result.md

REDIRECT TO: https://github.com/Kotlin/KEEP/blob/main/proposals/stdlib/KEEP-0127-result.md

Encapsulate successful or failed function execution

• Type: Standard Library API proposal
• Author: Roman Elizarov
• Contributors: Andrey Breslav, Ilya Gorbunov
• Status: Implemented in Kotlin 1.3
• Revisions: Updated in Kotlin 1.5, see revision history.
• Related issues: KT-18608
• Original discussion: KEEP-127

Summary

Kotlin provides exceptions that are used to represent an arbitrary failure of a function and include ability to attach additional information pertaining to this failure. Exceptions are sequential in nature and work great in any kind of sequential code, including code for a single coroutine or in other case where one piece of work in being sequentially decomposed. Exceptions ensure that the first failure in a sequentially performed work stops further progress and is propagated up to the caller. However, sequential nature of exceptions complicates their use in cases where some kind of parallel decomposition of work is needed or multiple failures need to be retained for later processing.

We'd like to introduce a type in the Kotlin standard library that is effectively a discriminated union between successful and failed outcome of execution of Kotlin function — Success T | Failure Throwable, where Success T represents a successful result of some type T and Failure Throwable represents a failure with any Throwable exception. For the purpose of efficiency, we would model it as a generic @JvmInline value class Result<T> in the standard library.

NOTE: In Kotlin 1.3 till 1.5 this Result could not be used directly as a return type of Kotlin functions. This restriction was lifted in Kotlin 1.5. See limitations section for details. See also style and exceptions and use cases below on how Result is designed to be used.

Use cases

This section lists motivating use-cases.

Continuation and similar callbacks

The primary driver for inclusion of this class into the Standard Library is Continuation<T> callback interface that should get invoked on the successful or failed execution of an asynchronous operation. We'd like to be able to have only a single function with "success or failure" union type as its parameter:

interface Continuation<in T> {
    fun resumeWith(result: Result<T>)
}

Asynchronous parallel decomposition

Another example here is parallel execution of multiple asynchronous operations that must capture successful or failed execution of each individual piece to analyze and reach decision on the outcome of a larger piece of work:

val deferreds: List<Deferred<T>> = List(n) { 
    async { 
        /* Do something that produces T or fails */ 
    } 
}
val outcomes1: List<T> = deferreds.map { it.await() } // BAD -- crash on the first (by index) failure
val outcomes2: List<T> = deferreds.awaitAll() // BAD -- crash on the earliest (by time) failure 
val outcomes3: List<Result<T>> = deferreds.map { runCatching { it.await() } } // !!! <= THIS IS THE ONE WE WANT  

Functional bulk manipulation of failures

Kotlin encourages writing code in a functional style. It works well as long as business-specific failures are represented with nullable types or sealed class hierarchies, while other kinds of failures (that are represented by exceptions) do not require any special local handling. However, when interfacing with Java-style APIs that rely heavily on exceptions or otherwise having a need to somehow process exceptions locally (as opposed to propagating them up the call stack), we see a clear lack of primitives in the Kotlin standard library.

Consider writing a function readFiles that receives a list of files, reads all of them, and returns a list of results. We are given the following function to read single file contents:

fun readFileData(file: File): Data

This reading function throws exception if file is not found or parsing of a file had somehow failed. Normally that would be fine, and the first failure of this kind would terminate the whole program with a stacktrace and explanatory message. However, for readFiles we'd explicitly like to be able to continue after the failure to collect and report all failures. Moreover, we'd like to be able to have a functional implementation of readFiles like this:

fun readFilesCatching(files: List<File>): List<Result<Data>> =
    files.map { 
        runCatching { 
            readFileData(it)
        }
    }

This function is named readFileCatching to make it explicit to the caller that all encountered failures were caught and encapsulated in Result and it is caller responsibility to process these failures.

