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<h2 id="toc-title">Table of contents</h2>
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<li><a href="#preface" id="toc-preface" class="nav-link active" data-scroll-target="#preface">Preface</a>
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<li><a href="#python" id="toc-python" class="nav-link" data-scroll-target="#python">Python</a></li>
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<div class="quarto-title-block"><div><h1 class="title">Spatial Data Science</h1><button type="button" class="btn code-tools-button" id="quarto-code-tools-source"><i class="bi"></i> Code</button></div></div>
<p class="subtitle lead">with applications in R and Python</p>
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<div class="quarto-title-meta">
<div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-heading">Author</div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-contents">
<p>Edzer Pebesma, Roger Bivand </p>
</div>
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<div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-heading">Published</div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-contents">
<p class="date">April 25, 2023</p>
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</header>
<section id="preface" class="level1 unnumbered">
<h1 class="unnumbered">Preface</h1>
<p>Data science is concerned with finding answers to questions on the basis of available data, and communicating that effort. Besides showing the results, this communication involves sharing the data used, but also exposing the path that led to the answers in a comprehensive and reproducible way. It also acknowledges the fact that available data may not be sufficient to answer questions, and that any answers are conditional on the data collection or sampling protocols employed.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>This book introduces and explains the concepts underlying <em>spatial</em> data: points, lines, polygons, rasters, coverages, geometry attributes, data cubes, reference systems, as well as higher-level concepts including how attributes relate to geometries and how this affects analysis. The relationship of attributes to geometries is known as support, and changing support also changes the characteristics of attributes. Some data generation processes are continuous in space, and may be observed everywhere. Others are discrete, observed in tesselated containers. In modern spatial data analysis, tesellated methods are often used for all data, extending across the legacy partition into point process, geostatistical and lattice models. It is support (and the understanding of support) that underlies the importance of spatial representation. The book aims at data scientists who want to get a grip on using spatial data in their analysis. To exemplify how to do things, it uses R. In future editions we hope to extend this with examples using Python <span class="citation" data-cites="bivand:22">(see, e.g., <a href="references.html#ref-bivand:22" role="doc-biblioref">Bivand 2022a</a>)</span> and Julia.</p>
<p>It is often thought that spatial data boils down to having observations’ longitude and latitude in a dataset, and treating these just like any other variable. This carries the risk of missed opportunities and meaningless analyses. For instance,</p>
<ul>
<li>coordinate pairs really are pairs, and lose much of their meaning when treated independently</li>
<li>rather than having point locations, observations are often associated with spatial lines, areas, or grid cells</li>
<li>spatial distances between observations are often not well represented by straight-line distances, but by great circle distances, distances through networks, or by measuring the effort it takes getting from A to B</li>
</ul>
<p>We introduce the concepts behind spatial data, coordinate reference systems, spatial analysis, and introduce a number of packages, including <strong>sf</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="rjsf R-sf">(<a href="references.html#ref-rjsf" role="doc-biblioref">Pebesma 2018</a>, <a href="references.html#ref-R-sf" role="doc-biblioref">2022a</a>)</span>, <strong>stars</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="R-stars">(<a href="references.html#ref-R-stars" role="doc-biblioref">Pebesma 2022b</a>)</span>, <strong>s2</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="R-s2">(<a href="references.html#ref-R-s2" role="doc-biblioref">Dunnington, Pebesma, and Rubak 2023</a>)</span> and <strong>lwgeom</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="R-lwgeom">(<a href="references.html#ref-R-lwgeom" role="doc-biblioref">Pebesma 2023</a>)</span>, as well as a number of spatial <strong>tidyverse</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="welcome R-tidyverse">(<a href="references.html#ref-welcome" role="doc-biblioref">Wickham et al. 2019</a>; <a href="references.html#ref-R-tidyverse" role="doc-biblioref">Wickham 2022</a>)</span> extensions, and a number of spatial analysis and visualisation packages that can be used with these packages, including <strong>gstat</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="gstatcg R-gstat">(<a href="references.html#ref-gstatcg" role="doc-biblioref">Pebesma 2004</a>; <a href="references.html#ref-R-gstat" role="doc-biblioref">Pebesma