errorshow.jl

# This file is a part of Julia. License is MIT: https://julialang.org/license

"""
    showerror(io, e)

Show a descriptive representation of an exception object `e`.
This method is used to display the exception after a call to [`throw`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> struct MyException <: Exception
           msg::String
       end

julia> function Base.showerror(io::IO, err::MyException)
           print(io, "MyException: ")
           print(io, err.msg)
       end

julia> err = MyException("test exception")
MyException("test exception")

julia> sprint(showerror, err)
"MyException: test exception"

julia> throw(MyException("test exception"))
ERROR: MyException: test exception
```
"""
showerror(io::IO, ex) = show(io, ex)

show_index(io::IO, x::Any) = show(io, x)
show_index(io::IO, x::Slice) = show_index(io, x.indices)
show_index(io::IO, x::LogicalIndex) = summary(io, x.mask)
show_index(io::IO, x::OneTo) = print(io, "1:", x.stop)
show_index(io::IO, x::Colon) = print(io, ':')

function showerror(io::IO, ex::Meta.ParseError)
    if isnothing(ex.detail)
        print(io, "ParseError(", repr(ex.msg), ")")
    else
        showerror(io, ex.detail)
    end
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex::BoundsError)
    print(io, "BoundsError")
    if isdefined(ex, :a)
        print(io, ": attempt to access ")
        summary(io, ex.a)
        if isdefined(ex, :i)
            print(io, " at index [")
            if ex.i isa AbstractRange
                print(io, ex.i)
            elseif ex.i isa AbstractString
                show(io, ex.i)
            else
                for (i, x) in enumerate(ex.i)
                    i > 1 && print(io, ", ")
                    show_index(io, x)
                end
            end
            print(io, ']')
        end
    end
    Experimental.show_error_hints(io, ex)
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex::TypeError)
    print(io, "TypeError: ")
    if ex.expected === Bool
        print(io, "non-boolean (", typeof(ex.got), ") used in boolean context")
    else
        if isvarargtype(ex.got)
            targs = (ex.got,)
        elseif isa(ex.got, Type)
            targs = ("Type{", ex.got, "}")
        else
            targs = ("a value of type $(typeof(ex.got))",)
        end
        if ex.context == ""
            ctx = "in $(ex.func)"
        elseif ex.func === Symbol("keyword argument")
            ctx = "in keyword argument $(ex.context)"
        else
            ctx = "in $(ex.func), in $(ex.context)"
        end
        print(io, ctx, ", expected ", ex.expected, ", got ", targs...)
    end
    Experimental.show_error_hints(io, ex)
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex, bt; backtrace=true)
    try
        showerror(io, ex)
    finally
        backtrace && show_backtrace(io, bt)
    end
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex::LoadError, bt; backtrace=true)
    !isa(ex.error, LoadError) && print(io, "LoadError: ")
    showerror(io, ex.error, bt, backtrace=backtrace)
    print(io, "\nin expression starting at $(ex.file):$(ex.line)")
end
showerror(io::IO, ex::LoadError) = showerror(io, ex, [])

function showerror(io::IO, ex::InitError, bt; backtrace=true)
    print(io, "InitError: ")
    showerror(io, ex.error, bt, backtrace=backtrace)
    print(io, "\nduring initialization of module ", ex.mod)
end
showerror(io::IO, ex::InitError) = showerror(io, ex, [])

function showerror(io::IO, ex::DomainError)
    if isa(ex.val, AbstractArray)
        compact = get(io, :compact, true)::Bool
        limit = get(io, :limit, true)::Bool
        print(IOContext(io, :compact => compact, :limit => limit),
              "DomainError with ", ex.val)
    else
        print(io, "DomainError with ", ex.val)
    end
    if isdefined(ex, :msg)
        print(io, ":\n", ex.msg)
    end
    Experimental.show_error_hints(io, ex)
    nothing
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex::SystemError)
    if @static(Sys.iswindows() ? ex.extrainfo isa WindowsErrorInfo : false)
        errstring = Libc.FormatMessage(ex.extrainfo.errnum)
        extrainfo = ex.extrainfo.extrainfo
    else
        errstring = Libc.strerror(ex.errnum)
        extrainfo = ex.extrainfo
    end
    if extrainfo === nothing
        print(io, "SystemError: $(ex.prefix): ", errstring)
    else
        print(io, "SystemError (with $extrainfo): $(ex.prefix): ", errstring)
    end
end

showerror(io::IO, ::DivideError) = print(io, "DivideError: integer division error")
showerror(io::IO, ::StackOverflowError) = print(io, "StackOverflowError:")
showerror(io::IO, ::UndefRefError) = print(io, "UndefRefError: access to undefined reference")
showerror(io::IO, ::EOFError) = print(io, "EOFError: read end of file")
function showerror(io::IO, ex::ErrorException)
    print(io, ex.msg)
    if ex.msg == "type String has no field data"
        println(io)
        print(io, "Use `codeunits(str)` instead.")
