Summary of The Psychology Major's Companion: Everything You Need to Know to Get You Where You Want to Go Second Edition, Dana S. Dunn and Jane S. Halonen
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- AUTHORS
- PREFACE
- NOTE TO STUDENTS
- NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS AND ADVISORS
- NOTE TO STUDENT ADVOCATES
- CHAPTER 1: CHARTING YOUR COURSE IN COLLEGE AND PSYCHOLOGY
- CHAPTER 2: THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOLOGY MAJOR
- CHAPTER 3: SHOULD YOU MAJOR IN PSYCHOLOGY?
- CHAPTER 4: BUILDING PSYCHOLOGY-RELATED SKILLS AND ATTITUDES
- CHAPTER 5: HITTING YOUR STRIDE AS A STUDENT
- CHAPTER 6: CHARTING YOUR COURSE IN THE MAJOR
- CHAPTER 7: DOING PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH FROM START TO FINISH
- CHAPTER 8: BUILDING DISTINCTION THROUGH HIGH-IMPACT PRACTICES (HIPS)
- CHAPTER 9: WHAT CAREER OPTIONS EXIST FOR STUDENTS WITH A BACHELOR'S OR AN ASSOCIATE'S DEGREE IN PSYCHOLOGY?
- CHAPTER 10: HOW TO LAND A JOB WITH YOUR DEGREE IN PSYCHOLOGY
- CHAPTER 11: WHAT CAN YOU DO WITH AN ADVANCED DEGREE IN PSYCHOLOGY?
- CHAPTER 12: HOW DO YOU GET INTO GRADUATE PROGRAMS IN PSYCHOLOGY?
- CHAPTER 13 KEEPING CONNECTED TO PSYCHOLOGY
Dana S. Dunn: Professor of Psychology and Director of Academic Assessment at Moravian College
- Earned PhD in experimental social psychology from the University of Virginia, BA in psychology from Carnegie Mellon University
- Fellow of the American Psychological Association (APA) Divisions 1, 2, 8, and 22
- Active in Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP-APA Division 2), served as president in 2010
- Received Charles L. Brewer Distinguished Teaching of Psychology Award from American Psychological Foundation in 2013, APA's Harry Kirke Wolfe lecturer in 2015
- Member of editorial boards of several journals, frequent speaker at national and regional psychology conferences
- Past president of Eastern Psychological Association (EPA) and president-elect of APA Division 22 (Rehabilitation Psychology)
- Author\editor of 30 books
- writes a blog on teaching psychology for Psychology Today
- currently editor-in-chief of Oxford Bibliographies in Psychology
Jane S. Halonen: Professor of Psychology at the University of West Florida for over 15 years
- Previously taught at James Madison University and Alverno College
- Most recent research focuses on turning good psychology departments into great ones and helping legislators understand psychology during tough economic times
- Involved in developing standards of academic performance from high school through graduate levels of education for American Psychological Association
- Received Distinguished Teaching Award from American Psychological Foundation in 2000, named Eminent Woman in Psychology by APA in 2003, and Distinguished Psi Chi member in 2019
- Served as Chief Reader for the Psychology Advanced Placement Reading from 2004 to 2009
- Member of National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology board
- presented at nearly every regional teaching conference in psychology
- codirected International Conference on Improving University Teaching with Peter Seldin from 2001 to 2008.
Understanding Psychology: A Guide for Students Considering a Major in Psychology
Introduction:
- Importance of selecting the right major for present experiences and future preparation
- Popularity and misunderstanding of psychology as a major
Misconceptions about Psychology:
- Concerns from loved ones regarding career opportunities
- Misunderstandings among students majoring in psychology
- Impact of poor advising and lackluster performance on perceptions of the major
Benefits of a Psychology Major:
- Opportunities for rich experiences during undergraduate years
- Preparation for future careers
- Flexibility of a psychology degree
Declaring the Psychology Major:
- Considering personal interests and career goals
- Understanding the requirements and benefits of a psychology degree
- Making an informed decision with the help of advisors and resources
Leveraging a Psychology Degree:
- Building a strong foundation in critical thinking and problem-solving skills
- Gaining practical experience through internships, research, or volunteer work
- Developing effective communication and collaboration abilities
Preparing for a Psychology-Related Future:
- Exploring various career paths in psychology
- Pursuing graduate education or professional certifications
- Networking and building connections within the field
Conclusion:
- The importance of selecting the right major and making the most of it
- The potential benefits and opportunities of a psychology degree
- Encouragement for students to declare the psychology major if it aligns with their interests and goals.
- Written for traditional college students and adult learners interested in majoring in psychology
- Addresses various questions about psychology major and its related fields
Questions Addressed:
- What do psychologists do? Where do they work?
- Is majoring in psychology the right choice for me?
- Skills and benefits of an undergraduate degree in psychology
- High-performing student
- Organizational memberships, summer jobs, internships
- Career opportunities after graduation
- Bachelor's level psychology majors
- Job search right out of college
- Graduate study in psychology
- Application process
- Choosing an area of psychology
- Making a compelling application
- Benefits of psychology beyond education and career
- Written to serve multiple purposes for psychology instructors
- Intended for use in courses introducing students to the major, such as Introduction to Psychology Major or Careers in Psychology
- Can be used as a supplemental text in introductory psychology courses, research methods courses, psychology seminars, and capstone courses
- Designed to allow instructors to discuss academic and practical issues with students
- Focuses on preparation for steps after graduation (workforce or graduate/professional school)
Features:
- "A Major Success Story" feature: Profiles former students who have successfully navigated life after graduation, providing inspirational examples
- "Reality Check" features: Help students assess their progress in each chapter and apply the principles to their own course and career planning
- "Measuring Up" feature: Allows students to do self-assessment and reflect on how the material applies to their lives and educational experiences in the psychology major
APA Collaboration:
- Uses emerging best practices from American Psychological Association (APA) efforts on undergraduate psychology curriculum
- Discussions of curriculum design and assessment strategies reflect recent work from APA's Puget Sound Conference and Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major, Version 2.0
Resources for Instructors:
- Instructor's Manual
- Test bank with multiple-choice and essay questions
- Lecture slides summarizing chapter content
Benefits for Academic/Major Advisors:
- Comprehensive treatment of curricular and career issues
- Resource students can use to find answers to common questions
- Supports instructors in student assessment and teaching.
Addressing Concerns about Choosing a Psychology Degree
- Students majoring in psychology sometimes face concerns from friends and family regarding the employment prospects after graduation.
- These objections stem from the belief that a psychology degree may not adequately prepare students for employment.
Addressing Concerns:
- Employment Prospects:
- Psychology graduates have various career opportunities in fields such as education, healthcare, business, and research.
- The American Psychological Association (APA) reports that psychology is one of the fastest-growing majors in terms of employment.
- According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, employment of psychologists is projected to grow 14% from 2020 to 2030, much faster than the average for all occupations.
- Versatility and Transferable Skills:
- Psychology students develop a wide range of skills including critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and research abilities.
- These skills are valuable in various industries and can be applied to diverse careers.
- Graduate Education:
- Many psychology graduates choose to pursue advanced degrees (Master's or Ph.D.) to enhance their career opportunities and earning potential.
- Graduate programs provide specialized training and expertise, making graduates highly sought after in their fields.
- Adaptability:
- The field of psychology is constantly evolving, with new research findings and applications emerging regularly.
- Psychology graduates are well-equipped to adapt to the changing job market and can pivot their careers as needed.
- Networking and Professional Development:
- Joining professional organizations, attending conferences, and participating in internships or volunteer work can help students build a strong network of contacts within the field.
- These connections can lead to valuable opportunities and career growth.
Conclusion:
- A psychology degree offers numerous employment prospects and transferable skills that are valuable in various industries.
- Graduates have the option to pursue advanced degrees for further specialization and higher earning potential.
- The field of psychology is adaptable, with new research findings and applications emerging regularly.
- Student advocates can use this information to help alleviate concerns from friends and family about the future employment prospects of psychology majors.
- This chapter is intended for various types of college students considering or pursuing a psychology major, as well as their parents and loved ones.
- The authors aim to provide support and guidance throughout the journey of completing an undergraduate degree in psychology.
- Types of Students:
- Introductory or general psychology students: wondering if psychology is a good major choice.
- New majors in psychology: have decided on psychology as a major but unsure of future implications.
- Transfer students: started at a community college and now attending a 4-year institution for a psychology degree.
- Students seeking employment after graduation.
- Graduate school applicants in psychology or related fields.
- Adult learners.
- The authors also hope to support parents and loved ones who want to understand and support the students' choice of major.
- The College Experience:
- Not just about classroom learning but also making new friends, trying new things, working in groups, becoming self-responsible, possibly holding down a job, and potentially living away from home for the first time.
- College vs. University:
- Colleges typically offer associate's degrees (2 years) while universities grant bachelor's degrees (4 years).
- Universities are large institutions with various colleges and schools, offering undergraduate and graduate degrees in multiple fields of study.
Is College the Right Solution for You?
- Reasons why students go to college:
- To get a better job
- To gain a general education and appreciation of ideas
- To make more money
- To learn about things that interest them
- To prepare for graduate or professional school
- To train for a specific career
- To be more cultured
Reality Check: Is College the Right Path for You?
- Self-assessment questions to consider before committing to college education
- Do I have a clear understanding of my motives for seeking a degree?
- Do I know which kind of higher education context has the greatest appeal to me?
- Does my academic record predict a successful transition to college?
- Do I have a reasonable idea about the kind of major I want to pursue?
- Can I set aside the time it will take to earn a diploma?
- Have I taken steps to determine whether I would qualify for financial aid?
- Have I considered what kind of living arrangements I'll be able to afford?
- Will I be able to cope with the debt load that may result from my degree?
- Am I excited about the prospect of learning with a wide variety of people?
- Will I be able to function independently from my family?
- Will I be able to balance family and friends with school demands?
- Am I prepared to seek academic advising to clarify my direction?
- Have I developed reasonable time-management strategies to keep up with multiple courses?
Personal priorities during college experience: Measuring Up: What Are My Drivers?
- Self-assessment section to help students speculate about how the material in the chapter applies to them
- Important concepts and personalizing the content of the chapter
Today's College-bound Students
- Qualities rated as a "somewhat strong" or "major strength" by college-bound students compared with the average person their age:
- Ability to see the world from someone else's perspective
- Tolerance of others with different beliefs
- Openness to having own views challenged
- Ability to discuss and negotiate controversial issues
- Ability to work cooperatively with diverse people
- Critical thinking skills
- Time management skills
- Students are encouraged to reflect on how they view themselves in terms of each of these qualities.
Motives for Seeking a Degree:
- Get a better job: This is the most common reason for pursuing a degree, as it can lead to better career opportunities and higher salaries.
