run_queue.rs

//! Concurrent work-stealing deques with proportional stealing enabled.
//!
//! Adapted from [crossbeam-deque].
//!
//! These data structures are most commonly used in work-stealing schedulers. The typical setup
//! involves a number of threads, each having its own FIFO or LIFO queue (*worker*). There is also
//! one global FIFO queue (*injector*) and a list of references to *worker* queues that are able to
//! steal tasks (*stealers*).
//!
//! We spawn a new task onto the scheduler by pushing it into the *injector* queue. Each worker
//! thread waits in a loop until it finds the next task to run and then runs it. To find a task, it
//! first looks into its local *worker* queue, and then into the *injector* and *stealers*.
//!
//! # Queues
//!
//! [`Injector`] is a FIFO queue, where tasks are pushed and stolen from opposite ends. It is
//! shared among threads and is usually the entry point for new tasks.
//!
//! [`Worker`] has two constructors:
//!
//! * [`new_fifo()`] - Creates a FIFO queue, in which tasks are pushed and popped from opposite
//!   ends.
//! * [`new_lifo()`] - Creates a LIFO queue, in which tasks are pushed and popped from the same
//!   end.
//!
//! Each [`Worker`] is owned by a single thread and supports only push and pop operations.
//!
//! Method [`stealer()`] creates a [`Stealer`] that may be shared among threads and can only steal
//! tasks from its [`Worker`]. Tasks are stolen from the end opposite to where they get pushed.
//!
//! # Stealing
//!
//! Steal operations come in three flavors:
//!
//! 1. [`steal()`] - Steals one task.
//! 2. [`steal_batch()`] - Steals a batch of tasks and moves them into another worker.
//! 3. [`steal_batch_and_pop()`] - Steals a batch of tasks, moves them into another queue, and pops
//!    one task from that worker.
//!
//! In contrast to push and pop operations, stealing can spuriously fail with [`Steal::Retry`], in
//! which case the steal operation needs to be retried.
//!
//!
//! [`Worker`]: struct.Worker.html
//! [`Stealer`]: struct.Stealer.html
//! [`Injector`]: struct.Injector.html
//! [`Steal::Retry`]: enum.Steal.html#variant.Retry
//! [`new_fifo()`]: struct.Worker.html#method.new_fifo
//! [`new_lifo()`]: struct.Worker.html#method.new_lifo
//! [`stealer()`]: struct.Worker.html#method.stealer
//! [`steal()`]: struct.Stealer.html#method.steal
//! [`steal_batch()`]: struct.Stealer.html#method.steal_batch
//! [`steal_batch_and_pop()`]: struct.Stealer.html#method.steal_batch_and_pop
use crossbeam_epoch::{self as epoch, Atomic, Owned};
use crossbeam_utils::{Backoff, CachePadded};
use std::cell::{Cell, UnsafeCell};
use std::iter::FromIterator;
use std::marker::PhantomData;
use std::mem::{self, ManuallyDrop};
use std::sync::atomic::{self, AtomicIsize, AtomicPtr, AtomicUsize, Ordering};
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::{cmp, fmt, ptr};

// Minimum buffer capacity.
const MIN_CAP: usize = 64;
// Maximum number of tasks that can be stolen in `steal_batch()` and `steal_batch_and_pop()`.
const MAX_BATCH: usize = 32;
// If a buffer of at least this size is retired, thread-local garbage is flushed so that it gets
// deallocated as soon as possible.
const FLUSH_THRESHOLD_BYTES: usize = 1 << 10;

/// A buffer that holds tasks in a worker queue.
///
/// This is just a pointer to the buffer and its length - dropping an instance of this struct will
/// *not* deallocate the buffer.
struct Buffer<T> {
    /// Pointer to the allocated memory.
    ptr: *mut T,

    /// Capacity of the buffer. Always a power of two.
    cap: usize,
}

unsafe impl<T> Send for Buffer<T> {}

impl<T> Buffer<T> {
    /// Allocates a new buffer with the specified capacity.
    fn alloc(cap: usize) -> Buffer<T> {
        debug_assert_eq!(cap, cap.next_power_of_two());

        let mut v = Vec::with_capacity(cap);
        let ptr = v.as_mut_ptr();
        mem::forget(v);

        Buffer { ptr, cap }
    }

    /// Deallocates the buffer.
    unsafe fn dealloc(self) {
        drop(Vec::from_raw_parts(self.ptr, 0, self.cap));
    }

    /// Returns a pointer to the task at the specified `index`.
    unsafe fn at(&self, index: isize) -> *mut T {
        // `self.cap` is always a power of two.
        self.ptr.offset(index & (self.cap - 1) as isize)
    }

    /// Writes `task` into the specified `index`.
    ///
    /// This method might be concurrently called with another `read` at the same index, which is
    /// technically speaking a data race and therefore UB. We should use an atomic store here, but
    /// that would be more expensive and difficult to implement generically for all types `T`.
    /// Hence, as a hack, we use a volatile write instead.
    unsafe fn write(&self, index: isize, task: T) {
        ptr::write_volatile(self.at(index), task)
    }

    /// Reads a task from the specified `index`.
    ///
    /// This method might be concurrently called with another `write` at the same index, which is
    /// technically speaking a data race and therefore UB. We should use an atomic load here, but
    /// that would be more expensive and difficult to implement generically for all types `T`.
    /// Hence, as a hack, we use a volatile write instead.
    unsafe fn read(&self, index: isize) -> T {
        ptr::read_volatile(self.at(index))
    }
}

impl<T> Clone for Buffer<T> {
    fn clone(&self) -> Buffer<T> {
        Buffer {
            ptr: self.ptr,
            cap: self.cap,
        }
    }
}

impl<T> Copy for Buffer<T> {}

/// Internal queue data shared between the worker and stealers.
///
/// The implementation is based on the following work:
///
/// 1. [Chase and Lev. Dynamic circular work-stealing deque. SPAA 2005.][chase-lev]
/// 2. [Le, Pop, Cohen, and Nardelli. Correct and efficient work-stealing for weak memory models.
///    PPoPP 2013.][weak-mem]
/// 3. [Norris and Demsky. CDSchecker: checking concurrent data structures written with C/C++
///    atomics. OOPSLA 2013.][checker]
///
/// [chase-lev]: https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1073974
/// [weak-mem]: https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2442524
/// [checker]: https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2509514
struct Inner<T> {
    /// The front index.
    front: AtomicIsize,

