literaturVerzeichnis.bib

@inproceedings{lee_crowd_2018,
	address = {Limassol, Cyprus},
	series = {{MIG} '18},
	title = {Crowd simulation by deep reinforcement learning},
	isbn = {978-1-4503-6015-9},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/3274247.3274510},
	doi = {10.1145/3274247.3274510},
	abstract = {Simulating believable virtual crowds has been an important research topic in many research fields such as industry films, computer games, urban engineering, and behavioral science. One of the key capabilities agents should have is navigation, which is reaching goals without colliding with other agents or obstacles. The key challenge here is that the environment changes dynamically, where the current decision of an agent can largely affect the state of other agents as well as the agent in the future. Recently, reinforcement learning with deep neural networks has shown remarkable results in sequential decision-making problems. With the power of convolution neural networks, elaborate control with visual sensory inputs has also become possible. In this paper, we present an agent-based deep reinforcement learning approach for navigation, where only a simple reward function enables agents to navigate in various complex scenarios. Our method is also able to do that with a single unified policy for every scenario, where the scenario-specific parameter tuning is unnecessary. We will show the effectiveness of our method through a variety of scenarios and settings.},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 11th {Annual} {International} {Conference} on {Motion}, {Interaction}, and {Games}},
	publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
	author = {Lee, Jaedong and Won, Jungdam and Lee, Jehee},
	month = nov,
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {animation, collision avoidance, crowd simulation, reinforcement learning},
	pages = {1--7}
}

@inproceedings{ondrej_synthetic-vision_2010,
	address = {Los Angeles, California},
	series = {{SIGGRAPH} '10},
	title = {A synthetic-vision based steering approach for crowd simulation},
	isbn = {978-1-4503-0210-4},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/1833349.1778860},
	doi = {10.1145/1833349.1778860},
	abstract = {In the everyday exercise of controlling their locomotion, humans rely on their optic flow of the perceived environment to achieve collision-free navigation. In crowds, in spite of the complexity of the environment made of numerous obstacles, humans demonstrate remarkable capacities in avoiding collisions. Cognitive science work on human locomotion states that relatively succinct information is extracted from the optic flow to achieve safe locomotion. In this paper, we explore a novel vision-based approach of collision avoidance between walkers that fits the requirements of interactive crowd simulation. By simulating humans based on cognitive science results, we detect future collisions as well as the level of danger from visual stimuli. The motor-response is twofold: a reorientation strategy prevents future collision, whereas a deceleration strategy prevents imminent collisions. Several examples of our simulation results show that the emergence of self-organized patterns of walkers is reinforced using our approach. The emergent phenomena are visually appealing. More importantly, they improve the overall efficiency of the walkers' traffic and avoid improbable locking situations.},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	booktitle = {{ACM} {SIGGRAPH} 2010 papers},
	publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
	author = {Ondřej, Jan and Pettré, Julien and Olivier, Anne-Hélène and Donikian, Stéphane},
	month = jul,
	year = {2010},
	keywords = {collision avoidance, crowd simulation, steering method, synthetic vision},
	pages = {1--9}
}

@inproceedings{pelechano_controlling_2007,
	address = {San Diego, California},
	series = {{SCA} '07},
	title = {Controlling individual agents in high-density crowd simulation},
	isbn = {978-1-59593-624-0},
	abstract = {Simulating the motion of realistic, large, dense crowds of autonomous agents is still a challenge for the computer graphics community. Typical approaches either resemble particle simulations (where agents lack orientation controls) or are conservative in the range of human motion possible (agents lack psychological state and aren't allowed to 'push' each other). Our HiDAC system (for High-Density Autonomous Crowds) focuses on the problem of simulating the local motion and global wayfinding behaviors of crowds moving in a natural manner within dynamically changing virtual environments. By applying a combination of psychological and geometrical rules with a social and physical forces model, HiDAC exhibits a wide variety of emergent behaviors from agent line formation to pushing behavior and its consequences; relative to the current situation, personalities of the individuals and perceived social density.},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2007 {ACM} {SIGGRAPH}/{Eurographics} symposium on {Computer} animation},
	publisher = {Eurographics Association},
	author = {Pelechano, N. and Allbeck, J. M. and Badler, N. I.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {99--108}
}

@inproceedings{reynolds_flocks_1987,
	address = {New York, NY, USA},
	series = {{SIGGRAPH} '87},
	title = {Flocks, herds and schools: {A} distributed behavioral model},
	isbn = {978-0-89791-227-3},
	shorttitle = {Flocks, herds and schools},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/37401.37406},
	doi = {10.1145/37401.37406},
	abstract = {The aggregate motion of a flock of birds, a herd of land animals, or a school of fish is a beautiful and familiar part of the natural world. But this type of complex motion is rarely seen in computer animation. This paper explores an approach based on simulation as an alternative to scripting the paths of each bird individually. The simulated flock is an elaboration of a particle systems, with the simulated birds being the particles. The aggregate motion of the simulated flock is created by a distributed behavioral model much like that at work in a natural flock; the birds choose their own course. Each simulated bird is implemented as an independent actor that navigates according to its local perception of the dynamic environment, the laws of simulated physics that rule its motion, and a set of behaviors programmed into it by the "animator." The aggregate motion of the simulated flock is the result of the dense interaction of the relatively simple behaviors of the individual simulated birds.},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on {Computer} graphics and interactive techniques},
	publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
	author = {Reynolds, Craig W.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1987},
	pages = {25--34}
}

%inproceedings{narain_aggregate_2009,
	address = {Yokohama, Japan},
	series = {{SIGGRAPH} {Asia} '09},
	title = {Aggregate dynamics for dense crowd simulation},
	isbn = {978-1-60558-858-2},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/1661412.1618468},
	doi = {10.1145/1661412.1618468},
	abstract = {Large dense crowds show aggregate behavior with reduced individual freedom of movement. We present a novel, scalable approach for simulating such crowds, using a dual representation both as discrete agents and as a single continuous system. In the continuous setting, we introduce a novel variational constraint called unilateral incompressibility, to model the large-scale behavior of the crowd, and accelerate inter-agent collision avoidance in dense scenarios. This approach makes it possible to simulate very large, dense crowds composed of up to a hundred thousand agents at near-interactive rates on desktop computers.},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	booktitle = {{ACM} {SIGGRAPH} {Asia} 2009 papers},
	publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
	author = {Narain, Rahul and Golas, Abhinav and Curtis, Sean and Lin, Ming C.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2009},
	keywords = {continuum, crowds, incompressibility, planning},
	pages = {1--8}
%}

@article{lerner_crowds_2007,
	title = {Crowds by {Example}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1467-8659},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8659.2007.01089.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1467-8659.2007.01089.x},
	abstract = {We present an example-based crowd simulation technique. Most crowd simulation techniques assume that the behavior exhibited by each person in the crowd can be defined by a restricted set of rules. This assumption limits the behavioral complexity of the simulated agents. By learning from real-world examples, our autonomous agents display complex natural behaviors that are often missing in crowd simulations. Examples are created from tracked video segments of real pedestrian crowds. During a simulation, autonomous agents search for examples that closely match the situation that they are facing. Trajectories taken by real people in similar situations, are copied to the simulated agents, resulting in seemingly natural behaviors.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	journal = {Computer Graphics Forum},
	author = {Lerner, Alon and Chrysanthou, Yiorgos and Lischinski, Dani},
	year = {2007},
	note = {eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-8659.2007.01089.x},
	keywords = {Animation, Computer, Graphics:, I.3.7},
	pages = {655--664}
}