    end
end
showerror(io::IO, ex::KeyError) = (print(io, "KeyError: key ");
                                   show(io, ex.key);
                                   print(io, " not found"))
showerror(io::IO, ex::InterruptException) = print(io, "InterruptException:")
showerror(io::IO, ex::ArgumentError) = print(io, "ArgumentError: ", ex.msg)
showerror(io::IO, ex::DimensionMismatch) = print(io, "DimensionMismatch: ", ex.msg)
showerror(io::IO, ex::AssertionError) = print(io, "AssertionError: ", ex.msg)
showerror(io::IO, ex::OverflowError) = print(io, "OverflowError: ", ex.msg)

showerror(io::IO, ex::UndefKeywordError) =
    print(io, "UndefKeywordError: keyword argument `$(ex.var)` not assigned")

function showerror(io::IO, ex::UndefVarError)
    print(io, "UndefVarError: `$(ex.var)` not defined")
    Experimental.show_error_hints(io, ex)
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex::InexactError)
    print(io, "InexactError: ", ex.func, '(')
    nameof(ex.T) === ex.func || print(io, ex.T, ", ")
    print(io, ex.val, ')')
    Experimental.show_error_hints(io, ex)
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex::CanonicalIndexError)
    print(io, "CanonicalIndexError: ", ex.func, " not defined for ", ex.type)
end

typesof(@nospecialize args...) = Tuple{Any[ Core.Typeof(args[i]) for i in 1:length(args) ]...}

function print_with_compare(io::IO, @nospecialize(a::DataType), @nospecialize(b::DataType), color::Symbol)
    if a.name === b.name
        Base.show_type_name(io, a.name)
        n = length(a.parameters)
        n > 0 || return
        print(io, '{')
        for i = 1:n
            if i > length(b.parameters)
                printstyled(io, a.parameters[i], color=color)
            else
                print_with_compare(io::IO, a.parameters[i], b.parameters[i], color)
            end
            i < n && print(io, ',')
        end
        print(io, '}')
    else
        printstyled(io, a; color=color)
    end
end

function print_with_compare(io::IO, @nospecialize(a), @nospecialize(b), color::Symbol)
    if a === b
        print(io, a)
    else
        printstyled(io, a; color=color)
    end
end

function show_convert_error(io::IO, ex::MethodError, arg_types_param)
    # See #13033
    T = striptype(ex.args[1])
    if T === nothing
        print(io, "First argument to `convert` must be a Type, got ", ex.args[1])
    else
        p2 = arg_types_param[2]
        print_one_line = isa(T, DataType) && isa(p2, DataType) && T.name != p2.name
        printstyled(io, "Cannot `convert` an object of type ")
        print_one_line || printstyled(io, "\n  ")
        print_with_compare(io, p2, T, :light_green)
        printstyled(io, " to an object of type ")
        print_one_line || printstyled(io, "\n  ")
        print_with_compare(io, T, p2, :light_red)
    end
end

function showerror(io::IO, ex::MethodError)
