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    <h1><a href="index.html" style="text-decoration:none;">Underactuated Robotics</a></h1>
    <p data-type="subtitle">Algorithms for Walking, Running, Swimming, Flying, and Manipulation</p>
    <p style="font-size: 18px;"><a href="http://people.csail.mit.edu/russt/">Russ Tedrake</a></p>
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      &copy; Russ Tedrake, 2022<br/>
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<p><b>Note:</b> These are working notes used for <a
href="http://underactuated.csail.mit.edu/Spring2022/">a course being taught
at MIT</a>. They will be updated throughout the Spring 2022 semester.  <a
href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UChfUOAhz7ynELF-s_1LPpWg">Lecture videos are available on YouTube</a>.</p>

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<h1>Fully-actuated vs Underactuated Systems</h1>

  <p>Robots today move far too conservatively, and accomplish only a fraction of
  the tasks and achieve a fraction of the performance that they are mechanically
  capable of.  In many cases, we are still fundamentally limited by control
  technology which matured on rigid robotic arms in structured factory
  environments.  The study of underactuated robotics focuses on building control
  systems which use the natural dynamics of the machines in an attempt to
  achieve extraordinary performance in terms of speed, efficiency, or
  robustness.</p>

  <section>
  <h1>Motivation</h1>

    <p>Let's start with some examples, and some videos.</p>

    <subsection>
    <h1>Honda's ASIMO vs. passive dynamic walkers</h1>

      <p> The world of robotics changed when, in late 1996, Honda Motor Co.
      announced that they had been working for nearly 15 years (behind closed
      doors) on walking robot technology.  Their designs have continued to
      evolve, resulting in a humanoid robot they call ASIMO (Advanced Step in
      Innovative MObility).  For nearly 20 years, Honda's robots were widely
      considered to represent the state of the art in walking robots, although
      there are now many robots with designs and performance very similar to
      ASIMO's. We will dedicate effort to understanding a few of the details of
      ASIMO when we discuss algorithms for walking... for now I just want you to
      become familiar with the look and feel of ASIMO's movements [watch the
      asimo video below now]. </p>

      <figure>
        <video width="80%" controls>
          <source src="figures/walking_while_avoiding_people.ogg" type="video/ogg"/>
          <source src="http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/technology/2011/intelligence/video02/movie640w.mp4" type="video/mp4"/>
        </video><br/>
        <figcaption>Honda's ASIMO (from <a href="http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/video/">http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/video/</a>)</figcaption>
      </figure>

      <p> I hope that your first reaction is to be incredibly impressed with the
      quality and versatility of ASIMO's movements.  Now take a second look.
      Although the motions are very smooth, there is something a little
      unnatural about ASIMO's gait.  It feels a little like an astronaut
      encumbered by a heavy space suit.  In fact this is a reasonable analogy...
      ASIMO is walking a bit like somebody that is unfamiliar with his/her
      dynamics.  Its control system is using high-gain feedback, and therefore
      considerable joint torque, to cancel out the natural dynamics of the
      machine and strictly follow a desired trajectory. This control approach
      comes with a stiff penalty.  ASIMO uses roughly 20 times the energy
      (scaled) that a human uses to walk on the flat (measured by cost of
      transport)<elib>Collins05</elib>.  Also, control stabilization in this
      approach only works in a relatively small portion of the state space (when
      the stance foot is flat on the ground), so ASIMO can't move nearly as
      quickly as a human, and cannot walk on unmodelled or uneven terrain. </p>

      <figure>
        <p>
          <video width="80%" controls title="If your browser cannot play this video, then download it using the link below.">
             <source src="http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/locomotion_and_robotics/3d_passive_dynamic/from_angle.mpg" type="video/mp4"/>
            <source src="figures/passive_angle.ogg" type="video/ogg"/>
          </video><br/>
<!--          <a href="http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/locomotion_and_robotics/3d_passive_dynamic/from_angle.mpg">Download the video</a>--><todo>replace these when Andy fixes the link</todo>
        </p>
        <p>
          <video width="80%" controls title="If your browser cannot play this video, then download it using the link below.">
            <source src="http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/locomotion_and_robotics/3d_passive_dynamic/from_behind.mpg" type="video/mp4">
            <source src="figures/passive_behind.ogg" type="video/ogg"/>
          </video><br/>
<!--          <a href="http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/locomotion_and_robotics/3d_passive_dynamic/from_behind.mpg">Download the video</a>-->
        </p>
        <figcaption>A 3D passive dynamic walker by Steve Collins and Andy Ruina<elib>Collins01</elib>.</figcaption>
      </figure>

      <p> For contrast, let's now consider a very different type of walking
      robot, called a passive dynamic walker (PDW).  This "robot" has no motors,
      no controllers, no computer, but is still capable of walking stably down a
      small ramp, powered only by gravity [watch videos above now].  Most people
      will agree that the passive gait of this machine is more natural than
      ASIMO's; it is certainly more efficient.  Passive walking machines have a
      long history - there are patents for passively walking toys dating back to
      the mid 1800's.  We will discuss, in detail, what people know about the
      dynamics of these machines and what has been accomplished experimentally.
      This most impressive passive dynamic walker to date was built by Steve
      Collins in Andy Ruina's lab at Cornell<elib>Collins01</elib>. </p>