    /// The back index.
    back: AtomicIsize,

    /// The underlying buffer.
    buffer: CachePadded<Atomic<Buffer<T>>>,
}

impl<T> Drop for Inner<T> {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        // Load the back index, front index, and buffer.
        let b = self.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let f = self.front.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        unsafe {
            let buffer = self.buffer.load(Ordering::Relaxed, epoch::unprotected());

            // Go through the buffer from front to back and drop all tasks in the queue.
            let mut i = f;
            while i != b {
                ptr::drop_in_place(buffer.deref().at(i));
                i = i.wrapping_add(1);
            }

            // Free the memory allocated by the buffer.
            buffer.into_owned().into_box().dealloc();
        }
    }
}

/// Worker queue flavor: FIFO or LIFO.
#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
enum Flavor {
    /// The first-in first-out flavor.
    Fifo,

    /// The last-in first-out flavor.
    Lifo,
}

/// A worker queue.
///
/// This is a FIFO or LIFO queue that is owned by a single thread, but other threads may steal
/// tasks from it. Task schedulers typically create a single worker queue per thread.
pub struct Worker<T> {
    /// A reference to the inner representation of the queue.
    inner: Arc<CachePadded<Inner<T>>>,

    /// A copy of `inner.buffer` for quick access.
    buffer: Cell<Buffer<T>>,

    /// The flavor of the queue.
    flavor: Flavor,

    /// Indicates that the worker cannot be shared among threads.
    _marker: PhantomData<*mut ()>, // !Send + !Sync
}

unsafe impl<T: Send> Send for Worker<T> {}

impl<T> Worker<T> {
    /// Creates a FIFO worker queue.
    pub fn new_fifo() -> Worker<T> {
        let buffer = Buffer::alloc(MIN_CAP);

        let inner = Arc::new(CachePadded::new(Inner {
            front: AtomicIsize::new(0),
            back: AtomicIsize::new(0),
            buffer: CachePadded::new(Atomic::new(buffer)),
        }));

        Worker {
            inner,
            buffer: Cell::new(buffer),
            flavor: Flavor::Fifo,
            _marker: PhantomData,
        }
    }

    /// Creates a LIFO worker queue.
    pub fn new_lifo() -> Worker<T> {
        let buffer = Buffer::alloc(MIN_CAP);

        let inner = Arc::new(CachePadded::new(Inner {
            front: AtomicIsize::new(0),
            back: AtomicIsize::new(0),
            buffer: CachePadded::new(Atomic::new(buffer)),
        }));

        Worker {
            inner,
            buffer: Cell::new(buffer),
            flavor: Flavor::Lifo,
            _marker: PhantomData,
        }
    }

    /// Get the worker's run queue size
    pub fn worker_run_queue_size(&self) -> usize {
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
        match b.wrapping_sub(f) {
            x if x <= 0 => 0_usize,
            y @ _ => y as usize,
        }
    }

    /// Creates a stealer for this queue.
    ///
    /// The returned stealer can be shared among threads and cloned.
    pub fn stealer(&self) -> Stealer<T> {
        Stealer {
            inner: self.inner.clone(),
            flavor: self.flavor,
        }
    }

    /// Resizes the internal buffer to the new capacity of `new_cap`.
    #[cold]
    unsafe fn resize(&self, new_cap: usize) {
        // Load the back index, front index, and buffer.
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let buffer = self.buffer.get();

        // Allocate a new buffer and copy data from the old buffer to the new one.
        let new = Buffer::alloc(new_cap);
        let mut i = f;
        while i != b {
            ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(buffer.at(i), new.at(i), 1);
            i = i.wrapping_add(1);
        }

        let guard = &epoch::pin();

        // Replace the old buffer with the new one.
        self.buffer.replace(new);
        let old =
            self.inner
                .buffer
                .swap(Owned::new(new).into_shared(guard), Ordering::Release, guard);

        // Destroy the old buffer later.
        guard.defer_unchecked(move || old.into_owned().into_box().dealloc());

        // If the buffer is very large, then flush the thread-local garbage in order to deallocate
        // it as soon as possible.
        if mem::size_of::<T>() * new_cap >= FLUSH_THRESHOLD_BYTES {
            guard.flush();
        }
    }

    /// Reserves enough capacity so that `reserve_cap` tasks can be pushed without growing the
    /// buffer.
    fn reserve(&self, reserve_cap: usize) {
        if reserve_cap > 0 {
            // Compute the current length.
            let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
            let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
            let len = b.wrapping_sub(f) as usize;

            // The current capacity.
            let cap = self.buffer.get().cap;

            // Is there enough capacity to push `reserve_cap` tasks?
            if cap.saturating_sub(len) < reserve_cap {
                // Keep doubling the capacity as much as is needed.
                let mut new_cap = cap * 2;
                while new_cap.saturating_sub(len) < reserve_cap {
                    new_cap = new_cap.wrapping_mul(2);
                }

                // Resize the buffer.
                unsafe {
                    self.resize(new_cap);
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /// Returns `true` if the queue is empty.
    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
        b.wrapping_sub(f) <= 0
    }

    /// Pushes a task into the queue.
    pub fn push(&self, task: T) {
        // Load the back index, front index, and buffer.
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Acquire);
        let mut buffer = self.buffer.get();

        // Calculate the length of the queue.
        let len = b.wrapping_sub(f);

        // Is the queue full?
        if len >= buffer.cap as isize {
            // Yes. Grow the underlying buffer.
            unsafe {
                self.resize(2 * buffer.cap);
            }
            buffer = self.buffer.get();
        }

        // Write `task` into the slot.
        unsafe {
            buffer.write(b, task);
        }

        atomic::fence(Ordering::Release);

        // Increment the back index.
        //
        // This ordering could be `Relaxed`, but then thread sanitizer would falsely report data
        // races because it doesn't understand fences.
        self.inner.back.store(b.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::Release);
    }

    /// Pops a task from the queue.
    pub fn pop(&self) -> Option<T> {
        // Load the back and front index.
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        // Calculate the length of the queue.
        let len = b.wrapping_sub(f);

        // Is the queue empty?
        if len <= 0 {
            return None;
        }

        match self.flavor {
            // Pop from the front of the queue.
            Flavor::Fifo => {
                // Try incrementing the front index to pop the task.
                let f = self.inner.front.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst);
                let new_f = f.wrapping_add(1);

                if b.wrapping_sub(new_f) < 0 {
                    self.inner.front.store(f, Ordering::Relaxed);
                    return None;
                }

                unsafe {
                    // Read the popped task.
                    let buffer = self.buffer.get();
                    let task = buffer.read(f);

