range : take;
                return this[low .. $].take(high - low);
            }
        }
    }
}

/**
$(D auto map(Range)(Range r) if (isInputRange!(Unqual!Range));)

Implements the homonym function (also known as $(D transform)) present
in many languages of functional flavor. The call $(D map!(fun)(range))
returns a range of which elements are obtained by applying $(D fun(a))
left to right for all elements $(D a) in $(D range). The original ranges are
not changed. Evaluation is done lazily.

See_Also:
    $(WEB en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_(higher-order_function), Map (higher-order function))
*/
template map(fun...) if (fun.length >= 1)
{
    auto map(Range)(Range r) if (isInputRange!(Unqual!Range))
    {
        import std.typetuple : staticMap;

        alias AppliedReturnType(alias f) = typeof(f(r.front));

        static if (fun.length > 1)
        {
            import std.functional : adjoin;
            import std.typetuple : staticIndexOf;

            alias _funs = staticMap!(unaryFun, fun);
            alias _fun = adjoin!_funs;

            alias ReturnTypes = staticMap!(AppliedReturnType, _funs);
            static assert(staticIndexOf!(void, ReturnTypes) == -1,
                          "All mapping functions must not return void.");
        }
        else
        {
            alias _fun = unaryFun!fun;

            static assert(!is(AppliedReturnType!_fun == void),
                          "Mapping function must not return void.");
        }

        return MapResult!(_fun, Range)(r);
    }
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range : chain;
    int[] arr1 = [ 1, 2, 3, 4 ];
    int[] arr2 = [ 5, 6 ];
    auto squares = map!(a => a * a)(chain(arr1, arr2));
    assert(equal(squares, [ 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 ]));
}

/**
Multiple functions can be passed to $(D map). In that case, the
element type of $(D map) is a tuple containing one element for each
function.
*/
@safe unittest
{
    auto sums = [2, 4, 6, 8];
    auto products = [1, 4, 9, 16];

    size_t i = 0;
    foreach (result; [ 1, 2, 3, 4 ].map!("a + a", "a * a"))
    {
        assert(result[0] == sums[i]);
        assert(result[1] == products[i]);
        ++i;
    }
}

/**
You may alias $(D map) with some function(s) to a symbol and use
it separately:
*/
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.conv : to;

    alias stringize = map!(to!string);
    assert(equal(stringize([ 1, 2, 3, 4 ]), [ "1", "2", "3", "4" ]));
}

private struct MapResult(alias fun, Range)
{
    alias R = Unqual!Range;
    R _input;

    static if (isBidirectionalRange!R)
    {
        @property auto ref back()()
        {
            return fun(_input.back);
        }

        void popBack()()
        {
            _input.popBack();
        }
    }

    this(R input)
    {
        _input = input;
    }

    static if (isInfinite!R)
    {
        // Propagate infinite-ness.
        enum bool empty = false;
    }
    else
    {
        @property bool empty()
        {
            return _input.empty;
        }
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        _input.popFront();
    }

    @property auto ref front()
    {
        return fun(_input.front);
    }

    static if (isRandomAccessRange!R)
    {
        static if (is(typeof(_input[ulong.max])))
            private alias opIndex_t = ulong;
        else
            private alias opIndex_t = uint;

        auto ref opIndex(opIndex_t index)
        {
            return fun(_input[index]);
        }
    }

    static if (hasLength!R)
    {
        @property auto length()
        {
            return _input.length;
        }

        alias opDollar = length;
    }

    static if (hasSlicing!R)
    {
        static if (is(typeof(_input[ulong.max .. ulong.max])))
            private alias opSlice_t = ulong;
        else
            private alias opSlice_t = uint;

        static if (hasLength!R)
        {
            auto opSlice(opSlice_t low, opSlice_t high)
            {
                return typeof(this)(_input[low .. high]);
            }
        }
        else static if (is(typeof(_input[opSlice_t.max .. $])))
        {
            struct DollarToken{}
            enum opDollar = DollarToken.init;
            auto opSlice(opSlice_t low, DollarToken)
            {
                return typeof(this)(_input[low .. $]);
            }

            auto opSlice(opSlice_t low, opSlice_t high)
            {
                import std.range : take;
                return this[low .. $].take(high - low);
            }
        }
    }

    static if (isForwardRange!R)
    {
        @property auto save()
        {
            return typeof(this)(_input.save);
        }
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.conv : to;
    import std.functional : adjoin;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");

    alias stringize = map!(to!string);
    assert(equal(stringize([ 1, 2, 3, 4 ]), [ "1", "2", "3", "4" ]));

    uint counter;
    alias count = map!((a) { return counter++; });
    assert(equal(count([ 10, 2, 30, 4 ]), [ 0, 1, 2, 3 ]));

    counter = 0;
    adjoin!((a) { return counter++; }, (a) { return counter++; })(1);
    alias countAndSquare = map!((a) { return counter++; }, (a) { return counter++; });
    //assert(equal(countAndSquare([ 10, 2 ]), [ tuple(0u, 100), tuple(1u, 4) ]));
}

unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.internal.test.dummyrange;
    import std.ascii : toUpper;
    import std.range;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    int[] arr1 = [ 1, 2, 3, 4 ];
    const int[] arr1Const = arr1;
    int[] arr2 = [ 5, 6 ];
    auto squares = map!("a * a")(arr1Const);
    assert(squares[$ - 1] == 16);
    assert(equal(squares, [ 1, 4, 9, 16 ][]));
    assert(equal(map!("a * a")(chain(arr1, arr2)), [ 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 ][]));

    // Test the caching stuff.
    assert(squares.back == 16);
    auto squares2 = squares.save;
    assert(squares2.back == 16);

    assert(squares2.front == 1);
    squares2.popFront();
    assert(squares2.front == 4);
    squares2.popBack();
    assert(squares2.front == 4);
    assert(squares2.back == 9);

    assert(equal(map!("a * a")(chain(arr1, arr2)), [ 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 ][]));

    uint i;
    foreach (e; map!("a", "a * a")(arr1))
    {
        assert(e[0] == ++i);
        assert(e[1] == i * i);
    }

    // Test length.
    assert(squares.length == 4);
    assert(map!"a * a"(chain(arr1, arr2)).length == 6);

    // Test indexing.
    assert(squares[0] == 1);
    assert(squares[1] == 4);
    assert(squares[2] == 9);
    assert(squares[3] == 16);

    // Test slicing.
    auto squareSlice = squares[1..squares.length - 1];
    assert(equal(squareSlice, [4, 9][]));
    assert(squareSlice.back == 9);
    assert(squareSlice[1] == 9);

    // Test on a forward range to make sure it compiles when all the fancy
    // stuff is disabled.
    auto fibsSquares = map!"a * a"(recurrence!("a[n-1] + a[n-2]")(1, 1));
    assert(fibsSquares.front == 1);
    fibsSquares.popFront();
    fibsSquares.popFront();
    assert(fibsSquares.front == 4);
    fibsSquares.popFront();
    assert(fibsSquares.front == 9);

    auto repeatMap = map!"a"(repeat(1));
    static assert(isInfinite!(typeof(repeatMap)));

    auto intRange = map!"a"([1,2,3]);
    static assert(isRandomAccessRange!(typeof(intRange)));

    foreach (DummyType; AllDummyRanges)
    {
        DummyType d;
        auto m = map!"a * a"(d);

        static assert(propagatesRangeType!(typeof(m), DummyType));
        assert(equal(m, [1,4,9,16,25,36,49,64,81,100]));
    }

    //Test string access
    string  s1 = "hello world!";
    dstring s2 = "日本語";
    dstring s3 = "hello world!"d;
    auto ms1 = map!(std.ascii.toUpper)(s1);
    auto ms2 = map!(std.ascii.toUpper)(s2);
    auto ms3 = map!(std.ascii.toUpper)(s3);
    static assert(!is(ms1[0])); //narrow strings can't be indexed
    assert(ms2[0] == '日');
    assert(ms3[0] == 'H');
    static assert(!is(ms1[0..1])); //narrow strings can't be sliced
    assert(equal(ms2[0..2], "日本"w));
    assert(equal(ms3[0..2], "HE"));

    // Issue 5753
    static void voidFun(int) {}
    static int nonvoidFun(int) { return 0; }
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, map!voidFun([1])));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, map!(voidFun, voidFun)([1])));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, map!(nonvoidFun, voidFun)([1])));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, map!(voidFun, nonvoidFun)([1])));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range;
    auto LL = iota(1L, 4L);
    auto m = map!"a*a"(LL);
    assert(equal(m, [1L, 4L, 9L]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.range : iota;

    // Issue #10130 - map of iota with const step.
    const step = 2;
    static assert(__traits(compiles, map!(i => i)(iota(0, 10, step))));

    // Need these to all by const to repro the float case, due to the
    // CommonType template used in the float specialization of iota.
    const floatBegin = 0.0;
    const floatEnd = 1.0;
    const floatStep = 0.02;
    static assert(__traits(compiles, map!(i => i)(iota(floatBegin, floatEnd, floatStep))));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range;
    //slicing infinites
    auto rr = iota(0, 5).cycle().map!"a * a"();
    alias RR = typeof(rr);
    static assert(hasSlicing!RR);
    rr = rr[6 .. $]; //Advances 1 cycle and 1 unit
    assert(equal(rr[0 .. 5], [1, 4, 9, 16, 0]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.range;
    struct S {int* p;}
    auto m = immutable(S).init.repeat().map!"a".save;
}

// each
/**
Eagerly iterates over $(D r) and calls $(D pred) over _each element.

Params:
    pred = predicate to apply to each element of the range
    r = range or iterable over which each iterates

Example:
---
void deleteOldBackups()
{
    import std.algorithm, std.datetime, std.file;
    auto cutoff = Clock.currTime() - 7.days;
    dirEntries("", "*~", SpanMode.depth)
        .filter!(de => de.timeLastModified < cutoff)
        .each!remove();
}
---

If the range supports it, the value can be mutated in place. Examples:
---
arr.each!((ref a) => a++);
arr.each!"a++";
---

If no predicate is specified, $(D each) will default to doing nothing
but consuming the entire range. $(D .front) will be evaluated, but this
can be avoided by explicitly specifying a predicate lambda with a
$(D lazy) parameter.

$(D each) also supports $(D opApply)-based iterators, so it will work
with e.g. $(XREF parallelism, parallel).

See_Also: $(XREF range,tee)

 */
template each(alias pred = "a")
{
    import std.typetuple : TypeTuple;
    alias BinaryArgs = TypeTuple!(pred, "i", "a");

    enum isRangeUnaryIterable(R) =
        is(typeof(unaryFun!pred(R.init.front)));

    enum isRangeBinaryIterable(R) =
        is(typeof(binaryFun!BinaryArgs(0, R.init.front)));

    enum isRangeIterable(R) =
        isInputRange!R &&
        (isRangeUnaryIterable!R || isRangeBinaryIterable!R);

    enum isForeachUnaryIterable(R) =
        is(typeof((R r) {
            foreach (ref a; r)
                cast(void)unaryFun!pred(a);
        }));

    enum isForeachBinaryIterable(R) =
        is(typeof((R r) {
            foreach (i, ref a; r)
                cast(void)binaryFun!BinaryArgs(i, a);
        }));

    enum isForeachIterable(R) =
        (!isForwardRange!R || isDynamicArray!R) &&
        (isForeachUnaryIterable!R || isForeachBinaryIterable!R);

    void each(Range)(Range r)
    if (isRangeIterable!Range && !isForeachIterable!Range)
    {
        debug(each) pragma(msg, "Using while for ", Range.stringof);
        static if (isRangeUnaryIterable!Range)
        {
            while (!r.empty)
            {
                cast(void)unaryFun!pred(r.front);
                r.popFront();
            }
        }
        else // if (isRangeBinaryIterable!Range)
        {
            size_t i = 0;
            while (!r.empty)
            {
                cast(void)binaryFun!BinaryArgs(i, r.front);
                r.popFront();
                i++;
            }
        }
    }

    void each(Iterable)(Iterable r)
        if (isForeachIterable!Iterable)
    {
        debug(each) pragma(msg, "Using foreach for ", Iterable.stringof);
        static if (isForeachUnaryIterable!Iterable)
        {
            foreach (ref e; r)
                cast(void)unaryFun!pred(e);
        }
        else // if (isForeachBinaryIterable!Iterable)
        {
            foreach (i, ref e; r)
                cast(void)binaryFun!BinaryArgs(i, e);
        }
    }
}

unittest
{
    import std.range : iota;

    long[] arr;
    // Note: each over arrays should resolve to the
    // foreach variant, but as this is a performance
    // improvement it is not unit-testable.
    iota(5).each!(n => arr ~= n);
    assert(arr == [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);

    // in-place mutation
    arr.each!((ref n) => n++);
    assert(arr == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]);

    // by-ref lambdas should not be allowed for non-ref ranges
    static assert(!is(typeof(arr.map!(n => n).each!((ref n) => n++))));

    // default predicate (walk / consume)
    auto m = arr.map!(n => n);
    (&m).each();
    assert(m.empty);

    // in-place mutation with index
    arr[] = 0;
    arr.each!"a=i"();
    assert(arr == [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]);

    // opApply iterators
    static assert(is(typeof({
        import std.parallelism;
        arr.parallel.each!"a++";
    })));
}

/**
$(D auto filter(Range)(Range rs) if (isInputRange!(Unqual!Range));)

Implements the higher order _filter function.