      <p> Passive walkers demonstrate that the high-gain, dynamics-cancelling
      feedback approach taken on ASIMO is not a necessary one.  In fact, the
      dynamics of walking is beautiful, and should be exploited - not cancelled
      out. </p>

      <p> The world is just starting to see what this vision could look like.
      This video from Boston Dynamics is one of my favorites of all time:</p>

      <figure>
      <iframe width="560" height="315"
              src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fRj34o4hN4I?rel=0"
              frameborder="0" allow="autoplay; encrypted-media" allowfullscreen></iframe>
      <figcaption>Boston Dynamics' Atlas robot does a backflip.  Make sure you've seen the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fn3KWM1kuAw">dancing video</a>, too.</figcaption>
      </figure>

      <p> This result is a marvel of engineering (the mechanical design alone is
      amazing...).  In this class, we'll teach you the computational tools
      required to make robots perform this way.  We'll also try to reason about
      how robust these types of maneuvers are and can be.  Don't worry, if you
      do not have a super lightweight, super capable, and super durable
      humanoid, then a simulation will be provided for you.  </p> </subsection>

    <subsection><h1>Birds vs. modern aircraft</h1>

      <p> The story is surprisingly similar in a very different type of machine.
      Modern airplanes are extremely effective for steady-level flight in still
      air. Propellers produce thrust very efficiently, and today's cambered
      airfoils are highly optimized for speed and/or efficiency. It would be
      easy to convince yourself that we have nothing left to learn from birds.
      But, like ASIMO, these machines are mostly confined to a very
      conservative, low angle-of-attack flight regime where the aerodynamics on
      the wing are well understood.  Birds routinely execute maneuvers outside
      of this flight envelope (for instance, when they are landing on a perch),
      and are considerably more effective than our best aircraft at exploiting
      energy (eg, wind) in the air.  </p>

      <p> As a consequence, birds are extremely efficient flying machines; some
      are capable of migrating thousands of kilometers with incredibly small
      fuel supplies.  The wandering albatross can fly for hours, or even days,
      without flapping its wings - these birds exploit the shear layer formed by
      the wind over the ocean surface in a technique called dynamic soaring.
      Remarkably, the metabolic cost of flying for these birds is
      indistinguishable from the baseline metabolic cost<elib>Arnould96</elib>,
      suggesting that they can travel incredible distances (upwind or downwind)
      powered almost completely by gradients in the wind.  Other birds achieve
      efficiency through similarly rich interactions with the air - including
      formation flying, thermal soaring, and ridge soaring.  Small birds and
      large insects, such as butterflies and locusts, use "gust soaring" to
      migrate hundreds or even thousands of kilometers carried primarily by the
      wind. </p>

      <p> Birds are also incredibly maneuverable.  The roll rate of a highly
      acrobatic aircraft (e.g, the A-4 Skyhawk) is approximately 720
      deg/sec<elib>Shyy08</elib>; a barn swallow has a roll rate in excess of
      5000   deg/sec<elib>Shyy08</elib>. Bats can be flying at full-speed in one
      direction, and completely reverse direction while maintaining forward
      speed, all in just over 2 wing-beats and in a distance less than half the
      wingspan<elib>Tian06</elib>.  Although quantitative flow visualization
      data from maneuvering flight is scarce, a dominant theory is that the
      ability of these animals to produce sudden, large forces for
      maneuverability can be attributed to unsteady aerodynamics, e.g., the
      animal creates a large suction vortex to rapidly change
      direction<elib>Triantafyllou95</elib>.  These astonishing capabilities are
      called upon routinely in maneuvers like flared perching, prey-catching,
      and high speed flying through forests and caves.  Even at high speeds and
      high turn rates, these animals are capable of incredible agility - bats
      sometimes capture prey on their wings, Peregrine falcons can pull 25 G's
      out of a 240 mph dive to catch a sparrow in
      mid-flight<elib>Tucker98</elib>, and even the small birds outside our
      building can be seen diving through a chain-link fence to grab a bite of
      food. </p>

      <p> Although many impressive statistics about avian flight have been
      recorded, our understanding is partially limited by experimental
      accessibility - it is quite difficult to carefully measure birds (and the
      surrounding airflow) during their most impressive maneuvers without
      disturbing them.  The dynamics of a swimming fish are closely related, and
      can be more convenient to study. Dolphins have been known to swim
      gracefully through the waves alongside ships moving at 20
      knots<elib>Triantafyllou95</elib>.  Smaller fish, such as the bluegill
      sunfish, are known to possess an escape response in which they propel
      themselves to full speed from rest in less than a body length; flow
      visualizations indeed confirm that this is accomplished by creating a
      large suction vortex along the side of the body<elib>Tytell08</elib> -
      similar to how bats change direction in less than a body length. There are
      even observations of a dead fish swimming upstream by pulling energy out
      of the wake of a cylinder; this passive propulsion is presumably part of
      the technique used by rainbow trout to swim upstream at mating
      season<elib>Beal06</elib>. </p>

    </subsection>

    <subsection><h1>Manipulation</h1>

      <p>Despite a long history of success in industrial applications, and the
      huge potential for consumer applications, we still don't have robot arms
      that can perform any meaningful tasks in the home.  Admittedly, the
      perception problem (using sensors to detect/localize objects and
      understand the scene) for home robotics is incredibly difficult. But even
      if we were given a perfect perception system, our robots are still a long
      way from performing basic object manipulation tasks with the dexterity and
      versatility of a human. </p>