- Gain a general education and appreciation of ideas: A college education broadens one's knowledge and understanding of various subjects and ideas.
- Expand my cultural horizons: College exposes individuals to diverse perspectives, beliefs, and experiences.
- Make more money: Financial gain is a significant motivator for many students.
- Learn more about things that interest me: Pursuing a degree in a subject one is passionate about can be highly rewarding.
- Train for a specific career: Some students have a clear career goal and use college as a means to acquire the necessary skills and knowledge.
- Prepare for graduate or professional school: College can serve as a stepping stone to further education in a particular field.
- Please my family: Family pressure or expectations can influence an individual's decision to pursue a degree.
Student Priorities:
- In a study, over 60% of students considered becoming an authority in their career field as essential or very important.
- Over 57% wanted their contributions to be recognized by peers in that field.
- Over 82% ranked being very well off financially as very important or essential.
- Over 77% ranked helping others who are in difficulty as very important or essential.
- Only 47% viewed developing a meaningful philosophy of life as essential or very important.
College Experience:
- The majority (75%) of students reported being satisfied or very satisfied with their college experience after one year.
- Over 81% were satisfied or very satisfied with their overall academic experience.
Psychology as a Major:
- In fall 2016, 4.5% of new freshmen indicated psychology as their likely major.
- Psychology was the preferred social science major among freshmen.
- In the 2014-2015 academic year, 118,000 students graduated with a degree in psychology.
- Most psychology majors enter the job market directly after graduation.
- Some pursue graduate degrees in other fields.
- The skills acquired through a psychology major are valuable in various professional paths.
Common Concern: The high cost of college and the value of a degree
- 56% of students in fall 2016 expressed concerns about financing their education (Eagan et al., 2016)
- Many question if a college degree is worth the investment or cost
- A college education is an investment in future earnings and opportunities
Evidence for the Value of a College Education:
- In 2013, graduates with a bachelor's degree earned on average 98% more per hour than those without a degree (Leonhardt, 2014)
- Over a working lifetime, not attending college results in approximately half a million dollars in unrealized earnings
- Student loan debt is a modest risk compared to the potential benefits of a college education
Making the Most of College:
- Participating in extracurricular activities outside of formal classes
- Balancing academic life with downtime and self-care
- Engaging in cocurricular activities renews energy and outlook for studies
Becoming Psychologically Literate:
- An undergraduate education in psychology provides students with valuable skills, values, and outlooks
- Being psychologically literate is personally and professionally beneficial (Cranney & Dunn, 2011a)
- Traits of psychologically literate students:
- problem-solving
- well-defined vocabulary
- respect for diversity
- reflective thinking
- good communication skills
- ethical behavior
- applying psychology principles to various aspects of life
Overconfidence Effect:
- Tendency to overestimate the quality of one's own performances (Dunning & Kruger, 1999)
- Students and faculty members are prone to this effect
- Counteracting overconfidence: examining evidence, evaluating information, and applying critical thinking skills
Background:
- Both started their college careers with a passion for psychology
- Fell in love with psychology during high school or undergraduate years
- Pursued graduate degrees in psychology
Dana S. Dunn: Education:
- Undergraduate degree at Carnegie Mellon University
- PhD in experimental social psychology at the University of Virginia
Career:
- Applied researcher for medical and nursing schools
- Professor of psychology
- Researcher, author, editor
- Visiting professor at other colleges
- Administrator (department chair, dean for special projects, director of academic assessment)
- Consultant (academic program reviewer, assessment, faculty development)
Advice:
- Always assume there is something new to learn
- Work steadily and submit work on time
Interests:
- Social cognition
- Effective and efficient learning for psychology students
Jane S. Halonen: Education:
- Undergraduate degree in another major, later switched to psychology
- PhD in clinical psychology at the University of Virginia
Career:
- Director of a school for children with severe emotional and physical disabilities
- Professor of psychology
- Administrator (program coordinator, behavioral science division head, department head, dean of college of arts and sciences)
- Researcher and author (textbooks, articles, podcasts)
- Private practitioner (child and family therapist)
- Mental health practice (co-owner and manager)
- Consultant (academic program reviewer, faculty developer)
- Chief reader for the Advanced Placement (AP) Psychology Exam
- Leadership trainer
Advice:
- Don't make promises you can't keep
- Keep all the promises you make
Shared Story:
- Both had a deep interest in effective and efficient learning for psychology students
- Participated in the American Psychological Association's Psychology Partnerships Project in 1998
- Collaborated on various projects, including APA Guidelines for Undergraduate Psychology Major 2.0, articles on faculty development and student learning, and faculty development interest pieces for the Chronicle of Higher Education
- Both served as president of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology (Division 2 of the American Psychological Association)
- Both won national recognition as distinguished teachers with top honors from the American Psychological Foundation.
- Written by psychology professors to help students make the most of their major and college experience
- Aimed at students who may struggle to see how classroom knowledge applies to everyday work and life
- Discusses key topics related to majoring in psychology and using it to enhance career opportunities
Key Topics Covered in the Book
- Why do students major in psychology? (Chapter 2)
- Explanation of why students choose psychology as a major
- Discussion on the benefits and challenges of studying psychology
- Should you major in psychology? Is it right for you? (Chapter 3)
- Assessment of whether psychology is the right major for individual students
- Consideration of personal interests, strengths, and career goals
- Developing psychology-related skills to enhance career options and opportunities (Chapter 4)
- Discussion on how to develop skills that are valuable in various careers
- Explanation of how a psychology degree can be applied to different fields
- How to hit your stride as a student (Chapter 5)
- Strategies for academic success and personal growth during college
- Tips for managing time, staying focused, and balancing responsibilities
- Charting your course in the major (Chapter 6)
- Guidance on selecting courses and creating a plan of study
- Discussion on how to make the most of electives and research opportunities
- Tackling psychological research from start to finish (Chapter 7)
- Overview of the research process in psychology
- Explanation of how to read, understand, and critique research studies
- Using psychology to improve leadership skills (Chapter 8)
- Discussion on how psychology can help develop effective leadership abilities
- Strategies for applying psychological concepts to leadership roles
- What career options are out there for students with a BA or BS in psychology? (Chapter 9)
- Overview of various careers open to psychology graduates
- Explanation of how a psychology degree can lead to diverse employment opportunities
- How do you land a great psychology workforce job? (Chapter 10)
- Strategies for finding and applying for jobs in the field
- Discussion on creating effective resumes, cover letters, and interviewing skills
- What about graduate school in psychology -- what does it take and where might it take you? (Chapter 11)
- Overview of graduate programs in psychology
- Explanation of the application process and requirements
- Discussion on potential career paths with a graduate degree
- How do you apply to and get into quality graduate programs? (Chapter 12)
- Strategies for preparing and applying to graduate programs
- Discussion on the importance of letters of recommendation, personal statements, and test scores
- Keeping connected to psychology after college (Chapter 13)
- Suggestions for staying involved in the field after graduation
- Discussion on networking opportunities and professional organizations
Additional Resources
- Appendix A: Learning to write and format an APA-style paper
Important Considerations
- College education is a privilege, with only about 32% of adults in the US having a 4-year degree (as of 2013)
- Making the most of your college education and psychology major can be satisfying and fulfilling.
Topic 1: Understanding the Discipline of Psychology
- Jane's difficulty explaining her college major to her grandmother
- Limited representation and misconceptions about psychology in the late 1960s
- Abundance of psychology in media but often with narrow or misleading stereotypes
- Depictions of psychologists as brain surgeons or clinical psychologists in entertainment
- Disappointment for students when they find out clinical matters represent a small percentage of the curriculum
Key Concept: Psychology is a discipline that studies human behavior and mental processes.
Topic 2: Overview of a Major in Psychology
What is Psychology?
- Scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- Systematic investigation of the structure, function, development, and disorders of the mind and behavior
- Interdisciplinary field that draws from biology, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and statistics
What Can You Expect from a Major in Psychology?
- Broad curriculum covering various subfields of psychology
- Research methods and statistical analysis skills development
- Understanding of biological, cognitive, social, and developmental aspects of psychology
- Opportunities for hands-on experience through internships or research projects
Subfields of Psychology
- Biological psychology: Study of the neural, physiological, and genetic bases of behavior and mental processes
- Cognitive psychology: Investigation of perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, and thinking
- Developmental psychology: Examination of human development from conception to old age
- Social psychology: Analysis of how individuals influence and are influenced by others in social situations
- Clinical psychology: Application of psychological principles to diagnose, assess, and treat mental health disorders
- Industrial-organizational psychology: Application of psychological principles to improve workplaces and organizations
- Neuropsychology: Study of the relationship between brain structures and functions
- Educational psychology: Understanding of how people learn and effective teaching methods
- Health psychology: Focus on the impact of behavior on health and illness
- Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior in human and nonhuman animals.
- Origins: traced to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt founded an experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
- Evolution: started as structuralism, focusing on mapping basic functions of the human body through introspection.
- Subsequent orientations include:
- functionalism
- behaviorism
- humanistic psychology
- psychoanalysis
- cognitive psychology
- Contemporary psychologists agree on scientific study of mind and behavior.
Defining Psychology
- Young science: formal beginnings in 1879.
- Scientific study: reliance on systematic empiricism, making findings public, application of key ideas.
- Content: mind and behavior in human and nonhuman animals.
Psychology's Struggle for Identity
- Frustrations with structuralism led to functionalism and other orientations.
- Proliferation of viewpoints and knowledge may foster a sense of fragmentation within the discipline.
- Natural science: explaining and predicting natural phenomena.
- Social science: explaining and predicting social phenomena.
- Two cultures in psychology: research vs application.
Origins of Psychology (1879-Present)
- Structuralism: earliest days, mapping basic functions of human body through introspection.
- Functionalism: shift to motives behind and purpose of behavior by William James.
- Other orientations: behaviorism, humanistic psychology, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology.
Characteristics of Psychology
- Scientific method: reliance on systematic empiricism, making findings public, application of key ideas.
- Content: mind and behavior in human and nonhuman animals.
- Two scientific spheres: natural science (explaining and predicting natural phenomena) and social science (explaining and predicting social phenomena).
- Two cultures: research vs application.
Myths About Psychology
- It's not a real science.
- It's only about helping people.
- It's all about introspection.
- It's only for certain types of people.