@inproceedings{karamouzas_predictive_2009,
	address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
	series = {Lecture {Notes} in {Computer} {Science}},
	title = {A {Predictive} {Collision} {Avoidance} {Model} for {Pedestrian} {Simulation}},
	isbn = {978-3-642-10347-6},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-642-10347-6_4},
	abstract = {We present a new local method for collision avoidance that is based on collision prediction. In our model, each pedestrian predicts possible future collisions with other pedestrians and then makes an efficient move to avoid them. Experiments show that the new approach leads to considerably shorter and less curved paths, ensuring smooth avoidance behaviour and visually compelling simulations. The method reproduces emergent behaviour like lane formation that have been observed in real crowds. The technique is easy to implement and is fast, allowing the simulation in real time of crowds of thousands of pedestrians.},
	language = {en},
	booktitle = {Motion in {Games}},
	publisher = {Springer},
	author = {Karamouzas, Ioannis and Heil, Peter and van Beek, Pascal and Overmars, Mark H.},
	editor = {Egges, Arjan and Geraerts, Roland and Overmars, Mark},
	year = {2009},
	keywords = {collision avoidance, interaction, pedestrian simulation},
	pages = {41--52}
}

%article{sung_scalable_2004,
	title = {Scalable behaviors for crowd simulation},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {1467-8659},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8659.2004.00783.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1467-8659.2004.00783.x},
	abstract = {Crowd simulation for virtual environments offers many challenges centered on the trade-offs between rich behavior, control and computational cost. In this paper we present a new approach to controlling the behavior of agents in a crowd. Our method is scalable in the sense that increasingly complex crowd behaviors can be created without a corresponding increase in the complexity of the agents. Our approach is also more authorable; users can dynamically specify which crowd behaviors happen in various parts of an environment. Finally, the character motion produced by our system is visually convincing. We achieve our aims with a situation-based control structure. Basic agents have very limited behaviors. As they enter new situations, additional, situation-specific behaviors are composed on the fly to enable agents to respond appropriately. The composition is done using a probabilistic mechanism. We demonstrate our system with three environments including a city street and a theater. Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): I.3.7 [Computer Graphics]: Animation},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	journal = {Computer Graphics Forum},
	author = {Sung, Mankyu and Gleicher, Michael and Chenney, Stephen},
	year = {2004},
	note = {eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-8659.2004.00783.x},
	pages = {519--528}
%}

@article{xu_crowd_2014,
	title = {Crowd {Simulation} and {Its} {Applications}: {Recent} {Advances}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {1860-4749},
	shorttitle = {Crowd {Simulation} and {Its} {Applications}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11390-014-1469-y},
	doi = {10.1007/s11390-014-1469-y},
	abstract = {This article surveys the state-of-the-art crowd simulation techniques and their selected applications, with its focus on our recent research advances in this rapidly growing research field. We first give a categorized overview on the mainstream methodologies of crowd simulation. Then, we describe our recent research advances on crowd evacuation, pedestrian crowds, crowd formation, traffic simulation, and swarm simulation. Finally, we offer our viewpoints on open crowd simulation research challenges and point out potential future directions in this field.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	journal = {Journal of Computer Science and Technology},
	author = {Xu, Ming-Liang and Jiang, Hao and Jin, Xiao-Gang and Deng, Zhigang},
	month = sep,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {799--811}
}

@book{thalmann_crowd_2013,
	address = {London},
	edition = {2},
	title = {Crowd {Simulation}},
	isbn = {978-1-4471-4449-6},
	url = {https://www.springer.com/de/book/9781447144496},
	abstract = {Research into the methods and techniques used in simulating crowds has developed extensively within the last few years, particularly in the areas of video games and film. Despite recent impressive results when simulating and rendering thousands of individuals, many challenges still exist in this area.The comparison of simulation with reality, the realistic appearance of virtual humans and their behavior, group structure and their motion, and collision avoidance are just some examples of these challenges. For most of the applications of crowds, it is now a requirement to have real-time simulations – which is an additional challenge, particularly when crowds are very large.Crowd Simulation analyses these challenges in depth and suggests many possible solutions. Daniel Thalmann and Soraia Musse share their experiences and expertise in the application of: · Population modeling· Virtual human animation· Behavioral models for crowds· The connection between virtual and real crowds· Path planning and navigation· Visual attention models· Geometric and populated semantic environments· Crowd renderingThe second edition presents techniques and methods developed since the authors first covered the simulation of crowds in 2007. Crowd Simulation includes in-depth discussions on the techniques of path planning, including a new hybrid approach between navigation graphs and potential-based methods. The importance of gaze attention – individuals appearing conscious of their environment and of others – is introduced, and a free-of-collision method for crowds is also discussed.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-03-25},
	publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
	author = {Thalmann, Daniel and Musse, Soraia Raupp},
	year = {2013},
	doi = {10.1007/978-1-4471-4450-2}
}

@article{musse_hierarchical_2001,
	title = {Hierarchical model for real time simulation of virtual human crowds},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {10772626},
	url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/928167/},
	doi = {10.1109/2945.928167},
	abstract = {ÐThis paper describes a model for simulating crowds of humans in real time. We deal with a hierarchy composed of virtual crowds, groups, and individuals. The groups are the most complex structure that can be controlled in different degrees of autonomy. This autonomy refers to the extent to which the virtual agents are independent of user intervention and also the amount of information needed to simulate crowds. Thus, depending on the complexity of the simulation, simple behaviors can be sufficient to simulate crowds. Otherwise, more complicated behavioral rules can be necessary and, in this case, it can be included in the simulation data in order to improve the realism of the animation. We present three different ways for controlling crowd behaviors: 1) by using innate and scripted behaviors, 2) by defining behavioral rules, using events and reactions, and 3) by providing an external control to guide crowd behaviors in real time. The two main contributions of our approach are: the possibility of increasing the complexity of group/agent behaviors according to the problem to be simulated and the hierarchical structure based on groups to compose a crowd.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2020-03-28},
	journal = {IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics},
	author = {Musse, S.R. and Thalmann, D.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {152--164}
}

@article{helbing_social_1995,
	title = {Social force model for pedestrian dynamics},
	volume = {51},
	url = {https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.51.4282},
	doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.51.4282},
	abstract = {It is suggested that the motion of pedestrians can be described as if they would be subject to ‘‘social forces.’’ These ‘‘forces’’ are not directly exerted by the pedestrians’ personal environment, but they are a measure for the internal motivations of the individuals to perform certain actions (movements). The corresponding force concept is discussed in more detail and can also be applied to the description of other behaviors. In the presented model of pedestrian behavior several force terms are essential: first, a term describing the acceleration towards the desired velocity of motion; second, terms reflecting that a pedestrian keeps a certain distance from other pedestrians and borders; and third, a term modeling attractive effects. The resulting equations of motion of nonlinearly coupled Langevin equations. Computer simulations of crowds of interacting pedestrians show that the social force model is capable of describing the self-organization of several observed collective effects of pedestrian behavior very realistically., This article appears in the following collection:},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2020-03-29},
	journal = {Physical Review E},
	author = {Helbing, Dirk and Molnár, Péter},
	month = may,
	year = {1995},
	note = {Publisher: American Physical Society},
	pages = {4282--4286}
}