Now, consider making some transformation of readFilesCatching results that we'd like to express functionally, while preserving accumulated failures:

readFilesCatching(files).map { result: Result<Data> -> // type explicitly written here for clarity
    result.map { it.doSomething() } // Operates on Success case, while preserving Failure
}

If doSomething, in turn, can potentially fail and we are interested in keeping this failure per each individual file, then we can write it using mapCatching instead of map:

readFilesCatching(files).map { result: Result<Data> -> 
    result.mapCatching { it.doSomething() }
}

Functional error handling

In mostly functional code try { ... } catch(e: Throwable) { ... } construct looks out of style. For example, consider this piece of code that uses RxKotlin for asynchronous processing. It invokes doSomethingAsync that returns Single and processes potential error in a functional style:

doSomethingAsync()
    .subscribe(
        { processData(it) },
        { showErrorDialog(it) }
    )

Note, that the above code is written in a style that is very different from direct programming style. doSomethingAsync() that returns Single does not actually do anything until subscribe is invoked (its result is typically cold). This distinction is not important for the purposes of this section. We are interested here in a visual fact that error and result handling are chained to the initial invocation.

Working with function that returns Java's CompletableFuture is visually similar:

doSomethingAsync()
    .whenComplete { data, exception ->
        if (exception != null) 
            showErrorDialog(exception)
        else 
            processData(data)
    }

It is closer to direct style, since this doSomethingAsync invocation actually starts performing operation, but we also see that ultimate processing of success or failure is performed via chaining.

Now, if doSomethingSync is a synchronous function, then handling its success or failure looks quite visually different, which is problematic for the code that mixes both approaches:

try { 
    val data = doSomethingSync()
    processData(data) 
} catch(e: Throwable) { 
    showErrorDialog(e) 
}

Also note, that the code with try/catch has different semantics, since it also catches exceptions that could have been thrown by processData. Preserving functional-style error-handling semantics using try/catch is quite non-trivial (see Error handling alternative section).

Instead, we'd like to be able to write the same code in a more functional way:

runCatching { doSomethingSync() }
    .onFailure { showErrorDialog(it) }
    .onSuccess { processData(it) }

Alternatives

There is a number of community-supported libraries that provide this kind of success or failure union type, but we cannot use any of them for the Continuation callback interface that is defined in the Standard Library.

Continuation alternative

Alternative signatures for the Continuation interface are listed below.

Two methods as in current experimental version of coroutines:

interface Continuation<in T> {
    fun resume(value: T)
    fun resumeWithException(exception: Throwable)
}

This solution was tried in the experimental version of Kotlin coroutines and the following problems were identified:

• All implementations have to implement both methods and there is no easy shortcut to provide a builder with a lambda like Continuation { ... body ... }.
• Some implementations need to capture "success or failure" in their state and pass on captured success or failure to another delegate continuation at a later time.
• Some implementations have a common piece of logic that should be executed on both success and failure with minor differences for successful and failed cases. These implementations have to immediately forward both resume and resumeWithException to some internal function like doResume, thus increasing stack size and still forcing implementor to figure out a way to represent both success and failure in one method.

One method with two parameters:

interface Continuation<in T> {
    fun resume(value: T?, exception: Throwable?)
}

The downside here is that both parameters here are nullable and there is no larger type-safety nor a clear indication of intent to have only one of them set.

One method with Any? parameter:

interface Continuation<in T> {
    fun resume(result: Any?) // result: T | Failure(Throwable)
}

This solution completely lacks any type-safety on Kotlin side.

Error handling alternative

Let's see what it takes to rewrite the code with functional-style error handling without resorting to 3rd party libraries.