    # ex.args is a tuple type if it was thrown from `invoke` and is
    # a tuple of the arguments otherwise.
    is_arg_types = isa(ex.args, DataType)
    arg_types = (is_arg_types ? ex.args : typesof(ex.args...))::DataType
    f = ex.f
    meth = methods_including_ambiguous(f, arg_types)
    if isa(meth, MethodList) && length(meth) > 1
        return showerror_ambiguous(io, meth, f, arg_types)
    end
    arg_types_param::SimpleVector = arg_types.parameters
    show_candidates = true
    print(io, "MethodError: ")
    ft = typeof(f)
    f_is_function = false
    kwargs = ()
    if f === Core.kwcall && !is_arg_types
        f = (ex.args::Tuple)[2]
        ft = typeof(f)
        arg_types_param = arg_types_param[3:end]
        kwargs = pairs(ex.args[1])
        ex = MethodError(f, ex.args[3:end::Int], ex.world)
    end
    name = ft.name.mt.name
    if f === Base.convert && length(arg_types_param) == 2 && !is_arg_types
        f_is_function = true
        show_convert_error(io, ex, arg_types_param)
    elseif f === mapreduce_empty || f === reduce_empty
        print(io, "reducing over an empty collection is not allowed; consider supplying `init` to the reducer")
        show_candidates = false
    elseif isempty(methods(f)) && isa(f, DataType) && isabstracttype(f)
        print(io, "no constructors have been defined for ", f)
    elseif isempty(methods(f)) && !isa(f, Function) && !isa(f, Type)
        print(io, "objects of type ", ft, " are not callable")
    else
        if ft <: Function && isempty(ft.parameters) && _isself(ft)
            f_is_function = true
        end
        print(io, "no method matching ")
        iob = IOContext(IOBuffer(), io)     # for type abbreviation as in #49795; some, like `convert(T, x)`, should not abbreviate
        show_signature_function(iob, isa(f, Type) ? Type{f} : typeof(f))
        print(iob, "(")
        for (i, typ) in enumerate(arg_types_param)
            print(iob, "::", typ)
            i == length(arg_types_param) || print(iob, ", ")
        end
        if !isempty(kwargs)
            print(iob, "; ")
            for (i, (k, v)) in enumerate(kwargs)
                print(iob, k, "::", typeof(v))
                i == length(kwargs)::Int || print(iob, ", ")
            end
        end
        print(iob, ")")
        str = String(take!(unwrapcontext(iob)[1]))
        str = type_limited_string_from_context(io, str)
        print(io, str)
    end
    # catch the two common cases of element-wise addition and subtraction
    if (f === Base.:+ || f === Base.:-) && length(arg_types_param) == 2
        # we need one array of numbers and one number, in any order
        if any(x -> x <: AbstractArray{<:Number}, arg_types_param) &&
            any(x -> x <: Number, arg_types_param)

            nounf = f === Base.:+ ? "addition" : "subtraction"
            varnames = ("scalar", "array")
            first, second = arg_types_param[1] <: Number ? varnames : reverse(varnames)
            fstring = f === Base.:+ ? "+" : "-"  # avoid depending on show_default for functions (invalidation)
            print(io, "\nFor element-wise $nounf, use broadcasting with dot syntax: $first .$fstring $second")
        end
    end
    if ft <: AbstractArray
        print(io, "\nUse square brackets [] for indexing an Array.")
    end
    # Check for local functions that shadow methods in Base
    if f_is_function && isdefined(Base, name)
        basef = getfield(Base, name)
        if basef !== ex.f && hasmethod(basef, arg_types)
            print(io, "\nYou may have intended to import ")
            show_unquoted(io, Expr(:., :Base, QuoteNode(name)))
        end
    end
    if (ex.world != typemax(UInt) && hasmethod(ex.f, arg_types) &&
        !hasmethod(ex.f, arg_types, world = ex.world))
        curworld = get_world_counter()
        print(io, "\nThe applicable method may be too new: running in world age $(ex.world), while current world is $(curworld).")
    end
    if !is_arg_types
        # Check for row vectors used where a column vector is intended.
        vec_args = []
        hasrows = false
        for arg in ex.args
            isrow = isa(arg,Array) && ndims(arg)::Int==2 && size(arg,1)::Int==1
            hasrows |= isrow
            push!(vec_args, isrow ? vec(arg) : arg)
        end
        if hasrows && applicable(f, vec_args...) && isempty(kwargs)
            print(io, "\n\nYou might have used a 2d row vector where a 1d column vector was required.",
                      "\nNote the difference between 1d column vector [1,2,3] and 2d row vector [1 2 3].",
                      "\nYou can convert to a column vector with the vec() function.")
        end
    end
    Experimental.show_error_hints(io, ex, arg_types_param, kwargs)
    show_candidates && try
        show_method_candidates(io, ex, kwargs)
    catch ex
        @error "Error showing method candidates, aborted" exception=ex,catch_backtrace()
    end
end

striptype(::Type{T}) where {T} = T
striptype(::Any) = nothing

function showerror_ambiguous(io::IO, meths, f, args)
    print(io, "MethodError: ")
    show_signature_function(io, isa(f, Type) ? Type{f} : typeof(f))
    print(io, "(")
    p = args.parameters
    for (i,a) in enumerate(p)
        print(io, "::", a)
        i < length(p) && print(io, ", ")
    end
    println(io, ") is ambiguous.\n\nCandidates:")
    sigfix = Any
    for m in meths
        print(io, "  ")
        show_method(io, m; digit_align_width=0)
        println(io)
        sigfix = typeintersect(m.sig, sigfix)
    end
    if isa(unwrap_unionall(sigfix), DataType) && sigfix <: Tuple
        let sigfix=sigfix
            if all(m->morespecific(sigfix, m.sig), meths)
                print(io, "\nPossible fix, define\n  ")
                Base.show_tuple_as_call(io, :function,  sigfix)
            else
                print(io, "To resolve the ambiguity, try making one of the methods more specific, or ")
                print(io, "adding a new method more specific than any of the existing applicable methods.")
            end
        end
        println(io)
    end
    nothing
end

#Show an error by directly calling jl_printf.