@article{helbing_simulating_2000,
	title = {Simulating dynamical features of escape panic},
	volume = {407},
	copyright = {2000 Macmillan Magazines Ltd.},
	issn = {1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/35035023},
	doi = {10.1038/35035023},
	abstract = {One of the most disastrous forms of collective human behaviour is the kind of crowd stampede induced by panic, often leading to fatalities as people are crushed or trampled. Sometimes this behaviour is triggered in life-threatening situations such as fires in crowded buildings1,2; at other times, stampedes can arise during the rush for seats3,4 or seemingly without cause. Although engineers are finding ways to alleviate the scale of such disasters, their frequency seems to be increasing with the number and size of mass events2,5. But systematic studies of panic behaviour6,7,8,9 and quantitative theories capable of predicting such crowd dynamics5,10,11,12 are rare. Here we use a model of pedestrian behaviour to investigate the mechanisms of (and preconditions for) panic and jamming by uncoordinated motion in crowds. Our simulations suggest practical ways to prevent dangerous crowd pressures. Moreover, we find an optimal strategy for escape from a smoke-filled room, involving a mixture of individualistic behaviour and collective ‘herding’ instinct.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6803},
	urldate = {2020-03-29},
	journal = {Nature},
	author = {Helbing, Dirk and Farkas, Illés and Vicsek, Tamás},
	month = sep,
	year = {2000},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	pages = {487--490}
}


@misc{mccarthy_game_2020,
	title = {Game {Design} {Deep} {Dive}: {Creating} believable crowds in {Planet} {Coaster}},
	shorttitle = {Game {Design} {Deep} {Dive}},
	url = {https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/288020/Game_Design_Deep_Dive_Creating_believable_crowds_in_Planet_Coaster.php},
	abstract = {"10,000 guests was what we targeted, and simulating each seemed like a challenge. This was where using flow/potential fields became very appealing." - Owen McCarthy, principal programmer at Frontier.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-06-15},
	journal = {Gamasutra - Game Design Deep Dive},
	author = {McCarthy, Owen},
	month = jun,
	year = {2020},
	note = {Library Catalog: www.gamasutra.com}
}


@article{hughes_continuum_2002,
	title = {A continuum theory for the flow of pedestrians},
	volume = {36},
	issn = {0191-2615},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191261501000157},
	doi = {10.1016/S0191-2615(01)00015-7},
	abstract = {The equations of motion governing the two-dimensional flow of pedestrians are derived for flows of both single and multiple pedestrian types. Two regimes of flow, a high-density (subcritical) and a low-density (supercritical) flow regimes, are possible, rather than two flow regimes for each type of pedestrian. A subcritical flow always fills the space available. However, a supercritical flow may either fill the space available or be self-confining for each type of pedestrian, depending on the boundary location. Although, the equations governing these flows are simultaneous, time-dependent, non-linear, partial differential equations, remarkably they may be made conformally mappable. The solution of these equations becomes trivial in many situations. Free streamline calculations, utilizing this property, reveal both upstream and downstream separation of the flow of pedestrians around an obstacle. Such analysis tells much about the nature of the assumptions used in various models for the flow of pedestrians. The present theory is designed for the development of general techniques to understand the motion of large crowds. However, it is also useful as a predictive tool. The behavior predicted by these equations of motion is compared with aerial observations for the Jamarat Bridge near Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is shown that, for this important case, pedestrians, that is pilgrims, aim at achieving each immediate goal in minimum time rather than achieving all goals in overall minimum time. Typical of many examples, this case illustrated the strong dependence of path on the psychological state of the pedestrians involved. It is proposed that the flow of pedestrians over the Jamarat Bridge be improved by appropriate barrier placement, that force an effective global view of the goals.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2020-04-18},
	journal = {Transportation Research Part B: Methodological},
	author = {Hughes, Roger L.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2002},
	note = {01019},
	pages = {507--535}
}

@article{hughes_flow_2003,
	title = {The {Flow} of {Human} {Crowds}},
	volume = {35},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.35.101101.161136},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.fluid.35.101101.161136},
	abstract = {The modern study of a crowd as a flowing continuum is a recent development. Distinct from a classical fluid because of the property that a crowd has the capacity to think, interesting new physical ideas are involved in its study. An appealing property of a crowd in motion is that the nonlinear, time-dependent, simultaneous equations representing a crowd are conformably mappable. This property makes many interesting applications analytically tractable. In this review examples are given in which the theory has been used to provide possible assistance in the annual Muslim Hajj, to understand the Battle of Agincourt, and, surprisingly, to locate barriers that actually increase the flow of pedestrians above that when there are no barriers present. Modern developments may help prevent some of the approximately two thousand deaths that annually occur in accidents owing to crowding.The field of crowd motion, that is, the field of “thinking fluids,” is an intriguing area of research with great promise.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2020-04-18},
	journal = {Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Hughes, Roger L.},
	year = {2003},
	note = {00640 
\_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.35.101101.161136},
	pages = {169--182}
}

@article{osullivan_levels_2002,
	title = {Levels of {Detail} for {Crowds} and {Groups}},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {1467-8659},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-8659.00631},
	doi = {10.1111/1467-8659.00631},
	abstract = {Work on levels of detail for human simulation has occurred mainly on a geometrical level, either by reducing the numbers of polygons representing a virtual human, or replacing them with a two-dimensional imposter. Approaches that reduce the complexity of motions generated have also been proposed. In this paper, we describe ongoing development of a framework for Adaptive Level Of Detail for Human Animation (ALOHA), which incorporates levels of detail for not only geometry and motion, but also includes a complexity gradient for natural behaviour, both conversational and social. ACM CSS: I.3.7 Three-Dimensional Graphics and Realism—Animation},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2020-04-18},
	journal = {Computer Graphics Forum},
	author = {O'Sullivan, C. and Cassell, J. and Vilhjálmsson, H. and Dingliana, J. and Dobbyn, S. and McNamee, B. and Peters, C. and Giang, T.},
	year = {2002},
	note = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1467-8659.00631},
	keywords = {collision handling, crowd animation, group animation, human simulation, real-time animation},
	pages = {733--741}
}

@book{lewin_field_1951,
	address = {Oxford, England},
	series = {Field theory in social science: selected theoretical papers ({Edited} by {Dorwin} {Cartwright}.)},
	title = {Field theory in social science: selected theoretical papers ({Edited} by {Dorwin} {Cartwright}.)},
	shorttitle = {Field theory in social science},
	abstract = {In his foreword the editor points out the significance of Lewin's methodological and conceptual contributions to the development of social science. His most fundamental conceptual construct is that of "field." In this volume the editor has arranged in logical (rather than chronological) order 11 papers dealing with Lewin's constructs for social science. The first 3 chapters deal with basic problems of the philosophy of science, 6 chapters demonstrate the principles in several research fields, and the final chapter summarizes "the major theoretical and substantial findings derived from research… " supervised by Lewin. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
	publisher = {Harpers},
	author = {Lewin, Kurt},
	year = {1951},
	note = {Pages: xx, 346}
}