Params:
    predicate = Function to apply to each element of range
    range = Input range of elements

Returns:
    $(D filter!(predicate)(range)) returns a new range containing only elements $(D x) in $(D range) for
    which $(D predicate(x)) returns $(D true).

See_Also:
    $(WEB en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(higher-order_function), Filter (higher-order function))
 */
template filter(alias predicate) if (is(typeof(unaryFun!predicate)))
{
    auto filter(Range)(Range range) if (isInputRange!(Unqual!Range))
    {
        return FilterResult!(unaryFun!predicate, Range)(range);
    }
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.math : approxEqual;
    import std.range;

    int[] arr = [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];

    // Sum all elements
    auto small = filter!(a => a < 3)(arr);
    assert(equal(small, [ 1, 2 ]));

    // Sum again, but with Uniform Function Call Syntax (UFCS)
    auto sum = arr.filter!(a => a < 3);
    assert(equal(sum, [ 1, 2 ]));

    // In combination with chain() to span multiple ranges
    int[] a = [ 3, -2, 400 ];
    int[] b = [ 100, -101, 102 ];
    auto r = chain(a, b).filter!(a => a > 0);
    assert(equal(r, [ 3, 400, 100, 102 ]));

    // Mixing convertible types is fair game, too
    double[] c = [ 2.5, 3.0 ];
    auto r1 = chain(c, a, b).filter!(a => cast(int) a != a);
    assert(approxEqual(r1, [ 2.5 ]));
}

private struct FilterResult(alias pred, Range)
{
    alias R = Unqual!Range;
    R _input;

    this(R r)
    {
        _input = r;
        while (!_input.empty && !pred(_input.front))
        {
            _input.popFront();
        }
    }

    auto opSlice() { return this; }

    static if (isInfinite!Range)
    {
        enum bool empty = false;
    }
    else
    {
        @property bool empty() { return _input.empty; }
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        do
        {
            _input.popFront();
        } while (!_input.empty && !pred(_input.front));
    }

    @property auto ref front()
    {
        return _input.front;
    }

    static if (isForwardRange!R)
    {
        @property auto save()
        {
            return typeof(this)(_input.save);
        }
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.internal.test.dummyrange;
    import std.range;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    int[] a = [ 3, 4, 2 ];
    auto r = filter!("a > 3")(a);
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(r)));
    assert(equal(r, [ 4 ][]));

    a = [ 1, 22, 3, 42, 5 ];
    auto under10 = filter!("a < 10")(a);
    assert(equal(under10, [1, 3, 5][]));
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(under10)));
    under10.front = 4;
    assert(equal(under10, [4, 3, 5][]));
    under10.front = 40;
    assert(equal(under10, [40, 3, 5][]));
    under10.front = 1;

    auto infinite = filter!"a > 2"(repeat(3));
    static assert(isInfinite!(typeof(infinite)));
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(infinite)));

    foreach (DummyType; AllDummyRanges) {
        DummyType d;
        auto f = filter!"a & 1"(d);
        assert(equal(f, [1,3,5,7,9]));

        static if (isForwardRange!DummyType) {
            static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(f)));
        }
    }

    // With delegates
    int x = 10;
    int overX(int a) { return a > x; }
    typeof(filter!overX(a)) getFilter()
    {
        return filter!overX(a);
    }
    auto r1 = getFilter();
    assert(equal(r1, [22, 42]));

    // With chain
    auto nums = [0,1,2,3,4];
    assert(equal(filter!overX(chain(a, nums)), [22, 42]));

    // With copying of inner struct Filter to Map
    auto arr = [1,2,3,4,5];
    auto m = map!"a + 1"(filter!"a < 4"(arr));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    int[] a = [ 3, 4 ];
    const aConst = a;
    auto r = filter!("a > 3")(aConst);
    assert(equal(r, [ 4 ][]));

    a = [ 1, 22, 3, 42, 5 ];
    auto under10 = filter!("a < 10")(a);
    assert(equal(under10, [1, 3, 5][]));
    assert(equal(under10.save, [1, 3, 5][]));
    assert(equal(under10.save, under10));

    // With copying of inner struct Filter to Map
    auto arr = [1,2,3,4,5];
    auto m = map!"a + 1"(filter!"a < 4"(arr));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.functional : compose, pipe;

    assert(equal(compose!(map!"2 * a", filter!"a & 1")([1,2,3,4,5]),
                    [2,6,10]));
    assert(equal(pipe!(filter!"a & 1", map!"2 * a")([1,2,3,4,5]),
            [2,6,10]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    int x = 10;
    int underX(int a) { return a < x; }
    const(int)[] list = [ 1, 2, 10, 11, 3, 4 ];
    assert(equal(filter!underX(list), [ 1, 2, 3, 4 ]));
}

/**
 * $(D auto filterBidirectional(Range)(Range r) if (isBidirectionalRange!(Unqual!Range));)
 *
 * Similar to $(D filter), except it defines a bidirectional
 * range. There is a speed disadvantage - the constructor spends time
 * finding the last element in the range that satisfies the filtering
 * condition (in addition to finding the first one). The advantage is
 * that the filtered range can be spanned from both directions. Also,
 * $(XREF range, retro) can be applied against the filtered range.
 *
 * Params:
 *     pred = Function to apply to each element of range
 *     r = Bidirectional range of elements
 */
template filterBidirectional(alias pred)
{
    auto filterBidirectional(Range)(Range r) if (isBidirectionalRange!(Unqual!Range))
    {
        return FilterBidiResult!(unaryFun!pred, Range)(r);
    }
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range;

    int[] arr = [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
    auto small = filterBidirectional!("a < 3")(arr);
    static assert(isBidirectionalRange!(typeof(small)));
    assert(small.back == 2);
    assert(equal(small, [ 1, 2 ]));
    assert(equal(retro(small), [ 2, 1 ]));
    // In combination with chain() to span multiple ranges
    int[] a = [ 3, -2, 400 ];
    int[] b = [ 100, -101, 102 ];
    auto r = filterBidirectional!("a > 0")(chain(a, b));
    assert(r.back == 102);
}

private struct FilterBidiResult(alias pred, Range)
{
    alias R = Unqual!Range;
    R _input;

    this(R r)
    {
        _input = r;
        while (!_input.empty && !pred(_input.front)) _input.popFront();
        while (!_input.empty && !pred(_input.back)) _input.popBack();
    }

    @property bool empty() { return _input.empty; }

    void popFront()
    {
        do
        {
            _input.popFront();
        } while (!_input.empty && !pred(_input.front));
    }

    @property auto ref front()
    {
        return _input.front;
    }

    void popBack()
    {
        do
        {
            _input.popBack();
        } while (!_input.empty && !pred(_input.back));
    }

    @property auto ref back()
    {
        return _input.back;
    }

    @property auto save()
    {
        return typeof(this)(_input.save);
    }
}

// group
struct Group(alias pred, R) if (isInputRange!R)
{
    import std.typecons : Rebindable, tuple, Tuple;

    private alias comp = binaryFun!pred;

    private alias E = ElementType!R;
    static if ((is(E == class) || is(E == interface)) &&
               (is(E == const) || is(E == immutable)))
    {
        private alias MutableE = Rebindable!E;
    }
    else static if (is(E : Unqual!E))
    {
        private alias MutableE = Unqual!E;
    }
    else
    {
        private alias MutableE = E;
    }

    private R _input;
    private Tuple!(MutableE, uint) _current;

    this(R input)
    {
        _input = input;
        if (!_input.empty) popFront();
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        if (_input.empty)
        {
            _current[1] = 0;
        }
        else
        {
            _current = tuple(_input.front, 1u);
            _input.popFront();
            while (!_input.empty && comp(_current[0], _input.front))
            {
                ++_current[1];
                _input.popFront();
            }
        }
    }

    static if (isInfinite!R)
    {
        enum bool empty = false;  // Propagate infiniteness.
    }
    else
    {
        @property bool empty()
        {
            return _current[1] == 0;
        }
    }

    @property auto ref front()
    {
        assert(!empty);
        return _current;
    }

    static if (isForwardRange!R) {
        @property typeof(this) save() {
            typeof(this) ret = this;
            ret._input = this._input.save;
            ret._current = this._current;
            return ret;
        }
    }
}

/**
Groups consecutively equivalent elements into a single tuple of the element and
the number of its repetitions.

Similarly to $(D uniq), $(D group) produces a range that iterates over unique
consecutive elements of the given range. Each element of this range is a tuple
of the element and the number of times it is repeated in the original range.
Equivalence of elements is assessed by using the predicate $(D pred), which
defaults to $(D "a == b").

Params:
    pred = Binary predicate for determining equivalence of two elements.
    r = The $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) to
        iterate over.

Returns: A range of elements of type $(D Tuple!(ElementType!R, uint)),
representing each consecutively unique element and its respective number of
occurrences in that run.  This will be an input range if $(D R) is an input
range, and a forward range in all other cases.
*/
Group!(pred, Range) group(alias pred = "a == b", Range)(Range r)
{
    return typeof(return)(r);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

    int[] arr = [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5 ];
    assert(equal(group(arr), [ tuple(1, 1u), tuple(2, 4u), tuple(3, 1u),
        tuple(4, 3u), tuple(5, 1u) ][]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.internal.test.dummyrange;
    import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    int[] arr = [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5 ];
    assert(equal(group(arr), [ tuple(1, 1u), tuple(2, 4u), tuple(3, 1u),
                            tuple(4, 3u), tuple(5, 1u) ][]));
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(group(arr))));

    foreach (DummyType; AllDummyRanges) {
        DummyType d;
        auto g = group(d);

        static assert(d.rt == RangeType.Input || isForwardRange!(typeof(g)));

        assert(equal(g, [tuple(1, 1u), tuple(2, 1u), tuple(3, 1u), tuple(4, 1u),
            tuple(5, 1u), tuple(6, 1u), tuple(7, 1u), tuple(8, 1u),
            tuple(9, 1u), tuple(10, 1u)]));
    }
}

unittest
{
    // Issue 13857
    immutable(int)[] a1 = [1,1,2,2,2,3,4,4,5,6,6,7,8,9,9,9];
    auto g1 = group(a1);

    // Issue 13162
    immutable(ubyte)[] a2 = [1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0];
    auto g2 = a2.group;

    // Issue 10104
    const a3 = [1, 1, 2, 2];
    auto g3 = a3.group;

    interface I {}
    class C : I {}
    const C[] a4 = [new const C()];
    auto g4 = a4.group!"a is b";

    immutable I[] a5 = [new immutable C()];
    auto g5 = a5.group!"a is b";

    const(int[][]) a6 = [[1], [1]];
    auto g6 = a6.group;
}

// Used by implementation of chunkBy for non-forward input ranges.
private struct ChunkByChunkImpl(alias pred, Range)
    if (isInputRange!Range && !isForwardRange!Range)
{
    alias fun = binaryFun!pred;

    private Range r;
    private ElementType!Range prev;

    this(Range range, ElementType!Range _prev)
    {
        r = range;
        prev = _prev;
    }

    @property bool empty()
    {
        return r.empty || !fun(prev, r.front);
    }

    @property ElementType!Range front() { return r.front; }
    void popFront() { r.popFront(); }
}

private template ChunkByImplIsUnary(alias pred, Range)
{
    static if (is(typeof(binaryFun!pred(ElementType!Range.init,
                                        ElementType!Range.init)) : bool))
        enum ChunkByImplIsUnary = false;
    else static if (is(typeof(
            unaryFun!pred(ElementType!Range.init) ==
            unaryFun!pred(ElementType!Range.init))))
        enum ChunkByImplIsUnary = true;
    else
        static assert(0, "chunkBy expects either a binary predicate or "~
                         "a unary predicate on range elements of type: "~
                         ElementType!Range.stringof);
}