and Graeler 2022</a>)</span>, <strong>spdep</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="R-spdep">(<a href="references.html#ref-R-spdep" role="doc-biblioref">Bivand 2022b</a>)</span>, <strong>spatialreg</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="R-spatialreg">(<a href="references.html#ref-R-spatialreg" role="doc-biblioref">Bivand and Piras 2022</a>)</span>, <strong>spatstat</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="baddeley2015spatial R-spatstat">(<a href="references.html#ref-baddeley2015spatial" role="doc-biblioref">Baddeley, Rubak, and Turner 2015</a>; <a href="references.html#ref-R-spatstat" role="doc-biblioref">Baddeley, Turner, and Rubak 2022</a>)</span>, <strong>tmap</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="tmap R-tmap">(<a href="references.html#ref-tmap" role="doc-biblioref">Tennekes 2018</a>, <a href="references.html#ref-R-tmap" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span> and <strong>mapview</strong> <span class="citation" data-cites="R-mapview">(<a href="references.html#ref-R-mapview" role="doc-biblioref">Appelhans et al. 2022</a>)</span>.</p>
<p>Like data science, spatial data science seems to be a field that arises bottom-up in and from many existing scientific disciplines and industrial activities concerned with application of spatial data, rather than being a sub-discipline of an existing scientific discipline. Although there are various activities trying to scope it through focused conferences, symposia, chairs and study programs, we believe that the versatility of spatial data applications and questions will render such activity hard. Giving this book the title “spatial data science” is not another attempt to define the bounds of this field but rather an attempt to contribute to it from our 3-4 decades of experience working with researchers from various fields willing to publicly share research questions, data, and attempts to solve these questions with software. As a consequence, the selection of topics found in this book has a certain bias towards our own areas of research interest and experience. Platforms that have helped create an open research community include the ai-geostats and r-sig-geo mailing lists, sourceforge, r-forge, GitHub, and the OpenGeoHub summer schools organized yearly since 2006. The current possibility and willingness to cross data science language barriers opens a new and very exciting perspective. Our motivation to contribute to this field is a belief that open science leads to better science, and that better science might contribute to a more sustainable world.</p>
<section id="python" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="python">Python</h2>
<p>The edition of this book that has as subtitle <em>with applications in R and Python</em> contains Python code for selected code sections, and shows code and output in a tabset for the html-rendered version of the book. The Python code used is work in progress, and improvements and additions to it are highly appreciated.</p>
</section>
<section id="printed-version-of-this-book" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="printed-version-of-this-book">Printed version of this book</h2>
<p>The printed version of this book (1st edition) is found at the <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Spatial-Data-Science-With-Applications-in-R/Pebesma-Bivand/p/book/9781138311183">Routeledge/CRC</a> or <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9780429459016/spatial-data-science-edzer-pebesma-roger-bivand">Taylor and Francis</a> websites.</p>
<p>The full reference is: Pebesma, E.; Bivand, R. (2023). Spatial Data Science: With Applications in R (1st ed.). 314 pages. Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429459016</p>
</section>
<section id="acknowledgements" class="level2 unnumbered">
<h2 class="unnumbered anchored" data-anchor-id="acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</h2>
<p>We are grateful to the entire r-spatial community, especially those who</p>
<ul>
<li>developed r-spatial packages or contributed to their development</li>
<li>contributed to discussions on twitter <code>#rspatial</code> or GitHub</li>
<li>brought comments or asked questions in courses, summer schools, or conferences.</li>
</ul>
<p>We are in particular grateful to Dewey Dunnington for implementing the <strong>s2</strong> package, and for active contributions from Sahil Bhandari, Jonathan Bahlmann for preparing the figures in <a href="06-Cubes.html"><span>Chapter 6</span></a>, Claus Wilke, Jakub Nowosad, the “Spatial Data Science with R” classes of 2021 and 2022, and to those who actively contributed with GitHub issues, pull requests, or discussions:</p>
<ul>
<li>to the book repository (Nowosad, jonathom, JaFro96, singhkpratham, liuyadong, hurielreichel, PPaccioretti, Robinlovelace, Syverpet, jonas-hurst, angela-li, ALanguillaume, florisvdh, ismailsunni, andronaco),</li>