@article{hindsley_investigation_1986,
	title = {An investigation of photoelectric radial-velocity spectrometers as used in the analysis of {Cepheid} variables},
	volume = {98},
	issn = {1538-3873},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1086%2F131839},
	doi = {10.1086/131839},
	abstract = {The authors have used synthetic stellar spectra to simulate observations of Cepheid variables with photoelectric radial-velocity spectrometers. They have found that the projection factor used to convert radial velocities to pulsation velocities depends on stellar temperature, overall stellar radial velocity, and pulsational velocity, as well as the method used to determine the radial velocity from the cross-correlation dip. The shape of the cross-correlation dip has been found to vary with the pulsation velocity and with the parameters of the stellar models.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-04-20},
	journal = {Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific},
	author = {Hindsley, R. and Bell, R. A.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1986},
	note = {Publisher: IOP Publishing},
	pages = {881}
}
@inproceedings{braun_simulating_2005,
	address = {Monterey, CA, USA},
	series = {{VRST} '05},
	title = {Simulating virtual crowds in emergency situations},
	isbn = {978-1-59593-098-9},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/1101616.1101666},
	doi = {10.1145/1101616.1101666},
	abstract = {This paper presents a novel approach to simulate virtual human crowds in emergency situations. Our model is based on two previous works, on a physical model proposed by Helbing, where individuals are represented by a particle system affected by "social forces" that impels them to go to a point-objective, while avoiding collisions with obstacles and other agents. As a new property, the virtual agents are endowed with different attributes and individualities as proposed by Braun et al. The main contributions of this paper are the treatment of complex environments and their implications on agents' movement, the management of alarms distributed in space, the virtual agents endowed with perception of emergency events and their consequent reaction as well as changes in their individualities. The prototype reads a XML file where different scenarios can be simulated, such as the characteristics of population, the virtual scene description, the alarm configuration and the properties of hazardous events. As output, the prototype generates information in order to measure the impact of parameters on saved, injured and dead agents. In addition, some results and validation are discussed.},
	urldate = {2020-04-19},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} symposium on {Virtual} reality software and technology},
	publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
	author = {Braun, Adriana and Bodmann, Bardo E. J. and Musse, Soraia R.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2005},
	keywords = {behavioral animation, crowd simulation, physically based animation},
	pages = {244--252},
}
@article{zheng_modeling_2009,
	title = {Modeling crowd evacuation of a building based on seven methodological approaches},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {0360-1323},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132308000577},
	doi = {10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.04.002},
	abstract = {Crowd evacuation of a building has been studied over the last decades. In this paper, seven methodological approaches for crowd evacuation have been identified. These approaches include cellular automata models, lattice gas models, social force models, fluid-dynamic models, agent-based models, game theoretic models, and approaches based on experiments with animals. According to available literatures, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches, and conclude that a variety of different kinds of approaches should be combined to study crowd evacuation. Psychological and physiological elements affecting individual and collective behaviors should be also incorporated into the evacuation models.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-04-20},
	journal = {Building and Environment},
	author = {Zheng, Xiaoping and Zhong, Tingkuan and Liu, Mengting},
	month = mar,
	year = {2009},
	keywords = {Crowd behavior, Crowd evacuation, Evacuation model, Pedestrian},
	pages = {437--445}
}

@misc{kim_interactive_2014,
	title = {Interactive manipulation of large-scale crowd animation},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/2601097.2601170},
	abstract = {Editing large-scale crowd animation is a daunting task due to the lack of an efficient manipulation method. This paper presents a novel cage-based editing method for large-scale crowd animation. The cage encloses animated characters and supports convenient space/time manipulation methods that were unachievable with previous approaches. The proposed method is based on a combination of cage-based deformation and as-rigid-as-possible deformation with a set of constraints integrated into the system to produce desired results. Our system allows animators to edit existing crowd animations intuitively with real-time performance while maintaining complex interactions between individual characters. Our examples demonstrate how our cage-based user interfaces mitigate the time and effort for the user to manipulate large crowd animation.},
	urldate = {2020-03-24},
	publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
	author = {Kim, Jongmin and Seol, Yeongho and Kwon, Taesoo and Lee, Jehee},
	month = jul,
	year = {2014},
	note = {00037},
	keywords = {crowd animation, data-driven animation, human motion, interactive editing}
}

@misc{massive_website,
	title = {Massive {Software} – {Simulating} {Life}},
	url = {http://www.massivesoftware.com/},
	urldate = {2020-04-21},
    author = {Massive}, 
    year = {2020}
}

@misc{wired_hobbit_doku,
	title = {{THE} {HOBBIT}: {Battle} of {Five} {Armies} {VFX} {Crowd}-{Simulation} {On} a {Behemoth} {Scale} {\textbar} {Design} {FX}},
	shorttitle = {{THE} {HOBBIT}},
	url = {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NxSwskqwuY},
	publisher = {WIRED},
	author = {Mike Seymour},
	urldate = {2020-04-20}, 
    year = {2015}
}

@inproceedings{ulicny_crowdbrush_2004,
	address = {Grenoble, France},
	series = {{SCA} '04},
	title = {Crowdbrush: interactive authoring of real-time crowd scenes},
	isbn = {978-3-905673-14-2},
	shorttitle = {Crowdbrush},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/1028523.1028555},
	doi = {10.1145/1028523.1028555},
	abstract = {Recent advances in computer graphics techniques and increasing power of graphics hardware made it possible to display and animate large crowds in real-time. Most of the research efforts have been directed towards improving rendering or behavior control; the question how to author crowd scenes in an efficient way is usually not addressed. We introduce a novel approach to create complex scenes involving thousands of animated individuals in a simple and intuitive way. By employing a brush metaphor, analogous to the tools used in image manipulation programs, we can distribute, modify and control crowd members in real-time with immediate visual feedback. We define concepts of operators and instance properties that allow to create and manage variety in populations of virtual humans. An efficient technique allowing to render up to several thousands of fully three-dimensional polygonal characters with keyframed animations at interactive framerates is presented. The potential of our approach is demonstrated by authoring a scenario of a virtual audience in a theater and a scenario of a pedestrian crowd in a city.},
	urldate = {2020-04-21},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2004 {ACM} {SIGGRAPH}/{Eurographics} symposium on {Computer} animation},
	publisher = {Eurographics Association},
	author = {Ulicny, Branislav and Ciechomski, Pablo de Heras and Thalmann, Daniel},
	month = aug,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {243--252}
}

@misc{wired_worldwarz_doku,
	title = {World {War} {Z}: {Building} a {Better} {Zombie} {Effects} {Exclusive}-{Design} {FX}-{WIRED}},
	shorttitle = {World {War} {Z}},
	url = {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvoUMH9Ghpo},
	publisher = {WIRED},
	author = {Mike Seymour},
	urldate = {2020-04-20}, 
    year = {2013}
}

@misc{ultimeEpicBattleSim_video,
	title = {25k {Castle} {Siege}({Improvement} {In} {AI} {Pathfinding}) - {Ultimate} {Epic} {Battle} {Simulator}},
	url = {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJQQMT1QQik},
	year = {2017},
	author = {brilliantgamestudios},
	urldate = {2020-04-21}
}

