From e9188e897ac0b40a9b05ac96166b66514b0dbc62 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 12:13:28 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 01/17] TEST: Adjust existing tests/benchmarks to import zstd
 from _compression, rather than calling optional_package again. Use "zstd"
 instead of "pyzstd"

---
 nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py | 2 +-
 nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py         | 3 +--
 nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py        | 6 +++---
 nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py           | 5 ++---
 nibabel/tests/test_openers.py         | 5 ++---
 nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py     | 9 ++++-----
 6 files changed, 13 insertions(+), 17 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py b/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py
index cc3d837c2d..3b5d8691ec 100644
--- a/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py
+++ b/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py
@@ -19,11 +19,11 @@
 from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..rstutils import rst_table
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 
 SHAPE = (64, 64, 32, 100)
 ROW_NAMES = [f'axis {i}, len {dim}' for i, dim in enumerate(SHAPE)]
 COL_NAMES = ['mid int', 'step 1', 'half step 1', 'step mid int']
-HAVE_ZSTD = optional_package('pyzstd')[1]
 
 
 def _slices_for_len(L):
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py b/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py
index 85669b3661..ee3c419502 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py
@@ -38,11 +38,10 @@
     suppress_warnings,
 )
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 from . import test_spatialimages as tsi
 from . import test_wrapstruct as tws
 
-HAVE_ZSTD = optional_package('pyzstd')[1]
-
 header_file = os.path.join(data_path, 'analyze.hdr')
 
 PIXDIM0_MSG = 'pixdim[1,2,3] should be non-zero; setting 0 dims to 1'
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py b/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py
index 035cbb56c7..ae24ce30ff 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py
@@ -22,9 +22,9 @@
 from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..testing import deprecated_to, expires
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 
 _, have_scipy, _ = optional_package('scipy')
-_, have_pyzstd, _ = optional_package('pyzstd')
 
 import pytest
 from numpy.testing import assert_almost_equal, assert_array_equal
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ def test_load_empty_image():
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize('extension', ['.gz', '.bz2', '.zst'])
 def test_load_bad_compressed_extension(tmp_path, extension):
-    if extension == '.zst' and not have_pyzstd:
+    if extension == '.zst' and not HAVE_ZSTD:
         pytest.skip()
     file_path = tmp_path / f'img.nii{extension}'
     file_path.write_bytes(b'bad')
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ def test_load_bad_compressed_extension(tmp_path, extension):
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize('extension', ['.gz', '.bz2', '.zst'])
 def test_load_good_extension_with_bad_data(tmp_path, extension):
-    if extension == '.zst' and not have_pyzstd:
+    if extension == '.zst' and not HAVE_ZSTD:
         pytest.skip()
     file_path = tmp_path / f'img.nii{extension}'
     with Opener(file_path, 'wb') as fobj:
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py b/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py
index 8f88bf802d..911c9325c3 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py
@@ -24,8 +24,7 @@
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
 from . import test_spatialimages as tsi
 from .test_fileslice import slicer_samples
-
-pyzstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package('pyzstd')
+from .._compression import zstd, HAVE_ZSTD
 
 EG_FNAME = pjoin(data_path, 'tiny.mnc')
 
@@ -175,7 +174,7 @@ def test_compressed(self):
             content = open(tp['fname'], 'rb').read()
             openers_exts = [(gzip.open, '.gz'), (bz2.BZ2File, '.bz2')]
             if HAVE_ZSTD:  # add .zst to test if installed
-                openers_exts += [(pyzstd.ZstdFile, '.zst')]
+                openers_exts += [(zstd.ZstdFile, '.zst')]
             with InTemporaryDirectory():
                 for opener, ext in openers_exts:
                     fname = 'test.mnc' + ext
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py b/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
index 05d0e04cd0..8d5e98619d 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
@@ -23,8 +23,7 @@
 from ..openers import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, BZ2File, DeterministicGzipFile, ImageOpener, Opener
 from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
-
-pyzstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package('pyzstd')
+from .._compression import zstd, HAVE_ZSTD
 
 
 class Lunk:
@@ -271,7 +270,7 @@ class StrictOpener(Opener):
                     IndexedGzipFile = GzipFile
                 assert isinstance(fobj.fobj, (GzipFile, IndexedGzipFile))
             elif lext == 'zst':
-                assert isinstance(fobj.fobj, pyzstd.ZstdFile)
+                assert isinstance(fobj.fobj, zstd.ZstdFile)
             else:
                 assert isinstance(fobj.fobj, BZ2File)
 
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py b/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py
index c7b2b3e819..fd0b0cf8ce 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py
@@ -56,8 +56,7 @@
     working_type,
     write_zeros,
 )
-
-pyzstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package('pyzstd')
+from .._compression import zstd, HAVE_ZSTD
 
 # convenience variables for numpy types
 FLOAT_TYPES = sctypes['float']
@@ -81,7 +80,7 @@ def test__is_compressed_fobj():
     with InTemporaryDirectory():
         file_openers = [('', open, False), ('.gz', gzip.open, True), ('.bz2', BZ2File, True)]
         if HAVE_ZSTD:
-            file_openers += [('.zst', pyzstd.ZstdFile, True)]
+            file_openers += [('.zst', zstd.ZstdFile, True)]
         for ext, opener, compressed in file_openers:
             fname = 'test.bin' + ext
             for mode in ('wb', 'rb'):
@@ -105,7 +104,7 @@ def make_array(n, bytes):
     with InTemporaryDirectory():
         openers = [open, gzip.open, BZ2File]
         if HAVE_ZSTD:
-            openers += [pyzstd.ZstdFile]
+            openers += [zstd.ZstdFile]
         for n, opener in itertools.product((256, 1024, 2560, 25600), openers):
             in_arr = np.arange(n, dtype=dtype)
             # Write array to file
@@ -262,7 +261,7 @@ def test_array_from_file_reread():
     with InTemporaryDirectory():
         openers = [open, gzip.open, bz2.BZ2File, BytesIO]
         if HAVE_ZSTD:
-            openers += [pyzstd.ZstdFile]
+            openers += [zstd.ZstdFile]
         for shape, opener, dtt, order in itertools.product(
             ((64,), (64, 65), (64, 65, 66)), openers, (np.int16, np.float32), ('F', 'C')
         ):