// Implementation of chunkBy for non-forward input ranges.
private struct ChunkByImpl(alias pred, Range)
    if (isInputRange!Range && !isForwardRange!Range)
{
    enum bool isUnary = ChunkByImplIsUnary!(pred, Range);

    static if (isUnary)
        alias eq = binaryFun!((a, b) => unaryFun!pred(a) == unaryFun!pred(b));
    else
        alias eq = binaryFun!pred;

    private Range r;
    private ElementType!Range _prev;

    this(Range _r)
    {
        r = _r;
        if (!empty)
        {
            // Check reflexivity if predicate is claimed to be an equivalence
            // relation.
            assert(eq(r.front, r.front),
                   "predicate is not reflexive");

            // _prev's type may be a nested struct, so must be initialized
            // directly in the constructor (cannot call savePred()).
            _prev = r.front;
        }
        else
        {
            // We won't use _prev, but must be initialized.
            _prev = typeof(_prev).init;
        }
    }
    @property bool empty() { return r.empty; }

    @property auto front()
    {
        static if (isUnary)
        {
            import std.typecons : tuple;
            return tuple(unaryFun!pred(_prev),
                         ChunkByChunkImpl!(eq, Range)(r, _prev));
        }
        else
        {
            return ChunkByChunkImpl!(eq, Range)(r, _prev);
        }
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        while (!r.empty)
        {
            if (!eq(_prev, r.front))
            {
                _prev = r.front;
                break;
            }
            r.popFront();
        }
    }
}

// Single-pass implementation of chunkBy for forward ranges.
private struct ChunkByImpl(alias pred, Range)
    if (isForwardRange!Range)
{
    import std.typecons : RefCounted;

    enum bool isUnary = ChunkByImplIsUnary!(pred, Range);

    static if (isUnary)
        alias eq = binaryFun!((a, b) => unaryFun!pred(a) == unaryFun!pred(b));
    else
        alias eq = binaryFun!pred;

    // Outer range
    static struct Impl
    {
        size_t groupNum;
        Range  current;
        Range  next;
    }

    // Inner range
    static struct Group
    {
        private size_t groupNum;
        private Range  start;
        private Range  current;

        private RefCounted!Impl mothership;

        this(RefCounted!Impl origin)
        {
            groupNum = origin.groupNum;

            start = origin.current.save;
            current = origin.current.save;
            assert(!start.empty);

            mothership = origin;

            // Note: this requires reflexivity.
            assert(eq(start.front, current.front),
                   "predicate is not reflexive");
        }

        @property bool empty() { return groupNum == size_t.max; }
        @property auto ref front() { return current.front; }

        void popFront()
        {
            current.popFront();

            // Note: this requires transitivity.
            if (current.empty || !eq(start.front, current.front))
            {
                if (groupNum == mothership.groupNum)
                {
                    // If parent range hasn't moved on yet, help it along by
                    // saving location of start of next Group.
                    mothership.next = current.save;
                }

                groupNum = size_t.max;
            }
        }

        @property auto save()
        {
            auto copy = this;
            copy.current = current.save;
            return copy;
        }
    }
    static assert(isForwardRange!Group);

    private RefCounted!Impl impl;

    this(Range r)
    {
        impl = RefCounted!Impl(0, r, r.save);
    }

    @property bool empty() { return impl.current.empty; }

    @property auto front()
    {
        static if (isUnary)
        {
            import std.typecons : tuple;
            return tuple(unaryFun!pred(impl.current.front), Group(impl));
        }
        else
        {
            return Group(impl);
        }
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        // Scan for next group. If we're lucky, one of our Groups would have
        // already set .next to the start of the next group, in which case the
        // loop is skipped.
        while (!impl.next.empty && eq(impl.current.front, impl.next.front))
        {
            impl.next.popFront();
        }

        impl.current = impl.next.save;

        // Indicate to any remaining Groups that we have moved on.
        impl.groupNum++;
    }

    @property auto save()
    {
        // Note: the new copy of the range will be detached from any existing
        // satellite Groups, and will not benefit from the .next acceleration.
        return typeof(this)(impl.current.save);
    }

    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(this)));
}

unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    size_t popCount = 0;
    class RefFwdRange
    {
        int[]  impl;

        this(int[] data) { impl = data; }
        @property bool empty() { return impl.empty; }
        @property auto ref front() { return impl.front; }
        void popFront()
        {
            impl.popFront();
            popCount++;
        }
        @property auto save() { return new RefFwdRange(impl); }
    }
    static assert(isForwardRange!RefFwdRange);

    auto testdata = new RefFwdRange([1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 7, 6, 8, 9]);
    auto groups = testdata.chunkBy!((a,b) => (a % 2) == (b % 2));
    auto outerSave1 = groups.save;

    // Sanity test
    assert(groups.equal!equal([[1, 3, 5], [2, 4], [7], [6, 8], [9]]));
    assert(groups.empty);

    // Performance test for single-traversal use case: popFront should not have
    // been called more times than there are elements if we traversed the
    // segmented range exactly once.
    assert(popCount == 9);

    // Outer range .save test
    groups = outerSave1.save;
    assert(!groups.empty);

    // Inner range .save test
    auto grp1 = groups.front.save;
    auto grp1b = grp1.save;
    assert(grp1b.equal([1, 3, 5]));
    assert(grp1.save.equal([1, 3, 5]));

    // Inner range should remain consistent after outer range has moved on.
    groups.popFront();
    assert(grp1.save.equal([1, 3, 5]));

    // Inner range should not be affected by subsequent inner ranges.
    assert(groups.front.equal([2, 4]));
    assert(grp1.save.equal([1, 3, 5]));
}

/**
 * Chunks an input range into subranges of equivalent adjacent elements.
 *
 * Equivalence is defined by the predicate $(D pred), which can be either
 * binary or unary. In the binary form, two _range elements $(D a) and $(D b)
 * are considered equivalent if $(D pred(a,b)) is true. In unary form, two
 * elements are considered equivalent if $(D pred(a) == pred(b)) is true.
 *
 * This predicate must be an equivalence relation, that is, it must be
 * reflexive ($(D pred(x,x)) is always true), symmetric
 * ($(D pred(x,y) == pred(y,x))), and transitive ($(D pred(x,y) && pred(y,z))
 * implies $(D pred(x,z))). If this is not the case, the range returned by
 * chunkBy may assert at runtime or behave erratically.
 *
 * Params:
 *  pred = Predicate for determining equivalence.
 *  r = The range to be chunked.
 *
 * Returns: With a binary predicate, a range of ranges is returned in which
 * all elements in a given subrange are equivalent under the given predicate.
 * With a unary predicate, a range of tuples is returned, with the tuple
 * consisting of the result of the unary predicate for each subrange, and the
 * subrange itself.
 *
 * Notes:
 *
 * Equivalent elements separated by an intervening non-equivalent element will
 * appear in separate subranges; this function only considers adjacent
 * equivalence. Elements in the subranges will always appear in the same order
 * they appear in the original range.
 *
 * See_also:
 * $(LREF group), which collapses adjacent equivalent elements into a single
 * element.
 */
auto chunkBy(alias pred, Range)(Range r)
    if (isInputRange!Range)
{
    return ChunkByImpl!(pred, Range)(r);
}

/// Showing usage with binary predicate:
/*FIXME: @safe*/ unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    // Grouping by particular attribute of each element:
    auto data = [
        [1, 1],
        [1, 2],
        [2, 2],
        [2, 3]
    ];

    auto r1 = data.chunkBy!((a,b) => a[0] == b[0]);
    assert(r1.equal!equal([
        [[1, 1], [1, 2]],
        [[2, 2], [2, 3]]
    ]));

    auto r2 = data.chunkBy!((a,b) => a[1] == b[1]);
    assert(r2.equal!equal([
        [[1, 1]],
        [[1, 2], [2, 2]],
        [[2, 3]]
    ]));
}

version(none) // this example requires support for non-equivalence relations
unittest
{
    auto data = [
        [1, 1],
        [1, 2],
        [2, 2],
        [2, 3]
    ];

    version(none)
    {
        // Grouping by maximum adjacent difference:
        import std.math : abs;
        auto r3 = [1, 3, 2, 5, 4, 9, 10].chunkBy!((a, b) => abs(a-b) < 3);
        assert(r3.equal!equal([
            [1, 3, 2],
            [5, 4],
            [9, 10]
        ]));
    }
}

/// Showing usage with unary predicate:
/* FIXME: pure @safe nothrow*/ unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.typecons : tuple;

    // Grouping by particular attribute of each element:
    auto range =
    [
        [1, 1],
        [1, 1],
        [1, 2],
        [2, 2],
        [2, 3],
        [2, 3],
        [3, 3]
    ];

    auto byX = chunkBy!(a => a[0])(range);
    auto expected1 =
    [
        tuple(1, [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 2]]),
        tuple(2, [[2, 2], [2, 3], [2, 3]]),
        tuple(3, [[3, 3]])
    ];
    foreach (e; byX)
    {
        assert(!expected1.empty);
        assert(e[0] == expected1.front[0]);
        assert(e[1].equal(expected1.front[1]));
        expected1.popFront();
    }

    auto byY = chunkBy!(a => a[1])(range);
    auto expected2 =
    [
        tuple(1, [[1, 1], [1, 1]]),
        tuple(2, [[1, 2], [2, 2]]),
        tuple(3, [[2, 3], [2, 3], [3, 3]])
    ];
    foreach (e; byY)
    {
        assert(!expected2.empty);
        assert(e[0] == expected2.front[0]);
        assert(e[1].equal(expected2.front[1]));
        expected2.popFront();
    }
}

/*FIXME: pure @safe nothrow*/ unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.typecons : tuple;

    struct Item { int x, y; }

    // Force R to have only an input range API with reference semantics, so
    // that we're not unknowingly making use of array semantics outside of the
    // range API.
    class RefInputRange(R)
    {
        R data;
        this(R _data) pure @safe nothrow { data = _data; }
        @property bool empty() pure @safe nothrow { return data.empty; }
        @property auto front() pure @safe nothrow { return data.front; }
        void popFront() pure @safe nothrow { data.popFront(); }
    }
    auto refInputRange(R)(R range) { return new RefInputRange!R(range); }

    {
        auto arr = [ Item(1,2), Item(1,3), Item(2,3) ];
        static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(arr)));

        auto byX = chunkBy!(a => a.x)(arr);
        static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(byX)));

        auto byX_subrange1 = byX.front[1].save;
        auto byX_subrange2 = byX.front[1].save;
        static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(byX_subrange1)));
        static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(byX_subrange2)));

        byX.popFront();
        assert(byX_subrange1.equal([ Item(1,2), Item(1,3) ]));
        byX_subrange1.popFront();
        assert(byX_subrange1.equal([ Item(1,3) ]));
        assert(byX_subrange2.equal([ Item(1,2), Item(1,3) ]));

        auto byY = chunkBy!(a => a.y)(arr);
        static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(byY)));

        auto byY2 = byY.save;
        static assert(is(typeof(byY) == typeof(byY2)));
        byY.popFront();
        assert(byY.front[0] == 3);
        assert(byY.front[1].equal([ Item(1,3), Item(2,3) ]));
        assert(byY2.front[0] == 2);
        assert(byY2.front[1].equal([ Item(1,2) ]));
    }

    // Test non-forward input ranges.
    {
        auto range = refInputRange([ Item(1,1), Item(1,2), Item(2,2) ]);
        auto byX = chunkBy!(a => a.x)(range);
        assert(byX.front[0] == 1);
        assert(byX.front[1].equal([ Item(1,1), Item(1,2) ]));
        byX.popFront();
        assert(byX.front[0] == 2);
        assert(byX.front[1].equal([ Item(2,2) ]));
        byX.popFront();
        assert(byX.empty);
        assert(range.empty);

        range = refInputRange([ Item(1,1), Item(1,2), Item(2,2) ]);
        auto byY = chunkBy!(a => a.y)(range);
        assert(byY.front[0] == 1);
        assert(byY.front[1].equal([ Item(1,1) ]));
        byY.popFront();
        assert(byY.front[0] == 2);
        assert(byY.front[1].equal([ Item(1,2), Item(2,2) ]));
        byY.popFront();
        assert(byY.empty);
        assert(range.empty);
    }
}

// Issue 13595
version(none) // This requires support for non-equivalence relations
unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto r = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].chunkBy!((x, y) => ((x*y) % 3) == 0);
    assert(r.equal!equal([
        [1],
        [2, 3, 4],
        [5, 6, 7],
        [8, 9]
    ]));
}

// Issue 13805
unittest
{
    [""].map!((s) => s).chunkBy!((x, y) => true);
}

// joiner
/**
Lazily joins a range of ranges with a separator. The separator itself
is a range. If you do not provide a separator, then the ranges are
joined directly without anything in between them.

Params:
    r = An $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) of input
        ranges to be joined.
    sep = A $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isForwardRange,forward range) of
        element(s) to serve as separators in the joined range.

Returns:
An input range of elements in the joined range. This will be a forward range if
both outer and inner ranges of $(D RoR) are forward ranges; otherwise it will
be only an input range.