#Useful in Base submodule __init__ functions where stderr isn't defined yet.
function showerror_nostdio(err, msg::AbstractString)
    stderr_stream = ccall(:jl_stderr_stream, Ptr{Cvoid}, ())
    ccall(:jl_printf, Cint, (Ptr{Cvoid},Cstring), stderr_stream, msg)
    ccall(:jl_printf, Cint, (Ptr{Cvoid},Cstring), stderr_stream, ":\n")
    ccall(:jl_static_show, Csize_t, (Ptr{Cvoid},Any), stderr_stream, err)
    ccall(:jl_printf, Cint, (Ptr{Cvoid},Cstring), stderr_stream, "\n")
end

stacktrace_expand_basepaths()::Bool = Base.get_bool_env("JULIA_STACKTRACE_EXPAND_BASEPATHS", false) === true
stacktrace_contract_userdir()::Bool = Base.get_bool_env("JULIA_STACKTRACE_CONTRACT_HOMEDIR", true) === true
stacktrace_linebreaks()::Bool = Base.get_bool_env("JULIA_STACKTRACE_LINEBREAKS", false) === true

function show_method_candidates(io::IO, ex::MethodError, @nospecialize kwargs=())
    is_arg_types = isa(ex.args, DataType)
    arg_types = is_arg_types ? ex.args : typesof(ex.args...)
    arg_types_param = Any[arg_types.parameters...]
    # Displays the closest candidates of the given function by looping over the
    # functions methods and counting the number of matching arguments.
    f = ex.f
    ft = typeof(f)
    lines = []
    # These functions are special cased to only show if first argument is matched.
    special = f === convert || f === getindex || f === setindex!
    funcs = Tuple{Any,Vector{Any}}[(f, arg_types_param)]

    # An incorrect call method produces a MethodError for convert.
    # It also happens that users type convert when they mean call. So
    # pool MethodErrors for these two functions.
    if f === convert && !isempty(arg_types_param)
        at1 = arg_types_param[1]
        if isType(at1) && !Core.Compiler.has_free_typevars(at1)
            push!(funcs, (at1.parameters[1], arg_types_param[2:end]))
        end
    end

    for (func, arg_types_param) in funcs
        for method in methods(func)
            buf = IOBuffer()
            iob0 = iob = IOContext(buf, io)
            tv = Any[]
            if func isa Core.OpaqueClosure
                sig0 = signature_type(func, typeof(func).parameters[1])
            else
                sig0 = method.sig
            end
            while isa(sig0, UnionAll)
                push!(tv, sig0.var)
                iob = IOContext(iob, :unionall_env => sig0.var)
                sig0 = sig0.body
            end
            sig0 = sig0::DataType
            s1 = sig0.parameters[1]
            if sig0 === Tuple || !isa(func, rewrap_unionall(s1, method.sig))
                # function itself doesn't match or is a builtin
                continue
            else
                print(iob, "  ")
                show_signature_function(iob, s1)
            end
            print(iob, "(")
            t_i = copy(arg_types_param)
            right_matches = 0
            sig = sig0.parameters[2:end]
            for i = 1 : min(length(t_i), length(sig))
                i > 1 && print(iob, ", ")
                # If isvarargtype then it checks whether the rest of the input arguments matches
                # the varargtype
                if Base.isvarargtype(sig[i])
                    sigstr = (unwrapva(unwrap_unionall(sig[i])), "...")
                    j = length(t_i)
                else
                    sigstr = (sig[i],)
                    j = i
                end
                # Checks if the type of arg 1:i of the input intersects with the current method
                t_in = typeintersect(rewrap_unionall(Tuple{sig[1:i]...}, method.sig),
                                     rewrap_unionall(Tuple{t_i[1:j]...}, method.sig))
                # If the function is one of the special cased then it should break the loop if
                # the type of the first argument is not matched.
                t_in === Union{} && special && i == 1 && break
                if t_in === Union{}
                    if get(io, :color, false)::Bool
                        let sigstr=sigstr
                            Base.with_output_color(Base.error_color(), iob) do iob
                                print(iob, "::", sigstr...)