                    // Shrink the buffer if `len - 1` is less than one fourth of the capacity.
                    if buffer.cap > MIN_CAP && len <= buffer.cap as isize / 4 {
                        self.resize(buffer.cap / 2);
                    }

                    Some(task)
                }
            }

            // Pop from the back of the queue.
            Flavor::Lifo => {
                // Decrement the back index.
                let b = b.wrapping_sub(1);
                self.inner.back.store(b, Ordering::Relaxed);

                atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);

                // Load the front index.
                let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

                // Compute the length after the back index was decremented.
                let len = b.wrapping_sub(f);

                if len < 0 {
                    // The queue is empty. Restore the back index to the original task.
                    self.inner.back.store(b.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::Relaxed);
                    None
                } else {
                    // Read the task to be popped.
                    let buffer = self.buffer.get();
                    let mut task = unsafe { Some(buffer.read(b)) };

                    // Are we popping the last task from the queue?
                    if len == 0 {
                        // Try incrementing the front index.
                        if self
                            .inner
                            .front
                            .compare_exchange(
                                f,
                                f.wrapping_add(1),
                                Ordering::SeqCst,
                                Ordering::Relaxed,
                            )
                            .is_err()
                        {
                            // Failed. We didn't pop anything.
                            mem::forget(task.take());
                        }

                        // Restore the back index to the original task.
                        self.inner.back.store(b.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::Relaxed);
                    } else {
                        // Shrink the buffer if `len` is less than one fourth of the capacity.
                        if buffer.cap > MIN_CAP && len < buffer.cap as isize / 4 {
                            unsafe {
                                self.resize(buffer.cap / 2);
                            }
                        }
                    }

                    task
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T> fmt::Debug for Worker<T> {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        f.pad("Worker { .. }")
    }
}

/// A stealer handle of a worker queue.
///
/// Stealers can be shared among threads.
///
/// Task schedulers typically have a single worker queue per worker thread.
pub struct Stealer<T> {
    /// A reference to the inner representation of the queue.
    inner: Arc<CachePadded<Inner<T>>>,

    /// The flavor of the queue.
    flavor: Flavor,
}

unsafe impl<T: Send> Send for Stealer<T> {}
unsafe impl<T: Send> Sync for Stealer<T> {}

impl<T> Stealer<T> {
    /// Returns `true` if the queue is empty.
    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Acquire);
        atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);
        b.wrapping_sub(f) <= 0
    }

    /// Returns back the run queue size for the current worker through stealer
    pub fn run_queue_size(&self) -> usize {
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);
        atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Acquire);
        match b.wrapping_sub(f) {
            x if x <= 0 => 0_usize,
            y @ _ => y as usize,
        }
    }

    /// Steals a task from the queue.
    pub fn steal(&self) -> Steal<T> {
        // Load the front index.
        let f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // A SeqCst fence is needed here.
        //
        // If the current thread is already pinned (reentrantly), we must manually issue the
        // fence. Otherwise, the following pinning will issue the fence anyway, so we don't
        // have to.
        if epoch::is_pinned() {
            atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
        }

        let guard = &epoch::pin();

        // Load the back index.
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // Is the queue empty?
        if b.wrapping_sub(f) <= 0 {
            return Steal::Empty;
        }

        // Load the buffer and read the task at the front.
        let buffer = self.inner.buffer.load(Ordering::Acquire, guard);
        let task = unsafe { buffer.deref().read(f) };

        // Try incrementing the front index to steal the task.
        if self
            .inner
            .front
            .compare_exchange(f, f.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Relaxed)
            .is_err()
        {
            // We didn't steal this task, forget it.
            mem::forget(task);
            return Steal::Retry;
        }

        // Return the stolen task.
        Steal::Success(task)
    }

    /// Steals a batch of tasks and pushes them into another worker.
    ///
    /// How many tasks exactly will be stolen is not specified. That said, this method will try to
    /// steal around half of the tasks in the queue, but also not more than some constant limit.
    pub fn steal_batch(&self, dest: &Worker<T>) -> Steal<()> {
        // Load the front index.
        let mut f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // A SeqCst fence is needed here.
        //
        // If the current thread is already pinned (reentrantly), we must manually issue the
        // fence. Otherwise, the following pinning will issue the fence anyway, so we don't
        // have to.
        if epoch::is_pinned() {
            atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
        }

        let guard = &epoch::pin();

        // Load the back index.
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // Is the queue empty?
        let len = b.wrapping_sub(f);
        if len <= 0 {
            return Steal::Empty;
        }

        // Reserve capacity for the stolen batch.
        let batch_size = cmp::min((len as usize + 1) / 2, MAX_BATCH);
        dest.reserve(batch_size);
        let mut batch_size = batch_size as isize;

        // Get the destination buffer and back index.
        let dest_buffer = dest.buffer.get();
        let mut dest_b = dest.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        // Load the buffer.
        let buffer = self.inner.buffer.load(Ordering::Acquire, guard);

        match self.flavor {
            // Steal a batch of tasks from the front at once.
            Flavor::Fifo => {
                // Copy the batch from the source to the destination buffer.
                match dest.flavor {
                    Flavor::Fifo => {
                        for i in 0..batch_size {
                            unsafe {
                                let task = buffer.deref().read(f.wrapping_add(i));
                                dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(i), task);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    Flavor::Lifo => {
                        for i in 0..batch_size {
                            unsafe {
                                let task = buffer.deref().read(f.wrapping_add(i));
                                dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size - 1 - i), task);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }

                // Try incrementing the front index to steal the batch.
                if self
                    .inner
                    .front
                    .compare_exchange(
                        f,
                        f.wrapping_add(batch_size),
                        Ordering::SeqCst,
                        Ordering::Relaxed,
                    )
                    .is_err()
                {
                    return Steal::Retry;
                }

                dest_b = dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size);
            }

            // Steal a batch of tasks from the front one by one.
            Flavor::Lifo => {
                for i in 0..batch_size {
                    // If this is not the first steal, check whether the queue is empty.
                    if i > 0 {
                        // We've already got the current front index. Now execute the fence to
                        // synchronize with other threads.
                        atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);

                        // Load the back index.
                        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);