From 20df2cf90d8f4d10d3d12e3eca542e62a57ac0eb Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 12:16:49 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 02/17] RF: Try to import zstd from compression.zstd,
 backports.zstd, or pyzstd in that order. Use module name "zstd" instead of
 "pyzstd"

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 16 +++++++++++-----
 nibabel/openers.py      |  8 ++++----
 2 files changed, 15 insertions(+), 9 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index 871be2629f..c6163b611d 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -20,14 +20,20 @@
     import io
 
     import indexed_gzip  # type: ignore[import]
-    import pyzstd
+
+    # >= py314
+    try:
+        from compression import zstd  # type: ignore[import]
+    # < py314
+    except ImportError:
+        from backports import zstd  # type: ignore[import]
 
     HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP = True
     HAVE_ZSTD = True
 else:
     indexed_gzip, HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, _ = optional_package('indexed_gzip')
-    pyzstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package('pyzstd')
-
+    zstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package(('compression.zstd',
+                                           'backports.zstd', 'pyzstd'))
 
 # Collections of types for isinstance or exception matching
 COMPRESSED_FILE_LIKES: tuple[type[io.IOBase], ...] = (
@@ -47,5 +53,5 @@
     IndexedGzipFile = gzip.GzipFile
 
 if HAVE_ZSTD:
-    COMPRESSED_FILE_LIKES += (pyzstd.ZstdFile,)
-    COMPRESSION_ERRORS += (pyzstd.ZstdError,)
+    COMPRESSED_FILE_LIKES += (zstd.ZstdFile,)
+    COMPRESSION_ERRORS += (zstd.ZstdError,)
diff --git a/nibabel/openers.py b/nibabel/openers.py
index 3ad9b6c222..b21333542d 100644
--- a/nibabel/openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/openers.py
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
 from bz2 import BZ2File
 from os.path import splitext
 
-from ._compression import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, IndexedGzipFile, pyzstd
+from ._compression import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, IndexedGzipFile, zstd
 
 if ty.TYPE_CHECKING:
     from types import TracebackType
@@ -103,9 +103,9 @@ def _zstd_open(
     mode: Mode = 'r',
     *,
     level_or_option: int | dict | None = None,
-    zstd_dict: pyzstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
-) -> pyzstd.ZstdFile:
-    return pyzstd.ZstdFile(filename, mode, level_or_option=level_or_option, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
+    zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
+) -> zstd.ZstdFile:
+    return zstd.ZstdFile(filename, mode, level_or_option=level_or_option, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
 
 
 class Opener:

From cbb1a89b3757fc483c40a25b1a1879f6aaf802f7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 12:30:09 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 03/17] RF: Move gzip/zstd specific opening logic from openers
 into _compression module

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 66 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
 nibabel/openers.py      | 77 +++++------------------------------------
 2 files changed, 74 insertions(+), 69 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index c6163b611d..537dec72b3 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -55,3 +55,69 @@
 if HAVE_ZSTD:
     COMPRESSED_FILE_LIKES += (zstd.ZstdFile,)
     COMPRESSION_ERRORS += (zstd.ZstdError,)
+
+
+
+class DeterministicGzipFile(gzip.GzipFile):
+    """Deterministic variant of GzipFile
+
+    This writer does not add filename information to the header, and defaults
+    to a modification time (``mtime``) of 0 seconds.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        filename: str | None = None,
+        mode: Mode | None = None,
+        compresslevel: int = 9,
+        fileobj: io.FileIO | None = None,
+        mtime: int = 0,
+    ):
+        if mode is None:
+            mode = 'rb'
+        modestr: str = mode
+
+        # These two guards are adapted from
+        # https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/6ab65c6/Lib/gzip.py#L171-L174
+        if 'b' not in modestr:
+            modestr = f'{mode}b'
+        if fileobj is None:
+            if filename is None:
+                raise TypeError('Must define either fileobj or filename')
+            # Cast because GzipFile.myfileobj has type io.FileIO while open returns ty.IO
+            fileobj = self.myfileobj = ty.cast('io.FileIO', open(filename, modestr))
+        super().__init__(
+            filename='',
+            mode=modestr,
+            compresslevel=compresslevel,
+            fileobj=fileobj,
+            mtime=mtime,
+        )
+
+def gzip_open(
+    filename: str,
+    mode: Mode = 'rb',
+    compresslevel: int = 9,
+    mtime: int = 0,
+    keep_open: bool = False,
+) -> gzip.GzipFile:
+    if not HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP or mode != 'rb':
+        gzip_file = DeterministicGzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel, mtime=mtime)
+
+    # use indexed_gzip if possible for faster read access.  If keep_open ==
+    # True, we tell IndexedGzipFile to keep the file handle open. Otherwise
+    # the IndexedGzipFile will close/open the file on each read.
+    else:
+        gzip_file = IndexedGzipFile(filename, drop_handles=not keep_open)
+
+    return gzip_file
+
+
+def zstd_open(
+    filename: str,
+    mode: Mode = 'r',
+    *,
+    level_or_option: int | dict | None = None,
+    zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
+) -> zstd.ZstdFile:
+    return zstd.ZstdFile(filename, mode, level_or_option=level_or_option, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
diff --git a/nibabel/openers.py b/nibabel/openers.py
index b21333542d..38d0630568 100644
--- a/nibabel/openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/openers.py
@@ -16,7 +16,12 @@
 from bz2 import BZ2File
 from os.path import splitext
 
-from ._compression import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, IndexedGzipFile, zstd
+from ._compression import (HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP,
+                           IndexedGzipFile,
+                           DeterministicGzipFile,
+                           zstd,
+                           gzip_open,
+                           zstd_open)
 
 if ty.TYPE_CHECKING:
     from types import TracebackType
@@ -42,72 +47,6 @@ def read(self, size: int = -1, /) -> bytes: ...
     def write(self, b: bytes, /) -> int | None: ...
 
