Sacred Books of the East Vol. 8_ The Bhagavad-Gîtâ_ Bhagavadgîtâ_ Introduction to Bhagavadgîtâ.mhtml

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<p><a name=3D"page_1"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 1</font></a></p>
<h1 align=3D"CENTER">INTRODUCTION TO BHAGAVADG=CET=C2.</h1>
<p>IT has become quite a literary commonplace, that--to borrow the words of=
 Professor Max M=FCller in one of his recent lectures--history, in the ordi=
nary sense of the word, is almost unknown in Indian literature&nbsp;<a name=
=3D"fr_0"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#=
fn_0"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. And it is certainly a remarkable irony=
 of fate, that we should be obliged to make this remark on the very thresho=
ld of an introduction to the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2; for according to the eminent=
 French philosopher, Cousin&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_1"></a><a href=3D"http://www=
.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_1"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>=
, this great deficiency in Sanskrit literature is due, in no inconsiderable=
 measure, to the doctrines propounded in the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2 itself. But h=
owever that may be, this much is certain, that the student of the Bhagavadg=
=EEt=E2 must, for the present, go without that reliable historical informat=
ion touching the author of the work, the time at which it was composed, and=
 even the place it occupies in literature, which one naturally desires, whe=
n entering upon the study of any work. More especially in an attempt like t=
he present, intended as it mainly is for students of the history of religio=
n, I should have been better pleased, if I could, in this Introduction, hav=
e concentrated to a focus, as it were, only those well ascertained historic=
al results, on which there is something like a consensus of opinion among p=
ersons qualified to judge. But there is no exaggeration in saying, that it =
is almost impossible to lay down even a single proposition respecting any i=
mportant matter connected with the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2, about which any such c=
onsensus can be said to exist. The conclusions arrived at in this Introduct=
ion must, therefore, be distinctly</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_2"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 2</font></a></p>
<p>understood to embody individual opinions only, and must be taken accordi=
ngly for what they are worth.</p>
<p>The full name of the work is Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. In common parlance, we of=
ten abbreviate the name into G=EEt=E2, and in Sanskrit literature the name =
occurs in both forms. In the works of Sa<u>n</u>kar=E2<i>k</i>=E2rya, quota=
tions from the G=EEt=E2 are introduced, sometimes with the words 'In the G=
=EEt=E2,' or 'In the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2,' and sometimes with words which may =
be rendered 'In the G=EEt=E2s,' the plural form being used&nbsp;<a name=3D"=
fr_2"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_2=
"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. In the colophons to the MSS. of the work, =
the form current, apparently throughout India, is, 'In the Upanishads sung =
(G=EEt=E2s) by the Deity.' Sa<u>n</u>kar=E2<i>k</i>=E2rya, indeed, sometime=
s calls it the =CE<i>s</i>vara G=EEt=E2&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_3"></a><a href=
=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_3"><font size=3D"1=
">2</font></a>, which, I believe, is the specific title of a different work=
 altogether. The signification, however, of the two names is identical, nam=
ely, the song sung by the Deity, or, as Wilkins translates it, the Divine L=
ay.</p>
<p>This Divine Lay forms part of the Bh=EEshma Parvan of the Mah=E2bh=E2rat=
a--one of the two well-known national epics of India. The G=EEt=E2 gives it=
s name to a subdivision of the Bh=EEshma Parvan, which is called the Bhagav=
adg=EEt=E2 Parvan, and which includes, in addition to the eighteen chapters=
 of which the G=EEt=E2 consists, twelve other chapters. Upon this the quest=
ion has naturally arisen, Is the G=EEt=E2 a genuine portion of the Mah=E2bh=
=E2rata, or is it a later addition? The question is one of considerable dif=
ficulty. But I cannot help saying, that the manner in which it has been gen=
erally dealt with is not altogether satisfactory to my mind. Before going a=
ny further into that question, however, it is desirable to state some of th=
e facts on which the decision must be based. It appears, then, that the roy=
al family of Hastin=E2pura was divided into two branches; the one called th=
e Kauravas, and the other the P=E2<i>nd</i>avas. The former wished to keep =
the latter out of the share of the kingdom claimed by them; and so, after m=
any attempts at</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_3"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 3</font></a></p>
<p>an amicable arrangement had proved fruitless, it was determined to decid=
e the differences between the two parties by the arbitrament of arms. Each =
party accordingly collected its adherents, and the hostile armies met on th=
e 'holy field of Kurukshetra,' I mentioned in the opening lines of our poem=
. At this juncture, K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a Dvaip=E2yana, alias Vy=E2sa, a re=
lative of both parties and endowed with more than human powers, presents hi=
mself before Dh<i>ri</i>tar=E2sh<i>t</i>ra, the father of the Kauravas, who=
 is stated to be altogether blind. Vy=E2sa asks Dh<i>ri</i>tar=E2sh<i>t</i>=
ra whether it is his wish to look with his own eyes on the course of the ba=
ttle; and on Dh<i>ri</i>tar=E2sh<i>t</i>ra's expressing his reluctance, Vy=
=E2sa deputes one Sa=F1<i>g</i>aya to relate to Dh<i>ri</i>tar=E2sh<i>t</i>=
ra all the events of the battle, giving to Sa=F1<i>g</i>aya, by means of hi=
s own superhuman powers, all necessary aids for performing the duty. Then t=
he battle begins, and after a ten days' struggle, the first great general o=
f the Kauravas, namely Bh=EEshma, falls&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_4"></a><a href=
=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_4"><font size=3D"1=
">1</font></a>. At this point Sa=F1<i>g</i>aya comes up to Dh<i>ri</i>tar=
=E2sh<i>t</i>ra, and announces to him the sad result, which is of course a =
great blow to his party. Dh<i>ri</i>tar=E2sh<i>t</i>ra then makes numerous =
enquiries of Sa=F1<i>g</i>aya regarding the course of the conflict, all of =
which Sa=F1<i>g</i>aya duly answers. And among his earliest answers is the =
account of the conversation between K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a and Ar<i>g</i>una=
 at the commencement of the battle, which constitutes the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2.=
 After relating to Dh<i>ri</i>tar=E2sh<i>t</i>ra that 'wonderful and holy d=
ialogue,' and after giving an account of what occurred in the intervals of =
the conversation, Sa=F1<i>g</i>aya proceeds to narrate the actual events of=
 the battle.</p>
<p>With this rough outline. of the framework of the story before us, we are=
 now in a, position to consider the opposing arguments on the point above n=
oted. Mr. Talboys Wheeler writes on that point as follows&nbsp;<a name=3D"f=
r_5"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_5"=
><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>. 'But there remains one other anomalous char=
acteristic of the history of the great war, as it is recorded in the Mah=E2=
bh=E2rata, which cannot</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_4"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 4</font></a></p>
<p>be passed over in silence; and that is the extraordinary abruptness and =
infelicity with which Brahmanical discourses, such as essays on law, on mor=
als, sermons on divine things, and even instruction in the so-called scienc=
es are recklessly grafted upon the main narrative.... K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a=
 and Ar<i>g</i>una on the morning of the first day of the war, when both ar=
mies are drawn out in battle-array, and hostilities are about to begin, ent=
er into a long and philosophical dialogue respecting the various forms of d=
evotion which lead to the emancipation of the soul; and it cannot be denied=
 that, however incongruous and irrelevant such a dialogue must appear on th=
e eve of battle, the discourse of K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a, whilst acting as t=
he charioteer of Ar<i>g</i>una, contains the essence of the most spiritual =
phases of Brahmanical teaching, and is expressed in language of such depth =
and sublimity, that it has become deservedly known as the Bhagavad-g=EEt=E2=
 or Divine Song. . . . Indeed no effort has been spared by the Brahmanical =
compilers to convert the history of the great war into a vehicle for Brahma=
nical teaching; and so skilfully are many of these interpolations interwove=
n with the story, that it is frequently impossible to narrate the one, with=
out referring to the other, however irrelevant the matter may be to the mai=
n subject in hand.' It appears to me, I own, very difficult to accept that =
as a satisfactory argument, amounting, as it does, to no more than this--th=
at 'interpolations,' which must needs be referred to in narrating the main =
story even to make it intelligible, are nevertheless to be regarded 'as evi=
dently the product of a Brahmanical age&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_6"></a><a href=
=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_6"><font size=3D"1=
">1</font></a>,' and presumably also a later age, because, forsooth, they a=
re irrelevant and incongruous according to the 'tastes and ideas&nbsp;<a na=
me=3D"fr_7"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.ht=
m#fn_6"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>'--not of the time, be it remembered, =
when the 'main story' is supposed to have been written, but--of this enligh=
tened nineteenth century. The support, too, which may be supposed to be der=
ived by this argument from the allegation that there has been an attempt to=
 Brahmanize, so to say, the</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_5"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 5</font></a></p>
<p>history of the great war, appears to me to be extremely weak, so far as =
the G=EEt=E2 is concerned. But that is a point which will have to be consid=
ered more at large in the sequel&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_8"></a><a href=3D"http:=
//www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_7"><font size=3D"1">1</font=
></a>.</p>
<p>While, however, I am not prepared to admit the cogency of Mr. Wheeler's =
arguments, I am not, on the other hand, to be understood as holding that th=
e G=EEt=E2 must be accepted as a genuine part of the original Mah=E2bh=E2ra=
ta. I own that my feeling on the subject is something akin to that of the g=
reat historian of Greece regarding the Homeric question, a feeling of painf=
ul diffidence regarding the soundness of any conclusion whatever. While it =
is impossible not to feel serious doubts about the critical condition of th=
e Mah=E2bh=E2rata generally; while, indeed, we may be almost certain that t=
he work has been tampered with from time to time&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_9"></a>=
<a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_8"><font si=
ze=3D"1">2</font></a>; it is difficult to come to a satisfactory conclusion=
 regarding any particular given section of it. And it must be remembered, a=
lso, that the alternatives for us to choose from in these cases are not onl=
y these two, that the section in question may be a genuine part of the work=
, or that it may be a later interpolation: but also this, as suggested rece=
ntly, though not for the first time, by Mr. Freeman&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_10">=
</a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_9"><fon=
t size=3D"1">3</font></a> with reference to the Homeric question, that the =
section may have been in existence at the date of the original epos, and ma=
y have been worked by the author of the epos into his own production. For t=
hat absence of dread, 'either of the law or sentiment of copyright,' which =
Mr. Freeman relies upon with regard to a primitive Greek poet, was by no me=
ans confined to the Greek people, but may be traced amongst us also. The co=
mmentator Madhus=FBdana Sarasvat=EE likens the G=EEt=E2 to those dialogues =
which occur in sundry Vedic works, particularly the Upanishads&nbsp;<a name=
=3D"fr_11"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm=
#fn_10"><font size=3D"1">4</font></a>. Possibly--I will not use a stronger =
word--possibly the G=EEt=E2 may</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_6"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 6</font></a></p>
<p>have existed as such a dialogue before the Mah=E2bh=E2rata, and may have=
 been appropriated by the author of the Mah=E2bh=E2rata to his own purposes=
&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_12"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe0=
8/sbe0802.htm#fn_11"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. But yet, upon the whole=
, having regard to the fact that those ideas of unity on which Mr. Wheeler =
and others set so much store are scarcely appropriate to our old literature=
; to the fact that the G=EEt=E2 fits pretty well into the setting given to =
it in the Bh=EEshma Parvan; to the fact that the feeling of Ar<i>g</i>una, =
which gives occasion to it, is not at all inconsistent, but is most consona=
nt, with poetical justice; to the fact that there is not in the G=EEt=E2, i=
n my judgment, any trace of a sectarian or 'Brahmanizing' spirit&nbsp;<a na=
me=3D"fr_13"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.h=
tm#fn_12"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>, such as Mr. Wheeler and also the l=
ate Professor Goldst=FCcker&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_14"></a><a href=3D"http://ww=
w.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_13"><font size=3D"1">3</font></=
a> hold to have animated the arrangers of the Mah=E2bh=E2rata; having regar=
d, I say, to all these facts, I am prepared to adhere, I will not say witho=
ut diffidence, to the theory of the genuineness of the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2 as =
a portion of the original Mah=E2bh=E2rata.</p>
<p>The next point to consider is as to the authorship of the G=EEt=E2. The =