<li>to the sf repository (aecoleman, agila5, andycraig, angela-li, ateucher, barryrowlingson, bbest, BenGraeler, bhaskarvk, Bisaloo, bkmgit, christophertull, chrisyeh96, cmcaine, cpsievert, daissi, dankelley, DavisVaughan, dbaston, dblodgett-usgs, dcooley, demorenoc, dpprdan, drkrynstrng, etiennebr, famuvie, fdetsch, florisvdh, gregleleu, hadley, hughjonesd, huizezhang-sherry, jeffreyhanson, jeroen, jlacko, joethorley, joheisig, JoshOBrien, jwolfson, kadyb, karldw, kendonB, khondula, KHwong12, krlmlr, lambdamoses, lbusett, lcgodoy, lionel-, loicdtx, marwahaha, MatthieuStigler, mdsumner, MichaelChirico, microly, mpadge, mtennekes, nikolai-b, noerw, Nowosad, oliverbeagley, Pakillo, paleolimbot, pat-s, PPaccioretti, prdm0, ranghetti, rCarto, renejuan, rhijmans, rhurlin, rnuske, Robinlovelace, robitalec, rubak, rundel, statnmap, thomasp85, tim-salabim, tyluRp, uribo, Valexandre, wibeasley, wittja01, yutannihilation, Zedseayou),</li>
<li>to the stars repository (a-benini, ailich, ateucher, btupper, dblodgett-usgs, djnavarro, ErickChacon, ethanwhite, etiennebr, flahn, floriandeboissieu, gavg712, gdkrmr, jannes-m, jeroen, JoshOBrien, kadyb, kendonB, mdsumner, michaeldorman, mtennekes, Nowosad, pat-s, PPaccioretti, przell, qdread, Rekyt, rhijmans, rubak, rushgeo, statnmap, uribo, yutannihilation),</li>
<li>to the s2 repository (kylebutts, spiry34, jeroen, eddelbuettel).</li>
<li>to the Python code of selected sections of the book (Suriyah Dhinakaran, suriyahgit)</li>
</ul>
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<div class="sourceCode" id="cb1" data-shortcodes="false"><pre class="sourceCode markdown code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode markdown"><span id="cb1-1"><a href="#cb1-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu"># Preface {.unnumbered}</span></span>
<span id="cb1-2"><a href="#cb1-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-3"><a href="#cb1-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="in">```{r echo=FALSE,eval=FALSE}</span></span>
<span id="cb1-4"><a href="#cb1-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>knitr<span class="sc">::</span><span class="fu">write_bib</span>(<span class="fu">c</span>(</span>
<span id="cb1-5"><a href="#cb1-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"abind"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-6"><a href="#cb1-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"classInt"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-7"><a href="#cb1-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"caret"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-8"><a href="#cb1-8" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"colorspace"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-9"><a href="#cb1-9" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"dbscan"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-10"><a href="#cb1-10" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"dbscan"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-11"><a href="#cb1-11" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"ecmwfr"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-12"><a href="#cb1-12" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"gdalcubes"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-13"><a href="#cb1-13" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"gdalUtilities"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-14"><a href="#cb1-14" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"ggplot2"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-15"><a href="#cb1-15" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"ggspatial"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-16"><a href="#cb1-16" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"gstat"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-17"><a href="#cb1-17" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"hglm"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-18"><a href="#cb1-18" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"HSAR"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-19"><a href="#cb1-19" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"igraph"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-20"><a href="#cb1-20" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"INLA"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-21"><a href="#cb1-21" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"lme4"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-22"><a href="#cb1-22" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"lwgeom"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-23"><a href="#cb1-23" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"mapsf"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-24"><a href="#cb1-24" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"mapview"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-25"><a href="#cb1-25" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"Matrix"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-26"><a href="#cb1-26" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"mgcv"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-27"><a href="#cb1-27" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"osmar"</span>, </span>