 
-class DeterministicGzipFile(gzip.GzipFile):
-    """Deterministic variant of GzipFile
-
-    This writer does not add filename information to the header, and defaults
-    to a modification time (``mtime``) of 0 seconds.
-    """
-
-    def __init__(
-        self,
-        filename: str | None = None,
-        mode: Mode | None = None,
-        compresslevel: int = 9,
-        fileobj: io.FileIO | None = None,
-        mtime: int = 0,
-    ):
-        if mode is None:
-            mode = 'rb'
-        modestr: str = mode
-
-        # These two guards are adapted from
-        # https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/6ab65c6/Lib/gzip.py#L171-L174
-        if 'b' not in modestr:
-            modestr = f'{mode}b'
-        if fileobj is None:
-            if filename is None:
-                raise TypeError('Must define either fileobj or filename')
-            # Cast because GzipFile.myfileobj has type io.FileIO while open returns ty.IO
-            fileobj = self.myfileobj = ty.cast('io.FileIO', open(filename, modestr))
-        super().__init__(
-            filename='',
-            mode=modestr,
-            compresslevel=compresslevel,
-            fileobj=fileobj,
-            mtime=mtime,
-        )
-
-
-def _gzip_open(
-    filename: str,
-    mode: Mode = 'rb',
-    compresslevel: int = 9,
-    mtime: int = 0,
-    keep_open: bool = False,
-) -> gzip.GzipFile:
-    if not HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP or mode != 'rb':
-        gzip_file = DeterministicGzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel, mtime=mtime)
-
-    # use indexed_gzip if possible for faster read access.  If keep_open ==
-    # True, we tell IndexedGzipFile to keep the file handle open. Otherwise
-    # the IndexedGzipFile will close/open the file on each read.
-    else:
-        gzip_file = IndexedGzipFile(filename, drop_handles=not keep_open)
-
-    return gzip_file
-
-
-def _zstd_open(
-    filename: str,
-    mode: Mode = 'r',
-    *,
-    level_or_option: int | dict | None = None,
-    zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
-) -> zstd.ZstdFile:
-    return zstd.ZstdFile(filename, mode, level_or_option=level_or_option, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
-
-
 class Opener:
     r"""Class to accept, maybe open, and context-manage file-likes / filenames
 
@@ -129,9 +68,9 @@ class Opener:
         for \*args
     """
 
-    gz_def = (_gzip_open, ('mode', 'compresslevel', 'mtime', 'keep_open'))
+    gz_def = (gzip_open, ('mode', 'compresslevel', 'mtime', 'keep_open'))
     bz2_def = (BZ2File, ('mode', 'buffering', 'compresslevel'))
-    zstd_def = (_zstd_open, ('mode', 'level_or_option', 'zstd_dict'))
+    zstd_def = (zstd_open, ('mode', 'level_or_option', 'zstd_dict'))
     compress_ext_map: dict[str | None, OpenerDef] = {
         '.gz': gz_def,
         '.bz2': bz2_def,

From 6cb175509bf8f59f3b619e46d2d7a350b45563b0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 12:30:36 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 04/17] TEST: Update mocks in unit test for
 openers->_compression move

---
 nibabel/tests/test_openers.py | 2 ++
 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+)

diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py b/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
index 8d5e98619d..133ddf8dbc 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
@@ -121,8 +121,10 @@ def patch_indexed_gzip(state):
     else:
         values = (False, GzipFile)
     with (
+        mock.patch('nibabel._compression.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', values[0]),
         mock.patch('nibabel.openers.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', values[0]),
         mock.patch('nibabel.openers.IndexedGzipFile', values[1], create=True),
+        mock.patch('nibabel._compression.IndexedGzipFile', values[1], create=True),
     ):
         yield
 

From 38862750a79b9e5f7e5d2d229ccc1e7fe550f647 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 12:40:09 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 05/17] RF: Move type hints, add docs for gzip_open/zstd_open

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 34 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
 nibabel/openers.py      |  8 --------
 2 files changed, 34 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index 537dec72b3..fc25aa2685 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 
 import bz2
 import gzip
+import io
 import typing as ty
 
 from .optpkg import optional_package
@@ -30,6 +31,15 @@
 
     HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP = True
     HAVE_ZSTD = True
+
+    ModeRT = ty.Literal['r', 'rt']
+    ModeRB = ty.Literal['rb']
+    ModeWT = ty.Literal['w', 'wt']
+    ModeWB = ty.Literal['wb']
+    ModeR = ty.Union[ModeRT, ModeRB]
+    ModeW = ty.Union[ModeWT, ModeWB]
+    Mode = ty.Union[ModeR, ModeW]
+
 else:
     indexed_gzip, HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, _ = optional_package('indexed_gzip')
     zstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package(('compression.zstd',
@@ -101,6 +111,30 @@ def gzip_open(
     mtime: int = 0,
     keep_open: bool = False,
 ) -> gzip.GzipFile:
+    """Open a gzip file for reading or writing.
+
+    If opening a file for reading, and ``indexed_gzip`` is available,
+    an ``IndexedGzipFile`` is returned.
+
+    Otherwise (opening for writing, or ``indexed_gzip`` not available),
+    a ``DeterministicGzipFile`` is returned.
+
+    Parameters:
+    -----------
+
+    filename : str
+        Path of file to open.
+    mode : Mode
+        Opening mode - either ``rb`` or ``wb``.
+    compresslevel: int
+        Compression level when writing.
+    mtime: int
+        Modification time used when writing a file - passed to the
+        ``DetemrinisticGzipFile``. Ignored when reading.
+    keep_open: bool
+        Whether to keep the file handle open between reads. Ignored when writing,
+        or when ``indexed_gzip`` is not present.
+    """
     if not HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP or mode != 'rb':
         gzip_file = DeterministicGzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel, mtime=mtime)
 
diff --git a/nibabel/openers.py b/nibabel/openers.py
index 38d0630568..b356d8cbcd 100644
--- a/nibabel/openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/openers.py
@@ -30,14 +30,6 @@
 
     from ._typing import Self
 
-    ModeRT = ty.Literal['r', 'rt']
-    ModeRB = ty.Literal['rb']
-    ModeWT = ty.Literal['w', 'wt']
-    ModeWB = ty.Literal['wb']
-    ModeR = ty.Union[ModeRT, ModeRB]
-    ModeW = ty.Union[ModeWT, ModeWB]
-    Mode = ty.Union[ModeR, ModeW]
-
     OpenerDef = tuple[ty.Callable[..., io.IOBase], tuple[str, ...]]
 