                        // Is the queue empty?
                        if b.wrapping_sub(f) <= 0 {
                            batch_size = i;
                            break;
                        }
                    }

                    // Read the task at the front.
                    let task = unsafe { buffer.deref().read(f) };

                    // Try incrementing the front index to steal the task.
                    if self
                        .inner
                        .front
                        .compare_exchange(f, f.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Relaxed)
                        .is_err()
                    {
                        // We didn't steal this task, forget it and break from the loop.
                        mem::forget(task);
                        batch_size = i;
                        break;
                    }

                    // Write the stolen task into the destination buffer.
                    unsafe {
                        dest_buffer.write(dest_b, task);
                    }

                    // Move the source front index and the destination back index one step forward.
                    f = f.wrapping_add(1);
                    dest_b = dest_b.wrapping_add(1);
                }

                // If we didn't steal anything, the operation needs to be retried.
                if batch_size == 0 {
                    return Steal::Retry;
                }

                // If stealing into a FIFO queue, stolen tasks need to be reversed.
                if dest.flavor == Flavor::Fifo {
                    for i in 0..batch_size / 2 {
                        unsafe {
                            let i1 = dest_b.wrapping_sub(batch_size - i);
                            let i2 = dest_b.wrapping_sub(i + 1);
                            let t1 = dest_buffer.read(i1);
                            let t2 = dest_buffer.read(i2);
                            dest_buffer.write(i1, t2);
                            dest_buffer.write(i2, t1);
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        atomic::fence(Ordering::Release);

        // Update the back index in the destination queue.
        //
        // This ordering could be `Relaxed`, but then thread sanitizer would falsely report data
        // races because it doesn't understand fences.
        dest.inner.back.store(dest_b, Ordering::Release);

        // Return with success.
        Steal::Success(())
    }

    /// Steals a batch of tasks, pushes them into another worker, and pops a task from that worker.
    ///
    /// How many tasks exactly will be stolen is not specified. That said, this method will try to
    /// steal around half of the tasks in the queue, but also not more than some constant limit.
    pub fn steal_batch_and_pop(&self, dest: &Worker<T>) -> Steal<T> {
        // Load the front index.
        let mut f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // A SeqCst fence is needed here.
        //
        // If the current thread is already pinned (reentrantly), we must manually issue the
        // fence. Otherwise, the following pinning will issue the fence anyway, so we don't
        // have to.
        if epoch::is_pinned() {
            atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
        }

        let guard = &epoch::pin();

        // Load the back index.
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // Is the queue empty?
        let len = b.wrapping_sub(f);
        if len <= 0 {
            return Steal::Empty;
        }

        // Reserve capacity for the stolen batch.
        let batch_size = cmp::min((len as usize - 1) / 2, MAX_BATCH - 1);
        dest.reserve(batch_size);
        let mut batch_size = batch_size as isize;

        // Get the destination buffer and back index.
        let dest_buffer = dest.buffer.get();
        let mut dest_b = dest.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        // Load the buffer
        let buffer = self.inner.buffer.load(Ordering::Acquire, guard);

        // Read the task at the front.
        let mut task = unsafe { buffer.deref().read(f) };

        match self.flavor {
            // Steal a batch of tasks from the front at once.
            Flavor::Fifo => {
                // Copy the batch from the source to the destination buffer.
                match dest.flavor {
                    Flavor::Fifo => {
                        for i in 0..batch_size {
                            unsafe {
                                let task = buffer.deref().read(f.wrapping_add(i + 1));
                                dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(i), task);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    Flavor::Lifo => {
                        for i in 0..batch_size {
                            unsafe {
                                let task = buffer.deref().read(f.wrapping_add(i + 1));
                                dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size - 1 - i), task);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }

                // Try incrementing the front index to steal the batch.
                if self
                    .inner
                    .front
                    .compare_exchange(
                        f,
                        f.wrapping_add(batch_size + 1),
                        Ordering::SeqCst,
                        Ordering::Relaxed,
                    )
                    .is_err()
                {
                    // We didn't steal this task, forget it.
                    mem::forget(task);
                    return Steal::Retry;
                }

                dest_b = dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size);
            }

            // Steal a batch of tasks from the front one by one.
            Flavor::Lifo => {
                // Try incrementing the front index to steal the task.
                if self
                    .inner
                    .front
                    .compare_exchange(f, f.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Relaxed)
                    .is_err()
                {
                    // We didn't steal this task, forget it.
                    mem::forget(task);
                    return Steal::Retry;
                }

                // Move the front index one step forward.
                f = f.wrapping_add(1);

                // Repeat the same procedure for the batch steals.
                for i in 0..batch_size {
                    // We've already got the current front index. Now execute the fence to
                    // synchronize with other threads.
                    atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);

                    // Load the back index.
                    let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);

                    // Is the queue empty?
                    if b.wrapping_sub(f) <= 0 {
                        batch_size = i;
                        break;
                    }

                    // Read the task at the front.
                    let tmp = unsafe { buffer.deref().read(f) };

                    // Try incrementing the front index to steal the task.
                    if self
                        .inner
                        .front
                        .compare_exchange(f, f.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Relaxed)
                        .is_err()
                    {
                        // We didn't steal this task, forget it and break from the loop.
                        mem::forget(tmp);
                        batch_size = i;
                        break;
                    }

                    // Write the previously stolen task into the destination buffer.
                    unsafe {
                        dest_buffer.write(dest_b, mem::replace(&mut task, tmp));
                    }

                    // Move the source front index and the destination back index one step forward.
                    f = f.wrapping_add(1);
                    dest_b = dest_b.wrapping_add(1);
                }

                // If stealing into a FIFO queue, stolen tasks need to be reversed.
                if dest.flavor == Flavor::Fifo {
                    for i in 0..batch_size / 2 {
                        unsafe {
                            let i1 = dest_b.wrapping_sub(batch_size - i);
                            let i2 = dest_b.wrapping_sub(i + 1);
                            let t1 = dest_buffer.read(i1);
                            let t2 = dest_buffer.read(i2);
                            dest_buffer.write(i1, t2);
                            dest_buffer.write(i2, t1);
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        atomic::fence(Ordering::Release);

        // Update the back index in the destination queue.
        //
        // This ordering could be `Relaxed`, but then thread sanitizer would falsely report data
        // races because it doesn't understand fences.
        dest.inner.back.store(dest_b, Ordering::Release);