- Discovering Her Passion:
- Took a psychology class in high school
- Helped prepare for career and personal growth
- Convinced her to pursue psychology major
Undergraduate Years:
- Internships:
- Adolescent inpatient psychiatric unit: group therapy, family sessions, activities
- Solidified commitment to psychology
- Master's program internship: developed clinical skills and professional abilities
Current Position:
- Research assistant in a multidisciplinary neurodevelopmental clinic
- Works with children and young adults with intellectual disabilities or autism
- Assists genetic counselors in explaining options to families
- Coordinates interdisciplinary genetic research projects
Advice from Kelly:
- Build strong relationships with professors
- Seek guidance throughout the major
- Hands-on experiences reveal strengths and weaknesses
APA: Professional Affiliations for Psychologists
- Founded in 1892 by G. Stanley Hall
- Current membership: 77,550 members (researchers, educators, consultants, clinicians)
- Mission: research, practice, education, and public advocacy
- Critics suggest focus on clinical matters, but mission is broader
Association for Psychological Science (APS)
- Established in 1988
- Primary mission: promoting psychology as a science
- More than 30,000 members
- Leading international organization for scientific psychology
- Offers student affiliate memberships
- Contrasting psychology communities as "research" or "practice" is insufficient
American Psychological Association (APA)
- Publishes list of specialized areas of interest in psychology
- Reflects both research concentrations and different types of jobs in professional psychology
- Wide range of topics psychologists explore
Specialized Areas of Interest in Psychology (APA Divisions)
| # | Name | # | Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Society for General Psychology | 2 | Society for the Teaching of Psychology |
| 3 | Society for Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Science | 5 | Quantitative and Qualitative Methods |
| 6 | Society for Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology | 7 | Developmental Psychology |
| 8 | Society for Personality and Social Psychology | 9 | Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) |
| 10 | Society for the Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts | 12 | Society of Clinical Psychology |
| 13 | Society of Consulting Psychology | 14 | Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology |
| 15 | Educational Psychology | 16 | School Psychology |
| 17 | Society of Counseling Psychology | 18 | Psychologists in Public Service |
| 19 | Society for Military Psychology | 20 | Adult Development and Aging |
| 21 | Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychology | 22 | Rehabilitation Psychology |
| 23 | Consumer Psychology | 24 | Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology |
| 25 | Behavior Analysis | 26 | Society for the History of Psychology |
| 27 | Society for Community Research and Action: Division of Community Psychology | 28 | Society for Psychopharmacology and Substance Use |
| 29 | Society for the Advancement of Psychotherapy | 30 | Society of Psychological Hypnosis |
| 31 | State, Provincial and Territorial Psychological Association Affairs | 32 | Society for Humanistic Psychology |
| 33 | Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities/Autism Spectrum Disorder | 34 | Society for Environmental, Population and Conservation Psychology |
| 35 | Society for the Psychology of Women | 36 | Society for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality |
| 37 | Society for Child and Family Policy and Practice | 38 | Society for Health Psychology |
| 39 | Society for Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Psychology | 40 | Society for Clinical Neuropsychology |
| 41 | American Psychology-Law Society | 42 | Psychologists in Independent Practice |
| 43 | Society for Couple and Family Psychology | 44 | Society for the Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity |
| 45 | Society for the Psychological Study of Culture, Ethnicity and Race | 46 | Society for Media Psychology and Technology |
| 47 | Society for Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology | 48 | Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict and Violence: Peace Psychology Division |
| 49 | Society of Group Psychology and Group Psychotherapy | 50 | Society of Addiction Psychology |
| 51 | Society for the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinities | 52 | International Psychology |
| 53 | Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology | 54 | Society of Pediatric Psychology |
| 55 | Society for Prescribing Psychology | 56 | Trauma Psychology |
| Source: http://www.apa.org/about/division |
APA Divisional Structure
- Fosters communities of interest
- Allows people with shared interests to connect and collaborate
- Entails 54 subdisciplines
Challenges to Psychology as a Unified Discipline
- Psychologists with strong identities in subdisciplines may view their association with psychology as secondary to their core interests
- Strengthening of subdisciplines may further aggravate identity problems for psychology as a whole.
Psychology is a discipline that faces numerous myths and misconceptions, which can hinder our understanding of its true nature and the contributions it makes to science. The following are some common myths about psychology and their correctives:
Myth 1: Psychology is nothing more than common sense
- People often believe that psychological findings are obvious because they seem logical after learning the outcome.
- This phenomenon is known as hindsight bias or the "I-knew-it-all-along effect."
- Psychology challenges many commonsense assumptions with research findings that may be counterintuitive, such as the bystander effect and the misconception about helping on busy streets.
Myth 2: Whatever it is, psychology is not a science
- Psychology is often misunderstood as not being a science due to its subject matter focusing on human behavior and emotions.
- However, psychology relies on scientific methods like hypothesis testing, careful observation, experimentation, measurement, analysis, and replication.
- Neuroscience and the study of the brain are technical parts of psychology, making it a legitimate science.
Myth 3: Psychology is a pseudoscience
- Pseudosciences lack empirical data to support their claims about behavior.
- Psychology, as a science, is based on scientific research and evidence-based practices.
Myth 4: Psychologists know how to read minds
- Psychologists do not have the ability to read people's minds.
- Their insights come from years of study, observation, and inference, not intuition or mind-reading abilities.
Myth 5: Psychologists = therapists
- Not all psychologists are therapists; some focus on research and teaching.
- The media often portrays psychologists as therapists, leading to a skewed perception of the field.
Myth 6: To get a job in psychology, you have to go to graduate school
- Most students who major in psychology do not pursue graduate degrees.
- A bachelor's degree in psychology opens doors to various workforce positions related to people or data.
Myth 7: Psychology is personally defined
- Personal experience cannot be the sole basis for psychological phenomena.
- Psychologists rely on empirical evidence and scientific methods to build a knowledge corpus of human behavior and emotions.
In summary, psychology is a science that uses rigorous research methods to study human behavior, emotions, and thoughts. It challenges common sense assumptions and provides valuable insights into the human condition. Understanding these myths and their correctives will help you appreciate the true nature of psychology as a discipline.
Preparing for Common Encounters as a Psychology Major
Introduction:
- Encouraged to prepare for conversations about choosing psychology as a major
- Predictable frustrations from not expressing oneself well in these encounters
- Hindsight bias leads to regret
- Anticipating and preparing responses can minimize regrets
Seizing the Narrative:
- Taking command of conversations about psychology major
- Responding effectively to common questions and misconceptions
Common Questions:
- Isn't psychology just good common sense?
- Did you go into this major to work out your problems?
- So you must be planning on going to graduate school?
- Why don't you go into some science major?
- You do know you won't be able to get a job when you graduate...
- Aren't you picking a pretty unchallenging major?
- Are you going to read my mind?
- Can you tell me how to fix the problems I'm having with my roommate?
Nature of Psychology Major:
- Robust interest in psychology major (APA's Center for Workforce Studies)
- Growing number of undergraduate degrees awarded each year (approximately 120,000)
- Popular STEM field, with around 6-6.5% of all undergraduates majoring in psychology
- Psychology is the most popular STEM field among undergraduates
Majoring in Psychology: Two Pathways and Major Structure
- Students may choose psychology major due to personal experience or media representation (Dana's story) or discover it as a better fit than their initial major (Jane's story)
- Psychology departments offer various orientations, from humanistic to neuroscience-focused
- Most programs begin with an introductory psychology course and include research and statistics, content courses, history of psychology, electives, and capstone courses
Two Types of Psychology Degrees: Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Science (BS)
- BA focuses on liberal arts side, including foreign language and reduced science emphasis
- BS has less humanities influence and more emphasis on sciences, often with additional math or statistics courses
- Some departments have changed to psychological science degree, emphasizing STEM-oriented curriculum
Specializations and Concentrations within the Major
- Students can pursue degrees in specific areas like human development, neuroscience, or neurobiology
- Certificates document concentrated time spent in various content clusters (human resources, addictions, child development)
- Undergraduate programs do not typically offer clinical psychology majors; students should note they are majoring in psychology with an interest in clinical issues
Enhancing Your Major with a Minor
- Students can choose minors based on intrinsic interest or career path requirements
- Profitable minors include business, education, sociology, and statistics
Reality Check: Adding Value to Your Major with the Right Minor
Considering the right minor can enrich your major in Psychology and set you apart from competition for graduate school or workforce. Here are some minors and their advantages:
Minors and Their Advantages
| Minor | Graduate School Advantage | Workforce Advantage |
|---|---|---|
| Biology | Extensive requirements in biology for most graduate psychology programs. | Qualification for entry into healthcare and pharmaceuticals. |
| Business | Enhances value in many entry-level positions. | Psychologists planning to be private practitioners need business skills. |
| Communications | Substantial speaking and writing activities in graduate school and professions. | Background for public relations and marketing. |
| Computer Science | Technology can enhance research capabilities. | Most jobs have a strong intersection with information technology. |
| English | Clear writing practice helps with thesis and dissertation. | Capable writing about psychological phenomena opens job prospects. |
| Mathematics | Variety of statistics classes required for psychology majors. | Collecting and analyzing data is helpful in various sectors. |
| Philosophy | Improves intellectual capacity through writing and thinking practice. | Some entry-level jobs require deep thinking and creative problem solving. |
| Sociology | Assists in advocacy and community-organizing components of graduate training. | Understanding individual and group behavior helps in community organizing. |
What the Psychology Major Is Not
- Misconception: Psychology is an easy major.
- People often assume psychology is easy due to familiarity with human behavior.
- Introductory psychology courses can be challenging, and the scientific, mathematical, and biological components quickly reveal its complexity.
- Misconception: Psychology majors can function as therapists.
- A bachelor's degree in psychology does not make you a psychologist or allow you to perform therapy.
- To become a professional psychologist, one must have advanced training, a degree, and a license to practice.
- Misconception: Psychology majors offer solutions to their own problems.
- The undergraduate curriculum does not focus on personal insights or change; that is the role of therapy.
- The psychology major concentrates on communicating concepts, principles, and theories about human behavior from a scientific perspective.
Psychology Major: A Pathway to Opportunities and Potential Riches
- The majority of psychology graduates do not pursue clinical psychology or graduate school but enter the workforce (Halonen, 2012)
- Starting salaries for psychology majors are relatively lower compared to other STEM fields, but they can increase over time
- According to NACE's salary survey in 2017:
- Computer science: $72,677
- Engineering: $65,539
- Mathematics and statistics: $60,631
- Health science: $53,872
- Business: $52,456
- Social science: $46,707
- History: $38,997
- Communications: $38,897
- Visual and performing arts: $37,887
- English: $37,825
- Median annual salary for employees aged 25-59 with a bachelor's degree in psychology is $49,000 (APA, 2016)
- Industrial/organizational psychology: $66,000
- Social psychology: $51,000
- Psychology majors who complete a graduate degree earn 33% more than those with only a bachelor's degree (APA, 2016)
- Median salaries according to type of position:
- Clinical psychologist: $69,000 - $94,000
- Counseling psychologist: $53,000 - $72,000
- Forensic psychologist: $60,000 - $118,000
- School psychologist: $54,000 - $72,000
- Industrial-organizational psychology: $61,000 - $131,000 (Psychology Career Center, 2018)
- Median income for psychologists in 2015 was $85,000 (APA's Center for Workforce Studies, 2017)
- Most psychologists earn a comfortable living but are not considered rich
- Belief that psychologists are wealthy is often fueled by overestimating income potential and imagining high hourly rates translate to weekly earnings
- Full-time caseload represents more like 20 hours of direct service, with additional costs for office rental, support staff, insurance, etc. (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2014)
Psychology Major: Overview and Benefits
- The undergraduate psychology curriculum provides an opportunity to study the behavior of living organisms from a scientific perspective.