 

From f728911320c8ffeb82cc2941165a8045581bca43 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 12:57:15 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 06/17] RF: Adjust zstd_open function to accept level/option
 parameters, and to normalise level_or_option/level/option arguments - working
 around API difference between pyzstd and compression.zstd

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 52 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++--
 nibabel/openers.py      |  3 ++-
 2 files changed, 52 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index fc25aa2685..4e6e1ab92c 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ def gzip_open(
 
     filename : str
         Path of file to open.
-    mode : Mode
+    mode : str
         Opening mode - either ``rb`` or ``wb``.
     compresslevel: int
         Compression level when writing.
@@ -153,5 +153,53 @@ def zstd_open(
     *,
     level_or_option: int | dict | None = None,
     zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
+    level : int = None,
+    options : dict = None,
 ) -> zstd.ZstdFile:
-    return zstd.ZstdFile(filename, mode, level_or_option=level_or_option, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
+    """Open a zstd file for reading or writing.
+
+    The specific object type returned depends on which module out of
+    ``compression.zstd``, ``backports.zstd``, or ``pyzstd`` is available.
+
+    At most one of the ``level_or_options``, ``level``, or
+    ``options`` parameters may be provided - a ``ValueError`` will be raised
+    if more than one is specified.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+
+    filename : str
+        Path of file to open.
+    mode : str
+        Opening mode.
+    level_or_option: int or dict
+        Compression level or dictionary containing options (see also the
+        level and options parameters).
+    zstd_dict : ZstdDict
+        Dictionary used for compression/decompression.
+    level : int
+        Compression level when writing.
+    options : dict
+        Dictionary of compression/decompression options.
+    """
+    level_or_option_provided = sum((level_or_option is not None,
+                                 level is not None,
+                                 options is not None))
+    if level_or_option_provided > 1:
+        raise ValueError(
+            'Only one of level_or_option, level, or options may be specified')
+    # pyzstd accepts level_or_option, but compression.zstd/backports.zstd
+    # expects level or options
+    level_or_option_kwarg = {}
+    if level_or_option_provided == 1:
+        level_or_option_value = [v for v in [level_or_option, level, options]
+                                  if v is not None][0]
+        if zstd.__name__ == 'pyzstd':
+            level_or_option_kwarg['level_or_option'] = level_or_option_value
+        else:
+            if isinstance(level_or_option_value, int):
+                level_or_option_kwarg['level'] = level_or_option_value
+            else:
+                level_or_option_kwarg['options'] = level_or_option_value
+    return zstd.ZstdFile(
+        filename, mode, zstd_dict=zstd_dict, **level_or_option_kwarg)
diff --git a/nibabel/openers.py b/nibabel/openers.py
index b356d8cbcd..70653a5407 100644
--- a/nibabel/openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/openers.py
@@ -62,7 +62,8 @@ class Opener:
 
     gz_def = (gzip_open, ('mode', 'compresslevel', 'mtime', 'keep_open'))
     bz2_def = (BZ2File, ('mode', 'buffering', 'compresslevel'))
-    zstd_def = (zstd_open, ('mode', 'level_or_option', 'zstd_dict'))
+    zstd_def = (zstd_open, ('mode', 'level_or_option', 'zstd_dict', 'level',
+                            'option'))
     compress_ext_map: dict[str | None, OpenerDef] = {
         '.gz': gz_def,
         '.bz2': bz2_def,

From 922be608941d9ac8d52af99bd6eba41f9b38c673 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 13:20:24 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 07/17] MNT: Use backports.zstd instead of pyzstd as primary
 dependency

---
 .pre-commit-config.yaml | 2 +-
 pyproject.toml          | 2 +-
 tox.ini                 | 6 ++----
 3 files changed, 4 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/.pre-commit-config.yaml b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
index 2e6c466f99..35d5d0e69b 100644
--- a/.pre-commit-config.yaml
+++ b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ repos:
           - types-Pillow
           - pydicom
           - numpy
-          - pyzstd
+          - backports.zstd
           - importlib_resources
         args: ["nibabel"]
         pass_filenames: false
diff --git a/pyproject.toml b/pyproject.toml
index 4747acc97a..202781003d 100644
--- a/pyproject.toml
+++ b/pyproject.toml
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ dicomfs = ["nibabel[dicom]", "pillow >=8.4"]
 minc2 = ["h5py >=3.5"]
 spm = ["scipy >=1.8"]
 viewers = ["matplotlib >=3.5"]
-zstd = ["pyzstd >=0.15.2"]
+zstd = ["backports.zstd; python_version<'3.14'"]
 # For doc and test, make easy to use outside of tox
 # tox should use these with extras instead of duplicating
 doc = [
diff --git a/tox.ini b/tox.ini
index 9318de633e..6714ea4e56 100644
--- a/tox.ini
+++ b/tox.ini
@@ -77,17 +77,15 @@ extras =
   # Simple, thanks Hugo and Paul
   !none: dicomfs
   !none: indexed_gzip
+  !none: zstd
 
   # Minimum dependencies
   min: minc2
   min: spm
   min: viewers
-  min: zstd
 
   # Matplotlib has wheels for everything except win32 (x86)
   {full,pre}-{x,arm}64: viewers
-  # No free-threaded wheels for: zstd
-  py3{9,10,11,12,13,14}-{full,pre}-{x,arm}64: zstd
 
   {full,pre}-{x,arm}64: spm
 
@@ -179,7 +177,7 @@ deps =
   types-Pillow
   pydicom
   numpy
-  pyzstd
+  backports.zstd
   importlib_resources
   typing_extensions
 skip_install = true

From 10aeeb504d40ac53c29b7d3ed880f12cba59af8d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 13:21:46 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 08/17] MNT: Update lockfile