Non-nullable value type:

If the result of doSomethingSync is non-nullable, then we can write somewhat concise code:

val data: Data? = try { 
        doSomethingSync() 
    } catch(e: Throwable) { 
        showErrorDialog(e)
        null 
    }
if (data != null)    
    processData(data) 

Nullable value type:

If the result of doSomethingSync is nullable, then one possible alternative is shown below:

var data: Data? = null
val success = try { 
        data = doSomethingSync()
        true 
    } catch(e: Throwable) { 
        showErrorDialog(e)
        false 
    }
if (success)    
    processData(data) 

API details

The following snippet gives summary of all the public APIs:

@JvmInline value class Result<out T> /* internal constructor */ {
    val isSuccess: Boolean
    val isFailure: Boolean
    fun getOrNull(): T?
    fun exceptionOrNull(): Throwable?
    
    companion object {
        fun <T> success(value: T): Result<T>
        fun <T> failure(exception: Throwable): Result<T>
    }
}

inline fun <R> runCatching(block: () -> R): Result<R>
inline fun <T, R> T.runCatching(block: T.() -> R): Result<R>

fun <T> Result<T>.getOrThrow(): T
fun <R, T : R> Result<T>.getOrDefault(defaultValue: R): R

inline fun <R, T : R> Result<T>.getOrElse(onFailure: (exception: Throwable) -> R): R
inline fun <R, T> Result<T>.fold(onSuccess: (value: T) -> R, onFailure: (exception: Throwable) -> R): R

inline fun <R, T> Result<T>.map(transform: (value: T) -> R): Result<R>
inline fun <R, T: R> Result<T>.recover(transform: (exception: Throwable) -> R): Result<R>

inline fun <R, T> Result<T>.mapCatching(transform: (value: T) -> R): Result<R>
inline fun <R, T: R> Result<T>.recoverCatching(transform: (exception: Throwable) -> R): Result<R>

inline fun <T> Result<T>.onSuccess(action: (value: T) -> Unit): Result<T>
inline fun <T> Result<T>.onFailure(action: (exception: Throwable) -> Unit): Result<T>

The functions have self-explanatory consistent names that follow established tradition in the Kotlin Standard library and establish the following additional conventions:

• Functions that can throw previously suppressed (captured) exception are named with explicit OrThrow suffix like getOrThrow.
• Functions that capture thrown exception and encapsulate it into Result instance are named with explicit Catching suffix like runCatching and mapCatching.
• A traditional map transformation function that works on successful cases is augmented with a recover function that similarly transforms exceptional cases. A failure inside either map or recover transform aborts operation like a traditional function, but mapCatching and recoverCatching encapsulate failure in transform into the resulting Result.
• Functions to query the case are naturally named isSuccess and isFailure.
• Functions that act on the success or failure cases are named onSuccess and onFailure and return their receiver unchanged for further chaining according to tradition established by onEach extension from the Standard Library.

String representation of the Result value (toString) is either Success(v) or Failure(x) where v and x are the string representations of the corresponding value and exception. equals and hashCode are implemented naturally for the result type, comparing the corresponding values or exceptions.

Dependencies

This library depends on @JvmInline value class language feature for its efficient implementation.

Limitations (legacy)

In versions before Kotlin 1.5 Result<T> cannot be used as a direct result type of Kotlin functions, properties of Result type are also restricted:

fun findUserByName(name: String): Result<User> // ERROR: 'kotlin.Result' cannot be used as a return type 
fun foo(): Result<List<Int>> // ERROR 
fun foo(): Result<Int>? // ERROR
var foo: Result<Int> // ERROR

However, functions that use Result type in generic containers or receive result as a parameter type were allowed:

fun findIntResults(): List<Result<Int>> // Ok
fun receiveIntResult(result: Result<Int>) // Ok

Functions that declare generic result types may, in fact, return values of Result type when the Result type is substituted in place of their generic type parameters:

private val first: Result<Int> = findIntResults().first() // Ok, even though `first` is of type Result<Int>

Private and local properties of Result type were allowed as long as they did not have custom getters:

private var foo: Result<Int> // Ok

The use of Kotlin null-safety operators ?., ?: and !! was not allowed on both nullable and non-null Result types:

val r: Result<String?> = runCatching { readLine() }
println(r!!) // ERROR

The rationale behind these limitations was that future versions of Kotlin might wish to expand and/or change semantics of functions that return Result type and null-safety operators may change their semantics when used on values of Result type. In order to avoid breaking existing code in the future releases of Kotlin and leave door open for those changes, the corresponding uses produced an error. Exceptions to this rule were made for carefully-reviewed declarations in the standard library that are part of the Result type API itself.

