|
79 | 79 | this dataset.
|
80 | 80 |
|
81 | 81 | \itemize{
|
82 |
| - \item{\code{US}}{ |
83 |
| - The \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project}{Manhattan Project} started in |
84 |
| - stages. It was officially brought to the |
85 |
| - attention of the US government by a |
| 82 | + \item{\code{US}}{ The |
| 83 | + \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project}{Manhattan Project} |
| 84 | + started in stages. It was officially brought |
| 85 | + to the attention of the US government by a |
86 | 86 | letter officially from
|
87 |
| - \href{https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Einstein-Roosevelt-letter.png}{Albert Einstein to US President Roosevelt}, 1939-08-02. |
88 |
| - It was officially authorized |
| 87 | + \href{https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Einstein-Roosevelt-letter.png}{Albert Einstein to US President Roosevelt}, |
| 88 | + 1939-08-02. It was officially authorized |
89 | 89 | \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project}{1942-01-19}.
|
90 | 90 | We use this later date as the date of the
|
91 | 91 | start of the US nuclear-weapons program.
|
|
97 | 97 | bombing of Hiroshima, 1945-08-06. Shortly
|
98 | 98 | thereafter on
|
99 | 99 | \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project}{1945-08-22},
|
100 |
| - Stalin appointed \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria}{Lavrentiy Beria}. Beria |
101 |
| - was a able administrator and guided the |
| 100 | + Stalin appointed |
| 101 | + \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria}{Lavrentiy Beria}. |
| 102 | + Beria was a able administrator and guided the |
102 | 103 | project to fruition in four years.
|
103 | 104 | }
|
104 | 105 | \item{\code{GB}}{
|
105 | 106 | British scientists were among the leaders
|
106 | 107 | in nuclear technology in the late
|
107 | 108 | nineteenth century. They welcomed
|
108 | 109 | German-Jewish physicists
|
109 |
| - \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch}{Otto Frisch} and |
110 |
| - \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls}{Rudolf Peierls}, who estimated |
111 |
| - in 1939 that only |
| 110 | + \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch}{Otto Frisch} |
| 111 | + and |
| 112 | + \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls}{Rudolf Peierls}, |
| 113 | + who estimated in 1939 that only |
112 | 114 | \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisch-Peierls_memorandum}{a few pounds or kilograms of uranium-235 might be enough to achieve a critical mass, whereas several tonnes of natural uranium would likely be required}.
|
113 |
| - Because of the war, this information was |
114 |
| - passed to scientists in the United States, |
115 |
| - who developed it into the bomb dropped on |
116 |
| - Hiroshima |
| 115 | + Because of the war, this information was passed |
| 116 | + to scientists in the United States, who developed |
| 117 | + it into the bomb dropped on Hiroshima |
117 | 118 | \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki}{1945-08-06},
|
118 | 119 | with help from British and Canadian
|
119 | 120 | scientists and Canadian industry. After
|
120 | 121 | the war, the US refused to share much of
|
121 | 122 | the information developed in the Manhattan
|
122 |
| - Project with the British. British elites |
123 |
| - felt disrespected by US. On |
| 123 | + Project with the British. British elites |
| 124 | + felt disrespected by US. On |
124 | 125 | \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_the_United_Kingdom#Resumption_of_independent_UK_efforts}{1947-01-08},
|
125 |
| - the British government decided to |
126 |
| - initiate their own nuclear-weapons program. |
| 126 | + the British government decided to initiate |
| 127 | + their own nuclear-weapons program. |
127 | 128 | }
|
128 | 129 | \item{\code{FR}}{
|
129 | 130 | France was one of the nuclear pioneers,
|
|
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