<span id="cb1-28"><a href="#cb1-28" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"osmdata"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-29"><a href="#cb1-29" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"R2BayesX"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-30"><a href="#cb1-30" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"raster"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-31"><a href="#cb1-31" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"RColorBrewer"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-32"><a href="#cb1-32" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"rgee"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-33"><a href="#cb1-33" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"rgeoda"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-34"><a href="#cb1-34" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"rnaturalearth"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-35"><a href="#cb1-35" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"rstac"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-36"><a href="#cb1-36" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"s2"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-37"><a href="#cb1-37" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"sfnetworks"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-38"><a href="#cb1-38" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"sf"</span>, </span>
<span id="cb1-39"><a href="#cb1-39" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"sftime"</span>, </span>
<span id="cb1-40"><a href="#cb1-40" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"sp"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-41"><a href="#cb1-41" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"spacetime"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-42"><a href="#cb1-42" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"spatialreg"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-43"><a href="#cb1-43" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"spatstat"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-44"><a href="#cb1-44" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"spData"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-45"><a href="#cb1-45" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"spdep"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-46"><a href="#cb1-46" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"splm"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-47"><a href="#cb1-47" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"stars"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-48"><a href="#cb1-48" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"stcos"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-49"><a href="#cb1-49" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"stplanr"</span>, </span>
<span id="cb1-50"><a href="#cb1-50" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"stpp"</span>, </span>
<span id="cb1-51"><a href="#cb1-51" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"terra"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-52"><a href="#cb1-52" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"tidyverse"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-53"><a href="#cb1-53" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"tmap"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-54"><a href="#cb1-54" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"tsibble"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-55"><a href="#cb1-55" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"units"</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-56"><a href="#cb1-56" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="st">"viridis"</span></span>
<span id="cb1-57"><a href="#cb1-57" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> ), <span class="st">"packages.bib"</span>, <span class="at">width =</span> <span class="dv">60</span>)</span>
<span id="cb1-58"><a href="#cb1-58" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="in">```</span></span>
<span id="cb1-59"><a href="#cb1-59" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-60"><a href="#cb1-60" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Data science is concerned with finding answers to questions on the</span>
<span id="cb1-61"><a href="#cb1-61" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>basis of available data, and communicating that effort. Besides</span>
<span id="cb1-62"><a href="#cb1-62" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>showing the results, this communication involves sharing the data</span>
<span id="cb1-63"><a href="#cb1-63" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>used, but also exposing the path that led to the answers in a</span>
<span id="cb1-64"><a href="#cb1-64" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>comprehensive and reproducible way. It also acknowledges the fact </span>
<span id="cb1-65"><a href="#cb1-65" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>that available data may not be sufficient to answer questions, and </span>
<span id="cb1-66"><a href="#cb1-66" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>that any answers are conditional on the data collection or sampling </span>
<span id="cb1-67"><a href="#cb1-67" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>protocols employed.</span>
<span id="cb1-68"><a href="#cb1-68" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-69"><a href="#cb1-69" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>\index{data science}</span>
<span id="cb1-70"><a href="#cb1-70" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>\index{spatial data science}</span>