See_also:
$(XREF range,chain), which chains a sequence of ranges with compatible elements
into a single range.
 */
auto joiner(RoR, Separator)(RoR r, Separator sep)
if (isInputRange!RoR && isInputRange!(ElementType!RoR)
        && isForwardRange!Separator
        && is(ElementType!Separator : ElementType!(ElementType!RoR)))
{
    static struct Result
    {
        private RoR _items;
        private ElementType!RoR _current;
        private Separator _sep, _currentSep;

        // This is a mixin instead of a function for the following reason (as
        // explained by Kenji Hara): "This is necessary from 2.061.  If a
        // struct has a nested struct member, it must be directly initialized
        // in its constructor to avoid leaving undefined state.  If you change
        // setItem to a function, the initialization of _current field is
        // wrapped into private member function, then compiler could not detect
        // that is correctly initialized while constructing.  To avoid the
        // compiler error check, string mixin is used."
        private enum setItem =
        q{
            if (!_items.empty)
            {
                // If we're exporting .save, we must not consume any of the
                // subranges, since RoR.save does not guarantee that the states
                // of the subranges are also saved.
                static if (isForwardRange!RoR &&
                           isForwardRange!(ElementType!RoR))
                    _current = _items.front.save;
                else
                    _current = _items.front;
            }
        };

        private void useSeparator()
        {
            // Separator must always come after an item.
            assert(_currentSep.empty && !_items.empty,
                    "joiner: internal error");
            _items.popFront();

            // If there are no more items, we're done, since separators are not
            // terminators.
            if (_items.empty) return;

            if (_sep.empty)
            {
                // Advance to the next range in the
                // input
                while (_items.front.empty)
                {
                    _items.popFront();
                    if (_items.empty) return;
                }
                mixin(setItem);
            }
            else
            {
                _currentSep = _sep.save;
                assert(!_currentSep.empty);
            }
        }

        private enum useItem =
        q{
            // FIXME: this will crash if either _currentSep or _current are
            // class objects, because .init is null when the ctor invokes this
            // mixin.
            //assert(_currentSep.empty && _current.empty,
            //        "joiner: internal error");

            // Use the input
            if (_items.empty) return;
            mixin(setItem);
            if (_current.empty)
            {
                // No data in the current item - toggle to use the separator
                useSeparator();
            }
        };

        this(RoR items, Separator sep)
        {
            _items = items;
            _sep = sep;

            //mixin(useItem); // _current should be initialized in place
            if (_items.empty)
                _current = _current.init;   // set invalid state
            else
            {
                // If we're exporting .save, we must not consume any of the
                // subranges, since RoR.save does not guarantee that the states
                // of the subranges are also saved.
                static if (isForwardRange!RoR &&
                           isForwardRange!(ElementType!RoR))
                    _current = _items.front.save;
                else
                    _current = _items.front;

                if (_current.empty)
                {
                    // No data in the current item - toggle to use the separator
                    useSeparator();
                }
            }
        }

        @property auto empty()
        {
            return _items.empty;
        }

        @property ElementType!(ElementType!RoR) front()
        {
            if (!_currentSep.empty) return _currentSep.front;
            assert(!_current.empty);
            return _current.front;
        }

        void popFront()
        {
            assert(!_items.empty);
            // Using separator?
            if (!_currentSep.empty)
            {
                _currentSep.popFront();
                if (!_currentSep.empty) return;
                mixin(useItem);
            }
            else
            {
                // we're using the range
                _current.popFront();
                if (!_current.empty) return;
                useSeparator();
            }
        }

        static if (isForwardRange!RoR && isForwardRange!(ElementType!RoR))
        {
            @property auto save()
            {
                Result copy = this;
                copy._items = _items.save;
                copy._current = _current.save;
                copy._sep = _sep.save;
                copy._currentSep = _currentSep.save;
                return copy;
            }
        }
    }
    return Result(r, sep);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.conv : text;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");

    static assert(isInputRange!(typeof(joiner([""], ""))));
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(joiner([""], ""))));
    assert(equal(joiner([""], "xyz"), ""), text(joiner([""], "xyz")));
    assert(equal(joiner(["", ""], "xyz"), "xyz"), text(joiner(["", ""], "xyz")));
    assert(equal(joiner(["", "abc"], "xyz"), "xyzabc"));
    assert(equal(joiner(["abc", ""], "xyz"), "abcxyz"));
    assert(equal(joiner(["abc", "def"], "xyz"), "abcxyzdef"));
    assert(equal(joiner(["Mary", "has", "a", "little", "lamb"], "..."),
                    "Mary...has...a...little...lamb"));
    assert(equal(joiner(["abc", "def"]), "abcdef"));
}

unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range.primitives;
    import std.range.interfaces;
    // joiner() should work for non-forward ranges too.
    auto r = inputRangeObject(["abc", "def"]);
    assert (equal(joiner(r, "xyz"), "abcxyzdef"));
}

unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range;

    // Related to issue 8061
    auto r = joiner([
        inputRangeObject("abc"),
        inputRangeObject("def"),
    ], "-*-");

    assert(equal(r, "abc-*-def"));

    // Test case where separator is specified but is empty.
    auto s = joiner([
        inputRangeObject("abc"),
        inputRangeObject("def"),
    ], "");

    assert(equal(s, "abcdef"));

    // Test empty separator with some empty elements
    auto t = joiner([
        inputRangeObject("abc"),
        inputRangeObject(""),
        inputRangeObject("def"),
        inputRangeObject(""),
    ], "");

    assert(equal(t, "abcdef"));

    // Test empty elements with non-empty separator
    auto u = joiner([
        inputRangeObject(""),
        inputRangeObject("abc"),
        inputRangeObject(""),
        inputRangeObject("def"),
        inputRangeObject(""),
    ], "+-");

    assert(equal(u, "+-abc+-+-def+-"));

    // Issue 13441: only(x) as separator
    string[][] lines = [null];
    lines
        .joiner(only("b"))
        .array();
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    // Transience correctness test
    struct TransientRange
    {
    @safe:
        int[][] src;
        int[] buf;

        this(int[][] _src)
        {
            src = _src;
            buf.length = 100;
        }
        @property bool empty() { return src.empty; }
        @property int[] front()
        {
            assert(src.front.length <= buf.length);
            buf[0 .. src.front.length] = src.front[0..$];
            return buf[0 .. src.front.length];
        }
        void popFront() { src.popFront(); }
    }

    // Test embedded empty elements
    auto tr1 = TransientRange([[], [1,2,3], [], [4]]);
    assert(equal(joiner(tr1, [0]), [0,1,2,3,0,0,4]));

    // Test trailing empty elements
    auto tr2 = TransientRange([[], [1,2,3], []]);
    assert(equal(joiner(tr2, [0]), [0,1,2,3,0]));

    // Test no empty elements
    auto tr3 = TransientRange([[1,2], [3,4]]);
    assert(equal(joiner(tr3, [0,1]), [1,2,0,1,3,4]));

    // Test consecutive empty elements
    auto tr4 = TransientRange([[1,2], [], [], [], [3,4]]);
    assert(equal(joiner(tr4, [0,1]), [1,2,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,3,4]));

    // Test consecutive trailing empty elements
    auto tr5 = TransientRange([[1,2], [3,4], [], []]);
    assert(equal(joiner(tr5, [0,1]), [1,2,0,1,3,4,0,1,0,1]));
}

/// Ditto
auto joiner(RoR)(RoR r)
if (isInputRange!RoR && isInputRange!(ElementType!RoR))
{
    static struct Result
    {
    private:
        RoR _items;
        ElementType!RoR _current;
        enum prepare =
        q{
            // Skip over empty subranges.
            if (_items.empty) return;
            while (_items.front.empty)
            {
                _items.popFront();
                if (_items.empty) return;
            }
            // We cannot export .save method unless we ensure subranges are not
            // consumed when a .save'd copy of ourselves is iterated over. So
            // we need to .save each subrange we traverse.
            static if (isForwardRange!RoR && isForwardRange!(ElementType!RoR))
                _current = _items.front.save;
            else
                _current = _items.front;
        };
    public:
        this(RoR r)
        {
            _items = r;
            //mixin(prepare); // _current should be initialized in place

            // Skip over empty subranges.
            while (!_items.empty && _items.front.empty)
                _items.popFront();

            if (_items.empty)
                _current = _current.init;   // set invalid state
            else
            {
                // We cannot export .save method unless we ensure subranges are not
                // consumed when a .save'd copy of ourselves is iterated over. So
                // we need to .save each subrange we traverse.
                static if (isForwardRange!RoR && isForwardRange!(ElementType!RoR))
                    _current = _items.front.save;
                else
                    _current = _items.front;
            }
        }
        static if (isInfinite!RoR)
        {
            enum bool empty = false;
        }
        else
        {
            @property auto empty()
            {
                return _items.empty;
            }
        }
        @property auto ref front()
        {
            assert(!empty);
            return _current.front;
        }
        void popFront()
        {
            assert(!_current.empty);
            _current.popFront();
            if (_current.empty)
            {
                assert(!_items.empty);
                _items.popFront();
                mixin(prepare);
            }
        }
        static if (isForwardRange!RoR && isForwardRange!(ElementType!RoR))
        {
            @property auto save()
            {
                Result copy = this;
                copy._items = _items.save;
                copy._current = _current.save;
                return copy;
            }
        }
    }
    return Result(r);
}

unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range.interfaces;
    import std.range : repeat;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    static assert(isInputRange!(typeof(joiner([""]))));
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(joiner([""]))));
    assert(equal(joiner([""]), ""));
    assert(equal(joiner(["", ""]), ""));
    assert(equal(joiner(["", "abc"]), "abc"));
    assert(equal(joiner(["abc", ""]), "abc"));
    assert(equal(joiner(["abc", "def"]), "abcdef"));
    assert(equal(joiner(["Mary", "has", "a", "little", "lamb"]),
                    "Maryhasalittlelamb"));
    assert(equal(joiner(std.range.repeat("abc", 3)), "abcabcabc"));

    // joiner allows in-place mutation!
    auto a = [ [1, 2, 3], [42, 43] ];
    auto j = joiner(a);
    j.front = 44;
    assert(a == [ [44, 2, 3], [42, 43] ]);

    // bugzilla 8240
    assert(equal(joiner([inputRangeObject("")]), ""));

    // issue 8792
    auto b = [[1], [2], [3]];
    auto jb = joiner(b);
    auto js = jb.save;
    assert(equal(jb, js));

    auto js2 = jb.save;
    jb.popFront();
    assert(!equal(jb, js));
    assert(equal(js2, js));
    js.popFront();
    assert(equal(jb, js));
    assert(!equal(js2, js));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    struct TransientRange
    {
    @safe:
        int[] _buf;
        int[][] _values;
        this(int[][] values)
        {
            _values = values;
            _buf = new int[128];
        }
        @property bool empty()
        {
            return _values.length == 0;
        }
        @property auto front()
        {
            foreach (i; 0 .. _values.front.length)
            {
                _buf[i] = _values[0][i];
            }
            return _buf[0 .. _values.front.length];
        }
        void popFront()
        {
            _values = _values[1 .. $];
        }
    }

    auto rr = TransientRange([[1,2], [3,4,5], [], [6,7]]);

    // Can't use array() or equal() directly because they fail with transient
    // .front.
    int[] result;
    foreach (c; rr.joiner()) {
        result ~= c;
    }

    assert(equal(result, [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    struct TransientRange
    {
    @safe:
        dchar[] _buf;
        dstring[] _values;
        this(dstring[] values)
        {
            _buf.length = 128;
            _values = values;
        }
        @property bool empty()
        {
            return _values.length == 0;
        }
        @property auto front()
        {
            foreach (i; 0 .. _values.front.length)
            {
                _buf[i] = _values[0][i];
            }
            return _buf[0 .. _values.front.length];
        }
        void popFront()
        {
            _values = _values[1 .. $];
        }
    }

    auto rr = TransientRange(["abc"d, "12"d, "def"d, "34"d]);

    // Can't use array() or equal() directly because they fail with transient
    // .front.
    dchar[] result;
    foreach (c; rr.joiner()) {
        result ~= c;
    }

    assert(equal(result, "abc12def34"d),
        "Unexpected result: '%s'"d.algoFormat(result));
}

// Issue 8061
unittest
{
    import std.range.interfaces;
    import std.conv : to;

    auto r = joiner([inputRangeObject("ab"), inputRangeObject("cd")]);
    assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(r)));

    auto str = to!string(r);
    assert(str == "abcd");
}

/++
Implements the homonym function (also known as $(D accumulate), $(D
compress), $(D inject), or $(D foldl)) present in various programming
languages of functional flavor. The call $(D reduce!(fun)(seed,
range)) first assigns $(D seed) to an internal variable $(D result),
also called the accumulator. Then, for each element $(D x) in $(D
range), $(D result = fun(result, x)) gets evaluated. Finally, $(D
result) is returned. The one-argument version $(D reduce!(fun)(range))
works similarly, but it uses the first element of the range as the
seed (the range must be non-empty).