---
 uv.lock | 222 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++---------------------------
 1 file changed, 114 insertions(+), 108 deletions(-)

diff --git a/uv.lock b/uv.lock
index e2dd1a8dff..a7007f0814 100644
--- a/uv.lock
+++ b/uv.lock
@@ -41,6 +41,116 @@ wheels = [
     { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/b7/b8/3fe70c75fe32afc4bb507f75563d39bc5642255d1d94f1f23604725780bf/babel-2.17.0-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:4d0b53093fdfb4b21c92b5213dba5a1b23885afa8383709427046b21c366e5f2", size = 10182537, upload-time = "2025-02-01T15:17:37.39Z" },
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "backports-zstd"
+version = "1.1.0"
+source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
+sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/ee/76/403d81c1b9264f6ee1c25b2f2ce892ed9930d1a0a1939ef26a01a95e644d/backports_zstd-1.1.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:8ce84125e3094ddefbaa25306e8949965ce092b400a1fd63b5e6a5e932d2994f", size = 996020, upload-time = "2025-11-23T12:51:19.478Z" }
+wheels = [
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+    { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/ae/9a/f064362e44419625b79e049dc532c7b7606bd072f230d2729460cf4f5da8/backports_zstd-1.1.0-cp310-cp310-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl", hash = "sha256:5805a215a3b048a10ca18dd5c525c737e004e59c92c21c44baa0c13083579dc1", size = 362145, upload-time = "2025-11-23T12:49:04.823Z" },
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 version = "6.2.0"
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 zstd = [
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 [package.metadata]
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 name = "requests"
 version = "2.32.5"

From e9b87f081b7aa71115cb0cbd68c3e1a326c2b4c4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 16:25:36 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 09/17] RF: Drop support for pyzstd - depend on
 compression.zstd, falling back to optional backports.zstd. Accept
 level_or_option parameter, but emit a deprecation warning

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 75 ++++++++++++++++++++---------------------
 nibabel/openers.py      | 22 ++++++------
 2 files changed, 48 insertions(+), 49 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index 4e6e1ab92c..4b079644f0 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -15,19 +15,22 @@
 import io
 import typing as ty
 
+try:
+    from compression import zstd
+    HAVE_ZSTD = True
+except ImportError:  # PY313
+    HAVE_ZSTD = False
+
+from .deprecated import alert_future_error
 from .optpkg import optional_package
 
 if ty.TYPE_CHECKING:
-    import io
 
     import indexed_gzip  # type: ignore[import]
 
-    # >= py314
-    try:
-        from compression import zstd  # type: ignore[import]
-    # < py314
-    except ImportError:
+    if not HAVE_ZSTD:  # PY313
         from backports import zstd  # type: ignore[import]
+        HAVE_ZSTD = True
 
     HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP = True
     HAVE_ZSTD = True
@@ -42,8 +45,8 @@
 
 else:
     indexed_gzip, HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, _ = optional_package('indexed_gzip')
-    zstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package(('compression.zstd',
-                                           'backports.zstd', 'pyzstd'))
+    if not HAVE_ZSTD:  # PY313
+        zstd, HAVE_ZSTD, _ = optional_package('backports.zstd')
 
 # Collections of types for isinstance or exception matching
 COMPRESSED_FILE_LIKES: tuple[type[io.IOBase], ...] = (
@@ -151,19 +154,15 @@ def zstd_open(
     filename: str,
     mode: Mode = 'r',
     *,
-    level_or_option: int | dict | None = None,
-    zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
     level : int = None,
     options : dict = None,
+    zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
+    level_or_option: int | dict | None = None
 ) -> zstd.ZstdFile:
     """Open a zstd file for reading or writing.
 
-    The specific object type returned depends on which module out of
-    ``compression.zstd``, ``backports.zstd``, or ``pyzstd`` is available.
-
-    At most one of the ``level_or_options``, ``level``, or
-    ``options`` parameters may be provided - a ``ValueError`` will be raised
-    if more than one is specified.
+    The specific object returned will be a ``compression.zstd.ZstdFile`` or
+    a ``backports.zstd.ZstdFile``.
 
     Parameters
     ----------
@@ -172,9 +171,6 @@ def zstd_open(
         Path of file to open.
     mode : str
         Opening mode.
-    level_or_option: int or dict
-        Compression level or dictionary containing options (see also the
-        level and options parameters).
     zstd_dict : ZstdDict
         Dictionary used for compression/decompression.
     level : int
@@ -182,24 +178,27 @@ def zstd_open(
     options : dict
         Dictionary of compression/decompression options.
     """
-    level_or_option_provided = sum((level_or_option is not None,
-                                 level is not None,
-                                 options is not None))
-    if level_or_option_provided > 1:
-        raise ValueError(
-            'Only one of level_or_option, level, or options may be specified')
-    # pyzstd accepts level_or_option, but compression.zstd/backports.zstd
-    # expects level or options
-    level_or_option_kwarg = {}
-    if level_or_option_provided == 1:
-        level_or_option_value = [v for v in [level_or_option, level, options]
-                                  if v is not None][0]
-        if zstd.__name__ == 'pyzstd':
-            level_or_option_kwarg['level_or_option'] = level_or_option_value
-        else:
-            if isinstance(level_or_option_value, int):
-                level_or_option_kwarg['level'] = level_or_option_value
+    if level_or_option is not None:
+        alert_future_error(
+            'The level_or_option parameter will be removed in a future '
+            'version of nibabel',
+            '7.0',
+            warning_rec='This warning can be silenced by using the separate '
+            'level/option parameters',
+            error_rec='Future errors can be avoided by using the separate '
+            'level/option parameters',
+            error_class=TypeError)
+        level_or_option_provided = sum((level_or_option is not None,
+                                        level is not None,
+                                        options is not None))
+        if level_or_option_provided > 1:
+            raise ValueError(
+                'Only one of level_or_option, level or options may be '
+                'specified')
+        if level_or_option is not None:
+            if isinstance(level_or_option, int):
+                level = level_or_option
             else:
-                level_or_option_kwarg['options'] = level_or_option_value
+                options = level_or_option
     return zstd.ZstdFile(
-        filename, mode, zstd_dict=zstd_dict, **level_or_option_kwarg)
+        filename, mode, level=level, options=options, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
diff --git a/nibabel/openers.py b/nibabel/openers.py
index 70653a5407..9ef84c2ed2 100644
--- a/nibabel/openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/openers.py
@@ -62,8 +62,7 @@ class Opener:
 