<span id="cb1-71"><a href="#cb1-71" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-72"><a href="#cb1-72" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>This book introduces and explains the concepts underlying</span>
<span id="cb1-73"><a href="#cb1-73" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>_spatial_ data: points, lines, polygons, rasters, coverages, geometry</span>
<span id="cb1-74"><a href="#cb1-74" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>attributes, data cubes, reference systems, as well as higher-level</span>
<span id="cb1-75"><a href="#cb1-75" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>concepts including how attributes relate to geometries and how</span>
<span id="cb1-76"><a href="#cb1-76" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>this affects analysis. The relationship of attributes to geometries</span>
<span id="cb1-77"><a href="#cb1-77" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>is known as support, and changing support also changes the </span>
<span id="cb1-78"><a href="#cb1-78" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>characteristics of attributes. Some data generation processes are</span>
<span id="cb1-79"><a href="#cb1-79" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>continuous in space, and may be observed everywhere. Others are </span>
<span id="cb1-80"><a href="#cb1-80" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>discrete, observed in tesselated containers. In modern spatial data</span>
<span id="cb1-81"><a href="#cb1-81" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>analysis, tesellated methods are often used for all data, extending </span>
<span id="cb1-82"><a href="#cb1-82" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>across the legacy partition into point process, geostatistical and </span>
<span id="cb1-83"><a href="#cb1-83" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>lattice models. It is support (and the understanding of support) that</span>
<span id="cb1-84"><a href="#cb1-84" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>underlies the importance of spatial representation. The book aims </span>
<span id="cb1-85"><a href="#cb1-85" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>at data scientists who want to get a grip on using spatial data </span>
<span id="cb1-86"><a href="#cb1-86" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>in their analysis. To exemplify how to do things, it uses R.</span>
<span id="cb1-87"><a href="#cb1-87" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>In future editions we hope to extend this with examples using Python</span>
<span id="cb1-88"><a href="#cb1-88" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">see, e.g., @bivand:22</span><span class="co">]</span> and Julia.</span>
<span id="cb1-89"><a href="#cb1-89" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-90"><a href="#cb1-90" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>It is often thought that spatial data boils down to having</span>
<span id="cb1-91"><a href="#cb1-91" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>observations' longitude and latitude in a dataset, and treating these</span>
<span id="cb1-92"><a href="#cb1-92" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>just like any other variable. This carries the risk of missed </span>
<span id="cb1-93"><a href="#cb1-93" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>opportunities and meaningless analyses. For instance,</span>
<span id="cb1-94"><a href="#cb1-94" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-95"><a href="#cb1-95" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>coordinate pairs really are pairs, and lose much of their meaning </span>
<span id="cb1-96"><a href="#cb1-96" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>when treated independently</span>
<span id="cb1-97"><a href="#cb1-97" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>rather than having point locations, observations are often </span>
<span id="cb1-98"><a href="#cb1-98" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>associated with spatial lines, areas, or grid cells</span>
<span id="cb1-99"><a href="#cb1-99" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>spatial distances between observations are often not well</span>
<span id="cb1-100"><a href="#cb1-100" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>represented by straight-line distances, but by great circle</span>
<span id="cb1-101"><a href="#cb1-101" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>distances, distances through networks, or by measuring the effort</span>
<span id="cb1-102"><a href="#cb1-102" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>it takes getting from A to B</span>
<span id="cb1-103"><a href="#cb1-103" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-104"><a href="#cb1-104" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>We introduce the concepts behind spatial data, coordinate reference</span>
<span id="cb1-105"><a href="#cb1-105" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>systems, spatial analysis, and introduce a number of packages,</span>
<span id="cb1-106"><a href="#cb1-106" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>including **sf** [@rjsf; @R-sf], **stars** [@R-stars], **s2** <span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">@R-s2</span><span class="co">]</span></span>