      <p>Most robots that perform object manipulation today use a stereotypical
      pipeline.  First, we enumerate a handful of contact locations on the hand
      (these points, and only these points, are allowed to contact the world).
      Then, given a localized object in the environment, we plan a
      collision-free trajectory for the arm that will move the hand into a
      "pre-grasp" location. At this point the robot closes it's eyes
      (figuratively) and closes the hand, hoping that the pre-grasp location was
      good enough that the object will be successfully grasped using e.g. only
      current feedback in the fingers to know when to stop closing.
      "Underactuated hands" make this approach more successful, but the entire
      approach really only works well for enveloping grasps. </p>

      <p>The enveloping grasps approach may actually be sufficient for a number
      of simple pick-and-place tasks, but it is a very poor representation of
      how humans do manipulation.  When humans manipulate objects, the contact
      interactions with the object and the world are very rich -- we often use
      pieces of the environment as fixtures to reduce uncertainty, we commonly
      <i>exploit</i> slipping behaviors (e.g. for picking things up, or
      reorienting it in the hand), and our brains don't throw NaNs if we use the
      entire surface of our arms to e.g. manipulate a large object. </p>

      <p>In the last few years, I've began to focus my own research to problems in the manipulation domain.  In this space, the interaction between dynamics and perception is incredibly rich.  As a result, I've started an <a href="http://manipulation.csail.mit.edu">entirely separate set of notes (and a second course) on manipulation</a>.</p>

      <p>By the way, in most cases, if the robots fail to make contact at the
      anticipated contact times/locations, <a
      href="https://youtu.be/g0TaYhjpOfo?t=48s">bad things can happen</a>. The
      results are hilarious and depressing at the same time.  (Let's fix
      that!)</p>

    </subsection>

    <subsection><h1>The common theme</h1>

      <p> Classical control techniques for robotics are based on the idea that
      feedback control can be used to override the dynamics of our machines. In
      contrast, the examples I've given above suggest that to achieve
      outstanding dynamic performance (efficiency, agility, and robustness)
      from our robots, we need to understand how to design control systems
      which take advantage of the dynamics, not cancel them out.  That is the
      topic of this course. </p>

      <p> Surprisingly, many formal control ideas do not support the idea of
      "exploiting" the dynamics.  Optimal control formulations (which we will
      study in depth) allow it in principle, but optimal control of nonlinear
      systems is still a relatively ad hoc discipline.  Sometimes I joke that
      in order to convince a control theorist to consider the dynamics, you
      have to do something drastic, like taking away her control authority -
      remove a motor, or enforce a torque-limit.  These issues have created a
      formal class of systems, the underactuated systems, for which people have
      begun to more carefully consider the dynamics of their machines in the
      context of control. </p>

    </subsection>

  </section>

  <section><h1>Definitions</h1>

    <p> According to Newton, the dynamics of mechanical systems are second order
    ($F = ma$).  Their state is given by a vector of positions, $\bq$ (also
    known as the configuration vector), and a vector of velocities, $\dot{\bq}$,
    and (possibly) time. The general form for a second-order control
    dynamical system is: $$\ddot{\bq} = {\bf f}(\bq,\dot{\bq},\bu,t),$$ where
    $\bu$ is the control vector. </p>

    <definition> <h1>Underactuated Control Differential Equations</h1> A
    second-order control differential equation<sidenote>This definition can also
    be extended to discrete-time systems and/or differential
    inclusions.</sidenote> described by the equations \begin{equation} \ddot\bq
    = {\bf f}(\bq, \dot\bq, \bu, t) \label{eq:underactuated_def}\end{equation}
    is <i>fully actuated</i> in state $\bx = (\bq, \dot\bq)$ and time $t$ if the
    resulting map ${\bf f}$ is surjective: for every $\ddot\bq$ there exists a
    $\bu$ which produces the desired response.  Otherwise it is
    <i>underactuated</i> (in $\bx$ at time $t$).
    </definition>

    <p>As we will see, the dynamics for many of the robots that we care about
    turn out to be affine in commanded torque, so let's consider a slightly
    constrained form: \begin{equation}\ddot{\bq} = {\bf f}_1(\bq,\dot{\bq},t) +
    {\bf f}_2(\bq,\dot{\bq},t)\bu \label{eq:f1_plus_f2}.\end{equation}  For a
    control dynamical system described by equation \eqref{eq:f1_plus_f2}, if we
    have \begin{equation} \textrm{rank}\left[{\bf f}_2 (\bq,\dot{\bq},t)\right]
    < \dim\left[\bq\right],\label{eq:underactuated_low_rank}\end{equation} then
    the system is underactuated. Be careful, though -- sometimes we will write
    equations that look like \eqref{eq:f1_plus_f2} but tack on additional
    constraints like $|\bu|\le 1$; as we will discuss below, input limits and
    other constraints can also make a system underactuated.</p>