     gz_def = (gzip_open, ('mode', 'compresslevel', 'mtime', 'keep_open'))
     bz2_def = (BZ2File, ('mode', 'buffering', 'compresslevel'))
-    zstd_def = (zstd_open, ('mode', 'level_or_option', 'zstd_dict', 'level',
-                            'option'))
+    zstd_def = (zstd_open, ('mode', 'level', 'option', 'zstd_dict'))
     compress_ext_map: dict[str | None, OpenerDef] = {
         '.gz': gz_def,
         '.bz2': bz2_def,
@@ -72,13 +71,12 @@ class Opener:
     }
     #: default compression level when writing gz and bz2 files
     default_compresslevel = 1
-    #: default option for zst files
-    default_zst_compresslevel = 3
-    default_level_or_option = {
+    #: default compression level for zst files
+    default_zst_level = {
         'rb': None,
         'r': None,
-        'wb': default_zst_compresslevel,
-        'w': default_zst_compresslevel,
+        'wb': 3,
+        'w': 3,
     }
     #: whether to ignore case looking for compression extensions
     compress_ext_icase: bool = True
@@ -92,7 +90,7 @@ def __init__(self, fileish: str | io.IOBase, *args, **kwargs):
             self._name = getattr(fileish, 'name', None)
             return
         opener, arg_names = self._get_opener_argnames(fileish)
-        # Get full arguments to check for mode and compresslevel
+        # Get full arguments to check for optional parameters
         full_kwargs = {**kwargs, **dict(zip(arg_names, args))}
         # Set default mode
         if 'mode' not in full_kwargs:
@@ -100,11 +98,13 @@ def __init__(self, fileish: str | io.IOBase, *args, **kwargs):
             kwargs['mode'] = mode
         else:
             mode = full_kwargs['mode']
-        # Default compression level
+        # Default gz/bz2 compression level
         if 'compresslevel' in arg_names and 'compresslevel' not in kwargs:
             kwargs['compresslevel'] = self.default_compresslevel
-        if 'level_or_option' in arg_names and 'level_or_option' not in kwargs:
-            kwargs['level_or_option'] = self.default_level_or_option[mode]
+        # Default zstd compression level
+        if ('level' in arg_names and 'level' not in kwargs and
+            'option' not in kwargs):
+            kwargs['level'] = self.default_zst_level[mode]
         # Default keep_open hint
         if 'keep_open' in arg_names:
             kwargs.setdefault('keep_open', False)

From c9fe6fcfacba0de50bf0f96a46ead7a5d2246c65 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 16:51:14 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 10/17] RF: Remove (HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, IndexedGzipFile,
 DeterministicGzipFile, zstd) from openers module - now located in
 _compression.

---
 nibabel/arrayproxy.py |  5 +++--
 nibabel/openers.py    | 11 ++++-------
 2 files changed, 7 insertions(+), 9 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/arrayproxy.py b/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
index 82713f639f..e31d63cde7 100644
--- a/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
+++ b/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
@@ -36,6 +36,7 @@
 import numpy as np
 
 from . import openers
+from ._compression import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP
 from .fileslice import canonical_slicers, fileslice
 from .volumeutils import apply_read_scaling, array_from_file
 
@@ -263,7 +264,7 @@ def _should_keep_file_open(self, keep_file_open):
          - whether ``self.file_like`` is an an open file handle, or a path to a
            ``'.gz'`` file, or a path to a non-gzip file.
          - whether ``indexed_gzip`` is present (see
-           :attr:`.openers.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP`).
+           :attr:`._compression.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP`).
 
         An ``ArrayProxy`` object uses two internal flags to manage
         ``ImageOpener`` instances and underlying file handles.
@@ -330,7 +331,7 @@ def _should_keep_file_open(self, keep_file_open):
         if self._has_fh():
             return False, False
         # if the file is a gzip file, and we have_indexed_gzip,
-        have_igzip = openers.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP and self.file_like.endswith('.gz')
+        have_igzip = HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP and self.file_like.endswith('.gz')
 
         persist_opener = keep_file_open or have_igzip
         return keep_file_open, persist_opener
diff --git a/nibabel/openers.py b/nibabel/openers.py
index 9ef84c2ed2..e3b74bdf21 100644
--- a/nibabel/openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/openers.py
@@ -10,18 +10,15 @@
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-import gzip
 import io
 import typing as ty
 from bz2 import BZ2File
 from os.path import splitext
 
-from ._compression import (HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP,
-                           IndexedGzipFile,
-                           DeterministicGzipFile,
-                           zstd,
-                           gzip_open,
-                           zstd_open)
+from ._compression import (
+    gzip_open,
+    zstd_open,
+)
 
 if ty.TYPE_CHECKING:
     from types import TracebackType

From efdb160a9caa19c9097825589b3e9397e2d81384 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 16:52:14 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 11/17] TEST: Fix imports, update uses of HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP,
 IndexedGzipFile

---
 nibabel/benchmarks/bench_arrayproxy_slicing.py | 6 +++---
 nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py          | 3 +--
 nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py                  | 3 +--
 nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py                 | 2 +-
 nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py                    | 3 +--
 nibabel/tests/test_openers.py                  | 9 +++------
 nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py              | 3 +--
 7 files changed, 11 insertions(+), 18 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_arrayproxy_slicing.py b/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_arrayproxy_slicing.py
index 5da6c578f7..db902ce11b 100644
--- a/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_arrayproxy_slicing.py
+++ b/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_arrayproxy_slicing.py
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
 import numpy as np
 
 import nibabel as nib
-from nibabel.openers import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP
+from nibabel._compression import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP
 from nibabel.tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
 
 from ..rstutils import rst_table
@@ -135,14 +135,14 @@ def fmt_sliceobj(sliceobj):
             # load uncompressed and compressed versions of the image
             img = nib.load(testfile, keep_file_open=keep_open)
 
-            with mock.patch('nibabel.openers.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', have_igzip):
+            with mock.patch('nibabel._compression.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', have_igzip):
                 imggz = nib.load(testfilegz, keep_file_open=keep_open)
 
             def basefunc():
                 img.dataobj[fix_sliceobj(sliceobj)]
 
             def testfunc():
-                with mock.patch('nibabel.openers.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', have_igzip):
+                with mock.patch('nibabel._compression.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', have_igzip):
                     imggz.dataobj[fix_sliceobj(sliceobj)]
 