popular notion on this subject is pretty well known. The whole of the Mah=
=E2bh=E2rata is, by our traditions, attributed to Vy=E2sa, whom we have alr=
eady noticed as a relative of the Kauravas and P=E2<i>nd</i>avas; and there=
fore the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2, also, is naturally affiliated to the same author=
. The earliest written testimony to this authorship, that I can trace, is t=
o be found in Sa<u>n</u>kar=E2<i>k</i>=E2rya's commentary on the G=EEt=E2&n=
bsp;<a name=3D"fr_15"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/=
sbe0802.htm#fn_14"><font size=3D"1">4</font></a> itself and on the B<i>ri</=
i>had=E2ra<i>ny</i>akopanishad&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_16"></a><a href=3D"http:/=
/www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_15"><font size=3D"1">5</font=
></a>. To a certain extent, the mention of Vy=E2sa in the body of the G=EEt=
=E2 would, from a historic standpoint, seem to militate against this tradit=
ion. But I have not seen in any of the commentaries to which I have had acc=
ess, any consideration of this point, as there is of the mention in some</p=
>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_7"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 7</font></a></p>
<p><font size=3D"-2" color=3D"GREEN">[paragraph continues]</font> Sm<i>ri</=
i>tis and S=FBtras of the names of those to whom those Sm<i>ri</i>tis and S=
=FBtras are respectively ascribed&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_17"></a><a href=3D"htt=
p://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_16"><font size=3D"1">1</f=
ont></a>.</p>
<p>We must now leave these preliminary questions, unluckily in a state far =
from satisfactory, and proceed to that most important topic--the date when =
the G=EEt=E2 was composed, and the position it occupies in Sanskrit literat=
ure. We have here to consider the external evidence bearing on these points=
, which is tantalizingly meagre; and the internal evidence, which is, perha=
ps, somewhat more full. And taking first the internal evidence, the various=
 items falling under that head may be marshalled into four groups. Firstly,=
 we have to consider the general character of the G=EEt=E2 with reference t=
o its mode of handling its subject. Secondly, there is the character of its=
 style and language. Thirdly, we have to consider the nature of the versifi=
cation of the G=EEt=E2. And fourthly and lastly, we must take note of sundr=
y points of detail, such as the attitude of the G=EEt=E2 towards the Vedas =
and towards caste, its allusions to other systems of speculation, and other=
 matters of the like nature. On each of these groups, in the order here sta=
ted, we now proceed to make a few observations.</p>
<p>And first about the manner in which the G=EEt=E2 deals with its subject.=
 It appears to me, that the work bears on the face of it very plain marks i=
ndicating that it belongs to an age prior to the system-making age of Sansk=
rit philosophy In 1875, I wrote as follows upon this point: 'My view is, th=
at in the G=EEt=E2 and the Upanishads, the philosophical part has not been =
consistently and fully worked out. We have there the results of free though=
t, exercised on different subjects of great moment, unfettered by the exige=
ncies of any foregone conclusions, or of any fully developed theory. It is =
afterwards, it is at a later stage of philosophical progress, that system-m=
aking arises. In that stage some thinkers interpret whole works by the ligh=
t of some particular doctrines or expressions. And the result is the develo=
pment of a whole multitude of philosophical sects, following the lead of th=
ose thinkers, and all professing to draw their</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_8"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 8</font></a></p>
<p>doctrine from the G=EEt=E2 or the Upanishads, yet each differing remarka=
bly from the other&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_18"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-=
texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_17"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>.' Sinc=
e this was written, Professor Max M=FCller's Hibbert Lectures have been pub=
lished. And I am happy to find, that as regards the Upanishads, his view co=
incides exactly with that which I have expressed in the words now quoted. P=
rofessor Max M=FCller says: 'There is not what may be called a philosophica=
l system in these Upanishads. They are in the true sense of the word guesse=
s at truth, frequently contradicting each other, yet all tending in one dir=
ection&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_19"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hi=
n/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_18"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>.' Further corrobor=
ation for the same view is also forthcoming. Professor Fitz-Edward Hall, in=
 a passage which I had not noticed before, says&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_20"></a>=
<a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_19"><font s=
ize=3D"1">3</font></a>: 'In the Upanishads, the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2, and other=
 ancient Hindu books, we encounter, in combination, the doctrines which, af=
ter having been subjected to modifications that rendered them as wholes irr=
econcileable, were distinguished, at an uncertain period, into what have fo=
r many ages been styled the S=E2<u>n</u>khya and the Ved=E2nta.' We have th=
us very weighty authority for adhering to the view already expressed on thi=
s important topic. But as Professor Weber appears to have expressed an opin=
ion&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_21"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/s=
be08/sbe0802.htm#fn_20"><font size=3D"1">4</font></a> intended perhaps to t=
hrow some doubt on the correctness of that view, it is desirable to go a li=
ttle more into detail to fortify it by actual reference to the contents of =
the G=EEt=E2, the more especially as we can thus elucidate the true charact=
er of that work. Before doing so, however, it may be pointed out, that the =
proposition we have laid down is one, the test of which lies more in a comp=
rehensive review of the whole of the G=EEt=E2, than in the investigation of=
 small details on which there is necessarily much room for difference of op=
inion.</p>
<p>And first, let us compare that indisputably systematized work, the curre=
nt Yoga-s=FBtras&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_22"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-te=
xts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_21"><font size=3D"1">5</font></a>, with th=
e Bhagavadg=EEt=E2 on one</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_9"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 9</font></a></p>
<p>or two topics, where they both travel over common ground. In the G=EEt=
=E2, chapter VI, stanzas 33, 34 (<a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin=
/sbe08/sbe0808.htm#page_71">p. 71</a>), we have Ar<i>g</i>una putting what =
is, in substance, a question to K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a, as to how the mind, =
which is admittedly 'fickle, boisterous, strong, and obstinate,' is to be b=
rought under control--such control having been declared by K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n=
</i>a to be necessary for attaining devotion (yoga)? K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a =
answers by saying that the mind may be restrained by 'practice (abhy=E2sa) =
and indifference to worldly objects (vair=E2gya).' He then goes on to say, =
that devotion cannot be attained without self-restraint, but that one who h=
as self-restraint, and works to achieve devotion, may succeed in acquiring =
it. Here the subject drops. There is no further explanation of 'practice' o=
r 'indifference to worldly objects,' no exposition of the mode in which the=
y work, and so forth. Contrast now the Yoga-s=FBtras. The topic is there di=
scussed at the very outset of the work. As usual the author begins with 'No=
w therefore the Yoga is to be taught.' He then explains Yoga by the well-kn=
own definition 'Yoga is the restraint of the movements of the mind.' And th=
en after pointing out what the movements of the mind are, he proceeds: 'The=
ir restraint is by means of practice and indifference to worldly objects&nb=
sp;<a name=3D"fr_23"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fn_22"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>,'--the very terms, be it re=
marked in passing, which are used in the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. But having come =
thus far, the author of the S=FBtras does not drop the subject as the autho=
r of the G=EEt=E2 does. He goes on in this wise: Practice is the effort for=
 keeping it steady.' 'And that becomes firmly grounded when resorted to for=
 a long time, without interruption, and with correct conduct.' So far we ha=
ve a discussion of the first requisite specified, namely, practice. Pata=F1=
<i>g</i>ali then goes on to his second requisite for mental restraint. 'Ind=
ifference to worldly objects is the consciousness of having subdued desires=
 &amp;c. (Va<i>s</i>ik=E2ra sa=F1<i>g</i>=F1=E2) which belongs to one havin=
g no longing for objects visible and those which are heard of' (from <i>S</=
i>=E2stras &amp;c., such as heaven and so forth).</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_10"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 10</font></a></p=
>
<p><font size=3D"-2" color=3D"GREEN">[paragraph continues]</font> He next p=
roceeds to distinguish another and higher species of 'indifference,' and th=
en he goes on to point out the results of that self-restraint which is to b=
e acquired in the mode he has expounded. That is one instance. Now take ano=
ther. In chapter VI, stanza 10 and following stanzas, the G=EEt=E2 sets for=
th elaborately the mode of practically achieving. the mental abstraction ca=
lled Yoga. It need not be reproduced here. The reader can readily find out =
how sundry directions are there given for the purpose specified, but withou=
t any attempt at systematizing. Contrast the Yoga-s=FBtras. In the S=E2dhan=
ap=E2da, the section treating of the acquisition of Yoga, Pata=F1<i>g</i>al=
i states in the twenty-ninth aphorism the well-known eight elements of Yoga=
. Then he subdivides these elements, and expatiates on each of them distinc=
tly, defining them, indicating the mode of acquiring them, and hinting at t=
he results which flow from them. 'That inordinate love of subdivision,' whi=
ch Dr. F. E. Hall&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_24"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-t=
exts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_23"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a> has som=
ewhere attributed to the Hindus, appears plainly in these aphorisms, while =
there is not a trace of it in the corresponding passage in the Bhagavadg=EE=
t=E2. In my opinion, therefore, these comparisons strongly corroborate the =
proposition we have laid down regarding the unsystematic, or rather non-sys=
tematic, character of the work. In the one we have definition, classificati=
on, division, and subdivision. In the other we have a set of practical dire=
ctions, without any attempt to arrange them in any very scientific order. I=
n the one you have a set of technical terms with specific significations. I=
n the other no such precision is yet manifest. In one word, you have in the=
 G=EEt=E2 the germs, and noteworthy germs too, of a system&nbsp;<a name=3D"=
fr_25"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_=
24"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>, and you have most of the raw material of=
 a system, but you have no system ready-made.</p>
<p>Let us look at the matter now from a slightly different point of view. T=
here are sundry words used in the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2, the significations of w=
hich are not quite identical</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_11"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 11</font></a></p=
>
<p>throughout the work. Take, for instance, the word 'yoga,' which we have =
rendered 'devotion.' At G=EEt=E2, chapter II, stanza 48 (<a href=3D"http://=
www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0804.htm#page_49">p. 49</a>), a definitio=
n is given of that word. In chapter VI, the signification it bears is entir=
ely different. And again in chapter IX, stanza 5, there is still another se=
nse in which the word is used&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_26"></a><a href=3D"http://=
www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_25"><font size=3D"1">1</font>=
</a>. The word 'Brahman' too occurs in widely varying significations. And o=
ne of its meanings, indeed, is quite singular, namely, 'Nature' (see chapte=
r XIV, stanza 3). Similar observations, to a greater or less extent, apply =
to the words Buddhi, =C2tman, and Svabh=E2va&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_27"></a><a =
href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_26"><font size=
=3D"1">2</font></a>. Now these are words which stand for ideas not unimport=
ant in the philosophy of the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. And the absence of scientifi=
c precision about their use appears to me to be some indication of that non=
-systematic character of which we have already spoken.</p>
<p>There is one other line of argument, which leads, I think, to the same c=
onclusion. There are several passages in the G=EEt=E2 which it is not very =
easy to reconcile with one another; and no attempt is made to harmonise the=
m. Thus, for example, in stanza 16 of chapter VII, K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a di=
vides his devotees into four classes, one of which consists of 'men of know=
ledge,' whom, K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a says, he considers 'as his own self.' I=
t would probably be difficult to imagine any expression which could indicat=
e higher esteem. Yet in stanza 46 of chapter VI, we have it laid down, that=
 the devotee is superior not only to the mere performer of penances, but ev=
en to the men of knowledge. The commentators betray their gnostic bias by i=
nterpreting 'men of knowledge' in this latter passage to mean those who hav=
e acquired erudition in the <i>S</i>=E2stras and their significations. This=
 is not an interpretation to be necessarily rejected. But there is in it a =
certain twisting of words, which, under the circumstances here, I am not in=