        // Return with success.
        Steal::Success(task)
    }

    ///
    /// Steals a batch of tasks and amend to the given worker's run queue with the specified amount.
    /// If requested amount is above the threshold of time-ahead it defaults to time-ahead amount.
    pub fn steal_batch_and_pop_with_amount(&self, dest: &Worker<T>, amount: usize) -> Steal<T> {
        // Load the front index.
        let mut f = self.inner.front.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // A SeqCst fence is needed here.
        //
        // If the current thread is already pinned (reentrantly), we must manually issue the
        // fence. Otherwise, the following pinning will issue the fence anyway, so we don't
        // have to.
        if epoch::is_pinned() {
            atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
        }

        let guard = &epoch::pin();

        // Shadow the requested amount;
        let mut amount = amount;

        // Load the back index.
        let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);

        // Is the queue empty?
        let len = b.wrapping_sub(f);
        if len <= 0 {
            return Steal::Empty;
        }

        let default_time_ahead = (len as usize - 1) / 2;
        if amount > default_time_ahead as usize {
            amount = default_time_ahead;
        }

        // Reserve capacity for the stolen batch.
        let batch_size = cmp::min(amount, MAX_BATCH - 1);
        dest.reserve(batch_size);
        let mut batch_size = batch_size as isize;

        // Get the destination buffer and back index.
        let dest_buffer = dest.buffer.get();
        let mut dest_b = dest.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        // Load the buffer
        let buffer = self.inner.buffer.load(Ordering::Acquire, guard);

        // Read the task at the front.
        let mut task = unsafe { buffer.deref().read(f) };

        match self.flavor {
            // Steal a batch of tasks from the front at once.
            Flavor::Fifo => {
                // Copy the batch from the source to the destination buffer.
                match dest.flavor {
                    Flavor::Fifo => {
                        for i in 0..batch_size {
                            unsafe {
                                let task = buffer.deref().read(f.wrapping_add(i + 1));
                                dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(i), task);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    Flavor::Lifo => {
                        for i in 0..batch_size {
                            unsafe {
                                let task = buffer.deref().read(f.wrapping_add(i + 1));
                                dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size - 1 - i), task);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }

                // Try incrementing the front index to steal the batch.
                if self
                    .inner
                    .front
                    .compare_exchange(
                        f,
                        f.wrapping_add(batch_size + 1),
                        Ordering::SeqCst,
                        Ordering::Relaxed,
                    )
                    .is_err()
                {
                    // We didn't steal this task, forget it.
                    mem::forget(task);
                    return Steal::Retry;
                }

                dest_b = dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size);
            }

            // Steal a batch of tasks from the front one by one.
            Flavor::Lifo => {
                // Try incrementing the front index to steal the task.
                if self
                    .inner
                    .front
                    .compare_exchange(f, f.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Relaxed)
                    .is_err()
                {
                    // We didn't steal this task, forget it.
                    mem::forget(task);
                    return Steal::Retry;
                }

                // Move the front index one step forward.
                f = f.wrapping_add(1);

                // Repeat the same procedure for the batch steals.
                for i in 0..batch_size {
                    // We've already got the current front index. Now execute the fence to
                    // synchronize with other threads.
                    atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);

                    // Load the back index.
                    let b = self.inner.back.load(Ordering::Acquire);

                    // Is the queue empty?
                    if b.wrapping_sub(f) <= 0 {
                        batch_size = i;
                        break;
                    }

                    // Read the task at the front.
                    let tmp = unsafe { buffer.deref().read(f) };

                    // Try incrementing the front index to steal the task.
                    if self
                        .inner
                        .front
                        .compare_exchange(f, f.wrapping_add(1), Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Relaxed)
                        .is_err()
                    {
                        // We didn't steal this task, forget it and break from the loop.
                        mem::forget(tmp);
                        batch_size = i;
                        break;
                    }

                    // Write the previously stolen task into the destination buffer.
                    unsafe {
                        dest_buffer.write(dest_b, mem::replace(&mut task, tmp));
                    }

                    // Move the source front index and the destination back index one step forward.
                    f = f.wrapping_add(1);
                    dest_b = dest_b.wrapping_add(1);
                }

                // If stealing into a FIFO queue, stolen tasks need to be reversed.
                if dest.flavor == Flavor::Fifo {
                    for i in 0..batch_size / 2 {
                        unsafe {
                            let i1 = dest_b.wrapping_sub(batch_size - i);
                            let i2 = dest_b.wrapping_sub(i + 1);
                            let t1 = dest_buffer.read(i1);
                            let t2 = dest_buffer.read(i2);
                            dest_buffer.write(i1, t2);
                            dest_buffer.write(i2, t1);
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        atomic::fence(Ordering::Release);

        // Update the back index in the destination queue.
        //
        // This ordering could be `Relaxed`, but then thread sanitizer would falsely report data
        // races because it doesn't understand fences.
        dest.inner.back.store(dest_b, Ordering::Release);

        // Return with success.
        Steal::Success(task)
    }
}

impl<T> Clone for Stealer<T> {
    fn clone(&self) -> Stealer<T> {
        Stealer {
            inner: self.inner.clone(),
            flavor: self.flavor,
        }
    }
}

impl<T> fmt::Debug for Stealer<T> {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        f.pad("Stealer { .. }")
    }
}

// Bits indicating the state of a slot:
// * If a task has been written into the slot, `WRITE` is set.
// * If a task has been read from the slot, `READ` is set.
// * If the block is being destroyed, `DESTROY` is set.
const WRITE: usize = 1;
const READ: usize = 2;
const DESTROY: usize = 4;

// Each block covers one "lap" of indices.
const LAP: usize = 64;
// The maximum number of values a block can hold.
const BLOCK_CAP: usize = LAP - 1;
// How many lower bits are reserved for metadata.
const SHIFT: usize = 1;
// Indicates that the block is not the last one.
const HAS_NEXT: usize = 1;

/// A slot in a block.
struct Slot<T> {
    /// The task.
    task: UnsafeCell<ManuallyDrop<T>>,

    /// The state of the slot.
    state: AtomicUsize,
}

impl<T> Slot<T> {
    /// Waits until a task is written into the slot.
    fn wait_write(&self) {
        let backoff = Backoff::new();
        while self.state.load(Ordering::Acquire) & WRITE == 0 {
            backoff.snooze();
        }
    }
}

/// A block in a linked list.
///
/// Each block in the list can hold up to `BLOCK_CAP` values.
struct Block<T> {
    /// The next block in the linked list.
    next: AtomicPtr<Block<T>>,