    <p>Notice that whether or not a control system is underactuated may depend
    on the state of the system or even on time, although for most systems
    (including all of the systems in this book) underactuation is a global
    property of the system.  We will refer to a system as underactuated if it is
    underactuated in <i>all</i> states and times.  In practice, we often refer
    informally to systems as fully actuated as long as they are fully actuated
    in <i>most</i> states (e.g., a "fully-actuated" system might still have
    joint limits or lose rank at a kinematic singularity).  Admittedly, this
    permits the existence of a gray area, where it might feel awkward to
    describe the <i>system</i> as either fully- or underactuated (we should
    instead only describe its states); even powerful robot arms on factory
    floors do have actuator limits, but we can typically design controllers for
    them as though they were fully actuated.  The primary interest of this text
    is in systems for which the underactuation is useful/necessary for
    developing a control strategy.</p>

    <example id="robot_manipulators"><h1>Robot Manipulators</h1>

      <figure>
      <img style="width:250px;" src="figures/simple_double_pend.svg"/>
      <todo>make this image spring to life with a python movie<</todo>
      <figcaption>Simple double pendulum.  <a target="_blank"
      href="data/double_pendulum_passive.html">Click here for an
      animation</a>.</figcaption>
      </figure>

      <p> Consider the simple robot manipulator illustrated above.  As described
      in the <a href="multibody.html">Appendix</a>, the
      equations of motion for this system are quite simple to derive, and take the
      form of the standard "manipulator equations": $${\bf M}(\bq)\ddot\bq +
      \bC(\bq,\dot\bq)\dot\bq = \btau_g(\bq) + {\bf B}\bu.$$ It is well known that
      the inertia matrix, ${\bf M}(\bq)$ is (always) uniformly symmetric and
      positive definite, and is therefore invertible. Putting the system into the
      form of equation \ref{eq:f1_plus_f2} yields: \begin{align*}\ddot{\bq} =&
      {\bf M}^{-1}(\bq)\left[ \btau_g(\bq) + \bB\bu - \bC(\bq,\dot\bq)\dot\bq
      \right].\end{align*} Because ${\bf M}^{-1}(\bq)$ is always full rank, we
      find that a system described by the manipulator equations is fully-actuated
      if and only if $\bB$ is full row rank. For this particular example,
      $\bq = [\theta_1,\theta_2]^T$ and $\bu = [\tau_1,\tau_2]^T$ (motor torques
      at the joints), and $\bB = {\bf I}_{2 \times 2}$.  The system is fully
      actuated.</p>

      <div><b>Python Example</b>

        <p> I personally learn best when I can experiment and get some physical
        intuition.  Most chapters in these notes have an associated Jupyter notebook that can run on Deepnote or Google Colab; this chapter's notebook makes it easy for you to see this system in action.</p>

       <script>document.write(notebook_link('intro'))</script>
   
        <p>Try it out!  You'll see how to simulate the double pendulum, and even
        how to inspect the dynamics symbolically.</p>
        
        <p>Note: You can also run the code on your own machines (see the <a
        href="drake.html">Appendix</a> for details).</p>
        
      </div>
    </example>

    <p> While the basic double pendulum is fully actuated, imagine the somewhat
    bizarre case that we have a motor to provide torque at the elbow, but no
    motor at the shoulder.  In this case, we have $\bu = \tau_2$, and $\bB(\bq)
    = [0,1]^T$.  This system is clearly underactuated.  While it may sound like
    a contrived example, it turns out that it is almost exactly the dynamics we
    will use to study as our simplest model of walking later in the class. </p>

    <p>The matrix ${\bf f}_2$ in equation \ref{eq:f1_plus_f2} always has
    dim$[\bq]$ rows, and dim$[\bu]$ columns. Therefore, as in the example, one
    of the most common cases for underactuation, which trivially implies that
    ${\bf f}_2$ is not full row rank, is dim$[\bu] < $ dim$[\bq]$.  This is the
    case when a robot has joints with no motors. But this is not the only case.
    The human body, for instance, has an incredible number of actuators
    (muscles), and in many cases has multiple muscles per joint; despite having
    more actuators than position variables, when I jump through the air, there
    is no combination of muscle inputs that can change the ballistic trajectory
    of my center of mass (barring aerodynamic effects).  My control system is
    underactuated.</p>

    <!-- note: I've removed this nth-order version because I still strongly dislike the fact that a fully-actuated 4th order system could be written as a 2nd order underactuated system. 

    <definition> <h1>Underactuated Control Differential
    Equations</h1> An $n$th-order control differential equation (with $n\ge2$)
    described by the equations \begin{equation} \frac{d^n\bq}{dt^n} = f(\bq, ..,
    \frac{d^{n-1} \bq}{dt^{n-1}}, t, {\bf u}) \end{equation} is fully actuated
    in state ${\bf x} = (\bq, ..., \frac{d^{n-1} \bq}{dt^{n-1}})$ and time $t$
    if the resulting map ${\bf f}$ is surjective: for every $\frac{d^n\bq}{dt^n}
    $ there exists a ${\bf u}$ which produces the desired response.  Otherwise
    it is underactuated. </definition>
    -->  
  
    <p>A quick note about notation.  When describing the dynamics of rigid-body
    systems in this class, I will use $\bq$ for configurations (positions),
    $\dot{\bq}$ for velocities, and use $\bx$ for the full state ($\bx =
    [\bq^T,\dot{\bq}^T]^T$).  There is an important limitation to this
    convention (3D angular velocity should not be represented as the derivative
    of 3D pose) described in the Appendix<!-- ch:robot_dynamics -->, but it will
    keep the notes cleaner. Unless otherwise noted, vectors are always treated
    as column vectors. Vectors and matrices are bold (scalars are not). </p>