clined to accept. And on the other hand, it must not be forgotten, that the=
 implication fairly derivable from chapter IV, stanza 38 (pp. <a href=3D"ht=
tp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0806.htm#page_62">62</a>, <a href=3D=
"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0806.htm#page_63">63</a>), would =
seem to</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_12"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 12</font></a></p=
>
<p>be rather that knowledge is superior to devotion--is the higher stage to=
 be reached by means of devotion as the stepping-stone. In another passage =
again at G=EEt=E2, chapter XII, stanza 12, concentration is preferred to kn=
owledge, which also seems to me to be irreconcileable with chapter VII, sta=
nza 16. Take still another instance. At G=EEt=E2, chapter V, stanza 15, it =
is said, that 'the Lord receives the sin or merit of none.' Yet at chapter =
V, stanza 29, and again at chapter IX, stanza 24, K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a cal=
ls himself 'the Lord and enjoyer' of all sacrifices and penances. How, it m=
ay well be asked, can the Supreme Being 'enjoy' that which he does not even=
 receive?' Once more, at chapter X, stanza 29, K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a declar=
es that 'none is hateful to me, none dear.' And yet the remarkable verses a=
t the close of chapter XII seem to stand in point-blank contradiction to th=
at declaration. There through a most elaborate series of stanzas, the burde=
n of K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a's eloquent sermon is 'such a one is dear to me.'=
 And again in those fine verses, where K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a winds up his D=
ivine Lay, he similarly tells Ar<i>g</i>una, that he, Ar<i>g</i>una, is 'de=
ar' to K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a. And K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a also speaks of that=
 devotee as 'dear' to him, who may publish the Mystery of the G=EEt=E2 amon=
g those who reverence the Supreme Being&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_28"></a><a href=
=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_27"><font size=3D"=
1">1</font></a>. And yet again, how are we to reconcile the same passage ab=
out none being 'hateful or dear' to K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a, with his own wor=
ds at chapter XVI, stanza 18 and following stanzas? The language used in de=
scribing the 'demoniac' people there mentioned is not remarkable for sweetn=
ess towards them, while K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a says positively, 'I hurl down=
 such people into demoniac wombs, whereby they go down into misery and the =
vilest condition.' These persons are scarcely characterised with accuracy '=
as neither hateful nor dear' to K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a. It seems to me, that=
 all these are real inconsistencies in the G=EEt=E2, not such, perhaps, as =
might not be explained away, but such, I think, as indicate a mind making g=
uesses at truth., as Professor Max M=FCller puts it, rather than a mind ela=
borating a complete</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_13"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 13</font></a></p=
>
<p>and organised system of philosophy. There is not even a trace of conscio=
usness on the part of the author that these inconsistencies exist. And the =
contexts of the various passages indicate, in my judgment, that a half-trut=
h is struck out here, and another half-truth there, with special reference =
to the special subject then under discussion; but no attempt is made to org=
anise the various half-truths, which are apparently incompatible, into a sy=
mmetrical whole, where the apparent inconsistencies might possibly vanish a=
ltogether in the higher synthesis. And having regard to these various point=
s, and to the further point, that the sequence of ideas throughout the vers=
es of the G=EEt=E2 is not always easily followed, we are, I think, safe in =
adhering to the opinion expressed above, that the G=EEt=E2 is a nonsystemat=
ic work, and in that respect belongs to the same class as the older Upanish=
ads.</p>
<p>We next come to the consideration of the style and language of the Bhaga=
vadg=EEt=E2. And that, I think, furnishes a strong argument for the proposi=
tion, that it belongs to an age considerably prior to the epoch of the arti=
ficial department of Sanskrit literature--the epoch, namely, of the dramas =
and poems. In its general character, the style impresses me as quite archai=
c in its simplicity. Compounds, properly so called, are not numerous; such =
as there are, are not long ones, and very rarely, if ever, present any puzz=
le in analysing. The contrast there presented with what is called the class=
ical literature, as represented by B=E2na or Da<i>nd</i>in, or even K=E2lid=
=E2sa, is not a little striking. In K=E2lid=E2sa, doubtless, the love for c=
ompounds is pretty well subdued, though I think his works have a perceptibl=
y larger proportion of them than the G=EEt=E2. But after K=E2lid=E2sa the l=
ove for compounds goes through a remarkable development, till in later writ=
ings it may be said almost to have gone mad. Even in B=E2na and Da<i>nd</i>=
in, Subandhu and Bhavabh=FBti, the plethora of compounds is often wearisome=
. And the same remark applies to many of the copperplate and other inscript=
ions which have been recently deciphered, and some of which date from the e=
arly centuries</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_14"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 14</font></a></p=
>
<p>of the Christian era. Take again the exuberance of figures and tropes wh=
ich is so marked in the classical style. There is little or nothing of that=
 in the G=EEt=E2, where you have a plain and direct style of natural simpli=
city, and yet a style not by any means devoid of =E6sthetic merit like the =
style of the S=FBtra literature. There is also an almost complete absence o=
f involved syntactical constructions; no attempt to secure that jingle of l=
ike sounds, which 'seems to have proved a temptation too strong even for K=
=E2lid=E2sa's muse entirely to resist. But on the contrary, we have those r=
epetitions of words and phrases, which are characteristic, and not only in =
Sanskrit, of the style of an archaic period&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_29"></a><a h=
ref=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_28"><font size=
=3D"1">1</font></a>. Adverting specially to the language as distinguished f=
rom the style of the G=EEt=E2, we find such words as Anta, Bh=E2sh=E2, Brah=
man, some of which are collected in the Sanskrit Index in this volume, whic=
h have gone out of use in the classical literature in the significations th=
ey respectively bear in the G=EEt=E2. The word 'ha,' which occurs once, is =
worthy of special note. It is the equivalent of 'gha,' which occurs in the =
Vedic Sa<i>m</i>hit=E2s. In the form 'ha' it occurs in the Br=E2hma<i>n</i>=
as. But it never occurs, I think, in what is properly called the classical =
literature. It is, indeed, found in the Pur=E2<i>n</i>as. But that is a cla=
ss of works which occupies a very unique position. There is a good deal in =
the Pur=E2nas that, I think, must be admitted to be very ancient&nbsp;<a na=
me=3D"fr_30"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.h=
tm#fn_29"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>; while undoubtedly also there is a =
great deal in them that is very modern. It is, therefore, impossible to tre=
at the use of 'ha' in that class of works as negativing an inference of the=
 antiquity of any book where the word occurs; while its use in Vedic works =
and its total absence from modern works indicate such antiquity pretty stro=
ngly. We may, therefore, embody the result of this part of the discussion i=
n the proposition, that</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_15"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 15</font></a></p=
>
<p>the G=EEt=E2 is removed by a considerable linguistic and chronological d=
istance from classical Sanskrit literature. And so far as it goes, this pro=
position agrees with the result of our investigation of the first branch of=
 internal evidence.</p>
<p>The next branch of that evidence brings us to the character of the versi=
fication of the G=EEt=E2. Here, again, a survey of Sanskrit verse generally=
, and the verse of the G=EEt=E2 in particular, leads us to a conclusion reg=
arding the position of the G=EEt=E2 in Sanskrit literature, which is in str=
ict accord with the conclusions we have already drawn. In the verse of the =
Vedic Sa<i>m</i>hit=E2s, there is almost nothing like a rigidly fixed schem=
e of versification, no particular collocation of long and short syllables i=
s absolutely necessary. If we attempt to chant them in the mode in which cl=
assical Sanskrit verse is chanted, we invariably come across lines where th=
e chanting cannot be smooth. If we come next to the versification of the Up=
anishads, we observe some progress made towards such fixity of scheme as we=
 have alluded to above. Though there are still numerous lines, which cannot=
 be smoothly chanted, there are, on the other hand, a not altogether incons=
iderable number which can be smoothly chanted. In the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2 a st=
ill further advance, though a slight one, may, I think, be marked. A visibl=
y larger proportion of the stanzas in the G=EEt=E2 conform to the metrical =
schemes as laid down by the writers on prosody, though there are still sund=
ry verses which do not so conform, and cannot, accordingly, be chanted in t=
he regular way. Lastly, we come to the K=E2vyas and N=E2<i>t</i>akas--the c=
lassical literature. And here in practice we find everywhere a most inflexi=
ble rigidity of scheme, while the theory is laid down in a rule which says,=
 that 'even m=E2sha may be changed to masha, but a break of metre should be=
 avoided.' This survey of Sanskrit verse may, I think, be fairly treated as=
 showing, that adhesion to the metrical schemes is one test of the chronolo=
gical position of a work--the later the work, the more undeviating is such =
adhesion. I need not stay here to point out, how this view receives corrobo=
ration from the rules given on this subject in the standard work</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_16"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 16</font></a></p=
>
<p>of Pi<u>n</u>gala on the <i>Kh</i>andas <i>S</i>=E2stra. I will only con=
clude this point by saying, that the argument from the versification of the=
 G=EEt=E2, so far as it goes, indicates its position as being prior to the =
classical literature, and nearly contemporaneous with the Upanishad literat=
ure.</p>
<p>We now proceed to investigate the last-group of facts falling under the =
head of internal evidence, as mentioned above. And first as regards the att=
itude of the G=EEt=E2 towards the Vedas. If we examine all the passages in =
the G=EEt=E2, in which reference is made to the Vedas, the aggregate result=
 appears to be, that the author of the G=EEt=E2 does not throw the Vedas en=
tirely overboard. He feels and expresses reverence for them, only that reve=
rence is of a somewhat special character. He says in effect, that the prece=
pts of the Vedas are suitable to a certain class of people, of a certain in=
tellectual and spiritual status, so to say. So far their authority is unimp=
eached. But if the unwise sticklers for the authority of the Vedas claim an=
ything more for them than this, then the author of the G=EEt=E2 holds them =
to be wrong. He contends, on the contrary, that acting upon the ordinances =
of the Vedas is an obstacle to the attainment of the summum bonum&nbsp;<a n=
ame=3D"fr_31"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.=
htm#fn_30"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. Compare this with the doctrine of=
 the Upanishads. The coincidence appears to me to be most noteworthy. In on=
e of his recent lectures, Professor Max M=FCller uses the following eloquen=
t language regarding the Upanishads&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_32"></a><a href=3D"h=
ttp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_31"><font size=3D"1">2<=
/font></a>: 'Lastly come the Upanishads; and what is their object? To show =
the utter uselessness, nay, the mischievousness of all ritual performances =
(compare our G=EEt=E2, pp. <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08=
/sbe0804.htm#page_47">47</a>, <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sb=
e08/sbe0804.htm#page_48">48</a>, <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin=
/sbe08/sbe0811.htm#page_84">84</a>&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_33"></a><a href=3D"ht=
tp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_32"><font size=3D"1">3</=
font></a>); to condemn every sacrificial act which has for its motive a des=
ire or hope of reward (comp. G=EEt=E2, <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.c=
om/hin/sbe08/sbe0819.htm#page_119">p. 119</a>&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_34"></a><a=
 href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_33"><font siz=
e=3D"1">4</font></a>); to deny, if not the existence, at least the exceptio=
nal and exalted character of the Devas (comp. G=EEt=E2, pp. <a href=3D"http=
://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0809.htm#page_76">76</a>-<a href=3D"ht=
tp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0811.htm#page_84">84</a>&nbsp;<a nam=
e=3D"fr_35"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.ht=
m#fn_34"><font size=3D"1">5</font></a>); and to teach that there is no hope=
 of salvation and deliverance except by the individual self recognising the=
 true and universal self, and finding rest there, where alone rest can be f=
ound&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_36"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/=
sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_35"><font size=3D"1">6</font></a>' (comp. our G=EEt=E2=
 Translation, pp. <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0810.=
htm#page_78">78</a>-<a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe081=
1.htm#page_83">83</a>).</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_17"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 17</font></a></p=
>
<p>The passages to which I have given references in brackets will show, tha=
t Professor Max M=FCller's words might all be used with strict accuracy reg=
arding the essential teaching of the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. We have here, theref=