- Useful in the workplace due to the applicability of psychological principles to problem-solving.
- A strong foundation for high-performing students aiming to pursue graduate studies and specialized careers.
Misunderstandings and Myths about Psychology
Why is psychology frequently misunderstood?
- Lack of awareness about the scientific nature of the discipline.
- Misconceptions about the focus and applications of psychological research.
What qualifies psychology as a science?
- Empirical approach: relies on data collection, observation, and experimentation to understand behavior and mental processes.
- Systematic and objective methods: follows established scientific procedures and rigorous standards for evidence.
Common misconceptions about psychology
- It's only about therapy or counseling.
- It's not a real science because it deals with subjective experiences.
- Psychologists are not qualified to provide medical advice.
Key Features of the Undergraduate Psychology Curriculum
- Covers various subfields: biological psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and clinical psychology.
- Emphasizes research methods and statistical analysis.
- Encourages critical thinking and application of psychological principles to real-world situations.
Supporting Minors for a Psychology Major
- Statistics: essential for analyzing data in psychological research.
- Biology: understanding the biological basis of behavior and mental processes.
- Sociology or Anthropology: exploring social influences on behavior and culture.
Inaccurate Ideas about the Nature of the Psychology Major
- It's an easy major with no math or science requirements.
- All psychology majors become therapists or counselors.
- The major lacks practical applications or real-world relevance.
Distinctive Philosophy, Orientation, or Specialization of Undergraduate Psychology Programs
- Some programs may emphasize specific research areas or approaches (e.g., cognitive, developmental, clinical).
- Others may offer opportunities for experiential learning through internships, research projects, or study abroad programs.
- Students should consider their career goals and interests when choosing a program.
- Explaining your choice with confidence: Being able to articulate your values and professional goals is impressive and helps you stay committed during challenging times.
- Personal Fit: Assessing if your personality suits psychology, considering current skills, and interests.
Career vs. Meaning
- Career for Money vs. Meaning: A common debate when choosing a major, considering the typical length of work lives.
Characteristics of Poor Fits for Psychology Major
- Lack of Interest: If you're not genuinely interested in psychology, it may be challenging to succeed and stay motivated.
- Weak Academic Performance: Struggling with the coursework can hinder your progress and make it difficult to achieve your goals.
- Inflexibility: Psychology majors require a strong foundation in research methods and statistics, which can limit opportunities for some careers.
- Lack of Patience: The field requires time and dedication, as progress may not always be immediate or easily measurable.
Addressing Concerns from Others
- Economic Viability: Dana's father's concern about supporting oneself is common. While some psychology careers may not be as financially rewarding as others, there are opportunities for advancement and specialization.
- Lack of Clear Career Path: Some people might worry that a psychology degree doesn't lead to a clear career path. However, the field offers various applications in education, research, healthcare, business, and more.
- Stigma around Mental Health: Some may view mental health issues negatively or stigmatize those who seek help. It's essential to recognize that mental health is an integral part of overall well-being and that psychology can contribute positively to addressing these concerns.
Choosing a Major: The Importance of Aligning Your Interests and Goals
- Significant people in your life may have opinions about your major choice, often driven by concerns about salary and economic security
- Psychology major can be appealing due to personal interest and alignment with talents
- Liberal arts majors, like psychology, provide general knowledge and intellectual abilities transferable to various situations and jobs
Concerns About Choosing a Major in Psychology
- Economic concerns: reasonable salary, ability to pay off loans, cover living expenses
- Job market challenges for some students in the field
- Liberal arts majors sometimes criticized for lack of economic focus
Advantages of Pursuing a Liberal Arts Major
- Emphasizes critical thinking, attentive reading, clear writing, and other intellectual abilities
- Not everyone wants to commit to a specific academic path solely based on job prospects
- Some students are unsure about their future career goals
Cautionary Tale: The Importance of Personal Interest in Your Major
- Maria's story: parents pushed her into education and psychology, but she discovered she had no interest in teaching
- Spending years pursuing someone else's dream can lead to dissatisfaction and wasted time
Economic and Job Security Concerns
- Reasonable for college graduates to become economically independent
- Important to choose a major that interests, motivates, or suits you
- Hard work and dedication are essential for success in any field
Skills to Develop for Psychology Majors
- Quantitative skills (math and statistics)
- Communication abilities
- Research and analytical skills
- Adaptability and versatility in various career paths.
Self-Assessment of Personality and Skills: Understanding Your Unique Traits and Their Impact on Career Choices
Background: Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychologists argue that people's personalities, unique behavioral traits, can influence the type of work they do best. This concept applies not only to choosing a career but also selecting a college major. Standardized occupation interest inventories help individuals assess their personality traits and skills for vocational possibilities.
Self-Assessment: To identify your traits that might be a good fit for a psychology major or any other field, consider the following questions:
- What are your best features or skills?
- Do you enjoy interacting with people one-on-one or in groups?
- Do you prefer working alone or as part of a team?
- Are people often seeking your advice?
- What activities do you enjoy and why?
- What hobbies or things do you do when not studying or working?
- What would your perfect work environment be like?
- How do you deal with interpersonal conflict?
- What creates stress for you?
- Have past jobs made you feel stressed, and how did you manage it?
- Do you prefer working on small details or the "big picture"?
- How do you define success?
- Does your life have a purpose?
- What is your destiny?
- What would you like to be known and remembered for in the long run?
- What would you change about the world?
- One word that describes you?
- One word others might use to describe you?
Seeking a Fit Between You and Your Working Environment:
Psychologist John Holland developed the trait model of career choice, which helps individuals link their personality qualities (interests, needs, skills, values, learning styles, attitudes) to particular settings where work occurs. His model categorizes individuals into six personal orientations and organizes occupations into six work environments.
A good fit between a person's personality and the environment can lead to greater fulfillment, success, and determination in their major and career.
Holland's Six Personal Orientations:
- Realistic: Values concrete and physical tasks, practical, focused on problem-solving, perceives themselves as possessing mechanical skills but lacking social or interpersonal skills, drawn to manual and athletic activities, enjoys using tools and machines.
- Investigative: Loves solving scientific, intellectual, and mathematical puzzles and problems, methodical, self-reflective, critical, curious, highly analytical, values independence, enjoys taking courses in the physical and biological sciences, mathematics, and chemistry.
- Artistic: Drawn to unstructured projects that provide freedom and breadth to explore and express feeling and emotion, independent, free-spirited, expressive, imaginative, innovative.
- Social: Drawn toward educational, helping, and religious careers, enjoys working with others on teams, values social and educational issues, cooperative, friendly, conscientious, persuasive, insightful, sensitive to others' needs.
- Enterprising: Likes leading, motivating, inspiring, and persuading others, values economic and political achievement, relishes the chance to supervise, enjoys exerting control, extroverted, sociable, happy, self-confident, popular, assertive.
- Conventional: Likes order, prefers engaging in systematic, concrete tasks that are prescribed, uses both verbal and quantitative data, sees themselves as conformists, identifies with their clerical and numerical abilities, excels at following rules and orders, detail-oriented, drawn to straightforward rather than open-ended problems.
Choosing a Career Based on Your Personal Orientation:
- Identify the one type from Holland's six orientations that is the best fit for you.
- Choose a second and third orientation but remember they are idealized types, no one person will fit any type perfectly.
- Review Table 3.2 to understand the work environments linked to your personal orientations and their representative college majors.
- Determine if each of the three personal orientations that most closely describe you are linked to work environments that sound pleasing to you and plausible options for you.
Holland's Six Work Environments and Personal Orientations
Holland identified six types of work environments based on the nature of the tasks, interactions, and settings. These work environments are linked to personal orientations, which can help individuals identify potential careers and majors that align with their interests.
- Realistic Settings:
- Characterized by concrete, physical tasks using mechanical skills and considerable persistence
- Sample careers: draftsperson, automobile mechanic, law enforcement officer, electrician, engineer, cook, pilot, machine operator
- Sample majors: electrical or aerospace engineering, architecture, criminal justice, environmental studies
- Investigative Settings:
- Research laboratories, scientific groups, medical settings, case conferences
- Sample careers: computer programmer, clinical psychologist, veterinarian, dentist, marine biologist, physician, physician's assistant, chemist
- Sample majors: computer science, biology, biochemistry, astronomy, anthropology
- Artistic Settings:
- Concert or performing halls, theaters, libraries, radio or television studios, art, photography, design, music studios
- Sample careers: actor, painter, advertiser, sculptor, musician, author, editor, designer, photographer, interior designer, architect
- Sample majors: English, art, art history, interior design, graphic art, advertising, architecture, design, and interior design
- Social Settings:
- Hospitals, colleges and universities, public and private schools, churches, temples, synagogues, recreational centers, mental health organizations
- Sample careers: counselor, teacher, professor, nurse, social worker, judge, minister, rabbi, sociologist, psychologist
- Sample majors: human development, psychology, philosophy, sociology, religious studies, education, special education, and social work
- Enterprising Settings:
- Advertising companies, courtrooms, congressional offices, car sales offices, retail stores, real estate firms
- Sample careers: attorney, realtor, politician, salesperson, manager
- Sample majors: business administration, economics, broadcasting, hospitality and tourism, industrial relations, finance
- Conventional Settings:
- Office settings, banks, post offices, any business office, filing rooms
- Sample careers: receptionist, financial counselor, accountant, banker, bookkeeper, data processor, office clerk, court reporter
- Sample majors: accounting, finance, medical records, mathematics, and statistics
Identifying Your Personal Orientations: The goal is to identify and rank your top three personal orientations based on the Holland code (RCE, SIA, CON, REA, INT, ART). This information can help guide you in choosing potential careers and majors. For example, an RCE person might be interested in engineering or law enforcement, while an SEA person could consider a psychology major.
Resources for Career Planning: Consider visiting your college or university's career services or career development office to learn about available resources that can help you plan your future career.
I. Introduction
- Being happy is an important motive for making choices regarding education, work, and career.
- Making more money beyond a certain point does not lead to increased happiness.
II. The Limitation of Money as a Motivator
- Research shows that once people exceed an income of about $75,000 per year, their happiness levels do not change much (Kahneman & Deaton, 2010).