                            end
                        end
                    else
                        print(iob, "!Matched::", sigstr...)
                    end
                    # If there is no typeintersect then the type signature from the method is
                    # inserted in t_i this ensures if the type at the next i matches the type
                    # signature then there will be a type intersect
                    t_i[i] = sig[i]
                else
                    right_matches += j==i ? 1 : 0
                    print(iob, "::", sigstr...)
                end
            end
            special && right_matches == 0 && continue

            if length(t_i) > length(sig) && !isempty(sig) && Base.isvarargtype(sig[end])
                # It ensures that methods like f(a::AbstractString...) gets the correct
                # number of right_matches
                for t in arg_types_param[length(sig):end]
                    if t <: rewrap_unionall(unwrapva(unwrap_unionall(sig[end])), method.sig)
                        right_matches += 1
                    end
                end
            end

            if right_matches > 0 || length(arg_types_param) < 2
                if length(t_i) < length(sig)
                    # If the methods args is longer than input then the method
                    # arguments is printed as not a match
                    for (k, sigtype) in enumerate(sig[length(t_i)+1:end])
                        sigtype = isvarargtype(sigtype) ? unwrap_unionall(sigtype) : sigtype
                        if Base.isvarargtype(sigtype)
                            sigstr = (unwrapva(sigtype::Core.TypeofVararg), "...")
                        else
                            sigstr = (sigtype,)
                        end
                        if !((min(length(t_i), length(sig)) == 0) && k==1)
                            print(iob, ", ")
                        end
                        if k == 1 && Base.isvarargtype(sigtype)
                            # There wasn't actually a mismatch - the method match failed for
                            # some other reason, e.g. world age. Just print the sigstr.
                            print(iob, sigstr...)
                        elseif get(io, :color, false)::Bool
                            let sigstr=sigstr
                                Base.with_output_color(Base.error_color(), iob) do iob
                                    print(iob, "::", sigstr...)
                                end
                            end
                        else
                            print(iob, "!Matched::", sigstr...)
                        end
                    end
                end
                kwords = kwarg_decl(method)
                if !isempty(kwords)
                    print(iob, "; ")
                    join(iob, kwords, ", ")
                end
                print(iob, ")")
                show_method_params(iob0, tv)
                file, line = updated_methodloc(method)
                if file === nothing
                    file = string(method.file)
                end
                stacktrace_contract_userdir() && (file = contractuser(file))

                if !isempty(kwargs)::Bool
                    unexpected = Symbol[]
                    if isempty(kwords) || !(any(endswith(string(kword), "...") for kword in kwords))
                        for (k, v) in kwargs
                            if !(k::Symbol in kwords)
                                push!(unexpected, k::Symbol)
                            end
                        end
                    end
                    if !isempty(unexpected)
                        Base.with_output_color(Base.error_color(), iob) do iob
                            plur = length(unexpected) > 1 ? "s" : ""
                            print(iob, " got unsupported keyword argument$plur \"", join(unexpected, "\", \""), "\"")
                        end
                    end
                end
                if ex.world < reinterpret(UInt, method.primary_world)
                    print(iob, " (method too new to be called from this world context.)")
                elseif ex.world > reinterpret(UInt, method.deleted_world)
                    print(iob, " (method deleted before this world age.)")
                end
                println(iob)

                m = parentmodule_before_main(method)
                modulecolor = get!(() -> popfirst!(STACKTRACE_MODULECOLORS), STACKTRACE_FIXEDCOLORS, m)
                print_module_path_file(iob, m, string(file), line; modulecolor, digit_align_width = 3)

                # TODO: indicate if it's in the wrong world
                push!(lines, (buf, right_matches))
            end
        end
    end

    if !isempty(lines) # Display up to three closest candidates
        Base.with_output_color(:normal, io) do io
            print(io, "\n\nClosest candidates are:")
            sort!(lines, by = x -> -x[2])
            i = 0
            for line in lines
                println(io)
                if i >= 3
                    print(io, "  ...")
                    break
                end
                i += 1
                print(io, String(take!(line[1])))
            end
            println(io) # extra newline for spacing to stacktrace
        end
    end
end