ore, another strong circumstance in favour of grouping the G=EEt=E2 with th=
e Upanishads. One more point is worthy of note. Wherever the G=EEt=E2 refer=
s to the Vedas in the somewhat disparaging manner I have noted, no distinct=
ion is taken between the portion whi.ch relates to the ritual and the porti=
on which relates to that higher science, viz. the science of the soul, whic=
h Sanatkum=E2ri speaks of in his famous dialogue with N=E2rada&nbsp;<a name=
=3D"fr_37"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm=
#fn_36"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. At G=EEt=E2, chapter II, stanza 45, =
Ar<i>g</i>una is told that the Vedas relate only to the effects of the thre=
e qualities, which effects Ar<i>g</i>una is instructed to overcome. At G=EE=
t=E2, chapter VI, stanza 44, Ar<i>g</i>una is told that he who has acquired=
 some little devotion, and then exerts himself for further progress, rises =
above the Divine word--the Vedas. And there are also one or two other passa=
ges of the like nature. They all treat the Vedas as concerned with ritual a=
lone. They make no reference to any portion of the Vedas dealing with the h=
igher knowledge. If the word Ved=E2nta, at G=EEt=E2, chapter XV, stanza 15 =
(p. 113), signifies, as it seems to signify, this latter portion of the Ved=
as, then that is the only allusion to it. But, from all the passages in the=
 G=EEt=E2 which refer to the Vedas, I am inclined to draw the inference, th=
at the Upanishads of the Vedas, were composed at a time not far removed fro=
m the time of the composition of the G=EEt=E2, and that at that period the =
Upanishads had not yet risen to the position of high importance which they =
afterwards commanded. In the passage referred to at chapter XV, the word Ve=
d=E2ntas probably signifies the =C2ra<i>n</i>yakas, which may be regarded a=
s marking the beginning of the epoch, which the composition of the Upanisha=
ds brought to its close. And it is to the close of this epoch, that I would=
 assign the birth of the G=EEt=E2, which is</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_18"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 18</font></a></p=
>
<p>probably one of the youngest members of the group to which it belongs.</=
p>
<p>It appears to me, that this conclusion is corroborated by the fact that =
a few stanzas in the G=EEt=E2 are identical with some stanzas in some of th=
e Upanishads. With regard to the epic age of Greece, Mr. E. A. Freeman has =
said that, in carrying ourselves back to that age, 'we must cast aside all =
the notions with which we are familiar in our own age about property legal =
or moral in literary compositions. It is plain that there were phrases, epi=
thets, whole lines, which were the common property of the whole epic school=
 of poetry&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_38"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.co=
m/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_37"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>.' It appears t=
o me that we must accept this proposition as equally applicable to the earl=
y days of Sanskrit literature, having regard to the common passages which w=
e meet with in sundry of the Vedic works, and also sometimes, I believe, in=
 the different Pur=E2<i>n</i>as. If this view is correct, then the fact tha=
t the G=EEt=E2 contains some stanzas in the very words which we meet with i=
n some of the Upanishads, indicates, to my mind, that the conclusion alread=
y drawn from other data about the position of the G=EEt=E2 with regard to t=
he Upanishads, is not by any means unwarranted, but one to which the facts =
before us rather seem to point.</p>
<p>And here we may proceed to draw attention to another fact connected with=
 the relation of the G=EEt=E2 to the Vedas. In stanza 17 of the ninth chapt=
er of the G=EEt=E2, only <i>Rik</i>, <i>S</i>=E2man, and Ya<i>g</i>us are m=
entioned. The Atharva-veda is not referred to at all. This omission does ce=
rtainly seem a very noteworthy one. For it is in a passage where the Suprem=
e Being is identifying himself with everything, and where, therefore, the f=
ourth Veda might fairly be expected to be mentioned. I may add that in comm=
enting on <i>S</i>a<u>n</u>kar=E2k=E2rya's remarks on this passage, =C2nand=
agiri (and Madhus=FBdana Sarasvat=EE also)seems evidently to have been cons=
cious of the possible force of this omission of the Atharva-veda. He accord=
ingly says that by force of the word 'and' in the verse in question, the At=
harv=E2<u>n</u>girasas, or Atharva-veda must</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_19"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 19</font></a></p=
>
<p>also be included. Are we at liberty to infer from this, that the Atharva=
-veda did not exist in the days when the G=EEt=E2 was composed? The explana=
tion ordinarily given for the omission of that Veda, where such omission oc=
curs, namely, that it is not of any use in ordinary sacrificial matters, is=
 one which can scarcely have any force in the present instance; though it i=
s adequate, perhaps, to explain the words 'those who know the three branche=
s of knowledge,' which occur only a few lines after the verse now under con=
sideration. The commentators render no further help than has been already s=
tated. Upon the whole, however, while I am not yet quite prepared to say, t=
hat the priority of the G=EEt=E2, even to the recognition of the Atharva-ve=
da as a real Veda, may be fairly inferred from the passage in question, I t=
hink that the passage is noteworthy as pointing in that direction. But furt=
her data in explanation of the omission referred to must be awaited.</p>
<p>If the conclusions here indicated about the relative positions of the G=
=EEt=E2 and certain Vedic works are correct, we can fairly take the second =
century B. C. as a terminus before which the G=EEt=E2 must have been compos=
ed. For the Upanishads are mentioned in the Mah=E2bh=E2shya of Pata=F1<i>g<=
/i>ali, which we are probably safe in assigning to the middle of that centu=
ry. The epoch of the older Upanishads, therefore, to which reference has be=
en so frequently made here, may well be placed at some period prior to the =
beginning of the second century B. C. The Atharva-veda is likewise mentione=
d by Pata=F1<i>g</i>ali&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_39"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sa=
cred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_38"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>, =
and as 'ninefold,' too, be it remembered; so that if we are entitled to dra=
w the conclusion which has been mentioned above from chapter IX, stanza 17,=
 we come to the same period for the date of the G=EEt=E2. Another point to =
note in this connexion is the reference to the S=E2ma-veda as the best of t=
he Vedas (see <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0812.htm#=
page_88">p. 88</a>). That is a fact which seems to be capable of yielding s=
ome chronological information. For the estimation in which that Veda has be=
en held appears to have varied at different times. Thus, in the Aitareya-br=
=E2hma<i>n</i>a&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_40"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-tex=
ts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_39"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>, the glor=
y</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_20"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 20</font></a></p=
>
<p>of the S=E2man is declared to be higher than that of the <i>Rik</i>, In =
the <i>Kh</i>=E2ndogya-upanishad&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_41"></a><a href=3D"http=
://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_40"><font size=3D"1">1</fo=
nt></a> the S=E2man is said to be the essence of the <i>Rik</i>, which <i>S=
</i>a<u>n</u>kara interprets by saying that the S=E2man is more weighty, In=
 the Pra<i>s</i>na-upanishad&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_42"></a><a href=3D"http://w=
ww.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_41"><font size=3D"1">2</font><=
/a>, too, the implication of the passage V, 5 (in which the S=E2man is stat=
ed as the guide to the Brahmaloka, while the Ya<i>g</i>us is said to guide =
to the lunar world, and the <i>Rik</i> to the, human world) is to the same =
effect. And we may also mention as on the same side the N<i>ri</i>si<i>m</i=
>ha T=E2pin=EE-upanishad and the Vedic passage cited in the commentary of, =
<i>S</i>a<u>n</u>kara on the closing sentence of the first kha<i>nd</i>a of=
 that Upanishad&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_43"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-tex=
ts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_42"><font size=3D"1">3</font></a>. On the o=
ther side, we have the statement in Manu that the sound of the S=E2ma-veda =
is unholy; and the consequent direction that where the sound of it is heard=
, the <i>Rik</i> and Ya<i>g</i>us should not be recited&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_=
44"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_43"=
><font size=3D"1">4</font></a>. We have also the passages from some of the =
Pur=E2<i>n</i>as noted by Dr. Muir in his excellent work, Original Sanskrit=
 Texts, which point in the same direction&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_45"></a><a hre=
f=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_44"><font size=3D=
"1">5</font></a>. And we have further the direction in the =C2pastamba Dhar=
ma-s=FBtra, that the S=E2man hymns should not be recited where the other Ve=
das are being recited&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_46"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacr=
ed-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_45"><font size=3D"1">6</font></a>, as=
 well as the grouping of the sound of the S=E2man with various classes of o=
bjectionable and unholy noises, such as those of dogs and asses. It is pret=
ty evident that the view of =C2pastamba is based on the same theory as that=
 of Manu. Now in looking at the two classes of authorities thus marshalled,=
 it is plain that the G=EEt=E2 ranges itself with those which are unquestio=
nably the more ancient. And among the less ancient works, prior to which we=
 may place the G=EEt=E2 on account of the facts now under consideration, ar=
e Manu and =C2pastamba. Now Manu's date is not ascertained, though, I belie=
ve, he is now generally considered to belong to about the second or third c=
entury B. C.&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_47"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.=
com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_46"><font size=3D"1">7</font></a> But . I</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_21"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 21</font></a></p=
>
<p><font size=3D"-2" color=3D"GREEN">[paragraph continues]</font> Dr. B=FCh=
ler, in the Preface to his =C2pastamba in the present series, has adduced g=
ood reasons for holding that =C2pastamba is prior to the third century B. C=
.&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_48"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe=
08/sbe0802.htm#fn_47"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>, and we therefore obtai=
n that as a point of time prior to which the G=EEt=E2 must have been compos=
ed.</p>
<p>The next important item of internal evidence which we have to note, is t=
he view taken of caste in the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. Here, again, a comparison o=
f the doctrine of the G=EEt=E2 with the conception of caste in Manu and =C2=
pastamba is interesting and instructive. The view of Manu has been already =
contrasted by me with the G=EEt=E2 in another place&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_49">=
</a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_48"><fo=
nt size=3D"1">2</font></a>. I do not propose to dwell on that point here, a=
s the date of Manu is far from being satisfactorily ascertained. I prefer n=
ow to take up =C2pastamba only, whose date, as just now stated, is fairly w=
ell fixed by Dr. B=FChler. The division of castes, then, is twice referred =
to in the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. In the first passage (<a href=3D"http://www.sac=
red-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0806.htm#page_59">p. 59</a>) it is stated, that =
the division rests on differences of qualities and duties; in the second (p=
p. <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0820.htm#page_126">1=
26</a>, <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0820.htm#page_1=
27">127</a>) the various duties are distinctly stated according to the diff=
erences of qualities. Now in the first place, noting as we pass along, that=
 there is nothing in the G=EEt=E2 to indicate whether caste was hereditary,=
 according to its view, whereas =C2pastamba distinctly states it to be such=
, let us compare the second passage of the G=EEt=E2 with the S=FBtras of =
=C2pastamba bearing on the point. The view enunciated in the G=EEt=E2 appea=
rs to me plainly to belong to an earlier age--to an age of considerably les=
s advancement in social and religious development. In the G=EEt=E2, for ins=
tance, the duties of a Br=E2hma<i>n</i>a are said to be tranquillity, self-=
restraint, and so forth. In =C2pastamba, they are the famous six duties, na=
mely, study, imparting instruction, sacrificing, officiating at others' sac=
rifices, making gifts, and receiving gifts; and three others, namely, inher=
itance, occupancy, and gleaning ears of corn, which, it may be remarked en =
passant, are not stated in Manu. The former seem to my mind to point</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_22"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 22</font></a></p=
>
<p>to the age when the qualities which in early times gave the Br=E2hma<i>n=
</i>as their pre-eminence in Hindu society were still a living reality&nbsp=
;<a name=3D"fr_50"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe=
0802.htm#fn_49"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. It will be noted, too, that =
there is nothing in that list of duties which has any necessary or natural =
connexion with any privilege as belonging to the caste. The Law lays down t=
hese duties, in the true sense of the word. In =C2pastamba, on the contrary=
, we see an advance towards the later view on both points. You have no refe=
rence to moral and religious qualities now. You have to do with ceremonies =
and acts. You have under the head 'duties not mere obligations, but rights.=