Returns:
    the accumulated $(D result)

See_Also:
    $(WEB en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fold_(higher-order_function), Fold (higher-order function))

    $(LREF sum) is similar to $(D reduce!((a, b) => a + b)) that offers
    precise summing of floating point numbers.
+/
template reduce(fun...) if (fun.length >= 1)
{
    import std.typetuple : staticMap;

    alias binfuns = staticMap!(binaryFun, fun);
    static if (fun.length > 1)
        import std.typecons : tuple, isTuple;

    /++
    No-seed version. The first element of $(D r) is used as the seed's value.

    For each function $(D f) in $(D fun), the corresponding
    seed type $(D S) is $(D Unqual!(typeof(f(e, e)))), where $(D e) is an
    element of $(D r): $(D ElementType!R) for ranges,
    and $(D ForeachType!R) otherwise.

    Once S has been determined, then $(D S s = e;) and $(D s = f(s, e);)
    must both be legal.

    If $(D r) is empty, an $(D Exception) is thrown.
    +/
    auto reduce(R)(R r)
    if (isIterable!R)
    {
        import std.exception : enforce;
        alias E = Select!(isInputRange!R, ElementType!R, ForeachType!R);
        alias Args = staticMap!(ReduceSeedType!E, binfuns);

        static if (isInputRange!R)
        {
            enforce(!r.empty);
            Args result = r.front;
            r.popFront();
            return reduceImpl!false(r, result);
        }
        else
        {
            auto result = Args.init;
            return reduceImpl!true(r, result);
        }
    }

    /++
    Seed version. The seed should be a single value if $(D fun) is a
    single function. If $(D fun) is multiple functions, then $(D seed)
    should be a $(XREF typecons,Tuple), with one field per function in $(D f).

    For convenience, if the seed is const, or has qualified fields, then
    $(D reduce) will operate on an unqualified copy. If this happens
    then the returned type will not perfectly match $(D S).
    +/
    auto reduce(S, R)(S seed, R r)
    if (isIterable!R)
    {
        static if (fun.length == 1)
            return reducePreImpl(r, seed);
        else
        {
            import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;
            static assert(isTuple!S, algoFormat("Seed %s should be a Tuple", S.stringof));
            return reducePreImpl(r, seed.expand);
        }
    }

    private auto reducePreImpl(R, Args...)(R r, ref Args args)
    {
        alias Result = staticMap!(Unqual, Args);
        static if (is(Result == Args))
            alias result = args;
        else
            Result result = args;
        return reduceImpl!false(r, result);
    }

    private auto reduceImpl(bool mustInitialize, R, Args...)(R r, ref Args args)
    if (isIterable!R)
    {
        import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;
        static assert(Args.length == fun.length,
            algoFormat("Seed %s does not have the correct amount of fields (should be %s)", Args.stringof, fun.length));
        alias E = Select!(isInputRange!R, ElementType!R, ForeachType!R);

        static if (mustInitialize) bool initialized = false;
        foreach (/+auto ref+/ E e; r) // @@@4707@@@
        {
            foreach (i, f; binfuns)
                static assert(is(typeof(args[i] = f(args[i], e))),
                    algoFormat("Incompatible function/seed/element: %s/%s/%s", fullyQualifiedName!f, Args[i].stringof, E.stringof));

            static if (mustInitialize) if (initialized == false)
            {
                import std.conv : emplaceRef;
                foreach (i, f; binfuns)
                    emplaceRef!(Args[i])(args[i], e);
                initialized = true;
                continue;
            }

            foreach (i, f; binfuns)
                args[i] = f(args[i], e);
        }
        static if (mustInitialize) if (!initialized) throw new Exception("Cannot reduce an empty iterable w/o an explicit seed value.");

        static if (Args.length == 1)
            return args[0];
        else
            return tuple(args);
    }
}

//Helper for Reduce
private template ReduceSeedType(E)
{
    static template ReduceSeedType(alias fun)
    {
        import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;

        E e = E.init;
        static alias ReduceSeedType = Unqual!(typeof(fun(e, e)));

        //Check the Seed type is useable.
        ReduceSeedType s = ReduceSeedType.init;
        static assert(is(typeof({ReduceSeedType s = e;})) && is(typeof(s = fun(s, e))),
            algoFormat("Unable to deduce an acceptable seed type for %s with element type %s.", fullyQualifiedName!fun, E.stringof));
    }
}

/**
Many aggregate range operations turn out to be solved with $(D reduce)
quickly and easily. The example below illustrates $(D reduce)'s
remarkable power and flexibility.
*/
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : max, min;
    import std.math : approxEqual;
    import std.range;

    int[] arr = [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
    // Sum all elements
    auto sum = reduce!((a,b) => a + b)(0, arr);
    assert(sum == 15);

    // Sum again, using a string predicate with "a" and "b"
    sum = reduce!"a + b"(0, arr);
    assert(sum == 15);

    // Compute the maximum of all elements
    auto largest = reduce!(max)(arr);
    assert(largest == 5);

    // Max again, but with Uniform Function Call Syntax (UFCS)
    largest = arr.reduce!(max);
    assert(largest == 5);

    // Compute the number of odd elements
    auto odds = reduce!((a,b) => a + (b & 1))(0, arr);
    assert(odds == 3);

    // Compute the sum of squares
    auto ssquares = reduce!((a,b) => a + b * b)(0, arr);
    assert(ssquares == 55);

    // Chain multiple ranges into seed
    int[] a = [ 3, 4 ];
    int[] b = [ 100 ];
    auto r = reduce!("a + b")(chain(a, b));
    assert(r == 107);

    // Mixing convertible types is fair game, too
    double[] c = [ 2.5, 3.0 ];
    auto r1 = reduce!("a + b")(chain(a, b, c));
    assert(approxEqual(r1, 112.5));

    // To minimize nesting of parentheses, Uniform Function Call Syntax can be used
    auto r2 = chain(a, b, c).reduce!("a + b");
    assert(approxEqual(r2, 112.5));
}

/**
Sometimes it is very useful to compute multiple aggregates in one pass.
One advantage is that the computation is faster because the looping overhead
is shared. That's why $(D reduce) accepts multiple functions.
If two or more functions are passed, $(D reduce) returns a
$(XREF typecons, Tuple) object with one member per passed-in function.
The number of seeds must be correspondingly increased.
*/
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : max, min;
    import std.math : approxEqual, sqrt;
    import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

    double[] a = [ 3.0, 4, 7, 11, 3, 2, 5 ];
    // Compute minimum and maximum in one pass
    auto r = reduce!(min, max)(a);
    // The type of r is Tuple!(int, int)
    assert(approxEqual(r[0], 2));  // minimum
    assert(approxEqual(r[1], 11)); // maximum

    // Compute sum and sum of squares in one pass
    r = reduce!("a + b", "a + b * b")(tuple(0.0, 0.0), a);
    assert(approxEqual(r[0], 35));  // sum
    assert(approxEqual(r[1], 233)); // sum of squares
    // Compute average and standard deviation from the above
    auto avg = r[0] / a.length;
    auto stdev = sqrt(r[1] / a.length - avg * avg);
}

unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : max, min;
    import std.exception : assertThrown;
    import std.range;
    import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

    double[] a = [ 3, 4 ];
    auto r = reduce!("a + b")(0.0, a);
    assert(r == 7);
    r = reduce!("a + b")(a);
    assert(r == 7);
    r = reduce!(min)(a);
    assert(r == 3);
    double[] b = [ 100 ];
    auto r1 = reduce!("a + b")(chain(a, b));
    assert(r1 == 107);

    // two funs
    auto r2 = reduce!("a + b", "a - b")(tuple(0.0, 0.0), a);
    assert(r2[0] == 7 && r2[1] == -7);
    auto r3 = reduce!("a + b", "a - b")(a);
    assert(r3[0] == 7 && r3[1] == -1);

    a = [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
    // Stringize with commas
    string rep = reduce!("a ~ `, ` ~ to!(string)(b)")("", a);
    assert(rep[2 .. $] == "1, 2, 3, 4, 5", "["~rep[2 .. $]~"]");

    // Test the opApply case.
    static struct OpApply
    {
        bool actEmpty;

        int opApply(int delegate(ref int) dg)
        {
            int res;
            if (actEmpty) return res;

            foreach (i; 0..100)
            {
                res = dg(i);
                if (res) break;
            }
            return res;
        }
    }

    OpApply oa;
    auto hundredSum = reduce!"a + b"(iota(100));
    assert(reduce!"a + b"(5, oa) == hundredSum + 5);
    assert(reduce!"a + b"(oa) == hundredSum);
    assert(reduce!("a + b", max)(oa) == tuple(hundredSum, 99));
    assert(reduce!("a + b", max)(tuple(5, 0), oa) == tuple(hundredSum + 5, 99));

    // Test for throwing on empty range plus no seed.
    assertThrown(reduce!"a + b"([1, 2][0..0]));

    oa.actEmpty = true;
    assertThrown(reduce!"a + b"(oa));
}

@safe unittest
{
    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    const float a = 0.0;
    const float[] b = [ 1.2, 3, 3.3 ];
    float[] c = [ 1.2, 3, 3.3 ];
    auto r = reduce!"a + b"(a, b);
    r = reduce!"a + b"(a, c);
}

@safe unittest
{
    // Issue #10408 - Two-function reduce of a const array.
    import std.algorithm.comparison : max, min;
    import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

    const numbers = [10, 30, 20];
    immutable m = reduce!(min)(numbers);
    assert(m == 10);
    immutable minmax = reduce!(min, max)(numbers);
    assert(minmax == tuple(10, 30));
}

@safe unittest
{
    //10709
    import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

    enum foo = "a + 0.5 * b";
    auto r = [0, 1, 2, 3];
    auto r1 = reduce!foo(r);
    auto r2 = reduce!(foo, foo)(r);
    assert(r1 == 3);
    assert(r2 == tuple(3, 3));
}

unittest
{
    int i = 0;
    static struct OpApply
    {
        int opApply(int delegate(ref int) dg)
        {
            int[] a = [1, 2, 3];

            int res = 0;
            foreach (ref e; a)
            {
                res = dg(e);
                if (res) break;
            }
            return res;
        }
    }
    //test CTFE and functions with context
    int fun(int a, int b){return a + b + 1;}
    auto foo()
    {
        import std.algorithm.comparison : max;
        import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

        auto a = reduce!(fun)([1, 2, 3]);
        auto b = reduce!(fun, fun)([1, 2, 3]);
        auto c = reduce!(fun)(0, [1, 2, 3]);
        auto d = reduce!(fun, fun)(tuple(0, 0), [1, 2, 3]);
        auto e = reduce!(fun)(0, OpApply());
        auto f = reduce!(fun, fun)(tuple(0, 0), OpApply());

        return max(a, b.expand, c, d.expand);
    }
    auto a = foo();
    enum b = foo();
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : max, min;
    import std.typecons : tuple, Tuple;

    //http://forum.dlang.org/thread/oghtttkopzjshsuflelk@forum.dlang.org
    //Seed is tuple of const.
    static auto minmaxElement(alias F = min, alias G = max, R)(in R range)
        @safe pure nothrow if (isInputRange!R)
    {
        return reduce!(F, G)(tuple(ElementType!R.max,
                                   ElementType!R.min), range);
    }
    assert(minmaxElement([1, 2, 3])== tuple(1, 3));
}

@safe unittest //12569
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : max, min;
    import std.typecons: tuple;
    dchar c = 'a';
    reduce!(min, max)(tuple(c, c), "hello"); // OK
    static assert(!is(typeof(reduce!(min, max)(tuple(c), "hello"))));
    static assert(!is(typeof(reduce!(min, max)(tuple(c, c, c), "hello"))));


    //"Seed dchar should be a Tuple"
    static assert(!is(typeof(reduce!(min, max)(c, "hello"))));
    //"Seed (dchar) does not have the correct amount of fields (should be 2)"
    static assert(!is(typeof(reduce!(min, max)(tuple(c), "hello"))));
    //"Seed (dchar, dchar, dchar) does not have the correct amount of fields (should be 2)"
    static assert(!is(typeof(reduce!(min, max)(tuple(c, c, c), "hello"))));
    //"Incompatable function/seed/element: all(alias pred = "a")/int/dchar"
    static assert(!is(typeof(reduce!all(1, "hello"))));
    static assert(!is(typeof(reduce!(all, all)(tuple(1, 1), "hello"))));
}

@safe unittest //13304
{
    int[] data;
    static assert(is(typeof(reduce!((a, b)=>a+b)(data))));
}

// splitter
/**
Lazily splits a range using an element as a separator. This can be used with
any narrow string type or sliceable range type, but is most popular with string
types.