  </section>

  <section> <h1>Feedback Equivalence</h1>

    <p> Fully-actuated systems are dramatically easier to control than
    underactuated systems.  The key observation is that, for fully-actuated
    systems with known dynamics (e.g., ${\bf f}_1$ and ${\bf f}_2$ are known for
    a second-order control-affine system), it is possible to use feedback to
    effectively change an arbitrary control problem into the problem of
    controlling a trivial linear system. </p>

    <p>When ${\bf f}_2$ is full row rank, it is invertible<sidenote>If ${\bf
    f}_2$ is not square, for instance you have multiple actuators per joint,
    then this inverse may not be unique.</sidenote>. Consider the potentially
    nonlinear feedback control: $$\bu = {\bf \pi}(\bq,\dot\bq,t) = {\bf
    f}_2^{-1}(\bq,\dot\bq,t) \left[ \bu' - {\bf f}_1(\bq,\dot\bq,t) \right],$$
    where $\bu'$ is the new control input (an input to your controller).
    Applying this feedback controller to equation \ref{eq:f1_plus_f2} results in
    the linear, decoupled, second-order system: $$\ddot{\bq} = \bu'.$$ In other
    words, if ${\bf f}_1$ and ${\bf f}_2$ are known and ${\bf f}_2$ is
    invertible, then we say that the system is "feedback equivalent" to
    $\ddot{\bq} = \bu'$.  There are a number of strong results which generalize
    this idea to the case where ${\bf f}_1$ and ${\bf f}_2$ are estimated,
    rather than known (e.g, <elib>Slotine90</elib>).</p>

    <example><h1>Feedback Cancellation on the Double
    Pendulum</h1>

    <p> Let's say that we would like our simple double pendulum to act like a
    simple single pendulum (with damping), whose dynamics are given by:
    \begin{align*} \ddot \theta_1 &= -\frac{g}{l}\sin\theta_1 -b\dot\theta_1 \\
    \ddot\theta_2 &= 0. \end{align*} This is easily achieved using
    <sidenote>Note that our chosen dynamics do not actually stabilize $\theta_2$
    - this detail was left out for clarity, but would be necessary for any real
    implementation.</sidenote> $$\bu = \bB^{-1}\left[ \bC\dot{\bq} - \btau_g +
    {\bf M}\begin{bmatrix} -\frac{g}{l}s_1 - b\dot{q}_1 \\ 0 \end{bmatrix}
    \right].$$ </p>

    <p> Since we are embedding a nonlinear dynamics (not a linear one), we refer
    to this as "feedback cancellation", or "dynamic inversion".  This idea
    reveals why I say control is easy -- for the special case of a
    fully-actuated deterministic system with known dynamics.  For example, it
    would have been just as easy for me to invert gravity. Observe that the
    control derivations here would not have been any more difficult if the robot
    had 100 joints.
    </p>

    <p>You can run these examples in the notebook:</p>

    <script>document.write(notebook_link('intro'))</script>

    <p>As always, I highly recommend that you take a few minutes to read through
    the source code.</p>

    </div>

    </example>

    <p> Fully-actuated systems are feedback equivalent to $\ddot\bq = \bu$,
    whereas <i>underactuated systems are not feedback equivalent to $\ddot\bq =
    \bu$</i>.  Therefore, unlike fully-actuated systems, the control designer
    has no choice but to reason about the more complex dynamics of the plant in
    the control design. When these dynamics are nonlinear, this can dramatically
    complicate feedback controller design.
    </p>

    <p>A related concept is <a
    href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback_linearization">feedback
    linearization</a>.  The feedback-cancellation controller in the example
    above is an example of feedback linearization -- using feedback to convert a
    nonlinear system into a controllable linear system.  Asking whether or not a
    system is "feedback linearizable" is not the same as asking whether it is
    underactuated; even a controllable linear system can be underactuated, as we
    will discuss <a href="acrobot.html#controllability">soon</a>.</p>

    <!-- Another connection: For some feedback linearizable systems it can be
    hard to find the linearizing controller; it IS true that the fully-actuated
    systems are ones where we have an easy recipe for the linearizing controller
    (based on inverting $f_2$). -->

  </section>

  <section><h1>Input and State Constraints</h1>

    <p> Although the dynamic constraints due to missing actuators certainly
    embody the spirit of this course, many of the systems we care about could be
    subject to other dynamic constraints as well.  For example, the actuators on
    our machines may only be mechanically capable of producing some limited
    amount of torque, or there may be a physical obstacle in the free space with
    which we cannot permit our robot to come into contact with. </p>

    <definition><h1>Input and State Constraints</h1> A dynamical
    system described by $\dot{\bx} = {\bf f}(\bx,\bu,t)$ may be subject to one
    or more constraints described by $\bphi(\bx,\bu,t)\ge0$. </definition>

    <p>In practice it can be useful to separate out constraints which depend
    only on the input, e.g. $\phi(\bu)\ge0$, such as actuator limits, as they
    can often be easier to handle than state constraints.  An obstacle in the
    environment might manifest itself as one or more constraints that depend
    only on position, e.g. $\phi(\bq)\ge0$.</p>