- More money means more work hours and less time for leisure and relaxation, leading to no increase in happiness (Kahneman et al., 2006).
III. A Major Success Story: Tim's Journey
- Tim loved his college experience and wanted a career that allowed him to help people without committing to graduate or professional school.
- He became an academic advisor, using his communication skills, problem-solving abilities, and passion for psychology to help students.
- Tim's advice: consider what you value, enjoy doing, are passionate about, and are good at when choosing a career.
IV. The Importance of Meaning in Work
- Having meaning in work refers to having a sense of direction, coherent values, and personal philosophy.
- Doing enjoyable work provides feelings of fulfillment and improves both the individual and the world (Wrzesniewski et al., 2003).
V. Three Categories of Work: Jobs, Careers, and Vocations
- Professionals tend to view their work as falling into one of three categories: jobs, careers, and vocations.
- A job is a means to an end, providing a salary but little personal satisfaction.
- A career is focused on advancement and increasing income, often at the expense of personal fulfillment.
- A vocation is work that aligns with one's values, passions, and abilities, leading to a sense of purpose and meaning.
I. Jobs
- A source of income to support living expenses
- Often provide little satisfaction or meaning for those who hold them
- People in jobs often anticipate weekends, holidays, and vacations
- Examples include: assembly line work, retail sales, or administrative positions
II. Careers
- Holding a position long enough to receive promotions and advancement
- Competitive element with coworkers for better titles, offices, and pay raises
- People in careers may not necessarily enjoy the work but are motivated by advancement opportunities
- Examples include: law, medicine, engineering, or business management
III. Vocations
- Following a calling where work is an integral part of one's life
- Provides satisfaction, pleasure, and identity
- People in vocations bring their work home and may not look forward to retirement
- Examples include: teaching, writing, art, or music
Comparison
- People with vocations are more satisfied with their work and lives compared to those with jobs or careers
- Those with vocations devote more time to their work than others
- Vocations can lead to civic accolades but may not provide ample salaries
- Choosing a major that aligns with one's passion and commitment is essential for finding a vocation
Reality Check for Older Psychology Majors
- Nontraditional students: experienced life outside of college, motivated, well-prepared, active participants, confident, interact with instructors, react favorably to structured courses, less tolerant of off-topic classroom activities.
Benefits of Majoring in Psychology for Nontraditional Students
Self-Regulation Abilities
- Adept at managing home and work environments
- Establish goals and implement reward strategies
- Minimize distractions, avoid multitasking
- Unleash creativity
Leadership Skills
- Pay attention to outcomes and process
- Solicit opinions from all members
- Deal with conflict effectively
Communication Skills
- Observe and infer effectively
- Build trust through good eye contact
- Decode nonverbal communications
- Adaptable in interpersonal interactions
Empathy and Understanding
- Awareness of human emotion leads to self-understanding
- Perspective-taking skills
- Recognize emotions are temporary
Decision Making
- Learn about cognitive errors
- Recognize defense mechanisms
- Look for disconfirming evidence
- Avoid holding onto discounted beliefs
- Systematic strategies for making sound decisions
Memory Skills and Grades
- Understand how memory works
- Highlighting textbooks is ineffective
- Cramming does not produce long-term learning
- Maximize study environments
- Test yourself on material
- Judge accurately when prepared
Financial Management Strategies
- Make short-term sacrifices for long-term gains
- Recognize temporary pleasures pale in comparison to investments
Healthier Behavior
- Learn tools for managing healthy lifestyles
- Study deleterious effects of poor nutrition, drug abuse, smoking, sleep deprivation
- Implement behavior-modification strategies
Possible Considerations
- Psychology might not be the best major for everyone.
- Some students may not be well-suited for a psychology major and could benefit from exploring other options.
The Clinical-or-Bust Major
- Students who envision a clinical career and see psychology as the only way to achieve it.
- Disappointed by lack of clinical coursework and research requirements.
- May be better suited for helping professions like social work or education.
The Anti-Science Major
- Lack of interest in science and research components of psychology.
- Struggle with statistics and research methodology.
- May prefer majors that emphasize social rather than scientific elements.
The Avoidant Reader Major
- Decrease in college reading and studying.
- Difficulty understanding course content without doing the required reading.
- Consider alternative majors or reconsider college if no reading holds appeal.
The Refuge Major
- Students who change majors frequently.
- May choose psychology as a "safe" major after failing in another.
- Lack of intrinsic interest in the discipline may lead to poor performance.
- Benefit from speaking with academic advisors about goals and alternatives.
The Driftwood Major
- Students who lack enthusiasm for the major.
- Poor performance in courses.
- May graduate with low GPAs and few job prospects.
- Should evaluate reasons for lackluster performance and consider alternative paths.
Choosing a College Major: Why Psychology?
- Important decision in life
- Enthusiasm and satisfaction are key
- Psychology as an exciting major
- Learning about human behavior
- Get out of psychology what you put into it
Thought Questions
- Myths about Psychology:
- Myth: Psychology is only for those who want to be therapists or counselors.
- Material in this chapter can help dispel this myth by discussing the diverse career paths and applications of psychology.
- Concerns about Majoring in Psychology:
- Worry about job prospects
- Fear of not being good enough
- Excitement outweighs concerns
- What excites you about majoring in psychology?
- Other majors considered and how they compare to psychology
- Motives for choosing a psychology major:
- Personal interest
- Career goals
- Desire to help others
- Goals and values underlying the rationale for choosing a psychology major
Reasons Psychology is Apt to be the Right Choice
- No standard curriculum, but expectations for skills and attitudes
- 12-15 psychology courses: lower and upper division
- Building knowledge base, refining problem-solving strategies, and honing attitudes
The Importance of a Learning-Centered Approach in Psychology Education
- Historically content-centered approach
- Focus on transmitting discipline content
- Students may not recognize or understand cognitive changes
- 1995: Barr and Tagg proposed learning-centered approach
- Teacher as guide instead of sage on the stage
- Increases student engagement and promotes persistence
- High-impact practices (HIP)
- Universities pressure to use active-learning strategies
- Formal assessment planning for accreditation processes.
- The Popularity of the Psychology Major:
- Psychology is a popular undergraduate major, often among the top five on campuses.
- Reasons for its popularity include perceived ease and added value to a liberal arts degree.
- Psychology offers human-focused values and scientific tools to understand and improve the human condition.
- Psychological Literacy:
- Introduced in Chapter 1 as an adaptive application of psychology to personal, professional, and societal needs.
- Components include: having a well-defined vocabulary, valuing intellectual challenges, creative problem solving, applying psychological principles, acting ethically, using information and technology, communicating effectively, recognizing diversity, and being insightful and reflective.
- American Psychological Association's Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major:
- Developed in 2000 to determine appropriate learning goals for undergraduate psychology programs.
- Originally ten goals, later revised into five:
- Knowledge base in psychology
- Critical thinking and scientific inquiry
- Communication
- Ethical and social responsibility in a diverse world
- Professional development
- Psychologically Literate Citizen:
- Example given by the APA is Jon Stewart, who used his psychological knowledge to revolutionize news broadcasting with satire.
- Demonstrated characteristics of psychologically literate citizens: creativity, problem solving, ethical behavior, communication skills, and insightfulness.
- Assessment Planning in Psychology:
- Faculty members participate in assessment planning beyond grading tests to improve programs and student learning.
- Focus on explicit learning goals, designing assignments, collecting data, and using findings for continuous improvement.
- Students should receive feedback on demonstrating skills.
- The Value of Studying Psychology:
- Provides added value to a liberal arts degree by offering human-focused values and scientific tools.
- Helps students navigate complex contemporary life and develop essential skills for workforce success.
APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major: Goals and Learning Outcomes
The American Psychological Association (APA) has established guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major, which include five goals and corresponding learning outcomes. These goals aim to ensure that students graduating with a psychology degree have a solid foundation in the field and are prepared for various career paths.
Goal 1: Knowledge Base in Psychology
Students should demonstrate fundamental knowledge and comprehension of major concepts, theoretical perspectives, historical trends, and empirical findings to discuss how psychological principles apply to behavioral problems.
- 1.1 Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology
- Understand the basic principles and concepts within various areas of psychology (e.g., biological, cognitive, social, developmental)
- 1.2 Develop a working knowledge of psychology's content domains
- Familiarize yourself with the major subfields of psychology and their key topics
- 1.3 Describe applications of psychology
- Understand how psychological principles can be applied to real-world issues and problems
Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking
The skills in this domain involve the development of scientific reasoning and problem solving, including effective research methods.
- 2.1 Use scientific reasoning to interpret psychological phenomena
- Apply scientific principles to understand complex psychological phenomena
- 2.2 Demonstrate psychology information literacy
- Locate, evaluate, and use reliable sources of psychological information effectively
- 2.3 Engage in innovative and integrative thinking and problem solving
- Develop creative solutions to complex problems by combining existing knowledge and ideas
- 2.4 Interpret, design, and conduct basic psychological research
- Understand the process of conducting research, including designing studies, collecting data, analyzing results, and interpreting findings
- 2.5 Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific inquiry
- Recognize the importance of considering sociocultural contexts when studying psychological phenomena
Goal 3: Ethical and Social Responsibility in a Diverse World
The skills in this domain involve the development of ethically and socially responsible behaviors for professional and personal settings in a diverse world.
- 3.1 Apply ethical standards to evaluate psychological science and practice
- Understand and apply ethical principles in psychological research and practice
- 3.2 Build and enhance interpersonal relationships
- Develop effective communication skills and empathy towards others
- 3.3 Adopt values that build community at local, national, and global levels
- Cultivate a sense of social responsibility and contribute to building strong communities
Goal 4: Communication
Students should demonstrate competence in writing and in oral and interpersonal communication skills.
- 4.1 Demonstrate effective writing for different purposes
- Write clearly, concisely, and persuasively for various audiences and contexts
- 4.2 Exhibit effective presentation skills for different purposes
- Deliver presentations effectively to diverse audiences
- 4.3 Interact effectively with others
- Communicate clearly and respectfully in both professional and personal settings
Goal 5: Professional Development
The emphasis in this goal is on application of psychology-specific content and skills, effective self-reflection, project-management skills, teamwork skills, and career preparation.
- 5.1 Apply psychological content and skills to career goals
- Understand how to apply psychological knowledge and skills to various careers
- 5.2 Exhibit self-efficacy and self-regulation
- Develop a strong sense of self-confidence and self-discipline
- 5.3 Refine project-management skills
- Learn to plan, organize, and execute projects effectively
- 5.4 Enhance teamwork capacity
- Collaborate effectively with others in group settings
- 5.5 Develop meaningful professional direction for life after graduation
- Identify and pursue career goals that align with personal interests and values
The APA guidelines provide a comprehensive framework for undergraduate psychology programs to ensure students receive a well-rounded education in the field. By focusing on these five goals, students will be better prepared for various careers and professional pursuits.