             # make sure nothing is floating around from the previous test
diff --git a/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py b/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py
index 3b5d8691ec..925df23db4 100644
--- a/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py
+++ b/nibabel/benchmarks/bench_fileslice.py
@@ -14,12 +14,11 @@
 
 import numpy as np
 
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 from ..fileslice import fileslice
 from ..openers import ImageOpener
-from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..rstutils import rst_table
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
-from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 
 SHAPE = (64, 64, 32, 100)
 ROW_NAMES = [f'axis {i}, len {dim}' for i, dim in enumerate(SHAPE)]
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py b/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py
index ee3c419502..5567029562 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_analyze.py
@@ -24,11 +24,11 @@
 from numpy.testing import assert_array_almost_equal, assert_array_equal
 
 from .. import imageglobals
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 from ..analyze import AnalyzeHeader, AnalyzeImage
 from ..arraywriters import WriterError
 from ..casting import sctypes_aliases
 from ..nifti1 import Nifti1Header
-from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..spatialimages import HeaderDataError, HeaderTypeError, supported_np_types
 from ..testing import (
     assert_dt_equal,
@@ -38,7 +38,6 @@
     suppress_warnings,
 )
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
-from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 from . import test_spatialimages as tsi
 from . import test_wrapstruct as tws
 
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py b/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py
index ae24ce30ff..505a4a2548 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_loadsave.py
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@
     Spm2AnalyzeImage,
     Spm99AnalyzeImage,
 )
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 from ..filebasedimages import ImageFileError
 from ..loadsave import _signature_matches_extension, load, read_img_data
 from ..openers import Opener
 from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..testing import deprecated_to, expires
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
-from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD
 
 _, have_scipy, _ = optional_package('scipy')
 
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py b/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py
index 911c9325c3..55832f73a9 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_minc1.py
@@ -17,14 +17,13 @@
 from numpy.testing import assert_array_equal
 
 from .. import Nifti1Image, load, minc1
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD, zstd
 from ..externals.netcdf import netcdf_file
 from ..minc1 import Minc1File, Minc1Image, MincHeader
-from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..testing import assert_data_similar, data_path
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
 from . import test_spatialimages as tsi
 from .test_fileslice import slicer_samples
-from .._compression import zstd, HAVE_ZSTD
 
 EG_FNAME = pjoin(data_path, 'tiny.mnc')
 
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py b/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
index 133ddf8dbc..ad2b98b1eb 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_openers.py
@@ -20,10 +20,9 @@
 import pytest
 from packaging.version import Version
 
-from ..openers import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, BZ2File, DeterministicGzipFile, ImageOpener, Opener
-from ..optpkg import optional_package
+from .._compression import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP, HAVE_ZSTD, DeterministicGzipFile, zstd
+from ..openers import BZ2File, ImageOpener, Opener
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
-from .._compression import zstd, HAVE_ZSTD
 
 
 class Lunk:
@@ -122,8 +121,6 @@ def patch_indexed_gzip(state):
         values = (False, GzipFile)
     with (
         mock.patch('nibabel._compression.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', values[0]),
-        mock.patch('nibabel.openers.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP', values[0]),
-        mock.patch('nibabel.openers.IndexedGzipFile', values[1], create=True),
         mock.patch('nibabel._compression.IndexedGzipFile', values[1], create=True),
     ):
         yield
@@ -267,7 +264,7 @@ class StrictOpener(Opener):
                 assert isinstance(fobj.fobj, file_class)
             elif lext == 'gz':
                 try:
-                    from ..openers import IndexedGzipFile
+                    from .._compression import IndexedGzipFile
                 except ImportError:
                     IndexedGzipFile = GzipFile
                 assert isinstance(fobj.fobj, (GzipFile, IndexedGzipFile))
diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py b/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py
index fd0b0cf8ce..9260310f6f 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_volumeutils.py
@@ -32,9 +32,9 @@
     suppress_warnings,
 )
 
+from .._compression import HAVE_ZSTD, zstd
 from ..casting import OK_FLOATS, floor_log2, sctypes, shared_range, type_info
 from ..openers import BZ2File, ImageOpener, Opener
-from ..optpkg import optional_package
 from ..tmpdirs import InTemporaryDirectory
 from ..volumeutils import (
     _dt_min_max,
@@ -56,7 +56,6 @@
     working_type,
     write_zeros,
 )
-from .._compression import zstd, HAVE_ZSTD
 
 # convenience variables for numpy types
 FLOAT_TYPES = sctypes['float']

From 44745ac69b5cfac5d806b5cd0cb87173ddd1d3af Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Nov 2025 16:55:17 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 12/17] STY: Address style warnings

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 6 +++---
 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index 4b079644f0..b173422a3d 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
 import typing as ty
 
 try:
-    from compression import zstd
+    from compression import zstd  # type: ignore[import-not-found]
     HAVE_ZSTD = True
 except ImportError:  # PY313
     HAVE_ZSTD = False
@@ -154,8 +154,8 @@ def zstd_open(
     filename: str,
     mode: Mode = 'r',
     *,
-    level : int = None,
-    options : dict = None,
+    level : int | None = None,
+    options : dict | None = None,
     zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
     level_or_option: int | dict | None = None
 ) -> zstd.ZstdFile:

From b410d923b879f72670175cbb40b043d28452345c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 27 Nov 2025 09:45:14 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 13/17] RF: Import _compression module rather than individual
 symbols to ease testing/mocking

---
 nibabel/arrayproxy.py | 4 ++--
 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/arrayproxy.py b/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
index e31d63cde7..627ac37c25 100644
--- a/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
+++ b/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@
 import numpy as np
 
 from . import openers
-from ._compression import HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP
+from . import _compression
 from .fileslice import canonical_slicers, fileslice
 from .volumeutils import apply_read_scaling, array_from_file
 
@@ -331,7 +331,7 @@ def _should_keep_file_open(self, keep_file_open):
         if self._has_fh():
             return False, False
         # if the file is a gzip file, and we have_indexed_gzip,
-        have_igzip = HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP and self.file_like.endswith('.gz')
+        have_igzip = _compression.HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP and self.file_like.endswith('.gz')
 
         persist_opener = keep_file_open or have_igzip
         return keep_file_open, persist_opener

From d5c28b2a7d67c88f2fe44def27bb53103ab987b4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 27 Nov 2025 09:55:47 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 14/17] TEST: It appears that run_tests should be a set

