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Specification

Operators

This table presents all operators available in Pyxell, sorted by precedence, from highest to lowest. Operators in the same row have equal precedence.

Operators Description Arity Associativity
., ?. attribute access binary left
[], ?[] element access binary left
() function call multiary left
! non-null assertion unary left
^, ^^ exponentiation, integer exponentiation binary right
+, - unary plus and minus unary right
/ division binary left
//, %, *, & floor division, modulo, multiplication, set intersection binary left
+, - addition, subtraction binary left
%% divisibility binary left
?? null coalescing binary left
.., ... inclusive and exclusive range binary left
... infinite range unary left
by iteration step binary left
... spread unary right
==, !=, <, <=, >, >= comparisons (chainable) binary right
not logical negation binary right
and logical conjunction (short-circuiting) binary right
or logical disjunction (short-circuiting) binary right
? : conditional operator ternary right

Associativity of unary operators determines on which side the expression should be, e.g.: a! (left), -a (right).

Types

This section describes all data types available in Pyxell, together with their properties and methods.

Fundamental types

Type name Description Example value Default value
Void no value (for functions returning nothing)
Int 64-bit signed integer number 42 0
Rat arbitrary-precision rational number 1.5 0r
Float double-precision floating-point number 3.14f 0f
Bool boolean value true false
Char single-byte character 'A' '\0'
String arbitrary-length string of characters "example" ""

Compound types

Type name patterns Description Example values Default value
[Type] array [1, 2] []
{Type} set {"abc", ""} {}
{Key:Value} dictionary {'x': false} {:}
Type? nullable value null null
Type1*Type2 tuple true, 4.6 tuple of default values
Type... generator object empty sequence
Arg1->Arg2->Result, ()->Result function _+_, lambda: 0 function returning the default value
custom class name class object none (uninitialized object is invalid)

Int properties

Property name Type Description
char Char character corresponding to the integer code (in ASCII)

Rat properties and methods

Property name Type Description
fraction Rat*Rat numerator and denominator of the number, in the reduced form
Method header Description
toInt(): Int returns the number converted to Int (conversion may be lossy)

Float methods

Method header Description
toInt(): Int returns the number converted to Int (conversion may be lossy)

Char properties

Property name Type Description
code Int integer code of the character (in ASCII)

String properties and methods

Property name Type Description
empty Bool whether the string is empty
length Int number of characters in the string
Method header Description
all(f: Char->Bool): Bool determines whether all characters in the string satisfy a condition
any(f: Char->Bool): Bool determines whether any character in the string satisfies a condition
count(c: Char): Int returns the number of occurrences of a character within the string
ends(s: String): Bool determines whether the string ends with a given string
filter(f: Char->Bool): String returns a string with only those characters from the original string that satisfy a condition
find(s: String, start: Int = 0): Int? returns the index of the first occurrence of a string within the string, or null if it is not found
fold<B>(f: Char->B->B, r: B): B applies an accumulator function over the string, with a given initial accumulator value
get(p: Int): Char? returns the character under a given index in the string, or null if the index is out of bounds
has(s: String): Bool determines whether the string contains a given substring
map(f: Char->Char): String returns a string with characters from the original string transformed by a mapping function
reduce(f: Char->Char->Char): Char applies an accumulator function over the string, with the first character as the initial value
split(sep: String): [String] splits the string into substrings delimited by a given separator
starts(s: String): Bool determines whether the string starts with a given string
toInt(): Int returns the string's content converted to Int (conversion may fail)
toFloat(): Float returns the string's content converted to Float (conversion may fail)
toRat(): Rat returns the string's content converted to Rat (conversion may fail)

[A] (array) properties and methods

Property name Type Description
empty Bool whether the array is empty
length Int number of elements in the array
Method header Description
all(f: A->Bool = _): Bool determines whether all elements in the array satisfy a condition
any(f: A->Bool = _): Bool determines whether any element in the array satisfies a condition
clear(): Void removes all elements from the array
copy(): [A] returns a shallow copy of the array
count(x: A): Int returns the number of occurrences of an element within the array
erase(p: Int, count: Int = 1): Void removes elements from the array at a given position
extend(a: [A]): Void appends all elements in a given array to the array
filter(f: A->Bool): [A] returns an array with only those elements from the original array that satisfy a condition
find(x: A, start: Int = 0): Int? returns the index of the first occurrence of an element within the array, or null if it is not found
fold<B>(f: A->B->B, r: B): B applies an accumulator function over the array, with a given initial accumulator value
get(p: Int): A? returns the element under a given index in the array, or null if the index is out of bounds
has(x: A): Bool determines whether the array contains a given element
insert(p: Int, x: A): Void inserts a new element at a given position of the array
join(sep: String = ""): String returns a string consisting of elements from the array (characters or strings) delimited by a given separator
map<B>(f: A->B): [B] returns an array with elements from the original array transformed by a mapping function
pop(): A removes the last element from the array and returns it (will fail if the array is empty)
push(x: A): Void appends a given element to the end of the array
reduce(f: A->A->A): A applies an accumulator function over the array, with the first element as the initial value
reverse(): [A] reverses the order of elements in the array in place, and returns the reversed array
sort<K>(reverse: Bool = false, key: A->K = _): [A] sorts the array in place, stably, using a function to extract comparison keys, and returns the sorted array