Introductory Psychology Course Goals
All students in an introductory psychology course should be able to:
- Acquire basic knowledge of theories, concepts, and principles in psychology
- Characterize the development of psychology as a scientific enterprise
- Discuss classic research in psychology, including historical and cultural contexts
- Explain the principles of psychological literacy
Critical Thinking
- Apply sound research procedures to solve problems
- Use evidence to develop and evaluate claims about behavior
- Evaluate the quality of research designs and validity of research claims
- Look for alternative explanations in evaluating the validity of claims
Communication Skills
- Refine communication skills related to psychological science
- Begin using APA conventions in scientific writing
- Verbally express ideas precisely and persuasively in multiple formats
- Assess the strengths and weaknesses of collaborative style as a group member
Ethical and Social Responsibilities in a Diverse World
- Discuss the role of ethical practices in psychology
- Identify relevant ethical issues involved in psychological research and practice
- Discriminate ethical from unethical practices
- Describe why ethics matters in psychology
Professional Development
- Refine skills to complete projects
- Develop strategies for completing assignments in a timeless fashion
- Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of performance
- Identify applications of psychology that produce career opportunities
Measuring Up: How Courses Build Skills
- Examine syllabus for clues about learning-centered or content-centered approach
- Look at student-learning outcomes in the syllabus
- Speculate about how well you met those outcomes
- Consider making this process habitual
Linking Undergraduate Goals to Workplace Objectives
- Psychology provides a strong and adaptable major for the professional work world
- Content of undergraduate curriculum is uniquely suited to supporting strong performance in the professional world
- Skill set of psychology major readily translates into workforce demands
- Workplace-related skills refined by the psychology major include:
- Describing and predicting individual and group behavior
- Understanding and using data to support an argument
- Interpreting research data and graphs accurately
- Evaluating the legitimacy of claims about behavior
- Synthesizing information from diverse sources
- Having insight into problematic behaviors
- Demonstrating capacity to adapt to change
- Operating effectively in informal and formal channels of an organization
- Managing difficult situations and high-stress environments
- Communicating effectively in oral and written modes
- Starting and executing projects with limited information and experience
- Exhibiting persistence in challenging situations
- Working effectively in teams that include people from diverse backgrounds
- Engendering trust through personal integrity
- Writing reports that follow directions and use appropriate conventions
Metacognitive Changes
- Intellectual curiosity: relishing the opportunity to think deeply about behavior, enjoying asking questions, predicting outcomes, and solving puzzles
- Expectation of complexity about the origins of behaviors: understanding that behavior is complex and embracing ambiguity
- Tolerance of ambiguity: being patient when answers aren't readily forthcoming and not daunted by complexity
- Humility: recognizing the limitations of what we know and making decisions using incomplete information
- Amiable skepticism: being hard to persuade, questioning simplistic explanations, and adopting a skeptical stance until persuasive evidence is presented
- Engagement in civic and social responsibilities: considering the broader impact of actions, recognizing the satisfaction that comes from making constructive contributions, and being sensitive to people who function at some disadvantage.
Preparing for a Campus Tutoring Job Interview: 10 Abilities and Strengths
- Psychological Literacy
- Understanding of basic psychological concepts and principles
- Ability to apply psychological theories to real -life situations
- Familiarity with various research methods and designs
- Communication Skills
- Clear and effective verbal communication
- Active listening skills
- Patience and ability to clarify complex ideas
- Problem-Solving Abilities
- Analytical thinking and reasoning
- Creativity in finding solutions
- Adaptability to different learning styles
- Empathy and Interpersonal Skills
- Ability to connect with students on a personal level
- Sensitivity to students' emotional needs
- Cultural competence and inclusivity
- Patience and Perseverance
- Willingness to work through difficult concepts with students
- Ability to remain calm under pressure
- Persistence in helping students reach their goals
- Time Management and Organization
- Effective scheduling and prioritization
- Ability to manage multiple students and sessions
- Flexibility to accommodate changing schedules
- Adaptability and Flexibility
- Willingness to learn new teaching methods and techniques
- Ability to adjust instruction based on student needs
- Openness to feedback and continuous improvement
- Technology Proficiency
- Familiarity with various learning technologies
- Ability to use technology effectively in tutoring sessions
- Comfort with virtual tutoring platforms
- Learning Strategies and Study Skills
- Knowledge of effective study strategies and techniques
- Ability to teach students how to learn independently
- Experience applying these strategies in psychology courses
- Passion for Psychology
- Deep understanding and enthusiasm for the subject matter
- Ability to inspire students' interest and motivation
- Commitment to staying up-to-date with new research and developments in the field
Learning Contexts and Evidence of Qualifications
- Introductory Psychology: Familiarity with course content and teaching methods, ability to explain complex concepts clearly.
- Psychology Club Involvement: Developed leadership skills through organizing events, gained experience working with diverse student populations.
- Research Experience: Demonstrated analytical thinking and problem-solving abilities through conducting research studies, applying psychological theories to real-life situations.
- Tutoring or Teaching Assistantships: Gained experience working one-on-one with students, implementing effective teaching strategies, and adapting instruction based on student needs.
- Academic Success
- Four-year undergraduate experience goes quickly
- Requires refined skills, routines, persistence, and an open mind
- Time management is crucial for success
- Time Management
- Dana's observation: Students who do well in their major are interested and manage their time effectively
- Common pitfalls: planning fallacy, positive illusions, overconfidence effect
- Consequences of poor time management: missed deadlines, late or no submissions, poor grades, sleep deprivation
- Time Management Challenges in College
- Competing responsibilities: jobs, social activities, online life
- Students' typical weekly time distribution: majority on leisure pursuits, least on studying
- Sleep
- Importance of sufficient sleep for optimal performance and well-being
- All-nighters result in fragile learning and health issues
- Strategies to improve sleep quality: avoid overstimulation, exercise and eat moderately before bed, read non-engaging materials, establish a consistent bedtime routine, keep phones away from the bedroom.
- Conclusion
- Time management and sufficient sleep are essential for academic success in college.
- Students who manage their time effectively and get enough sleep perform better academically and maintain good health.
Time Management Recommendations:
- Attending Classes:
- Attend all classes unless ill.
- Prioritize studying by doing challenging work first.
- Allocate time across classes instead of focusing on one per day.
- Start planning projects and assignments early.
- Stay current in reading and meet assignment due dates.
- Study Techniques:
- Work backward from due dates to identify study blocks.
- Devote more time to online than face-to-face classes.
- Schedule classes throughout the day for increased study time.
- Concentrate studying during daylight hours.
- Study in quiet places with minimal interruptions.
- Shut off phone and avoid social media while studying.
- Never study on your bed.
- Take short breaks to stay attentive.
- Adhere to an established routine whenever possible.
- Additional Recommendations:
- Take short naps (about 20-30 minutes) for improved alertness and performance.
Time Management Analysis:
- Keep a Time Log:
- Write down activities in 15- or 30-minute segments for one week.
- Review the log to analyze time usage and identify time wasters.
- Reflect on Time Usage:
- Consider changes to better use time.
- Schedule relaxation and leisure time without neglecting responsibilities.
- Ensure adequate sleep (not too much or too little).
- Improve Study Skills:
- Identify major time-sucks in your week.
- Prioritize studying and necessary responsibilities over leisure activities.
- Develop a plan to manage time more effectively in the future.
Ahmad's Experience:
- Enrolled in a psychology class on adjustment
- Engaged with material but received poor exam grade
- Professor identified lack of strategic reading as issue
- Implemented suggested techniques and saw improvement
Common Challenges for College Students:
- Overconfidence in study skills
- Relying on outdated study methods
- Difficulty with college-level reading
Effective Reading Strategies: SQ4R Method:
- Survey:
- Look over chapter or section headings
- Get a sense of the material
- Question:
- Turn headings into questions
- Answer these questions as you read
- Read:
- Start reading the chapter or section
- Answer questions and after finishing, reread sections if needed
- Recite/Relate:
- Recite answers out loud in your own words
- Write down answers to review later
- Review:
- After finishing a chapter or section, do a memory check by asking yourself about the key questions
Highlighting and Note Taking:
- Highlighting and underlining do not promote learning
- Handwriting is linked with deeper learning and information retention
- Traditional notebooks are more effective for note taking than typing on laptops or tablets.
Effective Studying: A more productive approach to studying than the "binge method" or cramming the night before a test.
Binge Method: Ineffective studying technique where students spend several hours reading, rereading, and reviewing notes the day before an exam.
Reasons Against Binge Studying:
- Gets dull and anxiety-provoking due to last-minute pressure.
- Neglects other classes and coursework.
Evidence-Based Approach to Studying:
- Spaced Learning (The Spacing Effect): Students who distribute their studying of particular material across a period of time learn and retain more information than those who cram just before the exam.
- Study in Different Venues: Developing multiple retrieval cues by studying in various locations makes learning sturdier.
Additional Steps to Improve Studying:
- Attend Class: Get to know instructors and classmates, avoid sitting in the back of the classroom.
- Schedule Study Time: Set aside regular study blocks for each class.
- Write Down Important Dates: Keep track of homework, paper due dates, and exams.
- Start Assignments Early: Pace yourself by working ahead and avoiding cramming.
- Take Breaks: Refresh your mind with short breaks or switch to a different subject.
- Review Key Terms: Use end-of-chapter exercises to assess understanding and identify areas for improvement.
- Celebrate Achievements: Reflect on learning progress and academic/professional goals.
Test-Taking Strategies
- College exams are a significant part of academic life
- Consistent and advanced studying is essential, but additional strategies can help increase test performance
Exam Preparation
- Look over the entire exam before starting
- Know types of questions, point values, and time requirements
- Reduces anxiety and allows for better time management
Multiple-Choice Questions
- Read the entire question
- Mark answers as you go
- Skip difficult questions and answer them later
- Eliminate obviously incorrect answers to narrow choices
- Change answers if review reveals errors
Essay Questions
- Read the question carefully
- Create a brief outline before writing
- Avoid regurgitating information
- Use concrete examples to illustrate points
- Check your response against the prompt after finishing
General Test-Taking Tips
- Pace yourself during the exam
- Halfway through, be more than halfway done
- Never leave a question blank
- Write something, even if it's incorrect or incomplete
- Return to blank questions later
- Stay relaxed during the exam
- Dress comfortably and avoid overstimulants like caffeine.
Math Anxiety and Psychology
- Many students, including psychology majors, experience anxiety when faced with math problems.
- Math skills are essential in psychology as statistics and data analysis are integral to research methods.
- Overcoming math anxiety is important for completing a psychology degree.
Reasons to Face Math Anxiety
- Useful in various courses, not just quantitative ones.
- Rustier high school math foundation with delayed completion.