    <p>By our generalized definition of underactuation, we can see that input
    constraints can certainly cause a system to be underactuated.  State (only)
    constraints are more subtle -- in general these actually reduce the
    dimensionality of the state space, therefore requiring less dimensions of
    actuation to achieve "full" control, but we only reap the benefits if we are
    able to perform the control design in the "minimal coordinates" (which is
    often difficult). </p>

    <example><h1>Input limits</h1> Consider the constrained
    second-order linear system \[ \ddot{x} = u, \quad |u| \le 1. \] By our
    definition, this system is underactuated.  For example, there is no $u$
    which can produce the acceleration $\ddot{x} = 2$. </example>

    <p>Input and state constraints can complicate control design in similar ways
    to having an insufficient number of actuators, (i.e., further limiting the
    set of the feasible trajectories), and often require similar tools to find a
    control solution.</p>

    <subsection><h1>Nonholonomic constraints</h1>

      <p> You might have heard of the term "nonholonomic system" (see e.g.
      <elib>Bloch03</elib>), and be thinking about how nonholonomy relates to
      underactuation.  Briefly, a nonholonomic constraint is a constraint of the
      form $\phi(\bq, {\bf \dot{q}}, t) = 0$, which cannot be integrated into a
      constraint of the form $\phi(\bq, t) = 0$ (a holonomic constraint). A
      nonholonomic constraint does not restrain the possible configurations of
      the system, but rather the manner in which those configurations can be
      reached. While a holonomic constraint reduces the number of degrees of
      freedom of a system by one, a nonholonomic constraint does not.  An
      automobile or traditional wheeled robot provides a canonical example:</p>

      <example id="wheeled_robot"><h1>Wheeled robot</h1> Consider a simple model of
      a wheeled robot whose configuration is described by its Cartesian position
      $x,y$ and its orientation, $\theta$, so $\bq = \begin{bmatrix} x, y,
      \theta \end{bmatrix}^T$.  The system is subject to a differential
      constraint that prevents side-slip, \begin{gather*} \dot{x} = v \cos\theta
      \\ \dot{y} = v \sin\theta \\ v = \sqrt{\dot{x}^2 + \dot{y}^2}
      \end{gather*} or equivalently, \[\dot{y} \cos \theta - \dot x \sin \theta
      = 0.\] This constraint cannot be integrated into a constraint on
      configuration&mdash;the car can get to any configuration $(x,y,\theta)$,
      it just can't move directly sideways&mdash;so this is a nonholonomic
      constraint. </example>

      <p>Contrast the wheeled robot example with a robot on train tracks.  The
      train tracks correspond to a holonomic constraint: the track constraint
      can be written directly in terms of the configuration $\bq$ of the system,
      without using the velocity ${\bf \dot{q}}$. Even though the track
      constraint could also be written as a differential constraint on the
      velocity, it would be possible to integrate this constraint to obtain a
      constraint on configuration. The track restrains the possible
      configurations of the system.</p>

      <p> A nonholonomic constraint like the no-side-slip constraint on the
      wheeled vehicle certainly results in an underactuated system.  The
      converse is not necessarily true&mdash;the double pendulum system which is
      missing an actuator is underactuated but would not typically be called a
      nonholonomic system.  Note that the Lagrangian equations of motion are a
      constraint of the form \[\bphi(\bq,{\bf \dot{q}},{\bf \ddot{q}},t) =  0,\]
      so do not qualify as a nonholonomic constraint.</p>

    </subsection>

  </section>

  <section><h1>Underactuated robotics</h1>

    <p> The control of underactuated systems is an open and interesting problem
    in controls.  Although there are a number of special cases where
    underactuated systems have been controlled, there are relatively few general
    principles.  Now here's the rub... most of the interesting problems in
    robotics are underactuated: </p>

    <ul>

      <li> Legged robots are underactuated.  Consider a legged machine with $N$
      internal joints and $N$ actuators.  If the robot is not bolted to the
      ground, then the degrees of freedom of the system include both the
      internal joints and the six degrees of freedom which define the position
      and orientation of the robot in space.  Since $\bu \in \Re^N$ and $\bq \in
      \Re^{N+6}$, equation \eqref{eq:underactuated_low_rank} is satisfied.</li>

      <li> (Most) Swimming and flying robots are underactuated.  The story is
      the same here as for legged machines.  Each control surface adds one
      actuator and one DOF.  And this is already a simplification, as the true
      state of the system should really include the (infinite-dimensional) state
      of the flow.</li>

      <li> Robot manipulation is (often) underactuated.  Consider a
      fully-actuated robotic arm.  When this arm is manipulating an object with
      degrees of freedom (even a brick has six), it can become underactuated. If
      force closure is achieved, and maintained, then we can think of the system
      as fully-actuated, because the degrees of freedom of the object are
      constrained to match the degrees of freedom of the hand.  That is, of
      course, unless the manipulated object has extra DOFs (for example, any
      object that is deformable).</li>

    </ul>

    <p> Even control systems for fully-actuated and otherwise unconstrained
    systems can be improved using the lessons from underactuated systems,
    particularly if there is a need to increase the efficiency of their motions
    or reduce the complexity of their designs.</p>