 For the duty of receiving gifts is a right, and so is the duty of teaching=
 others and officiating at others' sacrifices; as we know not merely from t=
he subsequent course of events, but also from a comparison of the duties of=
 Br=E2hma<i>n</i>as on the one hand, and Kshatriyas, Vai<i>s</i>yas, and <i=
>S</i>=FBdras on the other, as laid down by Manu and =C2pastamba themselves=
. =C2pastamba's rules, therefore, appear to belong to the time when the Br=
=E2hma<i>n</i>as had long been an established power, and were assuming to t=
hemselves those valuable privileges which they have always claimed in later=
 times. The rules of the G=EEt=E2, on the other hand, point to a time consi=
derably prior to this--to a time when the Br=E2hma<i>n</i>as were by their =
moral and intellectual qualities laying the foundation of that preeminence =
in Hindu society which afterwards enabled them to lord it over all castes. =
These observations mutatis mutandis apply to the rules regarding. the other=
 castes also. Here again, while the G=EEt=E2 still insists on the inner qua=
lities, which properly constitute the military profession, for instance, th=
e rules of =C2pastamba indicate the powerful influence of the Br=E2hma<i>n<=
/i>as&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_51"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin=
/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_50"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>. For, as stated bef=
ore, officiating at others' sacrifices, instructing others, and receiving p=
resents, are here expressly prohibited to Kshatriyas as also to Vai<i>s</i>=
yas. The result of that is, that the Br=E2hma<i>n</i>as become indispensabl=
e to the Kshatriyas and Vai<i>s</i>yas, for</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_23"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 23</font></a></p=
>
<p>upon both the duty of study, of offering sacrifices, and making gifts an=
d presents is inculcated. In his outline of the History of Ancient Religion=
s, Professor Tiele, speaking of the 'increasing influence of the Br=E2hmans=
,' writes as follows: 'Subject at first to the princes and nobles, and depe=
ndent on them, they began by insinuating themselves into their favour, and =
representing it as a religious duty to show protection and liberality towar=
ds them. Meanwhile they endeavoured to make themselves indispensable to the=
m, gradually acquired the sole right to conduct public worship, and made th=
emselves masters of instruction&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_52"></a><a href=3D"http:=
//www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_51"><font size=3D"1">1</fon=
t></a>'. And after pointing out the high position thus achieved by the Br=
=E2hmans, and the low position of the K=E2<i>nd</i>=E2las and others of the=
 inferior castes, he adds: 'Such a position could not long be endured; and =
this serves to explain not only the rise of Buddhism, but also its rapid di=
ffusion, and the radical revolution which it brought about&nbsp;<a name=3D"=
fr_53"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_=
52"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>.' To proceed, however, with our compariso=
n of the G=EEt=E2 and =C2pastamba. The superiority distinctly claimed by th=
e latter for the Br=E2hma<i>n</i>a is not quite clearly brought out in the =
G=EEt=E2. 'Holy Br=E2hma<i>n</i>as and devoted royal saints' are bracketed =
together at <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0811.htm#pa=
ge_86">p. 86</a>; while the Kshatriyas are declared to have been the channe=
l of communication between the Deity and mankind as regards the great doctr=
ine of devotion propounded by the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. That indicates a positi=
on for the Kshatriyas much more like what the Upanishads disclose&nbsp;<a n=
ame=3D"fr_54"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.=
htm#fn_53"><font size=3D"1">3</font></a>, than even that which =C2pastamba =
assigns to them. The fact is further noteworthy, that in the G=EEt=E2 each =
caste has its own entirely distinct set of duties. There is no overlapping,=
 so to say. And that is a circumstance indicating a very early stage in the=
 development of the institution&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_55"></a><a href=3D"http:=
//www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_54"><font size=3D"1">4</fon=
t></a>. Besides, as already indicated,</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_24"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 24</font></a></p=
>
<p>the duties laid down by =C2pastamba and Manu as common to Kshatriyas and=
 Vai<i>s</i>yas are the very duties which make those castes dependent to a =
very great extent on the Br=E2hma<i>n</i>as. Lastly, it is not altogether u=
nworthy of note, that in the elaborate specification of the best of every s=
pecies which we find in chapter X, the Br=E2hma<i>n</i>a is not mentioned a=
s the best of the castes, there is nothing to indicate the notion contained=
 in the well-known later verse, 'The Br=E2hma<i>n</i>a is the head of the c=
astes.' On the contrary, the ruler of men is specified as the highest among=
 men&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_56"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/=
sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_55"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>, indicating, perhaps=
, a state of society such as that described at the beginning of the extract=
 from Professor Tiele's work quoted above.</p>
<p>We come now to another point. What is the position of the G=EEt=E2 in re=
gard to the great reform of <i>S</i>=E2kya Muni, The question is one of muc=
h interest, having regard particularly to the remarkable coincidences betwe=
en Buddhistic doctrines and the doctrines of the G=EEt=E2 to which we have =
drawn attention in the foot-notes to our translation. But the materials for=
 deciding the question are unhappily not forthcoming. Professor Wilson, ind=
eed, thought that there was an allusion to Buddhism in the G=EEt=E2&nbsp;<a=
 name=3D"fr_57"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe080=
2.htm#fn_56"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>. But his idea was based on a con=
fusion between the Buddhists and the <i>K</i>=E2rv=E2kas or materialists&nb=
sp;<a name=3D"fr_58"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fn_57"><font size=3D"1">3</font></a>. Failing that allusion, we =
have nothing very tangible but the unsatisfactory 'negative argument' based=
 on mere non-mention of Buddhism in the G=EEt=E2. That argument is not quit=
e satisfactory to my own mind, although, as I have elsewhere pointed out&nb=
sp;<a name=3D"fr_59"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fn_58"><font size=3D"1">4</font></a>, some of the ground occupie=
d by the G=EEt=E2 is common to it with Buddhism, and although various previ=
ous thinkers Are alluded to directly or indirectly in the G=EEt=E2. There i=
s, however, one view of the facts of this question, which appears to me to =
corroborate the conclusion deducible by means of the negative argument here=
 referred to. The</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_25"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 25</font></a></p=
>
<p>main points on which Buddha's protest against Brahmanism rests seem to b=
e the true authority of the Vedas and the true view of the differences of c=
aste. On most points of doctrinal speculation, Buddhism is still but one as=
pect of the older Brahmanism&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_60"></a><a href=3D"http://w=
ww.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_59"><font size=3D"1">1</font><=
/a>. The various coincidences to which we have drawn attention show that, i=
f there is need to show it. Well now, on both these points, the G=EEt=E2, w=
hile it does not go the whole length which Buddha goes, itself embodies a p=
rotest against the views current about the time of its composition. The G=
=EEt=E2 does not, like Buddhism, absolutely reject the Vedas, but it shelve=
s them. The G=EEt=E2 does not totally root out caste. It places caste on a =
less untenable basis. One of two hypotheses therefore presents itself as a =
rational theory of these facts. Either the G=EEt=E2 and Buddhism were alike=
 the outward manifestation of one and the same spiritual upheaval which sho=
ok to its centre the current religion, the G=EEt=E2 being the earlier and l=
ess thorough-going form of it; or Buddhism having already begun to tell on =
Brahmanism, the G=EEt=E2 was an attempt to bolster it up, so to say, at its=
 least weak points, the weaker ones being altogether abandoned. I do not ac=
cept the latter alternative, because I cannot see any indication in the G=
=EEt=E2 of an attempt to compromise with a powerful attack on the old Hindu=
 system; while the fact that, though strictly orthodox, the author of the G=
=EEt=E2 still undermines the authority, as unwisely venerated, of the Vedic=
 revelation; and the further fact, that in doing this, he is doing what oth=
ers also had done before him or about his time; go, in my opinion, a consid=
erable way towards fortifying the results of the negative argument already =
set forth. To me Buddhism is perfectly intelligible as one outcome of that =
play of thought on high spiritual topics, which in its other, and as we may=
 say, less thorough-going manifestations, we see in the Upanishads and the =
G=EEt=E2&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_61"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/=
hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_60"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>. But assume that=
 Buddhism was</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_26"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 26</font></a></p=
>
<p>a protest against Brahmanism prior to its purification and elevation by =
the theosophy of the Upanishads, and those remarkable productions of ancien=
t Indian thought become difficult to account for. Let us compare our small =
modem events with those grand old occurrences. Suppose our ancestors to hav=
e been attached to the ceremonial law of the Vedas, as we are now attached =
to a lifeless ritualism, the Upanishads and the G=EEt=E2 might be, in a way=
, comparable to movements like that of the late Raja Rammohun Roy. Standing=
, as far as possible, on the antique ways, they attempt, as Raja Rammohun a=
ttempted in these latter days, to bring into prominence and to elaborate th=
e higher and nobler aspects of the old beliefs. Buddhism would be comparabl=
e to the further departure from old traditions which was led by Babu Keshub=
 Chander Sen. The points of dissent in the olden times were pretty nearly t=
he same as the points of dissent now. The ultimate motive power also was in=
 both cases identical--a sense of dissatisfaction in its integrity with wha=
t had come down from old times encrusted with the corruptions of years. In =
this view the old system, the philosophy of the Upanishads and the G=EEt=E2=
, and the philosophy of Buddha, constitute a regular intelligible progressi=
on. But suppose the turn events took was different, as is supposed by the a=
lternative theory indicated above. Suppose Babu Keshub's movement was chron=
ologically prior, and had begun to tell on orthodox, society. Is it likely,=
 that then one of the orthodox party would take up the position which Rammo=
hun Roy took? Would he still rely on old authorities, but with sundry quali=
fications, and yet earnestly assail the current forms of orthodoxy? I do no=
t think so. I think the true view to be, as already stated, very different.=
 The Upanishads, with the G=EEt=E2, and the precepts of Buddha</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_27"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 27</font></a></p=
>
<p>appear to me to be the successive&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_62"></a><a href=3D"=
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_61"><font size=3D"1">1=
</font></a> embodiments of the spiritual thought of the age, as it became m=
ore and more dissatisfied with the system of mere ceremonial then dominant.=
</p>
<p>There are several other points of much interest in the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2,=
 such as the reference to the S=E2<u>n</u>khya, and Yoga; the place assigne=
d to the M=E2rga<i>s</i>=EErsha month; the allusion to the doctrines of mat=
erialism; the nearly entire coincidence between a stanza of the G=EEt=E2 an=
d one in the Manu Sm<i>ri</i>ti. But in the present state of our knowledge,=
 I do not. think that we can extract any historical results from any of the=
m. Without dwelling on them any further&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_63"></a><a href=
=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_62"><font size=3D"=
1">2</font></a>, therefore, I will only state it as my opinion that the S=
=E2<u>n</u>khya, and Yoga of the G=EEt=E2 are not identical with the system=
s known to us under those names, and that the Manu Sm<i>ri</i>ti has probab=
ly borrowed from the G=EEt=E2 the stanza common to the two works.</p>
<p>We now proceed to a discussion of some of the external evidence touching=
 the age of the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. It is, of course, unnecessary to consider=
 any evidence of a date later than the eighth century A. C., that being the=
 date generally received, though not on very strong grounds, as the date of=
 Sa<u>n</u>kar=E2<i>k</i>=E2rya, the celebrated commentator of the G=EEt=E2=
&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_64"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe0=
8/sbe0802.htm#fn_63"><font size=3D"1">3</font></a> For the period prior to =
that limit, the first testimony to consider is that of B=E2<i>n</i>abha<i>t=
t</i>a, the author of the K=E2dambar=EE. The date of B=E2na is now fairly w=
ell settled as the middle of the seventh century A. C. The doubt which the =
late Dr. Bh=E2u D=E2j=EE had cast upon its correctness&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_6=
5"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_64">=
<font size=3D"1">4</font></a>, by impugning the received date of king Harsh=
avardhana, appears to me to have been satisfactorily disposed of by the pap=
er of</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_28"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 28</font></a></p=
>
<p>my friend Professor R. G. Bh=E2<i>nd</i>=E2rkar on the <i>K</i>=E2lukya =
dates&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_66"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin=