<span id="cb1-107"><a href="#cb1-107" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>and **lwgeom** <span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">@R-lwgeom</span><span class="co">]</span>, </span>
<span id="cb1-108"><a href="#cb1-108" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>as well as a number of spatial **tidyverse** <span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">@welcome; @R-tidyverse</span><span class="co">]</span> extensions, and a number of</span>
<span id="cb1-109"><a href="#cb1-109" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>spatial analysis and visualisation packages that can be used with these packages,</span>
<span id="cb1-110"><a href="#cb1-110" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>including **gstat** [@gstatcg; @R-gstat], **spdep** [@R-spdep], **spatialreg** [@R-spatialreg], **spatstat** <span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">@baddeley2015spatial; @R-spatstat</span><span class="co">]</span>,</span>
<span id="cb1-111"><a href="#cb1-111" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>**tmap** [@tmap; @R-tmap] and **mapview** <span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">@R-mapview</span><span class="co">]</span>.</span>
<span id="cb1-112"><a href="#cb1-112" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-113"><a href="#cb1-113" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Like data science, spatial data science seems to be a field that</span>
<span id="cb1-114"><a href="#cb1-114" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>arises bottom-up in and from many existing scientific disciplines</span>
<span id="cb1-115"><a href="#cb1-115" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>and industrial activities concerned with application of spatial</span>
<span id="cb1-116"><a href="#cb1-116" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>data, rather than being a sub-discipline of an existing scientific</span>
<span id="cb1-117"><a href="#cb1-117" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>discipline. Although there are various activities trying to scope it</span>
<span id="cb1-118"><a href="#cb1-118" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>through focused conferences, symposia, chairs and study programs,</span>
<span id="cb1-119"><a href="#cb1-119" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>we believe that the versatility of spatial data applications and</span>
<span id="cb1-120"><a href="#cb1-120" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>questions will render such activity hard. Giving this book the</span>
<span id="cb1-121"><a href="#cb1-121" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>title "spatial data science" is not another attempt to define the</span>
<span id="cb1-122"><a href="#cb1-122" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>bounds of this field but rather an attempt to contribute to it from</span>
<span id="cb1-123"><a href="#cb1-123" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>our 3-4 decades of experience working with researchers from</span>
<span id="cb1-124"><a href="#cb1-124" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>various fields willing to publicly share research questions, data,</span>
<span id="cb1-125"><a href="#cb1-125" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>and attempts to solve these questions with software. As a consequence,</span>
<span id="cb1-126"><a href="#cb1-126" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>the selection of topics found in this book has a certain bias towards</span>
<span id="cb1-127"><a href="#cb1-127" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>our own areas of research interest and experience. Platforms that</span>
<span id="cb1-128"><a href="#cb1-128" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>have helped create an open research community include the ai-geostats</span>
<span id="cb1-129"><a href="#cb1-129" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>and r-sig-geo mailing lists, sourceforge, r-forge, GitHub, and the</span>
<span id="cb1-130"><a href="#cb1-130" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>OpenGeoHub summer schools organized yearly since 2006. The current</span>
<span id="cb1-131"><a href="#cb1-131" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>possibility and willingness to cross data science language barriers</span>
<span id="cb1-132"><a href="#cb1-132" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>opens a new and very exciting perspective. Our motivation to</span>
<span id="cb1-133"><a href="#cb1-133" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>contribute to this field is a belief that open science leads to</span>
<span id="cb1-134"><a href="#cb1-134" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>better science, and that better science might contribute to a more</span>
<span id="cb1-135"><a href="#cb1-135" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>sustainable world.</span>
<span id="cb1-136"><a href="#cb1-136" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-137"><a href="#cb1-137" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">## Python</span></span>