%misc{golaem_got_vid,
	title = {Golaem {GoT} season 7 breakdowns},
	url = {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apGh51qkhYY},
	abstract = {[Spoilers inside] A compilation of crowd shots done with Golaem by our customers for Game of Thrones Season 7.
Learn more on http://golaem.com},
    year = {2019},
	author = {Golaem},
	urldate = {2020-04-21}
%}


%misc{golaem_website,
	title = {Crowd {Simulation}, {Layout} \& {Previz} tools for {Maya}},
	url = {http://golaem.com/},
	abstract = {Golaem Crowd is an artist friendly crowd simulation software for vfx/animation. Integrated in Maya, it makes it easy to populate stadiums, cities or create epic battles.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-04-21},
	journal = {Golaem},
	year = {2020},
	author = {Golaem},
	note = {Library Catalog: golaem.com}
%}

%misc{roland_geraerts_website,
	title = {Homepage of {Roland} {Geraerts} - {Crowd} simulation software},
	url = {http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gerae101/UU_crowd_simulation_software.html},
	urldate = {2020-04-21},
	author = {Roland Geraerts},
	year = {2020}
%}

%misc{van_toll_towards_2015,
	type = {Contribution to conference},
	title = {Towards {Believable} {Crowds} : {A} {Generic} {Multi}-{Level} {Framework} for {Agent} {Navigation}},
	copyright = {Open Access (free)},
	shorttitle = {Towards {Believable} {Crowds}},
	url = {http://localhost/handle/1874/310188},
	abstract = {Path planning and crowd simulation are important computational tasks in computer games and applications of high social relevance, such as crowd management and safety training. Virtual characters (agents) need to autonomously find a path from their current position to a designated goal position. This is usually solved by running the A* algorithm on a grid or a navigation mesh. However, in many modern applications, strictly traversing the resulting path is not sufficient. Agents need to be able to deviate from these paths, e.g. to avoid each other or react to dynamic changes in the environment. Multiple levels of planning are necessary to efficiently simulate realistic behavior, and the underlying data structures and algorithms should support those levels. Many existing crowd simulation frameworks do not have this flexibility. In this paper, we propose a five-level hierarchy for agent navigation in virtual environments. The five levels are high-level planning, global route planning, route following, local movement, and animation. The three center levels concern geometric planning and require a navigation mesh that represents the navigable space of the environment. We describe an efficient and flexible navigation mesh for 2D and multi-layered 3D environments. We also present our crowd simulation software that uses this mesh; we outline its architecture and show that the framework is easily extendible. Finally, we show that our software can simulate large autonomous crowds in real-time.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-04-21},
	author = {van Toll, Wouter and Jaklin, Norman and Geraerts, Roland},
	month = mar,
	year = {2015},
	note = {Accepted: 2015-03-23T15:33:04Z
Library Catalog: dspace.library.uu.nl}
%}

%misc{lynamJordan_viissim_3ds_max,
	title = {Keystone \& 131st {Animation} :: {VIISSIM} {Vehicle}/{Pedestrian} {Simulation} ::},
	shorttitle = {Keystone \& 131st {Animation}},
	url = {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0OkBh64wC_4},
	year = {2011},
	author = {Jordan Lynam},
	urldate = {2020-04-22}
%}

@misc{pedestrian_dynamics_pedestrian_2020,
	title = {Pedestrian {Dynamics}®},
	url = {https://www.incontrolsim.com/produkte/pedestrian-dynamics/?lang=de},
	abstract = {Pedestrian Dynamics® ist die weltweit führende Crowd Simulationssoftware. Mit Hilfe von Pedestrian Dynamics® können Personenströme schnell modelliert, simuliert und analysiert werden.},
	language = {de-DE},
	urldate = {2020-04-22},
	journal = {INCONTROL Simulation Software},
	author = {Pedestrian Dynamics®},
	year = {2020},
	note = {Library Catalog: www.incontrolsim.com}
}

@misc{mediaworks_pedestrian_2020,
	title = {Pedestrian {Simulation}},
	url = {https://www.oasys-software.com/products/pedestrian-simulation/},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-04-22},
	journal = {Oasys},
	year = {2020},
	author = {Mediaworks},
}

@misc{anylogic_website,
	title = {Anylogic Pedestrian Simulation Website},
	url = {https://www.anylogic.de/resources/libraries/pedestrian-library/},
	urldate = {2020-04-22},
	year = {2020},
	author = {Anylogic},
}

@book{jaros_crowd_2014,
	title = {Crowd simulation for virtual environments in {Unity}},
	url = {https://resolver.obvsg.at/urn:nbn:at:at-ubtuw:1-86698},
	abstract = {Zsfassung in dt. Sprache},
	language = {eng},
	urldate = {2020-03-26},
	publisher = {Wien, TechnUniv, Dipl-Arb},
	author = {Jaros, Michael},
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {crowd simulation, Unity3D, virtual environments}
}

@article{beacco_survey_2016,
	title = {A {Survey} of {Real}-{Time} {Crowd} {Rendering}},
	volume = {35},
	copyright = {© 2015 The Authors Computer Graphics Forum © 2015 The Eurographics Association and John Wiley \& Sons Ltd.},
	issn = {1467-8659},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cgf.12774},
	doi = {10.1111/cgf.12774},
	abstract = {In this survey we review, classify and compare existing approaches for real-time crowd rendering. We first overview character animation techniques, as they are highly tied to crowd rendering performance, and then we analyze the state of the art in crowd rendering. We discuss different representations for level-of-detail (LoD) rendering of animated characters, including polygon-based, point-based, and image-based techniques, and review different criteria for runtime LoD selection. Besides LoD approaches, we review classic acceleration schemes, such as frustum culling and occlusion culling, and describe how they can be adapted to handle crowds of animated characters. We also discuss specific acceleration techniques for crowd rendering, such as primitive pseudo-instancing, palette skinning, and dynamic key-pose caching, which benefit from current graphics hardware. We also address other factors affecting performance and realism of crowds such as lighting, shadowing, clothing and variability. Finally we provide an exhaustive comparison of the most relevant approaches in the field.},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2020-04-25},
	journal = {Computer Graphics Forum},
	author = {Beacco, A. and Pelechano, N. and Andújar, C.},
	year = {2016},
	note = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/cgf.12774},
	keywords = {and texture, I.3.7 Computer Graphics: Three-Dimensional Graphics and Realism—Colour, image-based rendering, level of detail algorithms, real-time rendering, shading, shadowing},
	pages = {32--50}
}

@article{grillon_simulating_2009,
	title = {Simulating gaze attention behaviors for crowds},
	volume = {20},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2009 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.},
	issn = {1546-427X},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cav.293},
	doi = {10.1002/cav.293},
	abstract = {Crowd animation is a topic of high interest which offers many challenges. One of the most important is the trade-off between rich, realistic behaviors, and computational costs. To this end, much effort has been put into creating variety in character representation and animation. Nevertheless, one aspect still lacking realism in virtual crowd characters resides in their attention behaviors. In this paper, we propose a framework to add gaze attention behaviors to crowd animations. First, we automatically extract interest points from character or object trajectories in pre- existing animations. For a given character, we assign a set of elementary scores based on parameters such as distance or speed to all other characters or objects in the scene. We then combine these subscores in an overall scoring function. The scores obtained from this function form a set of gaze constraints that determine where and when each character should look. We finally enforce these constraints with an optimized dedicated gaze Inverse Kinematics (IK) solver. It first computes the displacement maps for the constraints to be satisfied. It then smoothly propagates these displacements over an automatically defined number of frames. We demonstrate the efficiency of our method and our visually convincing results through various examples. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2-3},
	urldate = {2020-06-12},
	journal = {Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds},
	author = {Grillon, Helena and Thalmann, Daniel},
	year = {2009},
	note = {eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/cav.293},
	keywords = {attention behaviors, crowd animation, crowd motion editing, crowd realism},
	pages = {111--119},
}