    /// Slots for values.
    slots: [Slot<T>; BLOCK_CAP],
}

impl<T> Block<T> {
    /// Creates an empty block that starts at `start_index`.
    fn new() -> Block<T> {
        unsafe { mem::zeroed() }
    }

    /// Waits until the next pointer is set.
    fn wait_next(&self) -> *mut Block<T> {
        let backoff = Backoff::new();
        loop {
            let next = self.next.load(Ordering::Acquire);
            if !next.is_null() {
                return next;
            }
            backoff.snooze();
        }
    }

    /// Sets the `DESTROY` bit in slots starting from `start` and destroys the block.
    unsafe fn destroy(this: *mut Block<T>, count: usize) {
        // It is not necessary to set the `DESTROY` bit in the last slot because that slot has
        // begun destruction of the block.
        for i in (0..count).rev() {
            let slot = (*this).slots.get_unchecked(i);

            // Mark the `DESTROY` bit if a thread is still using the slot.
            if slot.state.load(Ordering::Acquire) & READ == 0
                && slot.state.fetch_or(DESTROY, Ordering::AcqRel) & READ == 0
            {
                // If a thread is still using the slot, it will continue destruction of the block.
                return;
            }
        }

        // No thread is using the block, now it is safe to destroy it.
        drop(Box::from_raw(this));
    }
}

/// A position in a queue.
struct Position<T> {
    /// The index in the queue.
    index: AtomicUsize,

    /// The block in the linked list.
    block: AtomicPtr<Block<T>>,
}

/// An injector queue.
///
/// This is a FIFO queue that can be shared among multiple threads. Task schedulers typically have
/// a single injector queue, which is the entry point for new tasks.
pub struct Injector<T> {
    /// The head of the queue.
    head: CachePadded<Position<T>>,

    /// The tail of the queue.
    tail: CachePadded<Position<T>>,

    /// Indicates that dropping a `Injector<T>` may drop values of type `T`.
    _marker: PhantomData<T>,
}

unsafe impl<T: Send> Send for Injector<T> {}
unsafe impl<T: Send> Sync for Injector<T> {}

impl<T> Injector<T> {
    /// Creates a new injector queue.
    pub fn new() -> Injector<T> {
        let block = Box::into_raw(Box::new(Block::<T>::new()));
        Injector {
            head: CachePadded::new(Position {
                block: AtomicPtr::new(block),
                index: AtomicUsize::new(0),
            }),
            tail: CachePadded::new(Position {
                block: AtomicPtr::new(block),
                index: AtomicUsize::new(0),
            }),
            _marker: PhantomData,
        }
    }

    /// Pushes a task into the queue.
    pub fn push(&self, task: T) {
        let backoff = Backoff::new();
        let mut tail = self.tail.index.load(Ordering::Acquire);
        let mut block = self.tail.block.load(Ordering::Acquire);
        let mut next_block = None;

        loop {
            // Calculate the offset of the index into the block.
            let offset = (tail >> SHIFT) % LAP;

            // If we reached the end of the block, wait until the next one is installed.
            if offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                backoff.snooze();
                tail = self.tail.index.load(Ordering::Acquire);
                block = self.tail.block.load(Ordering::Acquire);
                continue;
            }

            // If we're going to have to install the next block, allocate it in advance in order to
            // make the wait for other threads as short as possible.
            if offset + 1 == BLOCK_CAP && next_block.is_none() {
                next_block = Some(Box::new(Block::<T>::new()));
            }

            let new_tail = tail + (1 << SHIFT);

            // Try advancing the tail forward.
            match self.tail.index.compare_exchange_weak(
                tail,
                new_tail,
                Ordering::SeqCst,
                Ordering::Acquire,
            ) {
                Ok(_) => unsafe {
                    // If we've reached the end of the block, install the next one.
                    if offset + 1 == BLOCK_CAP {
                        let next_block = Box::into_raw(next_block.unwrap());
                        let next_index = new_tail.wrapping_add(1 << SHIFT);

                        self.tail.block.store(next_block, Ordering::Release);
                        self.tail.index.store(next_index, Ordering::Release);
                        (*block).next.store(next_block, Ordering::Release);
                    }

                    // Write the task into the slot.
                    let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset);
                    slot.task.get().write(ManuallyDrop::new(task));
                    slot.state.fetch_or(WRITE, Ordering::Release);

                    return;
                },
                Err(t) => {
                    tail = t;
                    block = self.tail.block.load(Ordering::Acquire);
                    backoff.spin();
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /// Steals a task from the queue.
    pub fn steal(&self) -> Steal<T> {
        let mut head;
        let mut block;
        let mut offset;

        let backoff = Backoff::new();
        loop {
            head = self.head.index.load(Ordering::Acquire);
            block = self.head.block.load(Ordering::Acquire);

            // Calculate the offset of the index into the block.
            offset = (head >> SHIFT) % LAP;

            // If we reached the end of the block, wait until the next one is installed.
            if offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                backoff.snooze();
            } else {
                break;
            }
        }

        let mut new_head = head + (1 << SHIFT);

        if new_head & HAS_NEXT == 0 {
            atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
            let tail = self.tail.index.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

            // If the tail equals the head, that means the queue is empty.
            if head >> SHIFT == tail >> SHIFT {
                return Steal::Empty;
            }

            // If head and tail are not in the same block, set `HAS_NEXT` in head.
            if (head >> SHIFT) / LAP != (tail >> SHIFT) / LAP {
                new_head |= HAS_NEXT;
            }
        }

        // Try moving the head index forward.
        if self
            .head
            .index
            .compare_exchange_weak(head, new_head, Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Acquire)
            .is_err()
        {
            return Steal::Retry;
        }

        unsafe {
            // If we've reached the end of the block, move to the next one.
            if offset + 1 == BLOCK_CAP {
                let next = (*block).wait_next();
                let mut next_index = (new_head & !HAS_NEXT).wrapping_add(1 << SHIFT);
                if !(*next).next.load(Ordering::Relaxed).is_null() {
                    next_index |= HAS_NEXT;
                }

                self.head.block.store(next, Ordering::Release);
                self.head.index.store(next_index, Ordering::Release);
            }

            // Read the task.
            let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset);
            slot.wait_write();
            let m = slot.task.get().read();
            let task = ManuallyDrop::into_inner(m);