- Completing degree requires fluency in math.
Resources for Overcoming Math Anxiety
- Problem-solving sessions or tutoring from math and statistics departments.
- Writing centers for help with papers and essay questions.
Accommodations for Students with Disabilities
- Inform professors about disabilities at the start of the semester.
- Schools may offer extra time on exams or specific testing conditions.
- Use disability resource centers to learn about resources and policies.
Importance of Grades and Learning from Them
- Focusing on grades can distract from important information.
- Conduct a postmortem on quizzes, tests, and papers.
- Review answers you got wrong to learn from mistakes.
- Save graded materials for future reference.
- Use exam wrappers to review performance and instructor comments.
Exam Wrappers
- Questions aimed at reviewing performance and instructor comments on a test.
- Helps identify what worked and what didn't in preparation and approach to test taking.
Applying Psychology to Customer Service: A Case Study of Julian's Success in Hotel Management
Background:
- Diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) later in life
- Recognized advantages of having ADD: thinking outside the box, making new connections, problem-solving
- Started working in a local beach resort as a teenager
- 8 years of experience in hotel management before graduating from college
- Built a thriving hotel management and marketing company with over 1,800 employees
Advantages of Psychology Major: Understanding People:
- Enhanced listening skills
- Power of intuition
- Ability to "see around corners"
Compensating Strategies:
- Developed focus and problem-solving skills despite distractions of ADD
Professional Success:
- Impressive character and work ethic
- Mentored by a successful hotelier
- Parlayed knowledge and energy into building a successful business
Psychology's Role in Professional Success:
- Understanding people provides an advantage in the competitive industry
- Enhanced listening skills and intuition help in customer service and employee management
- Compensating strategies developed for ADD contributed to better problem-solving abilities
Best Advice:
- Be willing to be wrong and laugh at yourself
- Expect answers from unlikely places
- Open yourself up to infinite possibilities around you
- Recognize that you can't control the world, but how you react defines you.
Personal Ethics for Students: Building Trustworthy Character
As a student, part of your professional training involves building a trustworthy character. The habits you adopt now will impact your future actions. Your responsibility as a student includes being ethical, which means following a moral code. In the context of college and university life, this code generally reflects three areas of emphasis:
- Do Your Own Work:
- Students are responsible for completing their own assignments, tests, papers, etc.
- Academic lying and cheating include submitting other people's work as your own or plagiarizing.
- Familiarize yourself with your school's rules on academic dishonesty.
- Reporting suspected cheating anonymously is an option for those who feel uncomfortable.
- Maximize learning and communication skills by doing your own work.
- Do Not Plagiarize:
- Plagiarism is taking another person's ideas and passing them off as your own without proper attribution.
- Intentional plagiarism involves knowingly copying phrases, sentences, or paragraphs from published works or the internet.
- Unintentional plagiarism occurs when you inadvertently use someone else's words or ideas without proper citation.
- Professors can easily detect plagiarized work due to inconsistent writing styles and access to technology.
- The consequences of plagiarizing include penalties, loss of trust, and damage to your reputation.
- Avoid Behaviors that Tarnish Your Reputation:
- Cheating: using another's work without consent, collaborating on projects meant to be independent, altering grades, etc.
- Submitting the same work to multiple classes.
- Fabricating information or sources.
- Misusing materials like unauthorized calculators or advance exam copies.
- Interfering with other students' work or attempting to influence teachers through bribes or threats.
- Facilitating academic dishonesty by helping others cheat.
- Making false excuses for not completing schoolwork on time.
By following these guidelines and developing good study habits, you can build a strong foundation of personal ethics that will benefit you throughout your academic career and beyond.
Steps to Avoid Plagiarism:
- Review the material you intend to paraphrase.
- Draft a summary in your own words without looking at the original text.
- Compare your summary with the original text to ensure accuracy.
- Repeat as needed.
- Paraphrase instead of copying and pasting from online sources.
- Rely on your own ideas as much as possible.
- Keep a detailed list of references and cite them properly.
- Use quotes sparingly and correctly.
Navigating Cyberspace: Managing Your Cyberidentity
- Importance of managing online presence in the age of social media
- Permanence of information on the internet
- Rules for the (virtual) road:
- What you put on the Internet is permanent
- Anything posted can be copied and spread elsewhere
- Consider carefully what you share
- Secure your social media accounts
- Set privacy settings appropriately
- Be mindful of who can see your posts and communications
- Communicate appropriately
- Use respectful language and tone in emails and online interactions
- Address people appropriately based on their status or title
- Consider the content and formality of messages
- What you put on the Internet is permanent
- Learn from mistakes and adopt a growth mindset
- Learn from your mistakes
- Allow yourself to learn from errors instead of dwelling on them
- Move on and focus on improvement
- Adopt a growth mindset
- Believe in the ability to improve skills and intelligence
- Understand that effort leads to academic success
- Overcome wishful thinking
- Recognize that desired outcomes may not always materialize
- Work hard and be responsible in the present
- Learn from your mistakes
- Final suggestions for student success
- Always do your best work
- Treat each responsibility as worth doing well
- Avoid feelings of regret or disappointment
- Always do your best work
Managing Your Time Effectively
- Identify three changes to make:
- Prioritize tasks and create a schedule
- Eliminate distractions, such as social media or TV
- Break larger projects into smaller tasks and set deadlines
- Ensure sufficient sleep each night
- Establish a consistent bedtime routine
- Avoid caffeine and electronics before bed
- Identify effective study techniques
- Use active learning strategies, such as summarizing information or teaching it to someone else
- Eliminate multitasking and focus on one task at a time
- Try new test-taking strategies
- Review material regularly instead of cramming before the exam
- Use mnemonic devices to help remember information
Becoming a Stronger Student
- Concrete steps to take:
- Set specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals for academic performance
- Seek out resources, such as tutoring or study groups
- Practice active learning strategies and seek feedback from instructors and peers
- Develop good study habits
- Create a quiet, distraction-free study environment
- Use the Pomodoro Technique to focus for extended periods of time
- Take breaks regularly to recharge and avoid burnout
Managing Your Cyberidentity
- Evaluate current online presence
- Review privacy settings on social media accounts
- Consider deleting inappropriate or embarrassing content
- Make changes to improve cyberidentity
- Use positive language and images online
- Avoid sharing sensitive information
- Engage in meaningful, respectful interactions with others.
- Exercising autonomy in college education can be a joy but also comes with risks and potential delays in graduation
- Importance of understanding long-term consequences of decisions and seeking expert help
- Common stages of student development in the psychology major
Stages in the Psychology Major
- Students tend to think about their academic career in compartments, not as a whole
- Professors observe distinct stages of change students undergo during college years
The Novice Stage
- Occurs when students are new to the discipline
- Characteristics of novice learners:
- Enthusiastic about acquiring new concepts and theories
- Struggle with objectivity in describing behavior
- Interpret meaning of behavior instead of sticking to facts
- Trust their own experience and resist having beliefs challenged
- Resist adopting scientific conventions
- Dislike ambiguity and prefer simple answers
- Frustrated by complex questions without easy answers
- Novice learners begin to recognize nuances and understand subtle causes of behavior as they study psychology.
Transitioning from Novice to Advanced Stages
- As students progress, they become more comfortable with ambiguity and complexity
- Begin to distinguish independent and dependent variables in research designs
- Develop a deeper understanding of scientific conventions and the importance of evidence
- Recognize that causes of behavior are often subtle and multifaceted.
Seeking Expert Help and Advice
- Importance of seeking expert help to minimize risks and delays
- Professional advising can provide valuable guidance and insight into degree requirements and opportunities
- Conclusion: being intentional in decisions and actions will help students get the most out of their major.
- Actively apply what you learn:
- Engage in the material by finding ways to apply it personally
- Enhances learning and may lead to new areas of interest
- Embrace the breadth of psychology:
- Clinical concerns represent a small portion of the discipline
- Be open to exploring various specialties
- Identify areas of interest:
- Narrow down broad subtopics in psychology
- Reflects specific interests and shapes advanced coursework
- Participate in class discussion:
- Share ideas and perspectives for better understanding
- Facilitates retention and engagement
- Monitor participation in class discussion:
- Participate, but avoid excessive self-disclosure
- Keep discussions relevant to the course material
- Visit professors during office hours:
- Utilize this resource for individual attention
- Sets students apart from others and fosters relationships
- Accept conceptual messiness:
- Psychology is not always tidy, but ambiguity can lead to discovery
- Engage in department activities:
- Build friendships and identify research opportunities
- Attend student events, volunteer for committees
- Be reliable and follow through on commitments:
- Demonstrates responsibility and builds trust with faculty and peers
Finding an Academic Mentor: Tips and Strategies
Importance of Having an Academic Mentor
- Students are more likely to succeed in academia with a special relationship with a professor
- Accessible and supportive faculty members can help students stay on track and graduate
- Mentors can aid students in achieving their post-graduation goals
Identifying Potential Faculty Mentors
- Observe student traffic during office hours:
- Regular presence of students indicates ongoing mentoring relationships
- Lack of visitors may mean more availability for new mentees
- Most faculty members enjoy working with students and are open to mentoring
Engaging a Faculty Mentor
- Visit professor during office hours and ask for a few minutes
- Positive interactions often lead to mentoring relationships
- Topics to explore:
- Clarifying lecture concepts
- Course recommendations
- Reviewing notes
- Test preparation tips
- Academic background
- Work-life balance
- Research collaboration
- Career advice
Nurturing the Relationship
- Be reliable in completing tasks assigned by your mentor
- Strong work ethic strengthens the relationship and makes recommendation letters more effective
Middle Stage / Developing Stage
- In this stage, students focus on thinking about behavior as a scientist
- Students take courses in research methods and statistics
- Ideally finish before higher-level core classes
- Combined methods and statistics sequence is also common
Characteristics of developing learners:
- Sophisticated description of behavior
- Infer meaning or motivation
- Comfort with measurement and precision
- Necessary elements of good science
- Exploration of theoretical frameworks
- Recognize strengths and weaknesses
- Managing small-scale research projects
- Apply statistical analysis to determine hypothesis success
- Beginning ethical awareness
- Major attitude changes towards becoming apprentice psychological thinkers
Relativistic learners
- Grasp subjective realities differ
- Appreciate precise definitions and procedures
- Enthusiasm for targeting variables
- Emergence of amiable skepticism
- Growing communication skills
- Want to use every reference but need to be selective
- Can give and take criticism, prefer superficial evaluations
Recommendations for developing learners:
- Intentional learning
- Master conceptual frameworks of many subspecialties in psychology
- Identify specific areas of psychology that are most appealing
- Set future plans based on interests.