<span id="cb1-138"><a href="#cb1-138" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-139"><a href="#cb1-139" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>The edition of this book that has as subtitle _with applications in</span>
<span id="cb1-140"><a href="#cb1-140" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>R and Python_ contains Python code for selected code sections, and</span>
<span id="cb1-141"><a href="#cb1-141" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>shows code and output in a tabset for the html-rendered version of</span>
<span id="cb1-142"><a href="#cb1-142" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>the book. The Python code used is work in progress, and improvements</span>
<span id="cb1-143"><a href="#cb1-143" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>and additions to it are highly appreciated.</span>
<span id="cb1-144"><a href="#cb1-144" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-145"><a href="#cb1-145" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-146"><a href="#cb1-146" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>::: {.content-visible when-format="html"}</span>
<span id="cb1-147"><a href="#cb1-147" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-148"><a href="#cb1-148" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">## Printed version of this book</span></span>
<span id="cb1-149"><a href="#cb1-149" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-150"><a href="#cb1-150" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>The printed version of this book (1st edition) is found at the</span>
<span id="cb1-151"><a href="#cb1-151" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">Routeledge/CRC</span><span class="co">](https://www.routledge.com/Spatial-Data-Science-With-Applications-in-R/Pebesma-Bivand/p/book/9781138311183)</span></span>
<span id="cb1-152"><a href="#cb1-152" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>or <span class="co">[</span><span class="ot">Taylor and Francis</span><span class="co">](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9780429459016/spatial-data-science-edzer-pebesma-roger-bivand)</span></span>
<span id="cb1-153"><a href="#cb1-153" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>websites.</span>
<span id="cb1-154"><a href="#cb1-154" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-155"><a href="#cb1-155" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>The full reference is: Pebesma, E.; Bivand, R. (2023). Spatial</span>
<span id="cb1-156"><a href="#cb1-156" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Data Science: With Applications in R (1st ed.). 314 pages. Chapman and</span>
<span id="cb1-157"><a href="#cb1-157" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429459016</span>
<span id="cb1-158"><a href="#cb1-158" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-159"><a href="#cb1-159" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>:::</span>
<span id="cb1-160"><a href="#cb1-160" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-161"><a href="#cb1-161" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">## Acknowledgements {-}</span></span>
<span id="cb1-162"><a href="#cb1-162" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-163"><a href="#cb1-163" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>We are grateful to the entire r-spatial community, especially those who</span>
<span id="cb1-164"><a href="#cb1-164" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-165"><a href="#cb1-165" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>developed r-spatial packages or contributed to their development</span>
<span id="cb1-166"><a href="#cb1-166" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>contributed to discussions on twitter <span class="in">`#rspatial`</span> or GitHub </span>
<span id="cb1-167"><a href="#cb1-167" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>brought comments or asked questions in courses, summer</span>
<span id="cb1-168"><a href="#cb1-168" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>schools, or conferences.</span>
<span id="cb1-169"><a href="#cb1-169" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-170"><a href="#cb1-170" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>We are in particular grateful to Dewey Dunnington for implementing</span>
<span id="cb1-171"><a href="#cb1-171" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>the **s2** package, and for active contributions from Sahil Bhandari,</span>
<span id="cb1-172"><a href="#cb1-172" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Jonathan Bahlmann for preparing the figures in @sec-datacube,</span>
<span id="cb1-173"><a href="#cb1-173" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Claus Wilke, Jakub Nowosad, the "Spatial Data Science with R"</span>
<span id="cb1-174"><a href="#cb1-174" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>classes of 2021 and 2022, and to those who actively contributed</span>
<span id="cb1-175"><a href="#cb1-175" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>with GitHub issues, pull requests, or discussions:</span>
<span id="cb1-176"><a href="#cb1-176" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-177"><a href="#cb1-177" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>to the book repository (Nowosad, jonathom, JaFro96,</span>