            // Destroy the block if we've reached the end, or if another thread wanted to destroy
            // but couldn't because we were busy reading from the slot.
            if offset + 1 == BLOCK_CAP {
                Block::destroy(block, offset);
            } else if slot.state.fetch_or(READ, Ordering::AcqRel) & DESTROY != 0 {
                Block::destroy(block, offset);
            }

            Steal::Success(task)
        }
    }

    /// Steals a batch of tasks and pushes them into a worker.
    ///
    /// How many tasks exactly will be stolen is not specified. That said, this method will try to
    /// steal around half of the tasks in the queue, but also not more than some constant limit.
    pub fn steal_batch(&self, dest: &Worker<T>) -> Steal<()> {
        let mut head;
        let mut block;
        let mut offset;

        let backoff = Backoff::new();
        loop {
            head = self.head.index.load(Ordering::Acquire);
            block = self.head.block.load(Ordering::Acquire);

            // Calculate the offset of the index into the block.
            offset = (head >> SHIFT) % LAP;

            // If we reached the end of the block, wait until the next one is installed.
            if offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                backoff.snooze();
            } else {
                break;
            }
        }

        let mut new_head = head;
        let advance;

        if new_head & HAS_NEXT == 0 {
            atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
            let tail = self.tail.index.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

            // If the tail equals the head, that means the queue is empty.
            if head >> SHIFT == tail >> SHIFT {
                return Steal::Empty;
            }

            // If head and tail are not in the same block, set `HAS_NEXT` in head. Also, calculate
            // the right batch size to steal.
            if (head >> SHIFT) / LAP != (tail >> SHIFT) / LAP {
                new_head |= HAS_NEXT;
                // We can steal all tasks till the end of the block.
                advance = (BLOCK_CAP - offset).min(MAX_BATCH);
            } else {
                let len = (tail - head) >> SHIFT;
                // Steal half of the available tasks.
                advance = ((len + 1) / 2).min(MAX_BATCH);
            }
        } else {
            // We can steal all tasks till the end of the block.
            advance = (BLOCK_CAP - offset).min(MAX_BATCH);
        }

        new_head += advance << SHIFT;
        let new_offset = offset + advance;

        // Try moving the head index forward.
        if self
            .head
            .index
            .compare_exchange_weak(head, new_head, Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Acquire)
            .is_err()
        {
            return Steal::Retry;
        }

        // Reserve capacity for the stolen batch.
        let batch_size = new_offset - offset;
        dest.reserve(batch_size);

        // Get the destination buffer and back index.
        let dest_buffer = dest.buffer.get();
        let dest_b = dest.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        unsafe {
            // If we've reached the end of the block, move to the next one.
            if new_offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                let next = (*block).wait_next();
                let mut next_index = (new_head & !HAS_NEXT).wrapping_add(1 << SHIFT);
                if !(*next).next.load(Ordering::Relaxed).is_null() {
                    next_index |= HAS_NEXT;
                }

                self.head.block.store(next, Ordering::Release);
                self.head.index.store(next_index, Ordering::Release);
            }

            // Copy values from the injector into the destination queue.
            match dest.flavor {
                Flavor::Fifo => {
                    for i in 0..batch_size {
                        // Read the task.
                        let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset + i);
                        slot.wait_write();
                        let m = slot.task.get().read();
                        let task = ManuallyDrop::into_inner(m);

                        // Write it into the destination queue.
                        dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(i as isize), task);
                    }
                }

                Flavor::Lifo => {
                    for i in 0..batch_size {
                        // Read the task.
                        let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset + i);
                        slot.wait_write();
                        let m = slot.task.get().read();
                        let task = ManuallyDrop::into_inner(m);

                        // Write it into the destination queue.
                        dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add((batch_size - 1 - i) as isize), task);
                    }
                }
            }

            atomic::fence(Ordering::Release);

            // Update the back index in the destination queue.
            //
            // This ordering could be `Relaxed`, but then thread sanitizer would falsely report
            // data races because it doesn't understand fences.
            dest.inner
                .back
                .store(dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size as isize), Ordering::Release);

            // Destroy the block if we've reached the end, or if another thread wanted to destroy
            // but couldn't because we were busy reading from the slot.
            if new_offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                Block::destroy(block, offset);
            } else {
                for i in offset..new_offset {
                    let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(i);

                    if slot.state.fetch_or(READ, Ordering::AcqRel) & DESTROY != 0 {
                        Block::destroy(block, offset);
                        break;
                    }
                }
            }

            Steal::Success(())
        }
    }

    /// Steals a batch of tasks, pushes them into a worker, and pops a task from that worker.
    ///
    /// How many tasks exactly will be stolen is not specified. That said, this method will try to
    /// steal around half of the tasks in the queue, but also not more than some constant limit.
    pub fn steal_batch_and_pop(&self, dest: &Worker<T>) -> Steal<T> {
        let mut head;
        let mut block;
        let mut offset;

        let backoff = Backoff::new();
        loop {
            head = self.head.index.load(Ordering::Acquire);
            block = self.head.block.load(Ordering::Acquire);

            // Calculate the offset of the index into the block.
            offset = (head >> SHIFT) % LAP;

            // If we reached the end of the block, wait until the next one is installed.
            if offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                backoff.snooze();
            } else {
                break;
            }
        }

        let mut new_head = head;
        let advance;

        if new_head & HAS_NEXT == 0 {
            atomic::fence(Ordering::SeqCst);
            let tail = self.tail.index.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

            // If the tail equals the head, that means the queue is empty.
            if head >> SHIFT == tail >> SHIFT {
                return Steal::Empty;
            }

            // If head and tail are not in the same block, set `HAS_NEXT` in head.
            if (head >> SHIFT) / LAP != (tail >> SHIFT) / LAP {
                new_head |= HAS_NEXT;
                // We can steal all tasks till the end of the block.
                advance = (BLOCK_CAP - offset).min(MAX_BATCH + 1);
            } else {
                let len = (tail - head) >> SHIFT;
                // Steal half of the available tasks.
                advance = ((len + 1) / 2).min(MAX_BATCH + 1);
            }
        } else {
            // We can steal all tasks till the end of the block.
            advance = (BLOCK_CAP - offset).min(MAX_BATCH + 1);
        }

        new_head += advance << SHIFT;
        let new_offset = offset + advance;

        // Try moving the head index forward.
        if self
            .head
            .index
            .compare_exchange_weak(head, new_head, Ordering::SeqCst, Ordering::Acquire)
            .is_err()
        {
            return Steal::Retry;
        }