UPDATE: These limitations are lifted since Kotlin 1.5.

See Future advancements for details on specific plans on updates on them.

Binary contract and implementation details

Result<T> is implemented by an @JvmInline value class and is optimized for a successful case. Success is stored as a value of type T directly, without additional boxing, while failure exception is wrapped into an internal Result.Failure class that is not exposed through binary interface and may be changed later.

Result class has the following internal published APIs that represent its binary interface on JVM in addition to its public API:

@JvmInline value class Result<out T> @PublishedApi internal constructor(
    @PublishedApi internal val value: Any? // internal value -- either T or Failure
) : Serializable

@PublishedApi internal fun createFailure(exception: Throwable): Any
@PublishedApi internal fun Result<*>.throwOnFailure()

Error-handling style and exceptions

The Result class is designed to capture generic failures of Kotlin functions for their latter processing and should be used in general-purpose API like futures, etc, that deal with invocation of Kotlin code blocks and must be able to represent both a successful and a failed result of execution. The Result class is not designed to represent domain-specific error conditions.

In general, if some API requires its callers to handle failures locally (immediately around or next to the invocation), then it should use nullable types, when these failures do not carry additional business meaning, or domain-specific data types to represent its successful results and failures with any additional business-related data that is needed to process these failures.

Consider this hypothetical API design:

fun findUserByName(name: String): Result<User> // ERROR 

If the only kind of failure we might be interested in handling is the failure to find the user with the given name, then the following signature shall be used:

fun findUserByName(name: String): User? // Ok

If there is a business need to distinguish different failures and process these different failures in distinct ways on each invocation site, then the following kind of signature shall be considered:

sealed class FindUserResult {
    data class Found(val user: User) : FindUserResult()
    data class NotFound(val name: String) : FindUserResult()
    data class MalformedName(val name: String) : FindUserResult()
    // other cases that need different business-specific handling code
}

fun findUserByName(name: String): FindUserResult

Exceptions in Kotlin are designed for the failures that usually do not require local handling at each call site. This includes several broad areas — logic and programming errors like index bounds problems and various checks for internal invariants and preconditions, environment problems, out of memory conditions, etc. These failures are usually non-recoverable (or are not supposed to be recovered from) and are handled in some centralized way by logging or otherwise reporting them for troubleshooting, typically terminating application or, sometimes, attempting to restart or to reinitialize an application as a whole or just its failing subsystem.
This is where default exceptions behaviour to abort current operation and propagate it up the call stack comes in handy.

External environment problems like network or file input/output errors represent a corner case here. It is cumbersome to require their local handling by the caller as it complicates sequential business logic by obscuring it with code to handle IO errors, so it is idiomatic in Kotlin to use exceptions (like IOException) for these. However, they are often handled at a more granular level than some global error-handling code. These errors often require some specific user-interaction and can require domain-specific retry or recovery code.

Exceptions are also very expensive to create, but relatively cheap to throw, because they carry a lot of additional metadata, like stack trace and message to aid in debugging. They are extremely valuable when this metadata is written to the log for developers to aid in troubleshooting, but all that metadata is useless if exception is to be consumed by some business-logic to make some business-decision based simple on the presence of exception. Use nullable types or domain-specific classes to represent failures that need specific handling.

So, in case when findUserByName failure does not require local handling by the caller, then its failure should be represented by exception and its signature should look like this:

fun findUserByName(name: String): User

This signature is fine if we always sure that user shall be found, unless we have bugs, environment or IO issues.

If invoker of this function wants to perform multiple operations and process their failures afterwards (without aborting on the first failure), it can always use runCatching { findUserByName(name) } to make it explicit that a failure is being caught and encapsulated into Result instance.