/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_65"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. In the K=E2dambar=
=EE, then, we have testimony to the existence of the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2 in th=
e middle of the seventh century A. C. For in that work, which, as is well k=
nown, abounds with equivoques, we have a passage which compares the royal p=
alace to the Mah=E2bh=E2rata, both being 'Anantagit=E2kar<i>n</i>an=E2nandi=
tanaram&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_67"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/h=
in/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_66"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>,' which, as appli=
ed to the royal palace, means 'in which the people were delighted by hearin=
g innumerable songs;' and as applied to the Mah=E2bh=E2rata means 'in which=
 Ar<i>g</i>una was delighted at hearing the Anantag=EEt=E2.' Anantag=EEt=E2=
 is evidently only another name here for Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. The conclusion d=
educible from this fact is not merely that the G=EEt=E2 existed, but that i=
t existed as a recognised portion of the Bh=E2rata, in the seventh century =
A. C. Now the K=E2dambar=EE shows, in numerous passages, in what high estee=
m the Mah=E2bh=E2rata was held in its days. The queen Vil=E2savat=EE used t=
o attend at those readings and expositions of the Mah=E2bh=E2rata, which ha=
ve continued down to our own times; and it was even then regarded as a sacr=
ed work of extremely high authority, in the same way as it is now. It follo=
ws., therefore, that the G=EEt=E2 must have been several centuries old ill =
the time of B=E2<i>n</i>abha<i>tt</i>a.</p>
<p>Prior in time to B=E2na is the Indian Shakespeare, K=E2lid=E2sa, as he i=
s referred to in B=E2<i>n</i>abha<i>tt</i>a's Harsha<i>k</i>arita&nbsp;<a n=
ame=3D"fr_68"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.=
htm#fn_67"><font size=3D"1">3</font></a>, and also in a copperplate inscrip=
tion of the early part of the seventh century, as a poet who had then alrea=
dy acquired a high reputation&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_69"></a><a href=3D"http://=
www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_68"><font size=3D"1">4</font>=
</a>. Unfortunately, it is not yet possible to fix exactly the date at whic=
h K=E2lid=E2sa flourished. Still, I think, we have pretty satisfactory evid=
ence to show that the middle of the fifth century A. C. is the very latest =
date to which he can be referred. In a small tract (written by me in 1873),=
 discussing Professor Weber's theory about the R=E2m=E2ya<i>n</i>a, I have =
pointed out&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_70"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.c=
om/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_69"><font size=3D"1">5</font></a> that the Pa=
=F1<i>k</i>atantra</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_29"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 29</font></a></p=
>
<p>quotes from K=E2lid=E2sa a passage which there is good reason to believe=
 formed part of the Pa=F1<i>k</i>atantra when it was translated for king Nu=
shirvan of Persia about the beginning of the sixth century A. C.&nbsp;<a na=
me=3D"fr_71"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.h=
tm#fn_70"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a> Allowing for the time required to r=
aise K=E2lid=E2sa to the position of being cited as an authority, and for t=
he time required for the spread of the fame of an Indian work to Persia in =
those early days, I think, that the middle of the fifth century is a date t=
o which K=E2lid=E2sa cannot well have been subsequent. Now in the works of =
K=E2lid=E2sa we have some very remarkable allusions to the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2=
. It is not necessary to go through all these allusions. I will only mentio=
n the most remarkable, one from the Raghuva<i>m</i>sa, and one from the Kum=
=E2rasambhava. In Raghu, canto X, stanza 67, the gods addressing Vish<i>n</=
i>u say, 'There is nothing for you to acquire which has not been acquired. =
The one motive in your birth and work is the good of the worlds.' The first=
 sentence here reminds one at once of G=EEt=E2, chapter III, stanza 22, the=
 coincidence with which in sense as well as expression is very striking. Th=
e second sentence contains the words 'birth and work,' the precise words em=
ployed at G=EEt=E2 IV, 9; and the idea of 'good of the worlds' is identical=
 with the idea expressed in G=EEt=E2 III, 20-24, the words only in which it=
 is clothed being different. Couple this passage with the one from Kum=E2ra=
sambhava, canto VI, 67, where the seven <i>Ri</i>shis say to the Him=E2laya=
 mountain, 'Well hast thou been called Vish<i>n</i>u in a firmly-fixed form=
.' The allusion there to the G=EEt=E2, chapter X, stanza 25 (<a href=3D"htt=
p://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0812.htm#page_89">p. 89</a>), is, I v=
enture to think, unmistakable. The word 'firmly-fixed' is identical in both=
 passages; the idea is identical, and Mallin=E2tha refers to the passage in=
 the G=EEt=E2 as the authority which K=E2lid=E2sa had in view. It follows, =
therefore, that the G=EEt=E2 must be prior to K=E2lid=E2sa's time. It may b=
e added, that K=E2lid=E2sa in his Raghu XV, 67, cites Manu as an authority<=
/p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_30"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 30</font></a></p=
>
<p>for the proposition that a king must protect all castes and all orders o=
r =E2<i>s</i>ramas. Manu, therefore, must have lived considerably earlier t=
han K=E2lid=E2sa, and the G=EEt=E2, as we have already argued, must be cons=
iderably earlier, not only than Manu, but also than his predecessor =C2past=
amba. The G=EEt=E2, may, therefore, be safely said to belong to a period se=
veral centuries prior to the fifth century A. C.</p>
<p>The next piece of external evidence is furnished by the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtr=
as of B=E2dar=E2ya<i>n</i>a. In several of those S=FBtras, references are m=
ade to certain Sm<i>ri</i>tis as authorities for the propositions laid down=
. Take, for instance, I, 2, 6, or I, 3, 23, and many others. Now three of t=
hese s=FBtras are very useful for our present purpose. The first we have to=
 consider is S=FBtra II, 3, 45. The commentators Sa<u>n</u>kar=E2<i>k</i>=
=E2rya, R=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>a, Madhva, and Vallabha&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_72"></=
a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_71"><font=
 size=3D"1">1</font></a> are unanimous in understanding the passage in G=EE=
t=E2, chapter XV, stanza 7 (<a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe0=
8/sbe0817.htm#page_112">p. 112</a>), to be the one there referred to by the=
 words of the S=FBtra, which are, 'And it is said in a Sm<i>ri</i>ti.' Now =
a glance at the context of the S=FBtra will, I think, satisfy us that the c=
ommentators, who are unanimous though representing different and even confl=
icting schools of thought, are also quite right. S=FBtra 43, in the ellipti=
cal language characteristic of that branch of our literature, says, 'A part=
, from the statement of difference, and the reverse also; some lay down tha=
t it is a fisherman or a cheat.' S=FBtra 44 runs thus, 'And also from the w=
ords of the Mantra.' And then comes S=FBtra 45 as set out above. It is plai=
n, that the S=FBtra No. 45 indicates an authority for something not specifi=
ed, being regarded as part of some other thing also not specified. Now the =
discussion in previous S=FBtras has been about the soul; so we can have lit=
tle difficulty in accepting the unanimous interpretation of the commentator=
s, that the proposition here sought to be made out is that the individual s=
oul is part of the Supreme Soul, which is the proposition laid down in the =
G=EEt=E2 in the passage referred to. The</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_31"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 31</font></a></p=
>
<p>next S=FBtra to refer to is IV, 1, 10. I shall not set forth the other r=
elevant S=FBtras here as in the preceding case. I only state that the three=
 commentators, <i>S</i>a<u>n</u>kara, R=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>a, and Madhva, agre=
e that the G=EEt=E2 is here referred to, namely, chapter VI, stanza ii seq.=
 Vallabha, however, I am bound to add, does not agree with this, as he inte=
rprets the S=FBtra in question and those which precede and follow as referr=
ing to an entirely different matter. If I may be permitted to say so, howev=
er, I consider his interpretation not so satisfactory as that of the three =
other and older commentators. Lastly, we come to S=FBtra IV, 2-19. On this,=
 again, all the four commentators are unanimous, and they say that G=EEt=E2=
, chapter VIII, stanza 24 seq. (<a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/=
sbe08/sbe0810.htm#page_80">p. 80</a>), is the authority referred to. And I =
think there can be very little doubt that they are right. These various pie=
ces of evidence render it, I think, historically certain, that the G=EEt=E2=
 must be considerably prior to the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras; and that the word Br=
ahma-s=FBtras, which occurs at G=EEt=E2, chapter XIII, stanza 4 (<a href=3D=
"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0814.htm#page_102">p. 102</a>), i=
s correctly interpreted by the commentators as not referring to the Ved=E2n=
ta-s=FBtras, which are also called Brahma-s=FBtras, but to a different subj=
ect altogether&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_73"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-text=
s.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_72"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. When were=
 the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras composed? The question must at once be admitted to =
be a difficult one; but I think the following considerations will show that=
 the date of those Sutras must, at the latest, be considerably earlier than=
 the period which we have already reached in this part of our investigation=
. We may take it as fairly well settled, that Bha<i>tt</i>a Kum=E2rila, the=
 celebrated commentator of the P=FBrva M=EEm=E2<i>m</i>s=E2 school, flouris=
hed not later than the end of the seventh century A. C.&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_=
74"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_73"=
><font size=3D"1">2</font></a> A considerable time prior to him must be pla=
ced the great commentator on the M=EEm=E2<i>m</i>s=E2-s=FBtras, namely, <i>=
S</i>abarasy=E2min. If we may judge from the style of his great commentary,=
 he cannot have flourished much later than Pata=F1<i>g</i>ali, who may now =
be taken as historically proved to</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_32"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 32</font></a></p=
>
<p>have flourished about 140 B. C.&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_75"></a><a href=3D"ht=
tp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_74"><font size=3D"1">1</=
font></a> Now a considerable time must have intervened between <i>S</i>abar=
asy=E2min and another commentator on the P=FBrva M=EEm=E2<i>m</i>s=E2, whom=
 <i>S</i>abara quotes with the highly honorific title Bhagav=E2n, the Vener=
able, namely, Upavarsha. Upavarsha appears from <i>S</i>a<u>n</u>kara's sta=
tement to have commented on the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_76"><=
/a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_75"><fon=
t size=3D"1">2</font></a>. We have thus a long catena of works from the sev=
enth century A. C., indicating a pretty high antiquity for the Vedanta-s=FB=
tras, and therefore a higher one for the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. The antiquity of=
 the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras follows also from the circumstance, which we have o=
n the testimony of R=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>a, repeated by M=E2dhav=E2<i>k</i>=E2r=
ya, that a commentary on the S=FBtras was written by Baudh=E2yan=E2<i>k</i>=
=E2rya&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_77"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hi=
n/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_76"><font size=3D"1">3</font></a>, which commentary =
R=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>a says he followed. Baudh=E2yan=E2's date is not accurate=
ly settled. But he appears to be older than =C2pastamba, whose date, as sug=
gested by Dr. B=FChler, has already been mentioned&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_78"><=
/a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_77"><fon=
t size=3D"1">4</font></a>. The Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras, then, would appear to be=
 at least as old as the fourth century B. C.; if the information we have fr=
om R=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>a may be trusted. A third argument may be mentioned, b=
earing on the date of the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras. In S=FBtra 110 of the third P=
=E2da of the fourth Adhy=E2ya of P=E2<i>n</i>ini's S=FBtras, a P=E2r=E2<i>s=
</i>arya is mentioned as the author of a Bhikshu-s=FBtra. Who is this P=E2r=
=E2<i>s</i>arya, and what the Bhikshu-s=FBtra? Unluckily Pata=F1<i>g</i>ali=
 gives us no information on this head, nor does the K=E2<i>s</i>ik=E2 V<i>r=
i</i>tti. But a note of Professor T=E2r=E2n=E2tha Tarkav=E2<i>k</i>aspati, =
of Calcutta, says that P=E2r=E2<i>s</i>arya is Vy=E2sa, and the Bhikshu-s=
=FBtra is the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtra&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_79"></a><a href=3D"http:=
//www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_78"><font size=3D"1">5</fon=
t></a>. If this is correct, the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras go very far indeed into =
antiquity. For P=E2<i>n</i>ini can certainly not be assigned to a later dat=
e than the fourth century B. C., while that learned</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_33"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 33</font></a></p=
>
<p>scholar, Professor Goldst=FCcker, on grounds of considerable strength, a=
ssigned him to a much earlier date&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_80"></a><a href=3D"ht=
tp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_79"><font size=3D"1">1</=
font></a>. The question thus comes to this, Is the remark of Professor T=E2=