        // Reserve capacity for the stolen batch.
        let batch_size = new_offset - offset - 1;
        dest.reserve(batch_size);

        // Get the destination buffer and back index.
        let dest_buffer = dest.buffer.get();
        let dest_b = dest.inner.back.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        unsafe {
            // If we've reached the end of the block, move to the next one.
            if new_offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                let next = (*block).wait_next();
                let mut next_index = (new_head & !HAS_NEXT).wrapping_add(1 << SHIFT);
                if !(*next).next.load(Ordering::Relaxed).is_null() {
                    next_index |= HAS_NEXT;
                }

                self.head.block.store(next, Ordering::Release);
                self.head.index.store(next_index, Ordering::Release);
            }

            // Read the task.
            let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset);
            slot.wait_write();
            let m = slot.task.get().read();
            let task = ManuallyDrop::into_inner(m);

            match dest.flavor {
                Flavor::Fifo => {
                    // Copy values from the injector into the destination queue.
                    for i in 0..batch_size {
                        // Read the task.
                        let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset + i + 1);
                        slot.wait_write();
                        let m = slot.task.get().read();
                        let task = ManuallyDrop::into_inner(m);

                        // Write it into the destination queue.
                        dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add(i as isize), task);
                    }
                }

                Flavor::Lifo => {
                    // Copy values from the injector into the destination queue.
                    for i in 0..batch_size {
                        // Read the task.
                        let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset + i + 1);
                        slot.wait_write();
                        let m = slot.task.get().read();
                        let task = ManuallyDrop::into_inner(m);

                        // Write it into the destination queue.
                        dest_buffer.write(dest_b.wrapping_add((batch_size - 1 - i) as isize), task);
                    }
                }
            }

            atomic::fence(Ordering::Release);

            // Update the back index in the destination queue.
            //
            // This ordering could be `Relaxed`, but then thread sanitizer would falsely report
            // data races because it doesn't understand fences.
            dest.inner
                .back
                .store(dest_b.wrapping_add(batch_size as isize), Ordering::Release);

            // Destroy the block if we've reached the end, or if another thread wanted to destroy
            // but couldn't because we were busy reading from the slot.
            if new_offset == BLOCK_CAP {
                Block::destroy(block, offset);
            } else {
                for i in offset..new_offset {
                    let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(i);

                    if slot.state.fetch_or(READ, Ordering::AcqRel) & DESTROY != 0 {
                        Block::destroy(block, offset);
                        break;
                    }
                }
            }

            Steal::Success(task)
        }
    }

    /// Returns `true` if the queue is empty.
    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        let head = self.head.index.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
        let tail = self.tail.index.load(Ordering::SeqCst);
        head >> SHIFT == tail >> SHIFT
    }
}

impl<T> Drop for Injector<T> {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        let mut head = self.head.index.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let mut tail = self.tail.index.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
        let mut block = self.head.block.load(Ordering::Relaxed);

        // Erase the lower bits.
        head &= !((1 << SHIFT) - 1);
        tail &= !((1 << SHIFT) - 1);

        unsafe {
            // Drop all values between `head` and `tail` and deallocate the heap-allocated blocks.
            while head != tail {
                let offset = (head >> SHIFT) % LAP;

                if offset < BLOCK_CAP {
                    // Drop the task in the slot.
                    let slot = (*block).slots.get_unchecked(offset);
                    ManuallyDrop::drop(&mut *(*slot).task.get());
                } else {
                    // Deallocate the block and move to the next one.
                    let next = (*block).next.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
                    drop(Box::from_raw(block));
                    block = next;
                }

                head = head.wrapping_add(1 << SHIFT);
            }

            // Deallocate the last remaining block.
            drop(Box::from_raw(block));
        }
    }
}

impl<T> fmt::Debug for Injector<T> {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        f.pad("Worker { .. }")
    }
}

/// Possible outcomes of a steal operation.
#[must_use]
#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Copy, Clone)]
pub enum Steal<T> {
    /// The queue was empty at the time of stealing.
    Empty,

    /// At least one task was successfully stolen.
    Success(T),

    /// The steal operation needs to be retried.
    Retry,
}

impl<T> Steal<T> {
    /// Returns `true` if the queue was empty at the time of stealing.
    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            Steal::Empty => true,
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    /// Returns `true` if at least one task was stolen.
    pub fn is_success(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            Steal::Success(_) => true,
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    /// Returns `true` if the steal operation needs to be retried.
    pub fn is_retry(&self) -> bool {
        match self {
            Steal::Retry => true,
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    /// Returns the result of the operation, if successful.
    pub fn success(self) -> Option<T> {
        match self {
            Steal::Success(res) => Some(res),
            _ => None,
        }
    }

    /// If no task was stolen, attempts another steal operation.
    ///
    /// Returns this steal result if it is `Success`. Otherwise, closure `f` is invoked and then:
    ///
    /// * If the second steal resulted in `Success`, it is returned.
    /// * If both steals were unsuccessful but any resulted in `Retry`, then `Retry` is returned.
    /// * If both resulted in `None`, then `None` is returned.
    pub fn or_else<F>(self, f: F) -> Steal<T>
    where
        F: FnOnce() -> Steal<T>,
    {
        match self {
            Steal::Empty => f(),
            Steal::Success(_) => self,
            Steal::Retry => {
                if let Steal::Success(res) = f() {
                    Steal::Success(res)
                } else {
                    Steal::Retry
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

impl<T> fmt::Debug for Steal<T> {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        match self {
            Steal::Empty => f.pad("Empty"),
            Steal::Success(_) => f.pad("Success(..)"),
            Steal::Retry => f.pad("Retry"),
        }
    }
}

impl<T> FromIterator<Steal<T>> for Steal<T> {
    /// Consumes items until a `Success` is found and returns it.
    ///
    /// If no `Success` was found, but there was at least one `Retry`, then returns `Retry`.
    /// Otherwise, `Empty` is returned.
    fn from_iter<I>(iter: I) -> Steal<T>
    where
        I: IntoIterator<Item = Steal<T>>,
    {
        let mut retry = false;
        for s in iter {
            match &s {
                Steal::Empty => {}
                Steal::Success(_) => return s,
                Steal::Retry => retry = true,
            }
        }

        if retry {
            Steal::Retry
        } else {
            Steal::Empty
        }
    }
}