Similar API review

Kotlin Standard Library provides rich collection of transformations for nullable types that are idiomatic in Kotlin to indicate failure when no additional information about the failure is needed. However, there is no build-in support for non-standard exception handling in the Standard Library -- exceptions always terminate operation and propagate to the caller.

Other programming languages include a similar facility to represent a union of success and failure in their standard library with the following names:

• Try[T] in Scala is similar to the proposed Result<T>.
• Result<T, E> in Rust (also parametrized by the type of error).
• Exceptional e t in Haskell (also parametrized by the type of error).
• expected<E, T> in C++ (proposed, also parametrized by the type of error).

Existing Kotlin libraries that provide similar functionality:

• Try<T> from Arrow library.
• Result<T, E> from @kittinunf.

Note, that both of the libraries above promote "Railway Oriented Programming" style with monads and their transformations, which heavily relies on functions returning Try, Result, etc. This programming style can be implemented and used in Kotlin via libraries as the above examples demonstrate. However, core Kotlin language and its Standard Library are designed around a direct programming style in mind. The general approach in Kotlin is that alternative programming styles should be provided as 3rd party libraries and DSLs.

For a more detailed comparison of Scala's Try and its Kotlin analogue in Arrow library with this Result class see Appendix.

Placement

This API shall be placed into the Kotlin Standard Library. Since the proposed API is fairly small and does not clearly belong to any larger group of APIs, it should be placed directly into kotlin package.

Open issues

This section lists open issues about this design.

Parameterization by the base error type

Parameterizing this class by the type of exception like Result<T, E> is possible, but raises the following problems:

• It increases verboseness without providing improvement for any of the outlined Use cases.
• Kotlin currently lacks facility to specify default values for generic type parameters.
• It leads to abuse in cases where a user-provided API-specific sealed class would work better.

It is possible to define a separate class like ResultEx<T, E> that is parametrized by both successful type T and failed type E (that must extend Throwable) and then define Result<T> and a typealias to ResultEx<T, Throwable>. However, this creates its own problems:

• Typealiases are quite verbosely rendered by IDE in signatures and there is no clear way on making them better.
• We cannot succinctly define runCatching function and other Catching functions to make them usable both with and without explicit caught type specification. We'll have to have two different names for such a function: one for a function with an additional E: Throwable type parameter that must be specified and another one without it. Moreover, specifying E on call site requires specifying return type, too, since partial type parameter specification is not currently possible in Kotlin.

All in all, it does not seem that the costs outweigh whatever benefits it might bring.

Defining an even more general Either<L, R> type as a discriminated union between two arbitrary types L and R and then using typealias Result<T> = Either<Throwable, T> raises similar problems with an additional burden of designing functions for Either that would not needlessly pollute the namespace of functions applicable to Result. We don't have sufficient motivating use-cases for having Either in the Kotlin Standard Library beyond theoretical desire to base Result upon it.

Result must be used

Using Result as the return type of Catching functions poses a problem that it might accidentally get lost, thus losing unhandled exception.

Consider this code from Functional bulk manipulation of failures:

readFilesCatching(files).map { result ->
    result.map { it.doSomething() } 
}

If doSomething here throws an exception, then all exceptions that were returned in a list by readFilesCatching are lost.

Some IDE inspections can be designed to detect these kinds of problems. It is an open question how exactly they should work and and whether it is really a big problem after all.

Additional APIs for collections

API for Result class is designed to be quite bare-bones. However, according to Functional bulk manipulation of failures use-case, one might occasionally encounter List<Result<T>> or another collection of Result instances. It is open question whether we should provide additional extensions in the Standard Library to represent common operations on such collections and what those operations might be.

Future advancements

This section lists potential directions for future enhancement. None of them are worked out at the moment and all of them are purely tentative.