@inproceedings{peters_model_2005,
	address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
	series = {Lecture {Notes} in {Computer} {Science}},
	title = {A {Model} of {Attention} and {Interest} {Using} {Gaze} {Behavior}},
	isbn = {978-3-540-28739-1},
	doi = {10.1007/11550617_20},
	abstract = {One of the major problems of user’s interaction with Embodied Conversational Agents (ECAs) is to have the conversation last more than few second: after being amused and intrigued by the ECAs, users may find rapidly the restrictions and limitations of the dialog systems, they may perceive the repetition of the ECAs animation, they may find the behaviors of ECAs to be inconsistent and implausible, etc. We believe that some special links, or bonds, have to be established between users and ECAs during interaction. It is our view that showing and/or perceiving interest is the necessary premise to establish a relationship. In this paper we present a model of an ECA able to establish, maintain and end the conversation based on its perception of the level of interest of its interlocutor.},
	language = {en},
	booktitle = {Intelligent {Virtual} {Agents}},
	publisher = {Springer},
	author = {Peters, Christopher and Pelachaud, Catherine and Bevacqua, Elisabetta and Mancini, Maurizio and Poggi, Isabella},
	editor = {Panayiotopoulos, Themis and Gratch, Jonathan and Aylett, Ruth and Ballin, Daniel and Olivier, Patrick and Rist, Thomas},
	year = {2005},
	keywords = {Conversational Agent, Internal Reaction, Multiagent System, State Machine, Virtual Agent},
	pages = {229--240},
}


@phdthesis{dekker_3d_2000,
	type = {Doctoral},
	title = {{3D} human body modelling from range data},
	copyright = {open},
	url = {https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1363354/},
	abstract = {This thesis describes the design, implementation and application of an integrated and fully
automated system for interpreting whole-body range data.
The system is shown to be capable of generating complete surface models of human bodies, and
robustly extracting anatomical features for anthropometry, with minimal intrusion on the
subject. The ability to automate this process has enormous potential for personalised digital
models in medicine, ergonomics, design and manufacture and for populating virtual
environments. The techniques developed within this thesis now form the basis of a commercial
product.
However, the technical difficulties are considerable. Human bodies are highly varied and many
of the features of interest are extremely subtle. The underlying range data is typically noisy and
is sparse at occluded areas. In addressing these problems this thesis makes five main research
contributions.
Firstly, the thesis describes the design, implementation and testing of the whole integrated and
automated system from scratch, starting at the image capture hardware. At each stage the tradeoffs
between performance criteria are discussed, and experiments are described to test the
processes developed.
Secondly, a combined data-driven and model-based approach is described and implemented, for
surface reconstruction from the raw data. This method addresses the whole body surface,
including areas where body segments touch, and other occluded areas.
The third contribution is a library of operators, designed specifically for shape description and
measurement of the human body. The library provides high-level relational attributes, an
"electronic tape measure" to extract linear and curvilinear measurements,as well as low-level
shape information, such as curvature.
Application of the library is demonstrated by building a large set of detectors to find
anthropometric features, based on the ISO 8559 specification. Output is compared against
traditional manual measurements and a detailed analysis is presented. The discrepancy between
these sets of data is only a few per cent on most dimensions, and the system's reproducibility is
shown to be similar to that of skilled manual measurers.
The final contribution is that the mesh models and anthropometric features, produced by the
system, have been used as a starting point to facilitate other research, Such as registration of
multiple body images,draping clothing and advanced surface modelling techniques.},
	language = {eng},
	urldate = {2020-06-12},
	school = {University of London},
	author = {Dekker, L. D.},
	year = {2000},
	note = {Publication Title: Doctoral thesis, University of London.}
}

@article{kakadiaris_three-dimensional_1998,
	title = {Three-{Dimensional} {Human} {Body} {Model} {Acquisition} from {Multiple} {Views}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {1573-1405},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008071332753},
	doi = {10.1023/A:1008071332753},
	abstract = {We present a novel approach to the three-dimensional human body model acquisition from three mutually orthogonal views. Our technique is based on the spatiotemporal analysis of the deforming apparent contour of a human moving according to a protocol of movements. For generality and robustness our technique does not use a prior model of the human body and a prior body part segmentation is not assumed. Therefore, our technique applies to humans of any anthropometric dimension. To parameterize and segment over time a deforming apparent contour, we introduce a new shape representation technique based on primitive composition. The composed deformable model allows us to represent large local deformations and their evolution in a compact and intuitive way. In addition, this representation allows us to hypothesize an underlying part structure and test this hypothesis against the relative motion (due to forces exerted from the image data) of the defining primitives of the composed model. Furthermore, we develop a Human Body Part Decomposition Algorithm (HBPDA) that recovers all the body parts of a subject by monitoring the changes over time to the shape of the deforming silhouette. In addition, we modularize the process of simultaneous two-dimensional part determination and shape estimation by employing the Supervisory Control Theory of Discrete Event Systems. Finally, we present a novel algorithm which selectively integrates the (segmented by the HBPDA) apparent contours from three mutually orthogonal viewpoints to obtain a three-dimensional model of the subject's body parts. The effectiveness of the approach is demonstrated through a series of experiments where a subject performs a set of movements according to a protocol that reveals the structure of the human body.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-06-12},
	journal = {International Journal of Computer Vision},
	author = {Kakadiaris, Ioannis A. and Metaxas, Dimitri},
	month = dec,
	year = {1998},
	pages = {191--218}
}

@inproceedings{plankers_automated_1999,
	title = {Automated body modeling from video sequences},
	doi = {10.1109/PEOPLE.1999.798345},
	abstract = {Synthetic modeling of human bodies and the simulation of motion is a long-standing problem in animation and much work is involved before a near-realistic performance can be achieved. At present, it takes an experienced designer a very long time to build a complete and realistic model that closely resembles a specific person. Our ultimate goal is to automate the process and to produce realistic animation models given a set of video sequences. In this paper we show that, given video sequences of a person moving in front of the camera, we can recover shape information and joint locations. Both of which are essential to instantiate a complete and realistic model that closely resembles a specific person and without knowledge about the position of the articulations a character cannot be animated. This is achieved with minimal human intervention. The recovered shape and motion parameters can be used to reconstruct the original movement or to allow other animation models to mimic the subject's actions.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings {IEEE} {International} {Workshop} on {Modelling} {People}. {MPeople}'99},
	author = {Plankers, R. and Fua, P. and D'Apuzzo, N.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1999},
	keywords = {Animation, animation models, Biological system modeling, body modeling, Cameras, computer animation, Data mining, Electrical capacitance tomography, Humans, image reconstruction, Image reconstruction, image sequences, joint locations, realistic model, Shape, shape information, Surface emitting lasers, video sequences, Video sequences},
	pages = {45--52}
}