# In case the line numbers in the source code have changed since the code was compiled,
# allow packages to set a callback function that corrects them.
# (Used by Revise and perhaps other packages.)
#
# Set this with
#     Base.update_stackframes_callback[] = my_updater!
# where my_updater! takes a single argument and works in-place. The argument will be a
# Vector{Any} storing tuples (sf::StackFrame, nrepetitions::Int), and the updater should
# replace `sf` as needed.
const update_stackframes_callback = Ref{Function}(identity)

const STACKTRACE_MODULECOLORS = Iterators.Stateful(Iterators.cycle([:magenta, :cyan, :green, :yellow]))
const STACKTRACE_FIXEDCOLORS = IdDict(Base => :light_black, Core => :light_black)

function show_full_backtrace(io::IO, trace::Vector; print_linebreaks::Bool)
    num_frames = length(trace)
    ndigits_max = ndigits(num_frames)

    println(io, "\nStacktrace:")

    for (i, (frame, n)) in enumerate(trace)
        print_stackframe(io, i, frame, n, ndigits_max, STACKTRACE_FIXEDCOLORS, STACKTRACE_MODULECOLORS)
        if i < num_frames
            println(io)
            print_linebreaks && println(io)
        end
    end
end

const BIG_STACKTRACE_SIZE = 50 # Arbitrary constant chosen here

function show_reduced_backtrace(io::IO, t::Vector)
    recorded_positions = IdDict{UInt, Vector{Int}}()
    #= For each frame of hash h, recorded_positions[h] is the list of indices i
    such that hash(t[i-1]) == h, ie the list of positions in which the
    frame appears just before. =#

    displayed_stackframes = []
    repeated_cycle = Tuple{Int,Int,Int}[]
    # First:  line to introuce the "cycle repetition" message
    # Second: length of the cycle
    # Third:  number of repetitions
    frame_counter = 1
    while frame_counter < length(t)
        (last_frame, n) = t[frame_counter]
        frame_counter += 1 # Indicating the next frame

        current_hash = hash(last_frame)
        positions = get(recorded_positions, current_hash, Int[])
        recorded_positions[current_hash] = push!(positions, frame_counter)

        repetitions = 0
        for index_p in length(positions)-1:-1:1 # More recent is more likely
            p = positions[index_p]
            cycle_length = frame_counter - p
            i = frame_counter
            j = p
            while i < length(t) && t[i] == t[j]
                i += 1
                j += 1
            end
            if j >= frame_counter-1
                #= At least one cycle repeated =#
                repetitions = div(i - frame_counter + 1, cycle_length)
                push!(repeated_cycle, (length(displayed_stackframes), cycle_length, repetitions))
                frame_counter += cycle_length * repetitions - 1
                break
            end
        end

        if repetitions==0
            push!(displayed_stackframes, (last_frame, n))
        end
    end

    try invokelatest(update_stackframes_callback[], displayed_stackframes) catch end

    println(io, "\nStacktrace:")

    ndigits_max = ndigits(length(t))

    push!(repeated_cycle, (0,0,0)) # repeated_cycle is never empty
    frame_counter = 1
    for i in 1:length(displayed_stackframes)
        (frame, n) = displayed_stackframes[i]

        print_stackframe(io, frame_counter, frame, n, ndigits_max, STACKTRACE_FIXEDCOLORS, STACKTRACE_MODULECOLORS)

        if i < length(displayed_stackframes)
            println(io)
            stacktrace_linebreaks() && println(io)
        end

        while repeated_cycle[1][1] == i # never empty because of the initial (0,0,0)
            cycle_length = repeated_cycle[1][2]
            repetitions = repeated_cycle[1][3]
            popfirst!(repeated_cycle)
            printstyled(io,
                "--- the last ", cycle_length, " lines are repeated ",
                  repetitions, " more time", repetitions>1 ? "s" : "", " ---", color = :light_black)
            if i < length(displayed_stackframes)
                println(io)
                stacktrace_linebreaks() && println(io)
            end
            frame_counter += cycle_length * repetitions
        end
        frame_counter += 1
    end
end


# Print a stack frame where the module color is determined by looking up the parent module in
# `modulecolordict`. If the module does not have a color, yet, a new one can be drawn
# from `modulecolorcycler`.
function print_stackframe(io, i, frame::StackFrame, n::Int, ndigits_max, modulecolordict, modulecolorcycler)
    m = Base.parentmodule(frame)
    modulecolor = if m !== nothing
        m = parentmodule_before_main(m)
        get!(() -> popfirst!(modulecolorcycler), modulecolordict, m)
    else
        :default
    end
    print_stackframe(io, i, frame, n, ndigits_max, modulecolor)
end

# Gets the topmost parent module that isn't Main
function parentmodule_before_main(m::Module)
    while parentmodule(m) !== m
        pm = parentmodule(m)
        pm == Main && break
        m = pm
    end
    m
end
parentmodule_before_main(x) = parentmodule_before_main(parentmodule(x))

# Print a stack frame where the module color is set manually with `modulecolor`.
function print_stackframe(io, i, frame::StackFrame, n::Int, ndigits_max, modulecolor)
    file, line = string(frame.file), frame.line
    file = fixup_stdlib_path(file)
    stacktrace_expand_basepaths() && (file = something(find_source_file(file), file))
    stacktrace_contract_userdir() && (file = contractuser(file))