Two adjacent separators are considered to surround an empty element in
the split range. Use $(D filter!(a => !a.empty)) on the result to compress
empty elements.

If the empty range is given, the result is a range with one empty
element. If a range with one separator is given, the result is a range
with two empty elements.

If splitting a string on whitespace and token compression is desired,
consider using $(D splitter) without specifying a separator (see fourth overload
below).

Params:
    pred = The predicate for comparing each element with the separator,
        defaulting to $(D "a == b").
    r = The $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) to be
        split. Must support slicing and $(D .length).
    s = The element to be treated as the separator between range segments to be
        split.

Constraints:
    The predicate $(D pred) needs to accept an element of $(D r) and the
    separator $(D s).

Returns:
    An input range of the subranges of elements between separators. If $(D r)
    is a forward range or bidirectional range, the returned range will be
    likewise.

See_Also:
 $(XREF regex, _splitter) for a version that splits using a regular
expression defined separator.
*/
auto splitter(alias pred = "a == b", Range, Separator)(Range r, Separator s)
if (is(typeof(binaryFun!pred(r.front, s)) : bool)
        && ((hasSlicing!Range && hasLength!Range) || isNarrowString!Range))
{
    import std.algorithm.searching : find;
    import std.conv : unsigned;

    static struct Result
    {
    private:
        Range _input;
        Separator _separator;
        // Do we need hasLength!Range? popFront uses _input.length...
        alias IndexType = typeof(unsigned(_input.length));
        enum IndexType _unComputed = IndexType.max - 1, _atEnd = IndexType.max;
        IndexType _frontLength = _unComputed;
        IndexType _backLength = _unComputed;

        static if (isNarrowString!Range)
        {
            size_t _separatorLength;
        }
        else
        {
            enum _separatorLength = 1;
        }

        static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
        {
            static IndexType lastIndexOf(Range haystack, Separator needle)
            {
                import std.range : retro;
                auto r = haystack.retro().find!pred(needle);
                return r.retro().length - 1;
            }
        }

    public:
        this(Range input, Separator separator)
        {
            _input = input;
            _separator = separator;

            static if (isNarrowString!Range)
            {
                import std.utf : codeLength;

                _separatorLength = codeLength!(ElementEncodingType!Range)(separator);
            }
            if (_input.empty)
                _frontLength = _atEnd;
        }

        static if (isInfinite!Range)
        {
            enum bool empty = false;
        }
        else
        {
            @property bool empty()
            {
                return _frontLength == _atEnd;
            }
        }

        @property Range front()
        {
            assert(!empty);
            if (_frontLength == _unComputed)
            {
                auto r = _input.find!pred(_separator);
                _frontLength = _input.length - r.length;
            }
            return _input[0 .. _frontLength];
        }

        void popFront()
        {
            assert(!empty);
            if (_frontLength == _unComputed)
            {
                front;
            }
            assert(_frontLength <= _input.length);
            if (_frontLength == _input.length)
            {
                // no more input and need to fetch => done
                _frontLength = _atEnd;

                // Probably don't need this, but just for consistency:
                _backLength = _atEnd;
            }
            else
            {
                _input = _input[_frontLength + _separatorLength .. _input.length];
                _frontLength = _unComputed;
            }
        }

        static if (isForwardRange!Range)
        {
            @property typeof(this) save()
            {
                auto ret = this;
                ret._input = _input.save;
                return ret;
            }
        }

        static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
        {
            @property Range back()
            {
                assert(!empty);
                if (_backLength == _unComputed)
                {
                    immutable lastIndex = lastIndexOf(_input, _separator);
                    if (lastIndex == -1)
                    {
                        _backLength = _input.length;
                    }
                    else
                    {
                        _backLength = _input.length - lastIndex - 1;
                    }
                }
                return _input[_input.length - _backLength .. _input.length];
            }

            void popBack()
            {
                assert(!empty);
                if (_backLength == _unComputed)
                {
                    // evaluate back to make sure it's computed
                    back;
                }
                assert(_backLength <= _input.length);
                if (_backLength == _input.length)
                {
                    // no more input and need to fetch => done
                    _frontLength = _atEnd;
                    _backLength = _atEnd;
                }
                else
                {
                    _input = _input[0 .. _input.length - _backLength - _separatorLength];
                    _backLength = _unComputed;
                }
            }
        }
    }

    return Result(r, s);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    assert(equal(splitter("hello  world", ' '), [ "hello", "", "world" ]));
    int[] a = [ 1, 2, 0, 0, 3, 0, 4, 5, 0 ];
    int[][] w = [ [1, 2], [], [3], [4, 5], [] ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, 0), w));
    a = [ 0 ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, 0), [ (int[]).init, (int[]).init ]));
    a = [ 0, 1 ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, 0), [ [], [1] ]));
    w = [ [0], [1], [2] ];
    assert(equal(splitter!"a.front == b"(w, 1), [ [[0]], [[2]] ]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.internal.test.dummyrange;
    import std.algorithm;
    import std.array : array;
    import std.range : retro;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    assert(equal(splitter("hello  world", ' '), [ "hello", "", "world" ]));
    assert(equal(splitter("žlutoučkýřkůň", 'ř'), [ "žlutoučký", "kůň" ]));
    int[] a = [ 1, 2, 0, 0, 3, 0, 4, 5, 0 ];
    int[][] w = [ [1, 2], [], [3], [4, 5], [] ];
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(splitter(a, 0))));

    // foreach (x; splitter(a, 0)) {
    //     writeln("[", x, "]");
    // }
    assert(equal(splitter(a, 0), w));
    a = null;
    assert(equal(splitter(a, 0),  (int[][]).init));
    a = [ 0 ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, 0), [ (int[]).init, (int[]).init ][]));
    a = [ 0, 1 ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, 0), [ [], [1] ][]));

    // Thoroughly exercise the bidirectional stuff.
    auto str = "abc abcd abcde ab abcdefg abcdefghij ab ac ar an at ada";
    assert(equal(
        retro(splitter(str, 'a')),
        retro(array(splitter(str, 'a')))
    ));

    // Test interleaving front and back.
    auto split = splitter(str, 'a');
    assert(split.front == "");
    assert(split.back == "");
    split.popBack();
    assert(split.back == "d");
    split.popFront();
    assert(split.front == "bc ");
    assert(split.back == "d");
    split.popFront();
    split.popBack();
    assert(split.back == "t ");
    split.popBack();
    split.popBack();
    split.popFront();
    split.popFront();
    assert(split.front == "b ");
    assert(split.back == "r ");

    foreach (DummyType; AllDummyRanges) {  // Bug 4408
        static if (isRandomAccessRange!DummyType) {
            static assert(isBidirectionalRange!DummyType);
            DummyType d;
            auto s = splitter(d, 5);
            assert(equal(s.front, [1,2,3,4]));
            assert(equal(s.back, [6,7,8,9,10]));

            auto s2 = splitter(d, [4, 5]);
            assert(equal(s2.front, [1,2,3]));
        }
    }
}
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm;
    import std.range;
    auto L = retro(iota(1L, 10L));
    auto s = splitter(L, 5L);
    assert(equal(s.front, [9L, 8L, 7L, 6L]));
    s.popFront();
    assert(equal(s.front, [4L, 3L, 2L, 1L]));
    s.popFront();
    assert(s.empty);
}

/**
Similar to the previous overload of $(D splitter), except this one uses another
range as a separator. This can be used with any narrow string type or sliceable
range type, but is most popular with string types.

Two adjacent separators are considered to surround an empty element in
the split range. Use $(D filter!(a => !a.empty)) on the result to compress
empty elements.

Params:
    pred = The predicate for comparing each element with the separator,
        defaulting to $(D "a == b").
    r = The $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) to be
        split.
    s = The $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isForwardRange,forward range) to
        be treated as the separator between segments of $(D r) to be split.

Constraints:
    The predicate $(D pred) needs to accept an element of $(D r) and an
    element of $(D s).

Returns:
    An input range of the subranges of elements between separators. If $(D r)
    is a forward range or bidirectional range, the returned range will be
    likewise.

See_Also: $(XREF regex, _splitter) for a version that splits using a regular
expression defined separator.
 */
auto splitter(alias pred = "a == b", Range, Separator)(Range r, Separator s)
if (is(typeof(binaryFun!pred(r.front, s.front)) : bool)
        && (hasSlicing!Range || isNarrowString!Range)
        && isForwardRange!Separator
        && (hasLength!Separator || isNarrowString!Separator))
{
    import std.algorithm.searching : find;
    import std.conv : unsigned;

    static struct Result
    {
    private:
        Range _input;
        Separator _separator;
        alias RIndexType = typeof(unsigned(_input.length));
        // _frontLength == size_t.max means empty
        RIndexType _frontLength = RIndexType.max;
        static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
            RIndexType _backLength = RIndexType.max;

        @property auto separatorLength() { return _separator.length; }

        void ensureFrontLength()
        {
            if (_frontLength != _frontLength.max) return;
            assert(!_input.empty);
            // compute front length
            _frontLength = (_separator.empty) ? 1 :
                           _input.length - find!pred(_input, _separator).length;
            static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
                if (_frontLength == _input.length) _backLength = _frontLength;
        }

        void ensureBackLength()
        {
            static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
                if (_backLength != _backLength.max) return;
            assert(!_input.empty);
            // compute back length
            static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range && isBidirectionalRange!Separator)
            {
                import std.range : retro;
                _backLength = _input.length -
                    find!pred(retro(_input), retro(_separator)).source.length;
            }
        }

    public:
        this(Range input, Separator separator)
        {
            _input = input;
            _separator = separator;
        }

        @property Range front()
        {
            assert(!empty);
            ensureFrontLength();
            return _input[0 .. _frontLength];
        }

        static if (isInfinite!Range)
        {
            enum bool empty = false;  // Propagate infiniteness
        }
        else
        {
            @property bool empty()
            {
                return _frontLength == RIndexType.max && _input.empty;
            }
        }

        void popFront()
        {
            assert(!empty);
            ensureFrontLength();
            if (_frontLength == _input.length)
            {
                // done, there's no separator in sight
                _input = _input[_frontLength .. _frontLength];
                _frontLength = _frontLength.max;
                static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
                    _backLength = _backLength.max;
                return;
            }
            if (_frontLength + separatorLength == _input.length)
            {
                // Special case: popping the first-to-last item; there is
                // an empty item right after this.
                _input = _input[_input.length .. _input.length];
                _frontLength = 0;
                static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
                    _backLength = 0;
                return;
            }
            // Normal case, pop one item and the separator, get ready for
            // reading the next item
            _input = _input[_frontLength + separatorLength .. _input.length];
            // mark _frontLength as uninitialized
            _frontLength = _frontLength.max;
        }

        static if (isForwardRange!Range)
        {
            @property typeof(this) save()
            {
                auto ret = this;
                ret._input = _input.save;
                return ret;
            }
        }

        // Bidirectional functionality as suggested by Brad Roberts.
        static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range && isBidirectionalRange!Separator)
        {
            //Deprecated. It will be removed in December 2015
            deprecated("splitter!(Range, Range) cannot be iterated backwards (due to separator overlap).")
            @property Range back()
            {
                ensureBackLength();
                return _input[_input.length - _backLength .. _input.length];
            }

            //Deprecated. It will be removed in December 2015
            deprecated("splitter!(Range, Range) cannot be iterated backwards (due to separator overlap).")
            void popBack()
            {
                ensureBackLength();
                if (_backLength == _input.length)
                {
                    // done
                    _input = _input[0 .. 0];
                    _frontLength = _frontLength.max;
                    _backLength = _backLength.max;
                    return;
                }
                if (_backLength + separatorLength == _input.length)
                {
                    // Special case: popping the first-to-first item; there is
                    // an empty item right before this. Leave the separator in.
                    _input = _input[0 .. 0];
                    _frontLength = 0;
                    _backLength = 0;
                    return;
                }
                // Normal case
                _input = _input[0 .. _input.length - _backLength - separatorLength];
                _backLength = _backLength.max;
            }
        }
    }

    return Result(r, s);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    assert(equal(splitter("hello  world", "  "), [ "hello", "world" ]));
    int[] a = [ 1, 2, 0, 0, 3, 0, 4, 5, 0 ];
    int[][] w = [ [1, 2], [3, 0, 4, 5, 0] ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, [0, 0]), w));
    a = [ 0, 0 ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, [0, 0]), [ (int[]).init, (int[]).init ]));
    a = [ 0, 0, 1 ];
    assert(equal(splitter(a, [0, 0]), [ [], [1] ]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.typecons : Tuple;

    alias C = Tuple!(int, "x", int, "y");
    auto a = [C(1,0), C(2,0), C(3,1), C(4,0)];
    assert(equal(splitter!"a.x == b"(a, [2, 3]), [ [C(1,0)], [C(4,0)] ]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.conv : text;
    import std.array : split;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    auto s = ",abc, de, fg,hi,";
    auto sp0 = splitter(s, ',');
    // //foreach (e; sp0) writeln("[", e, "]");
    assert(equal(sp0, ["", "abc", " de", " fg", "hi", ""][]));

    auto s1 = ", abc, de,  fg, hi, ";
    auto sp1 = splitter(s1, ", ");
    //foreach (e; sp1) writeln("[", e, "]");
    assert(equal(sp1, ["", "abc", "de", " fg", "hi", ""][]));
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(sp1)));

    int[] a = [ 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 5, 0 ];
    int[][] w = [ [1, 2], [3], [4, 5], [] ];
    uint i;
    foreach (e; splitter(a, 0))
    {
        assert(i < w.length);
        assert(e == w[i++]);
    }
    assert(i == w.length);
    // // Now go back
    // auto s2 = splitter(a, 0);