@book{mannoni_psychologie_1994,
	title = {La {Psychologie} collective},
	isbn = {978-2-13-067065-0},
	abstract = {Cet ouvrage est une réédition numérique d’un livre paru au XXe siècle, désormais indisponible dans son format d’origine.},
	language = {fr},
	publisher = {FeniXX},
	author = {Mannoni, Pierre},
	month = jan,
	year = {1994},
	note = {Google-Books-ID: QDFYDwAAQBAJ},
	keywords = {Psychology / General, Social Science / General}
}


@book{benesch_atlas_1995,
	title = {Atlas de {Psicología}},
	author = {Benesch, Hellmuth},
	month = jan,
	year = {1995},
	keywords = {Psychology / General, Psychology / Reference}
}

@book{jeffrey_social_conventions_1998,
	title = {Emerging social conventions: Personal space and privacy in shared virtual worlds},
	author = {Jeffrey, P},
	year = {1998},
	keywords = {Psychology / General, Psychology / Reference}
}


@article{cutting_how_2014,
	title = {How we avoid collisions with stationary and moving obstacles},
	abstract = {When moving through cluttered environments we use different forms of the same source of information to avoid stationary and moving objects. A stationary obstacle can be avoided by looking at it, registering the differential parallactic displacements on the retina around it during pursuit fixa-tion, and then acting on that information. Such information also specifies one's general heading. A moving obstacle can be avoided by looking at it, registering the displacements reflecting constancy or change in one's gaze-movement angle, and then acting on that information. Such information, however, does not generally specify one's heading. Passing in front of a moving object entails retro-grade motion of objects in the deep background; collisions entail the lamellar pattern of optical flow; and passing behind entails more nearly uniform flow against one's direction of motion. Accuracy in the laboratory compares favorably with that of real-world necessities.},
	author = {Cutting, James and Vishton, Peter and Barren, Paul},
	month = jan,
	year = {2014}
}


@article{chaumette_visual_2006,
	title = {Visual servo control. {I}. {Basic} approaches},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {1558-223X},
	doi = {10.1109/MRA.2006.250573},
	abstract = {This paper is the first of a two-part series on the topic of visual servo control using computer vision data in the servo loop to control the motion of a robot. In this paper, we describe the basic techniques that are by now well established in the field. We first give a general overview of the formulation of the visual servo control problem. We then describe the two archetypal visual servo control schemes: image-based and position-based visual servo control. Finally, we discuss performance and stability issues that pertain to these two schemes, motivating the second article in the series, in which we consider advanced techniques},
	number = {4},
	journal = {IEEE Robotics Automation Magazine},
	author = {Chaumette, Francois and Hutchinson, Seth},
	month = dec,
	year = {2006},
	note = {Conference Name: IEEE Robotics Automation Magazine},
	keywords = {Automatic control, Cameras, Computer vision, computer vision data, image-based visual servo control, Mobile robots, motion control, Motion control, position control, position-based visual servo control, Robot motion, robot motion control, robot vision, Robot vision systems, Robotics and automation, servo loop, Servomechanisms, Servosystems, stability, visual servoing},
	pages = {82--90}
}


@book{berg_computational_2000,
	address = {Berlin Heidelberg},
	edition = {2},
	title = {Computational {Geometry}: {Algorithms} and {Applications}},
	isbn = {978-3-662-04245-8},
	shorttitle = {Computational {Geometry}},
	url = {https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783662042458},
	abstract = {Computational geometry emerged from the field of algorithms design and anal­ ysis in the late 1970s. It has grown into a recognized discipline with its own journals, conferences, and a large community of active researchers. The suc­ cess of the field as a research discipline can on the one hand be explained from the beauty of the problems studied and the solutions obtained, and, on the other hand, by the many application domains-computer graphics, geographic in­ formation systems (GIS), robotics, and others-in which geometric algorithms playafundamental role. For many geometric problems the early algorithmic solutions were either slow or difficult to understand and implement. In recent years a number of new algorithmic techniques have been developed that improved and simplified many of the previous approaches. In this textbook we have tried to make these modem algorithmic solutions accessible to a large audience. The book has been written as a textbook for a course in computational geometry, but it can also be used for self-study.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-06-12},
	publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
	author = {Berg, Mark de and Krefeld, Marc van and Overmars, Mark and Cheong, Otfried},
	year = {2000},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-662-04245-8}
}


@inproceedings{de_heras_ciechomski_real-time_2005,
	title = {Real-time {Shader} {Rendering} for {Crowds} in {Virtual} {Heritage}.},
	doi = {10.2312/VAST/VAST05/091-098},
	abstract = {We present a method of fully dynamically rendered virtual humans with variety in color, animation and appearance. This is achieved by using vertex and fragment shaders programmed in the OpenGL shading language (GLSL). We then compare our results with a fixed function pipeline based approach. We also show a color variety creation GUI using HSB color space restriction. An improved version of the LOD pipeline for our virtual characters is presented. With these new techniques, we are able to use a full dynamic animation range in the crowd populating the Aphrodisias odeon (which is part of the ERATO project), i.e., a greater repertoire of animations, smooth transitions and more variety and speed. We show how a multi-view of the rendering data can ensure good batching of rendering primitives and comfortable constant time access.},
	author = {de Heras Ciechomski, Pablo and Schertenleib, Sébastien and Maïm, Jonathan and Maupu, Damien and Thalmann, Daniel},
	month = jan,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {91--98}
}

@article{aubel_real-time_2000,
	title = {Real-time display of virtual humans: levels of details and impostors},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1558-2205},
	shorttitle = {Real-time display of virtual humans},
	doi = {10.1109/76.825720},
	abstract = {Rendering and animating in real-time a multitude of articulated characters presents a real challenge, and few hardware systems are up to the task. Up to now, little research has been conducted to tackle the issue of real-time rendering of numerous virtual humans. This paper presents a hardware-independent technique that improves the display rate of animated characters by acting on the sole geometric and rendering information. We first review the acceleration techniques traditionally in use in computer graphics and highlight their suitability to articulated characters. We then show how impostors can be used to render virtual humans. We introduce concrete case studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. Finally, we tackle the visibility issue.},
	number = {2},
	journal = {IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology},
	author = {Aubel, A. and Boulic, R. and Thalmann, D.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2000},
	note = {Conference Name: IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology},
	keywords = {Acceleration, acceleration techniques, animated characters, Animation, Application software, articulated characters, computer animation, computer graphics, detail levels, display rate, Displays, geometric information, Graphics, Hardware, hardware systems, hardware-independent technique, Humans, impostors, real-time animation, real-time display, real-time rendering, real-time systems, rendering (computer graphics), Rendering (computer graphics), rendering information, Skin, virtual humans, virtual reality, Virtual reality, visibility},
	pages = {207--217}
}