    # Used by the REPL to make it possible to open
    # the location of a stackframe/method in the editor.
    if haskey(io, :last_shown_line_infos)
        push!(io[:last_shown_line_infos], (string(frame.file), frame.line))
    end

    inlined = getfield(frame, :inlined)
    modul = parentmodule(frame)

    digit_align_width = ndigits_max + 2

    # frame number
    print(io, " ", lpad("[" * string(i) * "]", digit_align_width))
    print(io, " ")

    StackTraces.show_spec_linfo(IOContext(io, :backtrace=>true), frame)
    if n > 1
        printstyled(io, " (repeats $n times)"; color=:light_black)
    end
    println(io)

    # @ Module path / file : line
    print_module_path_file(io, modul, file, line; modulecolor, digit_align_width)

    # inlined
    printstyled(io, inlined ? " [inlined]" : "", color = :light_black)
end

function print_module_path_file(io, modul, file, line; modulecolor = :light_black, digit_align_width = 0)
    printstyled(io, " " ^ digit_align_width * "@", color = :light_black)

    # module
    if modul !== nothing && modulecolor !== nothing
        print(io, " ")
        printstyled(io, modul, color = modulecolor)
    end

    # filepath
    stacktrace_expand_basepaths() && (file = something(find_source_file(file), file))
    stacktrace_contract_userdir() && (file = contractuser(file))
    print(io, " ")
    dir = dirname(file)
    !isempty(dir) && printstyled(io, dir, Filesystem.path_separator, color = :light_black)

    # filename, separator, line
    printstyled(io, basename(file), ":", line; color = :light_black, underline = true)
end

function show_backtrace(io::IO, t::Vector)
    if haskey(io, :last_shown_line_infos)
        empty!(io[:last_shown_line_infos])
    end

    # t is a pre-processed backtrace (ref #12856)
    if t isa Vector{Any}
        filtered = t
    else
        filtered = process_backtrace(t)
    end
    isempty(filtered) && return

    if length(filtered) == 1 && StackTraces.is_top_level_frame(filtered[1][1])
        f = filtered[1][1]::StackFrame
        if f.line == 0 && f.file === Symbol("")
            # don't show a single top-level frame with no location info
            return
        end
    end

    if length(filtered) > BIG_STACKTRACE_SIZE
        show_reduced_backtrace(IOContext(io, :backtrace => true), filtered)
        return
    else
        try invokelatest(update_stackframes_callback[], filtered) catch end
        # process_backtrace returns a Vector{Tuple{Frame, Int}}
        show_full_backtrace(io, filtered; print_linebreaks = stacktrace_linebreaks())
    end
    nothing
end


# For improved user experience, filter out frames for include() implementation
# - see #33065. See also #35371 for extended discussion of internal frames.
function _simplify_include_frames(trace)
    kept_frames = trues(length(trace))
    first_ignored = nothing
    for i in length(trace):-1:1
        frame::StackFrame, _ = trace[i]
        mod = parentmodule(frame)
        if first_ignored === nothing
            if mod === Base && frame.func === :_include
                # Hide include() machinery by default
                first_ignored = i
            end
        else
            first_ignored = first_ignored::Int
            # Hack: allow `mod==nothing` as a workaround for inlined functions.
            # TODO: Fix this by improving debug info.
            if mod in (Base,Core,nothing) && 1+first_ignored-i <= 5
                if frame.func === :eval
                    kept_frames[i:first_ignored] .= false
                    first_ignored = nothing
                end
            else
                # Bail out to avoid hiding frames in unexpected circumstances
                first_ignored = nothing
            end
        end
    end
    if first_ignored !== nothing
        kept_frames[1:first_ignored] .= false
    end
    return trace[kept_frames]
end

# Collapse frames that have the same location (in some cases)
function _collapse_repeated_frames(trace)
    kept_frames = trues(length(trace))
    last_frame = nothing
    for i in 1:length(trace)
        frame::StackFrame, _ = trace[i]
        if last_frame !== nothing && frame.file == last_frame.file && frame.line == last_frame.line
            #=
            Handles this case:

            f(g, a; kw...) = error();
            @inline f(a; kw...) = f(identity, a; kw...);
            f(1)

            which otherwise ends up as:

            [4] #f#4 <-- useless
            @ ./REPL[2]:1 [inlined]
            [5] f(a::Int64)
            @ Main ./REPL[2]:1
            =#
            if startswith(sprint(show, last_frame), "#")
                kept_frames[i-1] = false
            end

            #= Handles this case
            g(x, y=1, z=2) = error();
            g(1)

            which otherwise ends up as:

            [2] g(x::Int64, y::Int64, z::Int64)
            @ Main ./REPL[1]:1
            [3] g(x::Int64) <-- useless
            @ Main ./REPL[1]:1
            =#
            if frame.linfo isa MethodInstance && last_frame.linfo isa MethodInstance &&
                frame.linfo.def isa Method && last_frame.linfo.def isa Method