    // foreach (e; retro(s2))
    // {
    //     assert(i > 0);
    //     assert(equal(e, w[--i]), text(e));
    // }
    // assert(i == 0);

    wstring names = ",peter,paul,jerry,";
    auto words = split(names, ",");
    assert(walkLength(words) == 5, text(walkLength(words)));
}

@safe unittest
{
    int[][] a = [ [1], [2], [0], [3], [0], [4], [5], [0] ];
    int[][][] w = [ [[1], [2]], [[3]], [[4], [5]], [] ];
    uint i;
    foreach (e; splitter!"a.front == 0"(a, 0))
    {
        assert(i < w.length);
        assert(e == w[i++]);
    }
    assert(i == w.length);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    auto s6 = ",";
    auto sp6 = splitter(s6, ',');
    foreach (e; sp6)
    {
        //writeln("{", e, "}");
    }
    assert(equal(sp6, ["", ""][]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    // Issue 10773
    auto s = splitter("abc", "");
    assert(s.equal(["a", "b", "c"]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    // Test by-reference separator
    class RefSep {
    @safe:
        string _impl;
        this(string s) { _impl = s; }
        @property empty() { return _impl.empty; }
        @property auto front() { return _impl.front; }
        void popFront() { _impl = _impl[1..$]; }
        @property RefSep save() { return new RefSep(_impl); }
        @property auto length() { return _impl.length; }
    }
    auto sep = new RefSep("->");
    auto data = "i->am->pointing";
    auto words = splitter(data, sep);
    assert(words.equal([ "i", "am", "pointing" ]));
}

/**

Similar to the previous overload of $(D splitter), except this one does not use a separator.
Instead, the predicate is an unary function on the input range's element type.

Two adjacent separators are considered to surround an empty element in
the split range. Use $(D filter!(a => !a.empty)) on the result to compress
empty elements.

Params:
    isTerminator = The predicate for deciding where to split the range.
    input = The $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) to
        be split.

Constraints:
    The predicate $(D isTerminator) needs to accept an element of $(D input).

Returns:
    An input range of the subranges of elements between separators. If $(D input)
    is a forward range or bidirectional range, the returned range will be
    likewise.

See_Also: $(XREF regex, _splitter) for a version that splits using a regular
expression defined separator.
 */
auto splitter(alias isTerminator, Range)(Range input)
if (isForwardRange!Range && is(typeof(unaryFun!isTerminator(input.front))))
{
    return SplitterResult!(unaryFun!isTerminator, Range)(input);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    assert(equal(splitter!"a == ' '"("hello  world"), [ "hello", "", "world" ]));
    int[] a = [ 1, 2, 0, 0, 3, 0, 4, 5, 0 ];
    int[][] w = [ [1, 2], [], [3], [4, 5], [] ];
    assert(equal(splitter!"a == 0"(a), w));
    a = [ 0 ];
    assert(equal(splitter!"a == 0"(a), [ (int[]).init, (int[]).init ]));
    a = [ 0, 1 ];
    assert(equal(splitter!"a == 0"(a), [ [], [1] ]));
    w = [ [0], [1], [2] ];
    assert(equal(splitter!"a.front == 1"(w), [ [[0]], [[2]] ]));
}

private struct SplitterResult(alias isTerminator, Range)
{
    import std.algorithm.searching : find;
    enum fullSlicing = (hasLength!Range && hasSlicing!Range) || isSomeString!Range;

    private Range _input;
    private size_t _end = 0;
    static if(!fullSlicing)
        private Range _next;

    private void findTerminator()
    {
        static if (fullSlicing)
        {
            auto r = find!isTerminator(_input.save);
            _end = _input.length - r.length;
        }
        else
            for ( _end = 0; !_next.empty ; _next.popFront)
            {
                if (isTerminator(_next.front))
                    break;
                ++_end;
            }
    }

    this(Range input)
    {
        _input = input;
        static if(!fullSlicing)
            _next = _input.save;

        if (!_input.empty)
            findTerminator();
        else
            _end = size_t.max;
    }

    static if (isInfinite!Range)
    {
        enum bool empty = false;  // Propagate infiniteness.
    }
    else
    {
        @property bool empty()
        {
            return _end == size_t.max;
        }
    }

    @property auto front()
    {
        version(assert)
        {
            import core.exception : RangeError;
            if (empty)
                throw new RangeError();
        }
        static if (fullSlicing)
            return _input[0 .. _end];
        else
        {
            import std.range : takeExactly;
            return _input.takeExactly(_end);
        }
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        version(assert)
        {
            import core.exception : RangeError;
            if (empty)
                throw new RangeError();
        }

        static if (fullSlicing)
        {
            _input = _input[_end .. _input.length];
            if (_input.empty)
            {
                _end = size_t.max;
                return;
            }
            _input.popFront();
        }
        else
        {
            if (_next.empty)
            {
                _input = _next;
                _end = size_t.max;
                return;
            }
            _next.popFront();
            _input = _next.save;
        }
        findTerminator();
    }

    @property typeof(this) save()
    {
        auto ret = this;
        ret._input = _input.save;
        static if (!fullSlicing)
            ret._next = _next.save;
        return ret;
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range : iota;

    auto L = iota(1L, 10L);
    auto s = splitter(L, [5L, 6L]);
    assert(equal(s.front, [1L, 2L, 3L, 4L]));
    s.popFront();
    assert(equal(s.front, [7L, 8L, 9L]));
    s.popFront();
    assert(s.empty);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.internal.test.dummyrange;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    void compare(string sentence, string[] witness)
    {
        auto r = splitter!"a == ' '"(sentence);
        assert(equal(r.save, witness), algoFormat("got: %(%s, %) expected: %(%s, %)", r, witness));
    }

    compare(" Mary  has a little lamb.   ",
            ["", "Mary", "", "has", "a", "little", "lamb.", "", "", ""]);
    compare("Mary  has a little lamb.   ",
            ["Mary", "", "has", "a", "little", "lamb.", "", "", ""]);
    compare("Mary  has a little lamb.",
            ["Mary", "", "has", "a", "little", "lamb."]);
    compare("", (string[]).init);
    compare(" ", ["", ""]);

    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(splitter!"a == ' '"("ABC"))));

    foreach (DummyType; AllDummyRanges)
    {
        static if (isRandomAccessRange!DummyType)
        {
            auto rangeSplit = splitter!"a == 5"(DummyType.init);
            assert(equal(rangeSplit.front, [1,2,3,4]));
            rangeSplit.popFront();
            assert(equal(rangeSplit.front, [6,7,8,9,10]));
        }
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range;

    struct Entry
    {
        int low;
        int high;
        int[][] result;
    }
    Entry[] entries = [
        Entry(0, 0, []),
        Entry(0, 1, [[0]]),
        Entry(1, 2, [[], []]),
        Entry(2, 7, [[2], [4], [6]]),
        Entry(1, 8, [[], [2], [4], [6], []]),
    ];
    foreach ( entry ; entries )
    {
        auto a = iota(entry.low, entry.high).filter!"true"();
        auto b = splitter!"a%2"(a);
        assert(equal!equal(b.save, entry.result), algoFormat("got: %(%s, %) expected: %(%s, %)", b, entry.result));
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.uni : isWhite;

    //@@@6791@@@
    assert(equal(splitter("là dove terminava quella valle"), ["là", "dove", "terminava", "quella", "valle"]));
    assert(equal(splitter!(std.uni.isWhite)("là dove terminava quella valle"), ["là", "dove", "terminava", "quella", "valle"]));
    assert(equal(splitter!"a=='本'"("日本語"), ["日", "語"]));
}

/++
Lazily splits the string $(D s) into words, using whitespace as the delimiter.

This function is string specific and, contrary to
$(D splitter!(std.uni.isWhite)), runs of whitespace will be merged together
(no empty tokens will be produced).

Params:
    s = The string to be split.

Returns:
    An $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) of slices of
    the original string split by whitespace.
 +/
auto splitter(C)(C[] s)
if (isSomeChar!C)
{
    import std.algorithm.searching : find;
    static struct Result
    {
    private:
        import core.exception;
        C[] _s;
        size_t _frontLength;

        void getFirst() pure @safe
        {
            import std.uni : isWhite;

            auto r = find!(isWhite)(_s);
            _frontLength = _s.length - r.length;
        }

    public:
        this(C[] s) pure @safe
        {
            import std.string : strip;
            _s = s.strip();
            getFirst();
        }

        @property C[] front() pure @safe
        {
            version(assert) if (empty) throw new RangeError();
            return _s[0 .. _frontLength];
        }

        void popFront() pure @safe
        {
            import std.string : stripLeft;
            version(assert) if (empty) throw new RangeError();
            _s = _s[_frontLength .. $].stripLeft();
            getFirst();
        }

        @property bool empty() const @safe pure nothrow
        {
            return _s.empty;
        }

        @property inout(Result) save() inout @safe pure nothrow
        {
            return this;
        }
    }
    return Result(s);
}

///
@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = " a     bcd   ef gh ";
    assert(equal(splitter(a), ["a", "bcd", "ef", "gh"][]));
}

@safe pure unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.typetuple : TypeTuple;
    foreach(S; TypeTuple!(string, wstring, dstring))
    {
        import std.conv : to;
        S a = " a     bcd   ef gh ";
        assert(equal(splitter(a), [to!S("a"), to!S("bcd"), to!S("ef"), to!S("gh")]));
        a = "";
        assert(splitter(a).empty);
    }

    immutable string s = " a     bcd   ef gh ";
    assert(equal(splitter(s), ["a", "bcd", "ef", "gh"][]));
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.conv : to;
    import std.string : strip;

    // TDPL example, page 8
    uint[string] dictionary;
    char[][3] lines;
    lines[0] = "line one".dup;
    lines[1] = "line \ttwo".dup;
    lines[2] = "yah            last   line\ryah".dup;
    foreach (line; lines) {
       foreach (word; splitter(strip(line))) {
            if (word in dictionary) continue; // Nothing to do
            auto newID = dictionary.length;
            dictionary[to!string(word)] = cast(uint)newID;
        }
    }
    assert(dictionary.length == 5);
    assert(dictionary["line"]== 0);
    assert(dictionary["one"]== 1);
    assert(dictionary["two"]== 2);
    assert(dictionary["yah"]== 3);
    assert(dictionary["last"]== 4);
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.internal : algoFormat;
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.conv : text;
    import std.array : split;

    // Check consistency:
    // All flavors of split should produce the same results
    foreach (input; [(int[]).init,
                     [0],
                     [0, 1, 0],
                     [1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1],
                    ])
    {
        foreach (s; [0, 1])
        {
            auto result = split(input, s);

            assert(equal(result, split(input, [s])), algoFormat(`"[%(%s,%)]"`, split(input, [s])));
            //assert(equal(result, split(input, [s].filter!"true"())));                          //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal(result, split!((a) => a == s)(input)), text(split!((a) => a == s)(input)));

            //assert(equal!equal(result, split(input.filter!"true"(), s)));                      //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, split(input.filter!"true"(), [s])));                    //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, split(input.filter!"true"(), [s].filter!"true"())));    //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal!equal(result, split!((a) => a == s)(input.filter!"true"())));

            assert(equal(result, splitter(input, s)));
            assert(equal(result, splitter(input, [s])));
            //assert(equal(result, splitter(input, [s].filter!"true"())));                       //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal(result, splitter!((a) => a == s)(input)));

            //assert(equal!equal(result, splitter(input.filter!"true"(), s)));                   //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, splitter(input.filter!"true"(), [s])));                 //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, splitter(input.filter!"true"(), [s].filter!"true"()))); //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal!equal(result, splitter!((a) => a == s)(input.filter!"true"())));
        }
    }
    foreach (input; [string.init,
                     " ",
                     "  hello ",
                     "hello   hello",
                     " hello   what heck   this ?  "
                    ])
    {
        foreach (s; [' ', 'h'])
        {
            auto result = split(input, s);

            assert(equal(result, split(input, [s])));
            //assert(equal(result, split(input, [s].filter!"true"())));                          //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal(result, split!((a) => a == s)(input)));

            //assert(equal!equal(result, split(input.filter!"true"(), s)));                      //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, split(input.filter!"true"(), [s])));                    //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, split(input.filter!"true"(), [s].filter!"true"())));    //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal!equal(result, split!((a) => a == s)(input.filter!"true"())));

            assert(equal(result, splitter(input, s)));
            assert(equal(result, splitter(input, [s])));
            //assert(equal(result, splitter(input, [s].filter!"true"())));                       //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal(result, splitter!((a) => a == s)(input)));

            //assert(equal!equal(result, splitter(input.filter!"true"(), s)));                   //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, splitter(input.filter!"true"(), [s])));                 //Not yet implemented
            //assert(equal!equal(result, splitter(input.filter!"true"(), [s].filter!"true"()))); //Not yet implemented
            assert(equal!equal(result, splitter!((a) => a == s)(input.filter!"true"())));
        }
    }
}

// sum
/**
Sums elements of $(D r), which must be a finite
$(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range). Although
conceptually $(D sum(r)) is equivalent to $(LREF reduce)!((a, b) => a +
b)(0, r), $(D sum) uses specialized algorithms to maximize accuracy,
as follows.