@book{luebke_level_2003,
	title = {Level of {Detail} for {3D} {Graphics}},
	isbn = {978-1-55860-838-2},
	abstract = {"I'm really happy with what Luebke et al. have created. It's exactly what I would want to find on the shelf if I needed to implement some LOD techniques in a game."-Mark DeLoura, Sony Computer Entertainment America"This is the first and only book that provides a comprehensive coverage about level of detail. When you are finished reading it, all you will be able to say is "Wow!""-Dave Eberly, Magic Software, Inc."This book will find a choice spot on my bookshelf."-Will Schroeder, Kitware, Inc."This fine book...provides both a treatment of the underlying theory and a valuable practical reference for the graphics practitioner."-Dr. Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., UNC Chapel HillLevel of detail (LOD) techniques are increasingly used by professional real-time developers to strike the balance between breathtaking virtual worlds and smooth, flowing animation. Level of Detail for 3D Graphics brings together, for the first time, the mechanisms, principles, practices, and theory needed by every graphics developer seeking to apply LOD methods.Continuing advances in level of detail management have brought this powerful technology to the forefront of 3D graphics optimization research. This book, written by the very researchers and developers who have built LOD technology, is both a state-of-the-art chronicle of LOD advances and a practical sourcebook that will enable graphics developers from all disciplines to apply these formidable techniques to their own work.Features:*Is a complete, practical resource for programmers wishing to incorporate LOD technology into their own systems*Is an important reference for professionals in game development, computer animation, information visualization, real-time graphics and simulation, data capture and preview, CAD display, and virtual worlds*Is accessible to anyone familiar with the essentials of computer science and interactive computer graphics*Covers the full range of LOD methods, from mesh simplification to error metrics, as well as advanced issues of human perception, temporal detail, and visual fidelity measurement*Includes an accompanying website rich in supplementary material including source code, tools, 3D models, public domain software, documentation, LOD updates, and more. Visit http://LODBook.com.},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Morgan Kaufmann},
	author = {Luebke, David and Reddy, Martin and Cohen, Jonathan D. and Varshney, Amitabh and Watson, Benjamin and Huebner, Robert},
	year = {2003},
	keywords = {Computers / Computer Graphics, Computers / System Administration / Storage \& Retrieval}
}



@book{carter_somatotyping_1990,
	title = {Somatotyping: {Development} and {Applications}},
	isbn = {978-0-521-35117-1},
	shorttitle = {Somatotyping},
	abstract = {The first major account of the somatotyping field in over thirty years, this volume presents a comprehensive history of somatotyping, beginning with W.H. Sheldon's introduction to the method in 1940. The controversies regarding the validity of Sheldon's method are described, as are the various attempts to modify the technique, particularly the Heath-Carter method, which has come into widespread use. Somatotyping is a method of description and assessment of the body on three shape and composition scales: endomorphy (relative fatness), mesomorphy (relative musculoskeletal robustness), and ectomorphy (relative linearity). The book reviews present knowledge of somatotypes around the world, how they change with growth, aging and exercise, and the contributions of genetics and environment to the rating. Also reviewed are the relationships among somatotypes and sport, physical performance, health and behavior.},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Carter, J. E. L. and Carter, J. E. Lindsay and Heath, Barbara Honeyman},
	month = jun,
	year = {1990},
	note = {Google-Books-ID: eYDO0Yr3droC},
	keywords = {Science / Life Sciences / Biology, Science / Life Sciences / Zoology / Primatology, Social Science / Anthropology / Physical}
}


@book{sheldon_varieties_1940,
	address = {Oxford, England},
	series = {The varieties of human physique},
	title = {The varieties of human physique},
	abstract = {Based on a detailed study of frontal, dorsal and lateral photographs of 4000 male subjects of college age, a 3 dimensional scheme for describing human physique is formulated. Kretschmer's constitutional typology is discarded in favor of one based on 3 first order variables or components, endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy, each of which is found in an individual physique and indicated by one of a set of 3 numerals designating a somatotype or patterning of these morphological components. Seventy-six different somatotypes are described and illustrated. These somatotypical designations are objectively assigned on the basis of the use of 18 anthropometric indices. Second-order variables also isolated and studied are dysplasia, gynandromorphy, texture and hirsutism. Historical trends in constitutional research are summarized. A detailed description is given of the development of the somatotyping technique combining anthroposcopic and anthropometric methods. Reference is made to somatotyping with the aid of a specially devised machine. Topics discussed include: the choice of variables, morphological scales, a geometrical representation of somatotypes, the independence of components, correlational data, the problem of norms, the modifiability of a somatotype, hereditary and endocrine influences and the relation of constitution to temperament, mental disease, clinical studies, crime and delinquency, and the differential education of children. Descriptive sketches of variants of the ectomorphic components are given. Appendices list tables for somatotyping and a series of drawings of 9 female somatotypes. An annotated bibliography is followed by a more general one. 272 photographs and drawings illustrate the somatotypes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
	publisher = {Harper},
	author = {Sheldon, W. H. and Stevens, S. S. and Tucker, W. B.},
	year = {1940},
	note = {Pages: xii, 347}
}

@inproceedings{azuola_building_1994,
	title = {Building {Anthropometry}-{Based} {Virtual} {Human} {Models}},
	abstract = {Creating realistic virtual humans requires models that resemble real humans both visually and behaviorally. Physical and behavioral fidelity in human modeling is the focus of research and development work at the University of Pennsylvania's Center for Human Modeling and Simulation. In this article, we briefly describe the Center's human modeling paradigm, Jack  R fl  , and our research activities, including Jack's Spreadsheet Anthropometric Scaling System (SASS) and its Free-Form Deformation model.  Introduction  In many computer applications, one can find the need for simulating humans. The process of creating virtual human models introduces a series of issues, such as scaling the virtual body, estimating segmentation and joint centers, and obtaining realistic appearance. Anthropometry, a branch of physical anthropology, studies measurements of the human body. Such measurements are commonly necessary in the design of man-machine interfaces. Knowledge of body size variability within a ...},
	booktitle = {In {Proc}. {IMAGE} {VII} {Conf}},
	author = {Azuola, Francisco and Badler, Francisco Azuola Norman I. and Kakadiaris, Ioannis and Metaxas, Dimitri and Ting, Bond-jay},
	year = {1994}
}



%inproceedings{dobbyn_geopostors_2005,
	address = {Washington, District of Columbia},
	series = {{I3D} '05},
	title = {Geopostors: a real-time geometry / impostor crowd rendering system},
	isbn = {978-1-59593-013-2},
	shorttitle = {Geopostors},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/1053427.1053443},
	doi = {10.1145/1053427.1053443},
	abstract = {The simulation of large crowds of humans is important in many fields of computer graphics, including real-time applications such as games, as they can breathe life into otherwise static scenes and enhance believability. We present a novel hybrid rendering system for crowds that solves the classic problem of degraded quality of image-based representations at close distances by building an impostor rendering system on top of a full, geometry-based, human animation system. This enables almost imperceptible switching between the two representations based on a "pixel to texel" ratio, with minimal popping artefacts. Seamless interchanges are further facilitated by exploiting programmable graphics hardware to efficiently enhance the realism and variety of the dynamically-lit impostors, thereby also improving on existing impostor techniques. To test our system, our virtual crowds are embedded in an urban simulation system (as shown in Figure 1). The results demonstrate a system capable of rendering large realistic crowds with the visual realism of a high-resolution geometry rendering system, but at a fraction of the rendering cost.},
	urldate = {2020-04-26},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2005 symposium on {Interactive} {3D} graphics and games},
	publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
	author = {Dobbyn, Simon and Hamill, John and O'Conor, Keith and O'Sullivan, Carol},
	month = apr,
	year = {2005},
	keywords = {human modeling and animation, image-based rendering, simplification/level of detail},
	pages = {95--102}
%}