{A} (set) properties and methods

Property name Type Description
empty Bool whether the set is empty
length Int number of elements in the set
Method header Description
add(x: A): Void adds a given element to the set
all(f: A->Bool = _): Bool determines whether all elements in the set satisfy a condition
any(f: A->Bool = _): Bool determines whether any element in the set satisfies a condition
clear(): Void removes all elements from the set
copy(): {A} returns a shallow copy of the set
filter(f: A->Bool): {A} returns a set with only those elements from the original set that satisfy a condition
fold<B>(f: A->B->B, r: B): B applies an accumulator function over the set, with a given initial accumulator value
has(x: A): Bool determines whether the set contains a given element
intersect(s: {A}): Void removes all elements not present in a given set from the set
map<B>(f: A->B): {B} returns a set with elements from the original set transformed by a mapping function
pop(): A removes the last element from the set and returns it (will fail if the set is empty)
reduce(f: A->A->A): A applies an accumulator function over the set, with the first element as the initial value
remove(x: A): Void removes a given element from the set
subtract(s: {A}): Void removes all elements in a given set from the set
union(s: {A}): Void adds all elements in a given set to the set

{A:B} (dictionary) properties and methods

Property name Type Description
empty Bool whether the dictionary is empty
length Int number of elements in the dictionary
Method header Description
all(f: A*B->Bool): Bool determines whether all key-value pairs in the dictionary satisfy a condition
any(f: A*B->Bool): Bool determines whether any key-value pair in the dictionary satisfies a condition
clear(): Void removes all elements from the dictionary
copy(): {A:B} returns a shallow copy of the dictionary
filter(f: A*B->Bool): {A:B} returns a dictionary with only those key-value pairs from the original dictionary that satisfy a condition
fold<C>(f: A*B->C->C, r: C): C applies an accumulator function over the dictionary, with a given initial accumulator value
get(x: A): B? returns the value under a given key in the dictionary, or null if the key is not present
has(x: A): Bool determines whether the dictionary contains a given key
map<C,D>(f: A*B->C*D): {C:D} returns a dictionary with key-value pairs from the original dictionary transformed by a mapping function
pop(): A*B removes the last key-value pair from the dictionary and returns it (will fail if the dictionary is empty)
reduce(f: A*B->A*B->A*B): A*B applies an accumulator function over the dictionary, with the first key-value pair as the initial value
remove(x: A): Void removes a given key from the dictionary
update(d: {A:B}): Void updates the dictionary with keys and values from a given dictionary

Tuple properties

Property name Type Description
letter a–z any corresponding element of the tuple

A... (generator) methods

Method header Description
next(): A runs the generator and returns the yielded value

Common methods

Method header Description
toString(): String returns the string representation of the value

Standard library

This section describes the built-in functions in Pyxell, as well as constants and functions within corresponding modules.

I/O functions

Function header Description
read(): String reads a string from the standard input, to the first whitespace character
readChar(): Char reads a single character from the standard input
readFloat(): Float reads a floating-point number from the standard input
readInt(): Int reads an integer number from the standard input
readLine(): String reads a string from the standard input, to the first newline character
readRat(): Rat reads a rational number from the standard input
write(s: String): Void writes a string to the standard output

Bitwise functions

Function header Description
bitAnd(x: Int, y: Int): Int returns the bitwise AND of x and y
bitNot(x: Int): Int returns the bitwise NOT of x
bitOr(x: Int, y: Int): Int returns the bitwise OR of x and y
bitShift(x: Int, y: Int): Int returns the bitwise shift of x: left for positive y, right for negative y
bitXor(x: Int, y: Int): Int returns the bitwise XOR of x and y

Arithmetic functions

Function header Description
abs<T>(x: T): T returns the absolute value of x
clamp<T>(x: T, a: T, b: T): T returns x clamped to the interval [a, b]
max<T>(x: T, y: T): T returns the maximum of x and y
min<T>(x: T, y: T): T returns the minimum of x and y
sign<T>(x: T): T returns the sign of x (-1, 0, or 1)

math module

Constant name Type Value
E Float approximation of the number e: 2.718281828459045f
INF Float floating-point positive infinity
PI Float approximation of the number π: 3.141592653589793f
Function header Description
acos(x: Float): Float returns the angle (in radians) whose cosine is x
asin(x: Float): Float returns the angle (in radians) whose sine is x
atan(x: Float): Float returns the angle (in radians) whose tangent is x
ceil(x: Float): Float returns the smallest integral value greater than or equal to x
cos(x: Float): Float returns the cosine of x (in radians)
exp(x: Float): Float returns e raised to the power of x
floor(x: Float): Float returns the largest integral value less than or equal to x
log(x: Float): Float returns the natural logarithm of x
log10(x: Float): Float returns the base 10 logarithm of x
round(x: Float, p: Int = 0): Float returns x rounded to p fractional digits
sin(x: Float): Float returns the sine of x (in radians)
sqrt(x: Float): Float returns the square root of x
tan(x: Float): Float returns the tangent of x (in radians)
trunc(x: Float): Float returns the integral part of x (x rounded towards 0)

random module

Function header Description
randFloat(r: Float = 1): Float returns a random floating-point number from the interval [0, r)
randInt(r: Int = 2): Float returns a random integer number from the interval [0, r)
seed(x: Int): Float initializes the pseudo-random number generator with a given seed