                m, last_m = frame.linfo.def::Method, last_frame.linfo.def::Method
                params, last_params = Base.unwrap_unionall(m.sig).parameters, Base.unwrap_unionall(last_m.sig).parameters
                if last_m.nkw != 0
                    pos_sig_params = last_params[(last_m.nkw+2):end]
                    issame = true
                    if pos_sig_params == params
                        kept_frames[i] = false
                    end
                end
                if length(last_params) > length(params)
                    issame = true
                    for i = 1:length(params)
                        issame &= params[i] == last_params[i]
                    end
                    if issame
                        kept_frames[i] = false
                    end
                end
            end

            # TODO: Detect more cases that can be collapsed
        end
        last_frame = frame
    end
    return trace[kept_frames]
end


function process_backtrace(t::Vector, limit::Int=typemax(Int); skipC = true)
    n = 0
    last_frame = StackTraces.UNKNOWN
    count = 0
    ret = Any[]
    for i in eachindex(t)
        lkups = t[i]
        if lkups isa StackFrame
            lkups = [lkups]
        else
            lkups = StackTraces.lookup(lkups)
        end
        for lkup in lkups
            if lkup === StackTraces.UNKNOWN
                continue
            end

            if (lkup.from_c && skipC)
                continue
            end
            code = lkup.linfo
            if code isa MethodInstance
                def = code.def
                if def isa Method && def.name !== :kwcall && def.sig <: Tuple{typeof(Core.kwcall),NamedTuple,Any,Vararg}
                    # hide kwcall() methods, which are probably internal keyword sorter methods
                    # (we print the internal method instead, after demangling
                    # the argument list, since it has the right line number info)
                    continue
                end
            elseif !lkup.from_c
                lkup.func === :kwcall && continue
            end
            count += 1
            if count > limit
                break
            end

            if lkup.file != last_frame.file || lkup.line != last_frame.line || lkup.func != last_frame.func || lkup.linfo !== last_frame.linfo
                if n > 0
                    push!(ret, (last_frame, n))
                end
                n = 1
                last_frame = lkup
            else
                n += 1
            end
        end
        count > limit && break
    end
    if n > 0
        push!(ret, (last_frame, n))
    end
    trace = _simplify_include_frames(ret)
    trace = _collapse_repeated_frames(trace)
    return trace
end

function show_exception_stack(io::IO, stack)
    # Display exception stack with the top of the stack first.  This ordering
    # means that the user doesn't have to scroll up in the REPL to discover the
    # root cause.
    nexc = length(stack)
    for i = nexc:-1:1
        if nexc != i
            printstyled(io, "\ncaused by: ", color=error_color())
        end
        exc, bt = stack[i]
        showerror(io, exc, bt, backtrace = bt!==nothing)
        i == 1 || println(io)
    end
end

# Defined here rather than error.jl for bootstrap ordering
function show(io::IO, ip::InterpreterIP)
    print(io, typeof(ip))
    if ip.code isa Core.CodeInfo
        print(io, " in top-level CodeInfo for $(ip.mod) at statement $(Int(ip.stmt))")
    else
        print(io, " in $(ip.code) at statement $(Int(ip.stmt))")
    end
end

# handler for displaying a hint in case the user tries to call
# the instance of a number (probably missing the operator)
# eg: (1 + 2)(3 + 4)
function noncallable_number_hint_handler(io, ex, arg_types, kwargs)
    @nospecialize
    if ex.f isa Number
        print(io, "\nMaybe you forgot to use an operator such as ")
        printstyled(io, "*, ^, %, / etc. ", color=:cyan)
        print(io, "?")
    end
end

Experimental.register_error_hint(noncallable_number_hint_handler, MethodError)

# Display a hint in case the user tries to use the + operator on strings
# (probably attempting concatenation)
function string_concatenation_hint_handler(io, ex, arg_types, kwargs)
    @nospecialize
    if (ex.f === +) && all(i -> i <: AbstractString, arg_types)
        print(io, "\nString concatenation is performed with ")
        printstyled(io, "*", color=:cyan)
        print(io, " (See also: https://docs.julialang.org/en/v1/manual/strings/#man-concatenation).")
    end
end

Experimental.register_error_hint(string_concatenation_hint_handler, MethodError)

# ExceptionStack implementation
size(s::ExceptionStack) = size(s.stack)
getindex(s::ExceptionStack, i::Int) = s.stack[i]

function show(io::IO, ::MIME"text/plain", stack::ExceptionStack)
    nexc = length(stack)
    printstyled(io, nexc, "-element ExceptionStack", nexc == 0 ? "" : ":\n")
    show_exception_stack(io, stack)
end
show(io::IO, stack::ExceptionStack) = show(io, MIME("text/plain"), stack)