Representing as a sealed class

Kotlin @JvmInline value classes cannot be currently used with sealed class construct. If that is supported in the future, then we could change implementation of Result without affecting its public APIs and binary interfaces in the following way:

@JvmInline sealed value class Result<T> {
    @JvmInline class Success<T>(val value: T) : Result<T>()
    class Failure<T>(val exception: Throwable) : Result<T>()
}

Notice, that only Success case is marked with @JvmInline annotation here. That is the case that should be represented without boxing. In general, if @JvmInline sealed value classes are allowed in the future, then Kotlin compiler could only support @JvmInline annotation on a set of subclasses with pairwise non-intersecting types of their primary constructor properties. In particular, both Success and Failure cannot be @JvmInline at the same time, since we would not be able to distinguish Success(Exception(...)) from Failure(Exception(...)) at run time.

These changes would make it possible to use result is Success and result is Failure expressions and get advantage of smart casts instead of result.isSuccess and result.isFailure that are currently provided and which do not work with smart casts.

Parameterizing by the base error type

If Kotlin adds some form of support for type parameter default values and partial type inference, then we can consider extending Result class with an additional type parameter E: Throwable that represents the base class for caught exceptions. For example, in input/output code there may be a desire to catch only IOException and its subclasses, while aborting on any other exception using something like runCatching<_, IOException> { code } assuming that return type can be still inferred (potential partial type inference syntax here is used for illustration only).

Integration into the language

Kotlin nullable types have extensive support in Kotlin via operators ?., ?:, !!, and T? type constructor syntax. We can envision better integration of Result into the Kotlin language in the future. However, unlike nullable types, that are often used to represent non signalling failure that does not cary additional information, Result instances also carry additional information and, in general, shall be always handled in some way. Making Result an integral part of the language also requires a considerable effort on improving Kotlin type system to ensure proper handling of encapsulated exceptions.

UPDATE: We have reached a decision of not following this road for a foreseeable future and will not pursue integration of any special constructions into the language that are tied to the Result type. As a part of the standard library a Result type will stay narrowly-focused on the use-cases that are described at the beginning of this document, abandoning ambitions to become any kind of universal error-handling primitive. We are working in other directions of making signalling error handling more pleasant to use in Kotlin. The text below is left for historical reasons.

One potential direction is to allow return value of Result type, so that with parametrization by the base error type one can write:

fun findUserByName(name: String): Result<User, IOException>

This declaration would be conceptually equivalent to a Java function that is declared with User result type and throws IOException annotation. However, unlike throws annotation in Java, Result<User, IOException> is going to be considered a return type of this function that explicitly declares exception that must be handled locally. There will be no silent propagation of that exception type up to the caller. The caller will be required to handle it explicitly. When one writes:

val result = findUserByName(name)

Then inferred type of result will be Result<User, IOException>. Direct access to the User methods and extensions would not be possible, but all the ?., ?:, and !! operators can be extended to work appropriately with Result type to make the corresponding code fluent in a similar way as it happens with nullable types today. Some additional operators might be required, too.

Unlike checked exception in Java, these are going to be full-blown types, so they play nicely with collections (List<Result<User, IOException>> is going to be a valid type) and all the higher-order functions in Kotlin will work properly with those types without the problems that made it impossible to properly integrate checked exceptions with Java generics.

Moreover, it can be very efficiently implemented on JVM in the return type position by actually throwing the corresponding exception inside and catching it outside, on the caller side, so no boxing will be required even for primitive results. "Rethrowing" exceptions with !! can be transparent in JVM bytecode in the same way as it happens in Java programs using exceptions.

Update note: This proves virtually impossible to implement correctly, as there would be no way to distinguish a domain-specific error that needs to be represented in the Result type for handling it by the caller from the logic error in the code (a crash) that shall still be represented as exception to be handled in a centralized place of the application for logging, etc.