  </section>

  <section><h1>Goals for the course</h1>

    <p> This course is based on the observation that there are new computational
    tools from optimization theory, control theory, motion planning, and even
    machine learning which can be used to design feedback control for
    underactuated systems.  The goal of this class is to develop these tools in
    order to design robots that are more dynamic and more agile than the current
    state-of-the-art.</p>

    <p> The target audience for the class includes both computer science and
    mechanical/aero students pursuing research in robotics.  Although I assume a
    comfort with linear algebra, ODEs, and Python, the course notes aim to
    provide most of the material and references required for the course. </p>

    <p>I have a confession: I actually think that the material we'll cover in
      these notes is valuable far beyond robotics.  I think that systems theory
      provides a powerful language for organizing computation in exceedingly
      complex systems -- especially when one is trying to program and/or analyze
      systems with continuous variables in a feedback loop (which happens
      throughout computer science and engineering, by the way).  I hope you find
      these tools to be broadly useful, even if you don't have a humanoid robot
      capable of performing a backflip at your immediate disposal.</p>

  </section>

  <section><h1>Exercises</h1>
  
    <exercise><h1>Atlas Backflip</h1>

      <figure>
      <img style="height:160px;" src="figures/exercises/atlas_backflip.jpg"/>
      <img style="height:160px;" src="figures/exercises/atlas_standing.jpg"/>
      <figcaption>Atlas doing a backflip and Atlas standing.</figcaption>
      </figure>

      At the beginning of this chapter you have seen the Atlas humanoid doing a backflip.  Now consider the robot in the two states captured in the figure above.  Assuming that Atlas' actuators can produce unbounded torques $\bu$, establish whether or not each of the following statements is true.  Briefly justify your answer.

      <ol type="a">

        <li> The state of the humanoid can be represented by the angles and the angular velocities of all its joints.</li>

        <li> While doing the backflip (state in the left figure), the humanoid is fully actuated.</li>

        <li> While standing (state in the right figure), the humanoid is fully actuated.</li>

      </ol>

    </exercise>

    <exercise><h1>Trajectory Tracking in State Space</h1>

      Take a robot whose dynamics is governed by equation \ref{eq:f1_plus_f2}, and assume it to be fully actuated in all states $\bx = [\bq^T, \dot\bq^T]^T$ at all times $t$.

      <ol type="a">

        <li> For any twice-differentiable desired trajectory $\bq_{\text{des}}(t)$, is it always possible to find a control signal $\bu(t)$ such that $\bq(t) = \bq_{\text{des}}(t)$ for all $t \geq 0$, provided that $\bq(0) = \bq_{\text{des}}(0)$ and $\dot \bq(0) = \dot \bq_{\text{des}}(0)$?</li>

        <li>Now consider the simplest fully-actuated robot: the double integrator. The dynamics of this system reads $m \ddot q = u$, and you can think of it as a cart of mass $m$ moving on a straight rail, controlled by a force $u$.  The figure below depicts its <a href="pend.html#pend_zero_torque">phase portrait</a> when $u=0$.  Is it possible to find a control signal $u(t)$ that drives the double integrator from the initial state $\bx(0) = [2, 0.5]^T$ to the origin along a straight line (blue trajectory)? Does the answer change if we set $\bx(0)$ to be $[2, -0.5]^T$ (red trajectory)?

        <figure>
          <img width="60%" src="figures/exercises/trajectory_tracking.svg"/>
          <figcaption>Phase portrait of the double integrator.</figcaption>
        </figure>

        <li> The dynamics \ref{eq:f1_plus_f2} are $n=\dim[\bq]$ <i>second-order</i> differential equations.  However, it is always possible (and we'll frequently do it) to describe these equations in terms of $2n$ <i>first-order</i> differential equations $\dot \bx = f(\bx,t)$.  To this end, we simply define $$f(\bx,t) = \begin{bmatrix} \dot\bq \\ {\bf f}_1(\bq,\dot\bq,t) + {\bf f}_2(\bq,\dot\bq,t)\bu \end{bmatrix}.$$  For any twice-differentiable trajectory $\bx_{\text{des}}(t)$, is it always possible to find a control $\bu(t)$ such that $\bx(t) = \bx_{\text{des}}(t)$ for all $t \geq 0$, provided that $\bx(0) = \bx_{\text{des}}(0)$?</li>

      </ol>

    </exercise>

    <exercise><h1>Task-Space Control of the Double Pendulum</h1>

      In <a href="#robot_manipulators">the example above</a>, we have seen that the double pendulum with one motor per joint is a fully-actuated system.  Here we consider a variation of it: instead of controlling the robot with the actuators at the shoulder and the elbow, we directly apply a force on the mass $m_2$ (tip of the second link).  Let $\bu = [u_1, u_2]^T$ be this force, with $u_1$ horizontal component (positive to the right) and $u_2$ vertical component (positive upwards).  This modification leaves the equations of motion derived in the <a href="multibody.html#manipulator_equation_double_pendulum">appendix example</a> almost unchanged; the only difference is that the matrix $\bB$ is now a function of $\bq$.  Namely, using the notation from the appendix, $$\bB (\bq) = \begin{bmatrix} l_1 c_1 + l_2 c_{1+2} & l_1 s_1 + l_2 s_{1+2} \\ l_2  c_{1+2} & l_2 s_{1+2} \end{bmatrix}.$$  Is the double pendulum with the new control input still fully-actuated in all states?  If not, identify the states in which it is underactuated.