---
 nibabel/tests/test_api_validators.py | 2 +-
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/tests/test_api_validators.py b/nibabel/tests/test_api_validators.py
index 2388089f2c..d559fd6328 100644
--- a/nibabel/tests/test_api_validators.py
+++ b/nibabel/tests/test_api_validators.py
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ class TestRunAllTests(ValidateAPI):
     We check this in the module teardown function
     """
 
-    run_tests = {}
+    run_tests = set()
 
     def obj_params(self):
         yield 1, 2

From 24f8b52e17b894860dfd2a0a8566a8f5799745e6 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 27 Nov 2025 10:00:27 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 15/17] STY: Style fixes

---
 nibabel/arrayproxy.py | 3 +--
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/arrayproxy.py b/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
index 627ac37c25..e444853f97 100644
--- a/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
+++ b/nibabel/arrayproxy.py
@@ -35,8 +35,7 @@
 
 import numpy as np
 
-from . import openers
-from . import _compression
+from . import _compression, openers
 from .fileslice import canonical_slicers, fileslice
 from .volumeutils import apply_read_scaling, array_from_file
 

From 2d0040df2bb42b058bbfbba2f9ffaa2060fded2b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 27 Nov 2025 10:11:31 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 16/17] STY: More style fixes

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 33 +++++++++++++++------------------
 nibabel/openers.py      |  3 +--
 2 files changed, 16 insertions(+), 20 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index b173422a3d..e436be4458 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@
 
 try:
     from compression import zstd  # type: ignore[import-not-found]
+
     HAVE_ZSTD = True
 except ImportError:  # PY313
     HAVE_ZSTD = False
@@ -25,11 +26,11 @@
 from .optpkg import optional_package
 
 if ty.TYPE_CHECKING:
-
     import indexed_gzip  # type: ignore[import]
 
     if not HAVE_ZSTD:  # PY313
         from backports import zstd  # type: ignore[import]
+
         HAVE_ZSTD = True
 
     HAVE_INDEXED_GZIP = True
@@ -70,7 +71,6 @@
     COMPRESSION_ERRORS += (zstd.ZstdError,)
 
 
-
 class DeterministicGzipFile(gzip.GzipFile):
     """Deterministic variant of GzipFile
 
@@ -107,6 +107,7 @@ def __init__(
             mtime=mtime,
         )
 
+
 def gzip_open(
     filename: str,
     mode: Mode = 'rb',
@@ -154,10 +155,10 @@ def zstd_open(
     filename: str,
     mode: Mode = 'r',
     *,
-    level : int | None = None,
-    options : dict | None = None,
+    level: int | None = None,
+    options: dict | None = None,
     zstd_dict: zstd.ZstdDict | None = None,
-    level_or_option: int | dict | None = None
+    level_or_option: int | dict | None = None,
 ) -> zstd.ZstdFile:
     """Open a zstd file for reading or writing.
 
@@ -180,25 +181,21 @@ def zstd_open(
     """
     if level_or_option is not None:
         alert_future_error(
-            'The level_or_option parameter will be removed in a future '
-            'version of nibabel',
+            'The level_or_option parameter will be removed in a future version of nibabel',
             '7.0',
             warning_rec='This warning can be silenced by using the separate '
             'level/option parameters',
-            error_rec='Future errors can be avoided by using the separate '
-            'level/option parameters',
-            error_class=TypeError)
-        level_or_option_provided = sum((level_or_option is not None,
-                                        level is not None,
-                                        options is not None))
+            error_rec='Future errors can be avoided by using the separate level/option parameters',
+            error_class=TypeError,
+        )
+        level_or_option_provided = sum(
+            (level_or_option is not None, level is not None, options is not None)
+        )
         if level_or_option_provided > 1:
-            raise ValueError(
-                'Only one of level_or_option, level or options may be '
-                'specified')
+            raise ValueError('Only one of level_or_option, level or options may be specified')
         if level_or_option is not None:
             if isinstance(level_or_option, int):
                 level = level_or_option
             else:
                 options = level_or_option
-    return zstd.ZstdFile(
-        filename, mode, level=level, options=options, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
+    return zstd.ZstdFile(filename, mode, level=level, options=options, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)
diff --git a/nibabel/openers.py b/nibabel/openers.py
index e3b74bdf21..8d958f7399 100644
--- a/nibabel/openers.py
+++ b/nibabel/openers.py
@@ -99,8 +99,7 @@ def __init__(self, fileish: str | io.IOBase, *args, **kwargs):
         if 'compresslevel' in arg_names and 'compresslevel' not in kwargs:
             kwargs['compresslevel'] = self.default_compresslevel
         # Default zstd compression level
-        if ('level' in arg_names and 'level' not in kwargs and
-            'option' not in kwargs):
+        if 'level' in arg_names and 'level' not in kwargs and 'option' not in kwargs:
             kwargs['level'] = self.default_zst_level[mode]
         # Default keep_open hint
         if 'keep_open' in arg_names:

From 4d2755f166a5e111e16227f1142a502e4d825a10 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Paul McCarthy <pauldmccarthy@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 5 Dec 2025 18:22:01 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 17/17] RF: Simplify logic

---
 nibabel/_compression.py | 17 ++++++-----------
 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 11 deletions(-)

diff --git a/nibabel/_compression.py b/nibabel/_compression.py
index e436be4458..66a299b174 100644
--- a/nibabel/_compression.py
+++ b/nibabel/_compression.py
@@ -183,19 +183,14 @@ def zstd_open(
         alert_future_error(
             'The level_or_option parameter will be removed in a future version of nibabel',
             '7.0',
-            warning_rec='This warning can be silenced by using the separate '
-            'level/option parameters',
+            warning_rec='This warning can be silenced by using the separate level/option parameters',
             error_rec='Future errors can be avoided by using the separate level/option parameters',
             error_class=TypeError,
         )
-        level_or_option_provided = sum(
-            (level_or_option is not None, level is not None, options is not None)
-        )
-        if level_or_option_provided > 1:
+        if level is not None or options is not None:
             raise ValueError('Only one of level_or_option, level or options may be specified')
-        if level_or_option is not None:
-            if isinstance(level_or_option, int):
-                level = level_or_option
-            else:
-                options = level_or_option
+        if isinstance(level_or_option, int):
+            level = level_or_option
+        else:
+            options = level_or_option
     return zstd.ZstdFile(filename, mode, level=level, options=options, zstd_dict=zstd_dict)