All in all, it could provide a safe replacement for checked exceptions on JVM and open a path to a better integration with JVM APIs that rely on checked exceptions. However, details of this interoperability will have to be worked out as there are lots of problems down this path. We cannot just lift all Java functions with throws into Kotlin functions with the corresponding Result type not only because of backwards compatibility, but also due to the way checked exceptions are (ab)used in the JVM ecosystem, so are more fine-grained control for interoperability will have to be designed.

It is all beyond the scope of this KEEP.

Appendix: Why flatMap is missing

You can skip this appendix is you are not familiar with Scala's or Arrow's Try monad that provides very similar functionality to this Result class.

If you are familiar with Try monad, then you might ask why there is no flatMap function on the Result class. This function could have been defined with the following signature:

inline fun <R, T> Result<T>.flatMap(transform: (T) -> Result<R>): Result<R>

The usual reason to have flatMap is to avoid "nesting" of monadic types when combining multiple functions that return them, like in the following example:

runCatching { d.await() }.map { it.doSomethingCatching() } // : Result<Result<Data>> -- oops!

Functional code that uses Try monad gets quickly polluted with flatMap invocations. To make such code manageable, a functional programming language is usually extended with monad comprehension syntax to hide those flatMap invocations.

Take a look at the following example code that uses monad comprehension over Try monad (which is adapted from a guide here):

def getURLContent(url: String): Try[Iterator[String]] =
  for {
    url <- parseURL(url) // here parseURL returns Try[URL], encapsulates failure
    connection <- Try(url.openConnection())
    input <- Try(connection.getInputStream)
    source = Source.fromInputStream(input)
  } yield source.getLines()

Adapting functions used here to Kotlin style, one can write this code in Kotlin, with the same semantics of aborting further progress on the first failure, in the following way:

fun getURLContent(url: String): List<String> {
    val url = parseURL(url) // here parseURL returns URL, throws on failure
    val connection = url.openConnection()
    val input = connection.getInputStream()
    val source = Source.fromInputStream(input)
    return source.getLines()
}

Notice, that monad comprehension over Try monad is basically built into the Kotlin language. That is how imperative control flow works in Kotlin out of the box and there is no need to emulate it via monad comprehensions. If callers of this function need an encapsulated failure, they can always use runCatching { getURLContent(url) } expression.

However, the Kotlin is not exactly equivalent to the initial code with Try. Let us see what are the differences. The original parseURL have been returning an encapsulated exception and it could be making a fine grained decision on which kinds of exceptions shall be encapsulated into the result and which kinds of exceptions shall be thrown. Rewritten code propagates any failure in parseURL up to the caller without this fine grained distinction between different kinds of failures. There is also a subtle difference on the fromInputStream invocation. Original code would fail with exception if this invocation fails, while any failure in openConnection and getInputStream is encapsulated into the result of the function via Try. Rewritten code does not make distinctions between different kinds of failures anymore.

All in all, the differences can be summarized as follows. Result is a blunt tool designed to catch any failure in the function invocation for the processing later on. On the other hand, libraries like Arrow provide utility classes like Try and the corresponding extension functions that enable more fine-grained control. When a function is declared with Try<T> as its result type, it means that this function can make a fine-grained decision on which failures are encapsulated and which failures are thrown up the call stack.

If your code needs fine-grained exception handling policy, we'd recommend designing your code in such a way, that exceptions are not used at all for any kinds of locally-handled failures (see section on style for example code with nullable types and sealed data classes). In the context of this appendix, parseURL could return a nullable result (of type URL?) to indicate parsing failure or return its own purpose-designed sealed class that would provide all the additional details about failure (like the exact failure position in input string) if that is needed for some business function (like setting cursor to the place of failure in the user interface). In cases when you need to distinguish between different kinds of failures and these approaches do not work for you, you are welcome to write your own utility libraries or use libraries like Arrow that provide the corresponding utilities.

Revision history

• Kotlin 1.5
  • Allow returning the Result type from functions.
  • Allow Kotlin null-safety operators ?., ?: and !! on both nullable and non-null Result types.
  • Text updated to replace inline class with @JvmInline value class.