r=E2n=E2tha, above set out, correct? I find then, from enquiries made of my=
 venerable and erudite friend Ya<i>g</i>=F1e<i>s</i>var <i>S</i>=E2strin, t=
he author of the =C2ryavidy=E2sudh=E2kara, that the note of T=E2r=E2n=E2tha=
 is based on the works of Bha<i>tt</i>o<i>g</i>=EE D=EEkshita, N=E2go<i>g</=
i>=EE Bha<i>tt</i>a, and <i>G</i>=F1=E2nendra Sarasvat=EE, who all give the=
 same interpretation of the S=FBtra in question. It is certainly unfortunat=
e that we have no older authority on this point than Bha<i>tt</i>o<i>g</i>=
=EE. The interpretation is in itself not improbable. Vy=E2sa is certainly b=
y the current tradition&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_81"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sa=
cred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_80"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a> c=
alled the author of the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras, and also the son of Par=E2<i>s<=
/i>ara. Nor is Bhikshu-s=FBtra a name too far removed in sense from Ved=E2n=
ta-s=FBtra, though doubtless the former name is not now in use, at all even=
ts as applied to the S=FBtras attributed to B=E2dar=E2ya<i>n</i>a, and thou=
gh, it must also be stated, a Bhikshu-s=FBtra Bh=E2shya V=E2rtika is mentio=
ned eo nomine by Professor Weber as actually in existence at the present da=
y&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_82"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe=
08/sbe0802.htm#fn_81"><font size=3D"1">3</font></a>. Taking all things toge=
ther, therefore, we may provisionally understand the Bhikshu-s=FBtra mentio=
ned by P=E2<i>n</i>ini to be identical with the Ved=E2nta-s=FBtras. But eve=
n apart from that identification, the other testimonies we have adduced pro=
ve, I think, the high antiquity of those S=FBtras, and consequently of the =
Bhagavadg=EEt=E2.</p>
<p>We have thus examined, at what, considering the importance and difficult=
y of the subject, will not; I trust, be regarded as unreasonable length, so=
me of the principal pieces of internal and external evidence touching the a=
ge of the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2 and its position in Sanskrit literature. Althoug=
h, as stated at the very outset, the conclusions we have deduced in the cou=
rse of that examination are not all such as at once to secure acceptance, I=
 venture to think that we have now adequate grounds for saying, that the va=
rious .and independent lines of investigation, which we have pursued, conve=
rge to this point, that the G=EEt=E2, on numerous and</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_34"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 34</font></a></p=
>
<p>essential topics, ranges itself as a member of the Upanishad group, so t=
o say; in Sanskrit literature. Its philosophy, its mode of treating its sub=
ject, its style, its language, its versification, its opinions on sundry su=
bjects of the highest importance, all point to that one conclusion. We may =
also, I think, lay it down as more than probable, that the latest date at w=
hich the G=EEt=E2 can have been composed, must be earlier than the third ce=
ntury B. C., though it is altogether impossible to say at present how much =
earlier. This proposition, too, is supported by the cumulative strength of =
several independent lines of testimony.</p>
<p>Before closing this Introduction, it is desirable to add a word concerni=
ng the text of the Bhagavadg=EEt=E2. The religious care with which that tex=
t has been preserved is very worthy of note. Schlegel and Lassen&nbsp;<a na=
me=3D"fr_83"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.h=
tm#fn_82"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a> have both declared it as their opin=
ion, that we have the text now almost exactly in the condition in which it =
was when it left the hands of the author. There are very few real various r=
eadings, and some of the very few that exist are noted by the commentators.=
 Considering that the Mah=E2bh=E2rata must have been tampered with on numer=
ous occasions, this preservation of the G=EEt=E2 is most interesting. It do=
ubtless indicates that high veneration for it which is still felt, and has =
for long been felt, by the Hindus, and which is embodied in the expression =
used in the colophons of the MSS. describing the G=EEt=E2 as the 'Upanishad=
 sung by God&nbsp;<a name=3D"fr_84"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.=
com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#fn_83"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>.' In view of=
 the facts and deductions set forth in this essay that expression existing =
as, I believe, it does, almost universally in Indian MSS. of the G=EEt=E2, =
is not altogether devoid of historical value.</p>
<p>Schlegel draws attention to one other circumstance regarding the text of=
 the G=EEt=E2, which is also highly interesting, namely, that the number of=
 the stanzas is exactly 700.</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_35"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 35</font></a></p=
>
<p><font size=3D"-2" color=3D"GREEN">[paragraph continues]</font> Schlegel =
concludes that the author must have fixed on that number deliberately, in o=
rder to prevent, as far as be could, all subsequent interpolations&nbsp;<a =
name=3D"fr_85"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802=
.htm#fn_84"><font size=3D"1">1</font></a>. This is certainly not unlikely; =
and if the aim of the author was such as Schlegel suggests, it has assuredl=
y been thoroughly successful. In the chapter of the Mah=E2bh=E2rata immedia=
tely succeeding the eighteenth chapter of the G=EEt=E2, the extent of the w=
ork in <i>s</i>lokas is distinctly stated. The verses in which this is stat=
ed do not exist in the Gau<i>d</i>a or Bengal recension, and are doubtless =
not genuine. But, nevertheless, they are interesting, and I shall reproduce=
 them here. 'Ke<i>s</i>ava spoke 620 <i>s</i>lokas, Ar<i>g</i>una fifty-sev=
en, Sa=F1<i>g</i>aya sixty-seven, and Dh<i>ri</i>tar=E2sh<i>t</i>ra one <i>=
s</i>loka; such is the extent of the G=EEt=E2.' It is very difficult to acc=
ount for these figures. According to them, the total number of verses in th=
e G=EEt=E2 would be 745, whereas the number in the current MSS., and even i=
n the Mah=E2bh=E2rata itself, is, as already stated, only 700&nbsp;<a name=
=3D"fr_86"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm=
#fn_85"><font size=3D"1">2</font></a>. I cannot suggest any explanation wha=
tever of this discrepancy.</p>
<p>In conclusion, a few words may be added regarding the general principles=
 followed in the translation contained in this volume. My aim has been to m=
ake that translation as close and literal a rendering as possible of the G=
=EEt=E2, as interpreted by the commentators Sa<u>n</u>kar=E2<i>k</i>=E2rya,=
 <i>S</i>r=EEdharasv=E2min, and Madhus=FBdana Sarasvat=EE. Reference has al=
so been frequently made to the commentary of R=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>=E2-<i>k</i>=
=E2rya, and also to that of N=EElaka<i>nth</i>a, which latter forms part of=
 the author's general commentary on the Mah=E2bh=E2rata. In some places the=
se commentators differ among themselves, and then I have made my own choice=
. The foot-notes are mainly intended to make clear that which necessarily r=
emains obscure in a literal translation. Some of the notes, however, also p=
oint out the parallelisms existing between the G=EEt=E2 and other works, pr=
incipally the Upanishads and the Buddhistic Dhammapada and Sutta Nip=E2ta. =
Of the latter</p>
<p>
</p>
<p>
</p>
<p><a name=3D"page_36"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p. 36</font></a></p=
>
<p><font size=3D"-2" color=3D"GREEN">[paragraph continues]</font> I have no=
t been able to procure the original P=E2l=EE; I have only used Sir M. C. Sw=
amy's translation. But I may here note, that there are some verses, especia=
lly in the Salla Sutta (see pp. 124-127 of Sir M. C. Swamy's book), the sim=
ilarity of which, in doctrine and expression, to some of the verses of the =
G=EEt=E2 is particularly striking. The analogies between the G=EEt=E2 and t=
he Upanishads have been made the basis of certain conclusions in this Intro=
duction. Those between the G=EEt=E2 and these Buddhistic works are at prese=
nt, to my mind, only interesting; I am unable yet to say whether they may l=
egitimately be made the premises for any historical deductions.</p>
<p>There are two indexes: the first a general index of matters, the second =
containing the principal words in the G=EEt=E2 which may prove useful or in=
teresting for philological, historical, or other kindred purposes.</p>
<hr>
<h3 align=3D"CENTER">Footnotes</h3>
<p><a name=3D"fn_0"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_0">1:1</a> Hibbert Lectures, p. 131.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_1"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_1">1:2</a> Lectures on the History of Modem Philosophy (transl=
ated by O. W. Wight), vol. i, pp. 49, 50. At p. 433 seq. of the second volu=
me, M. Cousin gives a general view of the doctrine of the G=EEt=E2. See als=
o Mr. Maurice's and Ritter's Histories of Philosophy.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_2"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_2">2:1</a> Ex. gr. <i>S</i>=E2r=EEraka Bh=E2shya, vol. ii, p. =
840. It is also often cited as a Sm<i>ri</i>ti, ibid. vol. i, p. 152.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_3"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_3">2:2</a> See inter alia <i>S</i>=E2r=EEraka Bh=E2shya, vol. =
i, p. 455, vol. ii, p. 687, and Colebrooke's Essays, vol. i, p. 355 (Madras=
); Lassen's edition of the G=EEt=E2, XXXV.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_4"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_4">3:1</a> The whole story is given in brief by the late Profe=
ssor Goldst=FCcker in the Westminster Review, April 1868, p. 392 seq. See n=
ow his Literary Remains, II, 104 seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_5"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_5">3:2</a> History of India, vol. i, p. 293.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_6"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_7">4:1</a> History of India, vol. i, p. 288,; and compare gene=
rally upon this point the remarks in Gladstone's Homer, especially vol. i, =
p. 70 seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_7"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_8">5:1</a> Infra, <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/s=
be08/sbe0802.htm#page_21">p. 21</a> seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_8"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_9">5:2</a> Compare the late Professor Goldst=FCcker's remarks =
in the Westminster Review for April 1868, p. 389.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_9"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sb=
e0802.htm#fr_10">5:3</a> Contemporary Review (February 1879).</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_10"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_11">5:4</a> Madhus=FBdana mentions the dialogue between <i>G<=
/i>anaka and Y=E2<i>g</i>=F1avalkya as a specific parallel.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_11"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_12">6:1</a> See to this effect M. Fauriel, quoted in Grote's =
Greece, II, 195 (Cabinet ed.).</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_12"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_13">6:2</a> Compare also Weber's History of Indian Literature=
 (English translation), p. 187. The instruction, however, as to 'the revere=
nce clue to the priesthood' from 'the military caste,' which is there spoke=
n of appears to me to be entirely absent from the G=EEt=E2; see <a href=3D"=
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0802.htm#page_21">p. 21</a> seq. i=
nfra.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_13"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_14">6:3</a> Westminster Review, April 1868, p. 388 seq.; and =
Remains, I, 104, 105.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_14"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_15">6:4</a> P. 6 (Calcutta ed., Samvat, 1927).</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_15"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_16">6:5</a> p. 841 (Bibl. Indic. ed.); also <i>S</i>vet=E2<i>=
s</i>vatara, p. 278.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_16"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_17">7:1</a> See, as to this, Colebrooke's Essays, vol. i, p. =
328 (Madras).</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_17"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_18">8:1</a> See the Introductory Essay to my Bhagavadg=EEt=E2=
, translated into English blank verse, p. lxvii. See also Goldst=FCcker's R=
emains, I, 48, 77; II, 10.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_18"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_19">8:2</a> <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/=
sbe0847.htm#page_317">p. 317</a>; cf. also <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-tex=
ts.com/hin/sbe08/sbe0854.htm#page_338">p. 338</a>.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_19"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_20">8:3</a> Preface to S=E2<u>n</u>khya S=E2ra, p. 7 (Bibl. I=
ndic. ed.)</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_20"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_21">8:4</a> History of Indian Literature, p. 28.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_21"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_22">8:5</a> Are we to infer from the circumstance mentioned i=
n Weber's History of <a name=3D"page_9"><font size=3D"1" color=3D"GREEN">p.=
 9</font></a> Indian Literature (p. 223, note, 235), that the author of the=
se S=FBtras was older than Buddha?</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_22"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_23">9:1</a> S=FBtra, 12, Abhy=E2sa-vair=E2gy=E2bhy=E2<i>m</i>=
 tannirodha<i>h</i>.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_23"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_24">10:1</a> In the Preface to his S=E2<u>n</u>khya S=E2ra, I=
 think.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_24"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_25">10:2</a> This is all that we can infer from the few cases=
 of division and classification which we do meet with in the G=EEt=E2. A su=
bject like that treated of in this work could not well he discussed without=