$(UL
$(LI If $(D $(XREF_PACK range,primitives,ElementType)!R) is a floating-point
type and $(D R) is a
$(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isRandomAccessRange,random-access range) with
length and slicing, then $(D sum) uses the
$(WEB en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pairwise_summation, pairwise summation)
algorithm.)
$(LI If $(D ElementType!R) is a floating-point type and $(D R) is a
finite input range (but not a random-access range with slicing), then
$(D sum) uses the $(WEB en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahan_summation,
Kahan summation) algorithm.)
$(LI In all other cases, a simple element by element addition is done.)
)

For floating point inputs, calculations are made in $(LINK2 ../type.html, $(D real))
precision for $(D real) inputs and in $(D double) precision otherwise
(Note this is a special case that deviates from $(D reduce)'s behavior,
which would have kept $(D float) precision for a $(D float) range).
For all other types, the calculations are done in the same type obtained
from from adding two elements of the range, which may be a different
type from the elements themselves (for example, in case of $(LINK2 ../type.html#integer-promotions, integral promotion)).

A seed may be passed to $(D sum). Not only will this seed be used as an initial
value, but its type will override all the above, and determine the algorithm
and precision used for sumation.

Note that these specialized summing algorithms execute more primitive operations
than vanilla summation. Therefore, if in certain cases maximum speed is required
at expense of precision, one can use $(D reduce!((a, b) => a + b)(0, r)), which
is not specialized for summation.

Returns:
    The sum of all the elements in the range r.
 */
auto sum(R)(R r)
if (isInputRange!R && !isInfinite!R && is(typeof(r.front + r.front)))
{
    alias E = Unqual!(ElementType!R);
    static if (isFloatingPoint!E)
        alias Seed = typeof(E.init  + 0.0); //biggest of double/real
    else
        alias Seed = typeof(r.front + r.front);
    return sum(r, Unqual!Seed(0));
}
/// ditto
auto sum(R, E)(R r, E seed)
if (isInputRange!R && !isInfinite!R && is(typeof(seed = seed + r.front)))
{
    static if (isFloatingPoint!E)
    {
        static if (hasLength!R && hasSlicing!R)
            return seed + sumPairwise!E(r);
        else
            return sumKahan!E(seed, r);
    }
    else
    {
        return reduce!"a + b"(seed, r);
    }
}

// Pairwise summation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pairwise_summation
private auto sumPairwise(Result, R)(R r)
{
    static assert (isFloatingPoint!Result);
    switch (r.length)
    {
    case 0: return cast(Result) 0;
    case 1: return cast(Result) r.front;
    case 2: return cast(Result) r[0] + cast(Result) r[1];
    default: return sumPairwise!Result(r[0 .. $ / 2]) + sumPairwise!Result(r[$ / 2 .. $]);
    }
}

// Kahan algo http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahan_summation_algorithm
private auto sumKahan(Result, R)(Result result, R r)
{
    static assert (isFloatingPoint!Result && isMutable!Result);
    Result c = 0;
    for (; !r.empty; r.popFront())
    {
        auto y = r.front - c;
        auto t = result + y;
        c = (t - result) - y;
        result = t;
    }
    return result;
}

/// Ditto
@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    import std.range;

    //simple integral sumation
    assert(sum([ 1, 2, 3, 4]) == 10);

    //with integral promotion
    assert(sum([false, true, true, false, true]) == 3);
    assert(sum(ubyte.max.repeat(100)) == 25500);

    //The result may overflow
    assert(uint.max.repeat(3).sum()           ==  4294967293U );
    //But a seed can be used to change the sumation primitive
    assert(uint.max.repeat(3).sum(ulong.init) == 12884901885UL);

    //Floating point sumation
    assert(sum([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]) == 10);

    //Floating point operations have double precision minimum
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([1F, 2F, 3F, 4F])) == double));
    assert(sum([1F, 2, 3, 4]) == 10);

    //Force pair-wise floating point sumation on large integers
    import std.math : approxEqual;
    assert(iota(ulong.max / 2, ulong.max / 2 + 4096).sum(0.0)
               .approxEqual((ulong.max / 2) * 4096.0 + 4096^^2 / 2));
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([cast( byte)1])) ==  int));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([cast(ubyte)1])) ==  int));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([  1,   2,   3,   4])) ==  int));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([ 1U,  2U,  3U,  4U])) == uint));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([ 1L,  2L,  3L,  4L])) ==  long));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([1UL, 2UL, 3UL, 4UL])) == ulong));

    int[] empty;
    assert(sum(empty) == 0);
    assert(sum([42]) == 42);
    assert(sum([42, 43]) == 42 + 43);
    assert(sum([42, 43, 44]) == 42 + 43 + 44);
    assert(sum([42, 43, 44, 45]) == 42 + 43 + 44 + 45);
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0])) == double));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum([ 1F,  2F,  3F,  4F])) == double));
    const(float[]) a = [1F, 2F, 3F, 4F];
    static assert(is(typeof(sum(a)) == double));
    const(float)[] b = [1F, 2F, 3F, 4F];
    static assert(is(typeof(sum(a)) == double));

    double[] empty;
    assert(sum(empty) == 0);
    assert(sum([42.]) == 42);
    assert(sum([42., 43.]) == 42 + 43);
    assert(sum([42., 43., 44.]) == 42 + 43 + 44);
    assert(sum([42., 43., 44., 45.5]) == 42 + 43 + 44 + 45.5);
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest
{
    import std.container;
    static assert(is(typeof(sum(SList!float()[])) == double));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum(SList!double()[])) == double));
    static assert(is(typeof(sum(SList!real()[])) == real));

    assert(sum(SList!double()[]) == 0);
    assert(sum(SList!double(1)[]) == 1);
    assert(sum(SList!double(1, 2)[]) == 1 + 2);
    assert(sum(SList!double(1, 2, 3)[]) == 1 + 2 + 3);
    assert(sum(SList!double(1, 2, 3, 4)[]) == 10);
}

@safe pure nothrow unittest // 12434
{
    immutable a = [10, 20];
    auto s1 = sum(a);             // Error
    auto s2 = a.map!(x => x).sum; // Error
}

unittest
{
    import std.bigint;
    import std.range;

    immutable BigInt[] a = BigInt("1_000_000_000_000_000_000").repeat(10).array();
    immutable ulong[]  b = (ulong.max/2).repeat(10).array();
    auto sa = a.sum();
    auto sb = b.sum(BigInt(0)); //reduce ulongs into bigint
    assert(sa == BigInt("10_000_000_000_000_000_000"));
    assert(sb == (BigInt(ulong.max/2) * 10));
}

// uniq
/**
Lazily iterates unique consecutive elements of the given range (functionality
akin to the $(WEB wikipedia.org/wiki/_Uniq, _uniq) system
utility). Equivalence of elements is assessed by using the predicate
$(D pred), by default $(D "a == b"). If the given range is
bidirectional, $(D uniq) also yields a bidirectional range.

Params:
    pred = Predicate for determining equivalence between range elements.
    r = An $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) of
        elements to filter.

Returns:
    An $(XREF_PACK_NAMED range,primitives,isInputRange,input range) of
    consecutively unique elements in the original range. If $(D r) is also a
    forward range or bidirectional range, the returned range will be likewise.
*/
auto uniq(alias pred = "a == b", Range)(Range r)
if (isInputRange!Range && is(typeof(binaryFun!pred(r.front, r.front)) == bool))
{
    return UniqResult!(binaryFun!pred, Range)(r);
}

///
@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.mutation : copy;
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    int[] arr = [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5 ];
    assert(equal(uniq(arr), [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ][]));

    // Filter duplicates in-place using copy
    arr.length -= arr.uniq().copy(arr).length;
    assert(arr == [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]);

    // Note that uniqueness is only determined consecutively; duplicated
    // elements separated by an intervening different element will not be
    // eliminated:
    assert(equal(uniq([ 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3, 1]), [1, 2, 1, 3, 1]));
}

private struct UniqResult(alias pred, Range)
{
    Range _input;

    this(Range input)
    {
        _input = input;
    }

    auto opSlice()
    {
        return this;
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        auto last = _input.front;
        do
        {
            _input.popFront();
        }
        while (!_input.empty && pred(last, _input.front));
    }

    @property ElementType!Range front() { return _input.front; }

    static if (isBidirectionalRange!Range)
    {
        void popBack()
        {
            auto last = _input.back;
            do
            {
                _input.popBack();
            }
            while (!_input.empty && pred(last, _input.back));
        }

        @property ElementType!Range back() { return _input.back; }
    }

    static if (isInfinite!Range)
    {
        enum bool empty = false;  // Propagate infiniteness.
    }
    else
    {
        @property bool empty() { return _input.empty; }
    }

    static if (isForwardRange!Range) {
        @property typeof(this) save() {
            return typeof(this)(_input.save);
        }
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.internal.test.dummyrange;
    import std.range;

    debug(std_algorithm) scope(success)
        writeln("unittest @", __FILE__, ":", __LINE__, " done.");
    int[] arr = [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5 ];
    auto r = uniq(arr);
    static assert(isForwardRange!(typeof(r)));

    assert(equal(r, [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ][]));
    assert(equal(retro(r), retro([ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ][])));

    foreach (DummyType; AllDummyRanges) {
        DummyType d;
        auto u = uniq(d);
        assert(equal(u, [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]));

        static assert(d.rt == RangeType.Input || isForwardRange!(typeof(u)));

        static if (d.rt >= RangeType.Bidirectional) {
            assert(equal(retro(u), [10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1]));
        }
    }
}

// permutations
struct Permutations(Range)
    if (isRandomAccessRange!Range && hasLength!Range)
{
    size_t[] indices, state;
    Range r;

    this(Range r)
    {
        import std.range : iota;
        import std.array : array;

        this.r = r;
        state = r.length ? new size_t[r.length-1] : null;
        indices = iota(size_t(r.length)).array;
        empty = r.length == 0;
    }

    bool empty;

    @property auto front()
    {
        import std.range : indexed;
        return r.indexed(indices);
    }

    void popFront()
    {
        void next(int n)
        {
            import std.algorithm.mutation : swap;

            if (n > indices.length)
            {
                empty = true;
                return;
            }

            if (n % 2 == 1)
                swap(indices[0], indices[n-1]);
            else
                swap(indices[state[n-2]], indices[n-1]);

            if (++state[n-2] == n)
            {
                state[n-2] = 0;
                next(n+1);
            }
        }

        next(2);
    }
}

/**
Lazily computes all _permutations of $(D r) using $(WEB
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heap%27s_algorithm, Heap's algorithm).

Returns:
A forward range the elements of which are an $(XREF range,
indexed) view into $(D r).

See_Also:
$(XREF_PACK algorithm,sorting,nextPermutation).
*/
Permutations!Range permutations(Range)(Range r)
    if (isRandomAccessRange!Range && hasLength!Range)
{
    return typeof(return)(r);
}

///
unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range : iota;
    assert(equal!equal(iota(3).permutations,
        [[0, 1, 2],
         [1, 0, 2],
         [2, 0, 1],
         [0, 2, 1],
         [1, 2, 0],
         [2, 1, 0]]));
}