    </exercise>

    <exercise><h1>Underactuation of the Planar Quadrotor</h1>

      Later in the course we will study the dynamics of a quadrotor quite in depth, for the moment just look at the structure of the resulting equations of motion from the <a href="acrobot.html#planar_quadrotor">planar quadrotor section</a>.  The quadrotor is constrained to move in the vertical plane, with the gravity pointing downwards.  The configuration vector $\bq = [x, y, \theta]^T$ collects the position of the center of mass and the pitch angle.  The control input is the thrust $\bu = [u_1, u_2]^T$ produced by the two rotors.  The input $\bu$ can assume both signs and has no bounds.

      <ol type="a">

        <li> Identify the set of states $\bx = [\bq^T, \dot \bq^T]^T$ in which the system is underactuated.</li>

        <li> For <i>all</i> the states in which the system is underactuated, identify an acceleration $\ddot \bq (\bq, \dot \bq)$ that cannot be instantaneously achieved.  Provide a rigorous proof of your claim by using the equations of motion: plug the candidate accelerations in the dynamics, and try to come up with contradictions such as $mg=0$.</li>


      </ol>

    </exercise>

  </section>

</chapter>
<!-- EVERYTHING BELOW THIS LINE IS OVERWRITTEN BY THE INSTALL SCRIPT -->

<div id="references"><section><h1>References</h1>
<ol>

<li id=Collins05>
<span class="author">Steven H. Collins and Andy Ruina and Russ Tedrake and Martijn Wisse</span>, 
<span class="title">"Efficient bipedal robots based on passive-dynamic walkers"</span>, 
<span class="publisher">Science</span>, vol. 307, pp. 1082-1085, February 18, <span class="year">2005</span>.
[&nbsp;<a href="http://groups.csail.mit.edu/robotics-center/public_papers/Collins05.pdf">link</a>&nbsp;]

</li><br>
<li id=Collins01>
<span class="author">Steven H. Collins and Martijn Wisse and Andy Ruina</span>, 
<span class="title">"A Three-Dimensional Passive-Dynamic Walking Robot with Two Legs and Knees"</span>, 
<span class="publisher">International Journal of Robotics Research</span>, vol. 20, no. 7, pp. 607-615, July, <span class="year">2001</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Arnould96>
<span class="author">J.P.Y. Arnould and D.R. Briggs and J.P. Croxall and P.A. Prince and A.G. Wood</span>, 
<span class="title">"The foraging behaviour and energetics of wandering albatrosses brooding chicks"</span>, 
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</li><br>
<li id=Shyy08>
<span class="author">Wei Shyy and Yongsheng Lian and Jian Teng and Dragos Viieru and Hao Liu</span>, 
<span class="title">"Aerodynamics of Low Reynolds Number Flyers"</span>, Cambridge University Press
, <span class="year">2008</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Tian06>
<span class="author">Xiaodong Tian and Jose Iriarte-Diaz and Kevin Middleton and Ricardo Galvao and Emily Israeli and Abigail Roemer and Allyce Sullivan and Arnold Song and Sharon Swartz and Kenneth Breuer</span>, 
<span class="title">"Direct measurements of the kinematics and dynamics of bat flight"</span>, 
<span class="publisher">Bioinspiration \& Biomimetics</span>, vol. 1, pp. S10-S18, <span class="year">2006</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Triantafyllou95>
<span class="author">Michael S. Triantafyllou and George S. Triantafyllou</span>, 
<span class="title">"An efficient swimming machine"</span>, 
<span class="publisher">Scientific American</span>, vol. 272, no. 3, pp. 64, March, <span class="year">1995</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Tucker98>
<span class="author">Vance A. Tucker</span>, 
<span class="title">"Gliding Flight: Speed and Acceleration of Ideal Falcons During Diving and Pull Out"</span>, 
<span class="publisher">Journal of Experimental Biology</span>, vol. 201, pp. 403-414, Nov, <span class="year">1998</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Tytell08>
<span class="author">Eric D. Tytell and George V. Lauder</span>, 
<span class="title">"Hydrodynamics of the escape response in bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus"</span>, 
<span class="publisher">The Journal of Experimental Biology</span>, vol. 211, pp. 3359-3369, <span class="year">2008</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Beal06>
<span class="author">D.N. Beal and F.S. Hover and M.S. Triantafyllou and J.C. Liao and G. V. Lauder</span>, 
<span class="title">"Passive propulsion in vortex wakes"</span>, 
<span class="publisher">Journal of Fluid Mechanics</span>, vol. 549, pp. 385â€“402, <span class="year">2006</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Slotine90>
<span class="author">Jean-Jacques E. Slotine and Weiping Li</span>, 
<span class="title">"Applied Nonlinear Control"</span>, Prentice Hall
, October, <span class="year">1990</span>.

</li><br>
<li id=Bloch03>
<span class="author">Anthony Bloch and P. Crouch and J. Baillieul and J. Marsden</span>, 
<span class="title">"Nonholonomic Mechanics and Control"</span>, Springer
, April 8, <span class="year">2003</span>.

</li><br>
</ol>
</section><p/>
</div>

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