 some classifications &amp;c.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_25"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_26">11:1</a> In chapter X the word occurs in two different se=
nses in the same stanza (st. 7).</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_26"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_27">11:2</a> Compare the various passages, references to whic=
h are collected in the Sanskrit Index at the end of this volume.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_27"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_28">12:1</a> And see, too, chapter VII, stanza 17, where the =
man of knowledge is declared to he 'dear' to K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_28"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_29">14:1</a> Compare Muir, Sanskrit Texts, vol. i, p. 5. See,=
 too, Goldst=FCcker's Remains, I, 177.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_29"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_30">14:2</a> This opinion, which I had expressed as long ago =
as 1874 in the Introduction to my edition of Bhart<i>ri</i>hari's <i>S</i>a=
takas, is, I find, also held by Dr. B=FChler; see his Introduction to =C2pa=
stamba in this series, p. xx seq., note. Pur=E2<i>n</i>as are mentioned in =
the Sutta Nip=E2ta (p. 115), as to the date of which, see inter alia Swamy'=
s Introduction, p. xvii.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_30"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_31">16:1</a> Compare the passages collected under the word Ve=
das in our Index.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_31"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_32">16:2</a> Hibbert Lectures, p. 340 seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_32"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_33">16:3</a> II, 42-45; IX, 20, 21.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_33"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_34">16:4</a> XVII, 12.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_34"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_35">16:5</a> VII, 21-23; IX, 23-24.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_35"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_36">16:6</a> VIII, 14-16; IX, 39-33.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_36"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_37">17:1</a> See <i>Kh</i>=E2ndogya-upanishad, p. 473, or rat=
her I ought to have referred to the Mu<i>nd</i>aka-upanishad, where the sup=
eriority and inferiority is more distinctly stated in words, pp. 266, 267.<=
/p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_37"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_38">18:1</a> Contemporary Review, February 1879.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_38"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_39">19:1</a> See also Sutta Nip=E2ta, p. 115.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_39"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_40">19:2</a> Haug's edition, p. 68.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_40"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_41">20:1</a> Bibl. Ind. ed. 12</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_41"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_42">20:2</a> Bibl. Ind. ed., p. 221 seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_42"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_43">20:3</a> Bibl. Ind. ed.: p. 11.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_43"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_44">20:4</a> Chapter IV, stanzas 123, 124.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_44"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_45">20:5</a> Vol. iii (2nd ed.), p. 11 seq. Cf. Goldst=FCcker=
's Remains, I, 4, 28, 366; II, 67.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_45"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_46">20:6</a> =C2pastamba (B=FChler's ed.) I, 317, 18 (pp. 38,=
 39 in this series); see further on this point Mr. Burnell's Devat=E2dhy=E2=
ya-br=E2hma<i>n</i>a, Introd., pp. viii, ix, and notes.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_46"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_47">20:7</a> Professor Tiele (History of Ancient Religions, p=
. 127) considers the 'main features' of Manu to be 'pre-Buddhistic.'</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_47"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_48">21:1</a> P. xxxv.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_48"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_49">21:2</a> See the introductory Essay to my Bhagavadg=EEt=
=E2 in English verse, published in 1875, p. cxii.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_49"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_50">22:1</a> The remarks in the text will show how little the=
re is in the G=EEt=E2 of that 'Brahmanizing' which has been shortly noticed=
 on a previous page.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_50"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_51">22:2</a> As to the Kshatriyas the contrast with Manu's ru=
les is even stronger than with =C2pastamba's. See our Introduction to the G=
=EEt=E2 in English verse, p. cxiii.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_51"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_52">23:1</a> P. <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sb=
e08/sbe0819.htm#page_120">120</a>.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_52"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_53">23:2</a> Pp. <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/s=
be08/sbe0820.htm#page_129">129</a>, <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/=
hin/sbe08/sbe0820.htm#page_130">130</a>.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_53"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_54">23:3</a> See <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/s=
be08/sbe0805.htm#page_58">p. 58</a> intra; and compare with this Weber's re=
marks on one of the classes into which he divides the whole body of Upanish=
ads, History of Indian Literature, p. 165. See also Muir, Sanskrit Texts, v=
ol. i, p. 508; Max M=FCller, Upanishads, vol. i, p. lxxv.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_54"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_55">23:4</a> Cf. Sutta Nip=E2ta, p. 32; and also Mr. Davids' =
note on that passage in his Buddhism, p. 131.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_55"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_56">24:1</a> P. <a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sb=
e08/sbe0812.htm#page_89">89</a> infra.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_56"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_57">24:2</a> Essays on Sanskrit Literature, vol. iii, p. 150.=
</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_57"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_58">24:3</a> See our remarks on, this point in the Introducto=
ry Essay to our G=EEt=E2 in verse, p. ii seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_58"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_59">24:4</a> Introduction to G=EEt=E2 in English verse, p. v =
seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_59"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_60">25:1</a> Cf. Max M=FCller's Hibbert Lectures, p. 137; Web=
er's Indian Literature, pp. 288, 289; and Mr. Rhys Davids' excellent little=
 volume on Buddhism, p. 151; and see also p. 83 of Mr. Davids' book.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_60"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_61">25:2</a> Cf. Weber's History of Indian Literature, p. 285=
. in Mr. Davids' Buddhism, p. 94, we have a noteworthy extract from a stand=
ard Buddhistic work, touching <a name=3D"page_26"><font size=3D"1" color=3D=
"GREEN">p. 26</font></a> the existence of the soul. Compare that with the c=
orresponding doctrine in the G=EEt=E2. It will be found that the two are at=
 one in rejecting the identity of the soul with the senses &amp;c. The G=EE=
t=E2 then goes an to admit a soul separate from these. Buddhism rejects tha=
t also, and sees nothing but the senses.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_61"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_62">27:1</a> The word Brahma-nirv=E2<i>n</i>a, which occurs s=
o often at the close of chapter V and also at chapter II, 72, seems to me t=
o indicate that nirvana had not yet become technically pinned down, so to s=
ay, to the meaning which Buddhism subsequently gave to it, as the name of w=
hat it deemed the summum bonum. Nirv=E2<i>n</i>a by itself occurs at VI, 15=
.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_62"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_63">27:2</a> See some further remarks on these points in my I=
ntroduction to the G=EEt=E2 in verse.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_63"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_64">27:3</a> Professor Tiele (History of Ancient Religions, p=
. 140) says <i>S</i>a<u>n</u>kara was born in 798 A.D.; on. the authority, =
I presume, of the =C2ryavidy=E2sudh=E2kara, p. 226.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_64"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_65">27:4</a> Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiati=
c Society, vol. viii, p. 250; and see, too, Indian Antiquary, vol. vi, p. 6=
1. Dr. B=FChler).</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_65"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_66">28:1</a> Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiati=
c Society, vol. xiv, p. 16 seq.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_66"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_67">28:2</a> P. 182 (T=E2r=E2n=E2tha's ed.)</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_67"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_68">28:3</a> See F. E. Hall's V=E2savadatt=E2, p. 14 note.</p=
>
<p><a name=3D"fn_68"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_69">28:4</a> See Indian Antiquary, vol. v, p. 70.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_69"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_70">28:5</a> 'Was the R=E2m=E2ya<i>n</i>a copied from Homer?'=
 See pp. 36-59.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_70"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_71">29:1</a> Cf. Colebrooke's Essays, vol. ii. p. 166, seq. I=
t may be remarked that this argument is not affected by the attempt to dist=
inguish the K=E2lid=E2sa of the <i>S</i>akuntal=E2 from the K=E2lid=E2sa of=
 the Raghuva<i>m</i>sa. Because the work cited in the Pa=F1<i>k</i>atantra =
is the Kum=E2rasambhava, which indisputably belongs to the same author as t=
he Raghuva<i>m</i>sa.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_71"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_72">30:1</a> I am indebted to Professor M. M. Kunte for a loa=
n of Vallabh=E2<i>k</i>=E2rya's commentary on the S=FBtras noted in the tex=
t. I had not seen it in 1875, when I last discussed this question.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_72"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_73">31:1</a> Cf. Weber's Indian Literature, p. 241. See also =
Lassen's Preface to his edition of Schlegers G=EEt=E2, XXXV. R=E2m=E2nu<i>g=
</i>a takes the other view.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_73"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_74">31:2</a> See Burnell's S=E2mavidh=E2na-br=E2hmana, Introd=
uction, p. vi note.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_74"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_75">32:1</a> The authorities are collected in our edition of =
Bhart<i>ri</i>h=E2ri (Bombay Series of Sanskrit Classics), Introd. p. xi no=
te. See also B=FChler's =C2pastamba in this series, Introd. p. xxviii.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_75"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_76">32:2</a> See Colebrooke's Essays, vol. i, p. 332. An Upav=
arsha is mentioned in the Kath=E2sarits=E2gara as living in the time of kin=
g Nanda, and having P=E2<i>n</i>ini, K=E2ty=E2yana, and Vy=E2<i>d</i>i for =
his pupils.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_76"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_77">32:3</a> See the R=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>a Bh=E2shya; and the R=
=E2m=E2nu<i>g</i>a Dar<i>s</i>ana in Sarvadar<i>s</i>ana-sa<u>n</u>graha.</=
p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_77"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_78">32:4</a> =C2pastamba, p. xvi.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_78"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_79">32:5</a> See Siddh=E2nta Kaumud=EE, vol. i, p. 592.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_79"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_80">33:1</a> See his P=E2<i>n</i>ini; and see also B=FChler's=
 =C2pastamba in this series, Introd. p. xxxii note.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_80"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_81">33:2</a> The correctness of this tradition is very doubtf=
ul.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_81"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_82">33:3</a> Indische Studien I. 470.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_82"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_83">34:1</a> See the latter's edition of the G=EEt=E2, Prefac=
e, p. xxvii.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_83"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_84">34:2</a> In the edition of the G=EEt=E2 published in Bomb=
ay in <i>S</i>aka 1782, there is a stanza which says that the Upanishads ar=
e the cows, K<i>ri</i>sh<i>n</i>a the milkman, Ar<i>g</i>una the calf, and =
the milk is the nectar-like G=EEt=E2, which indicates the traditional view =
of the G=EEt=E2--a view in consonance with that which we have been led to b=
y the facts and arguments contained in this Introduction.</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_84"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_85">35:1</a> p. xl (Lassen's ed.)</p>
<p><a name=3D"fn_85"></a><a href=3D"http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/s=
be0802.htm#fr_86">35:2</a> <i>S</i>a<u>n</u>kara's commentary states in so =
many words that the G=EEt=E2 he used contained only 700 <i>s</i>lokas.</p>
<p></p><hr>
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------MultipartBoundary--PrZp2UqYezOzuqoa2egdREU2kLIjt5gxR3MPbk4fPl------