<span id="cb1-178"><a href="#cb1-178" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>singhkpratham, liuyadong, hurielreichel, PPaccioretti, Robinlovelace,</span>
<span id="cb1-179"><a href="#cb1-179" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Syverpet, jonas-hurst, angela-li, ALanguillaume, florisvdh,</span>
<span id="cb1-180"><a href="#cb1-180" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>ismailsunni, andronaco),</span>
<span id="cb1-181"><a href="#cb1-181" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>to the sf repository (aecoleman, agila5, andycraig, angela-li,</span>
<span id="cb1-182"><a href="#cb1-182" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>ateucher, barryrowlingson, bbest, BenGraeler, bhaskarvk, Bisaloo,</span>
<span id="cb1-183"><a href="#cb1-183" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>bkmgit, christophertull, chrisyeh96, cmcaine, cpsievert, daissi,</span>
<span id="cb1-184"><a href="#cb1-184" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>dankelley, DavisVaughan, dbaston, dblodgett-usgs, dcooley,</span>
<span id="cb1-185"><a href="#cb1-185" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>demorenoc, dpprdan, drkrynstrng, etiennebr, famuvie, fdetsch,</span>
<span id="cb1-186"><a href="#cb1-186" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>florisvdh, gregleleu, hadley, hughjonesd,</span>
<span id="cb1-187"><a href="#cb1-187" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>huizezhang-sherry, jeffreyhanson, jeroen, jlacko, joethorley,</span>
<span id="cb1-188"><a href="#cb1-188" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>joheisig, JoshOBrien, jwolfson, kadyb, karldw, kendonB, khondula,</span>
<span id="cb1-189"><a href="#cb1-189" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>KHwong12, krlmlr, lambdamoses, lbusett, lcgodoy, lionel-, loicdtx,</span>
<span id="cb1-190"><a href="#cb1-190" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>marwahaha, MatthieuStigler, mdsumner, MichaelChirico, microly,</span>
<span id="cb1-191"><a href="#cb1-191" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>mpadge, mtennekes, nikolai-b, noerw, Nowosad, oliverbeagley, Pakillo,</span>
<span id="cb1-192"><a href="#cb1-192" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>paleolimbot, pat-s, PPaccioretti, prdm0, ranghetti, rCarto, renejuan,</span>
<span id="cb1-193"><a href="#cb1-193" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>rhijmans, rhurlin, rnuske, Robinlovelace, robitalec, rubak, rundel,</span>
<span id="cb1-194"><a href="#cb1-194" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>statnmap, thomasp85, tim-salabim, tyluRp, uribo, Valexandre,</span>
<span id="cb1-195"><a href="#cb1-195" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>wibeasley, wittja01, yutannihilation, Zedseayou), </span>
<span id="cb1-196"><a href="#cb1-196" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>to the stars repository (a-benini, ailich, ateucher, btupper,</span>
<span id="cb1-197"><a href="#cb1-197" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>dblodgett-usgs, djnavarro, ErickChacon, ethanwhite, etiennebr, flahn,</span>
<span id="cb1-198"><a href="#cb1-198" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>floriandeboissieu, gavg712, gdkrmr, jannes-m, jeroen, JoshOBrien,</span>
<span id="cb1-199"><a href="#cb1-199" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>kadyb, kendonB, mdsumner, michaeldorman, mtennekes, Nowosad, pat-s,</span>
<span id="cb1-200"><a href="#cb1-200" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>PPaccioretti, przell, qdread, Rekyt, rhijmans, rubak, rushgeo,</span>
<span id="cb1-201"><a href="#cb1-201" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>statnmap, uribo, yutannihilation),</span>
<span id="cb1-202"><a href="#cb1-202" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>to the s2 repository (kylebutts, spiry34, jeroen, eddelbuettel).</span>
<span id="cb1-203"><a href="#cb1-203" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="ss">* </span>to the Python code of selected sections of the book (Suriyah</span>
<span id="cb1-204"><a href="#cb1-204" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Dhinakaran, suriyahgit)</span>
<span id="cb1-205"><a href="#cb1-205" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-206"><a href="#cb1-206" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>::: {.content-visible when-format="html"}</span>
<span id="cb1-207"><a href="#cb1-207" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-208"><a href="#cb1-208" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="kw"><a</span> <span class="er">href</span><span class="ot">=</span><span class="st">"https://mastodon.social/@edzer"</span> <span class="er">rel</span><span class="ot">=</span><span class="st">"me"</span><span class="kw">></a></span></span>
<span id="cb1-209"><a href="#cb1-209" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-210"><a href="#cb1-210" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>:::</span>
<span id="cb1-211"><a href="#cb1-211" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb1-212"><a href="#cb1-212" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>{{< include ga.qmd >}}</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
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