Stage Notes for Developing Learners in Psychology
- Follow Recommended Sequences of Courses:
- Complete introductory requirements before intermediate courses
- Importance of foundational skills in methodology and analysis
- Maximize learning opportunities by taking classes in the recommended sequence
- Identify Your Career Path:
- Determine areas of interest: research/academic, clinical/human services, or practical/work related
- Prepare for graduate school with research opportunities, lab courses, and other activities
- Build a strong résumé to attract future employers
- Personalize Your Learning:
- Connect coursework to personal experiences and future plans
- Identify research questions that can sustain interest throughout the major
- Nurture Helpful Relationships:
- Make connections with professors, librarians, and other experts in your field
- Secure strong letters of recommendation from professors who know you well
- Join a Research Group:
- Conduct independent research or be a member of a research team
- Improve chances for graduate school admission or demonstrate project management skills for the workforce
- Present Your Findings:
- Practice speaking like a psychologist by presenting research projects in academic settings
- Overcome public speaking anxiety and improve communication skills
- Prepare for Graduate School:
- Identify appealing graduate programs and start application process
- Narrow focus to programs with faculty whose interests match your own
- Dedicate time to scheduling GRE, securing reference letters, and researching potential careers
- Build a Portfolio:
- Create an online or hardcopy portfolio of best work for easy access during interviews or job searches
- Showcase the quality of your thinking and set yourself apart from other applicants
- Engage in Psychology Community:
- Attend department social outings and conferences to learn about professional lifestyle
- Socialize with peers whose post-graduation interests are similar for academic and social rewards
- Self-Evaluate:
- Conscientiously evaluate the quality of your work before submission
- Read feedback with the intention of improving learning and growth
Nadine Kaslow's Journey to Becoming a Clinical Psychologist
Early Interest and Preparation
- Nadine Kaslow had a strong desire to become a clinical psychologist from an early age.
- She worked hard as an undergraduate student to prepare for graduate school with:
- High GPA
- Leadership roles in extracurricular activities
- Active participation in faculty research
Overcoming the Hitch: Effective Recommendations
- Nadine faced a challenge due to her poor performance on graduate entrance exams.
- She built strong mentoring relationships with professors who wrote compelling letters of recommendation, highlighting her potential for high-level research and clinical problem-solving abilities.
Acceptance and Success
- Nadine was accepted into multiple graduate programs despite her GRE scores.
- She completed her PhD at the University of Houston and began her career.
- Her research covers various topics, including women's mental health, suicide and family violence, culturally informed interventions, and psychology education and training.
- She holds positions in multiple academic departments at Emory University School of Medicine.
- Long-standing service with the American Psychological Association led to her election as president in 2014.
- In her free time, she consults for the Atlanta Ballet.
Key Takeaways
- Building strong mentoring relationships can significantly impact your academic and professional success.
- A poor GRE score does not necessarily prevent admission to graduate school; other aspects of your application can compensate.
- Diversifying your research interests and collaborating with professionals in various fields can lead to a successful career.
Psychology Portfolio: A collection of materials demonstrating a student's academic achievements, critical thinking skills, ethical awareness, communication abilities, and professional development in the field of psychology.
APA Performance Categories: Guidelines for constructing a psychology portfolio based on the American Psychological Association's standards:
- Psychology Content:
- Transcript highlighting undergraduate courses and GPA
- Capstone project
- Preferred framework or theory discussion
- Description of course clusters reflecting special interests
- Minor description
- Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking:
- List of completed projects demonstrating critical thinking
- Abstracts of successful research projects
- Acceptance letters or awards for research projects
- Grant proposals
- Theoretical reviews
- Ethical and Social Responsibility in a Diverse World:
- Institutional review board approval copy
- Service-learning project descriptions
- Letters attesting to high-quality volunteer work
- Communication:
- Best paper copy with professor feedback
- PowerPoint of best class presentation
- Videotape of a speech
- Recommendations addressing interpersonal effectiveness
Capstone Courses: High-level activities that integrate learning across courses in the major, typically smaller seminar classes or research projects.
Characteristics of Advanced Learners:
- Comfortable with their major choice
- Committed learners
- Enjoy complexity and rely on empirical data
- Variable minded
- Enthusiastic about working with empirical evidence
- Aim for coherent arguments
- Selective in literature reading
- Comfortable in leadership roles
- Reflexively self-critical
- Seek feedback on performance
Recommendations for Advanced Learners:
- Develop a post-graduation plan
- Make capstone projects represent your best work
- Consolidate faculty fans for letters of recommendation
- Show off public speaking skills
- Retake GRE if unsatisfied with score and have a backup plan
- Gain experiences in applying psychology in various contexts
- Compete for special designations
- Solicit feedback on nearly completed works
- Maintain ethical standards
- Avoid taking throw-away courses
Building a Relationship with Your Advisor
- Develop a solid relationship with your major advisor (faculty member or professional advisor) for optimal benefits.
- Declare the major as soon as it feels right, but consider the potential consequences of frequent major changes.
- Seek expert advising help to navigate challenges and make informed decisions.
Navigating Declaration of Major
Best time to declare:
- Declare early to accommodate sequenced class requirements.
- Don't declare before genuinely knowing it's the right academic home.
Changing majors:
- Frequent major changes may prolong your college experience and increase costs.
- If your GPA is low, consider improving it or rethinking your major.
Navigating Registration
- Seek advisor oversight to avoid costly errors and make informed choices.
- Plan schedules early to secure desired courses.
- Utilize waitlists, talk to professors, or attend classes in progress if necessary.
Navigating the Faculty
- Joining a class in progress:
- Most colleges allow joining late but missing classes may impact learning.
- Share contact information with a high-achieving student for notes.
- Missing a class:
- Do not ask professors about missed content.
- Make up work on your own or seek help from classmates.
- Asking for professor help:
- Professors keep office hours and respond to emails.
- Prepare questions and be respectful of their time.
- Joining a research team:
- Excel in the classroom.
- Visit during office hours.
- Read professor's work and ask directly for opportunities.
Reasonable Reasons for Avoiding a Professor vs. Unjustified Fears
- Avoiding a professor based on Rate My Professor ratings: Not recommended due to potential inaccuracies and bias in student evaluations (Otto, Sanford, & Ross, 2008)
- Social media evaluations may not reflect standard for great teaching
- Unpopular teachers can still make connections with some students
- Being in a toxic course: Consider the following options:
- Protect your GPA by dropping the class if necessary
- High-stakes competition in future
- Other faculty offering the course
- Postpone rather than avoid the situation (if possible)
- Transfer the course from another institution (unacceptable performance or damaging to academic record)
- Protect your GPA by dropping the class if necessary
- Professors not responding to emails: Possible reasons and solutions:
- Overwhelmed by email volume
- Students' uncivil email requests
- Troubleshoot ineffective email requests in Measuring Up
Addressing Unfair Treatment or Disrespectful Behavior from Professors
- Most of the time, best course of action is to ride it out and move on
- If maltreatment causes serious distress or poses a threat:
- Visit professor with a trusted person (potential witness)
- Be specific about problematic behaviors
- Recognize professors hold more power; compelling evidence needed for positive outcome
- Department head, dean, discrimination complaint officer, or lowest level possible in organizational hierarchy
Dealing with Professors' Inappropriate Boundaries
- Protect yourself from unwanted attention:
- Redirect attention back to the class
- Do not meet alone or off campus
- Report concerns to department head if attention is unrelenting
- Predatory faculty members are rare but damaging; most campuses prohibit professor-student romances
- Wait to begin a romance with a professor after they no longer have grading power over you
Impression Management through Effective Email Communication
Email has become a common method of communication between students and faculty members. However, a poorly constructed email can negatively impact the impression a professor has of a student's professionalism.
Mrs. Thompson: Missed class yesterday. Was there anything important from class that will be on the next exam? Need to know right away so I can plan my weekend. Catchya later. Badass95@student.mail
Problems with the Original Email
- Informal approach: The email contains incomplete sentences, colloquial language ("catchya later"), and lacks respect towards the professor.
- Lack of identification: The student does not identify themselves, making it difficult for the professor to respond effectively.
- Offensive nickname: The use of "Badass95@student.mail" may be perceived as offensive by some professors.
- Implying unimportance of class material: The email implies that the professor may have spent class time on unimportant matters.
- Pressuring the professor: The student puts pressure on the professor to respond immediately for their convenience.
- Lack of apology and explanation: The student does not apologize for missing class or offer an explanation for their absence.
Suggestions for a More Professional Email
- Formal salutation: Address the professor with an appropriate title, such as "Professor Thompson."
- Identification: Clearly identify yourself to the professor.
- Apologize for missing class: Acknowledge your absence and apologize for it.
- Explain your absence: Provide a valid reason for missing class.
- Show initiative: Demonstrate that you have taken steps to make up for missed material, such as reading the syllabus or completing assigned work.
- Polite and respectful tone: Use a polite and respectful tone throughout the email.
- Ask for specific information: Request only the necessary information from the professor.
- Provide contact information: Offer your contact information to make it easy for the professor to respond.
Example of a More Effective Email
Professor Thompson,
I apologize for missing Cognitive Psychology on Tuesday due to last-minute car troubles. I have read through the syllabus and am current in my work, but is there anything else that happened in class that I need to know about to prepare more effectively for the next exam? I appreciate any feedback you can provide.
Thank you, Jamie Simpson jamie.simpson@student.mail (123) 456-7890
Important Considerations for Psychology Students
Taking Experimental Psychology and Research Classes
- Taking research class as soon as possible is advantageous due to the backbone of psychology being based on research.
- Many schools require students to complete this course before upper-level classes.
- Understanding good research will help make connections among advanced classes.
Statistics
- Psychologists emphasize description and measurement in their work.
- Statistics is a powerful tool for determining outcomes of manipulations.
- Most curricula require a basic statistics class to learn tools like correlations and analysis of variance.
- Becoming comfortable with statistical programs like R or SPSS will help conduct impactful studies.
Prerequisites
- Professors design program curriculum to provide instructional scaffolding.
- Prerequisites help students build knowledge base and focus on concepts being presented instead of catching up.
- Persuading a professor to waive a prerequisite is usually not a good idea.
Minor and Double Major
- A minor may not be required but can make you more attractive in the workforce or for graduate schools.
- Consider areas that align with future goals.
- Double majoring requires commitment and hard work, potentially delaying graduation.
Certificates
- Some programs offer certificates in certain subject areas.
- Certificates provide little extra value but can impress potential employers.
- Receiving a certificate does not guarantee a greater payoff than completing the major.
Independent Study Ideas
- Pick an appealing chapter from an introductory textbook and explore concepts that pique your interest.
- Discuss ideas with professors during office hours to develop manageable designs.
Disappointing Performance
- Ensure accurate grade calculation before reacting.
- Analyze reasons for poor performance and address underlying issues.
- Filing permissions for grade forgiveness if available.
- Don't make half-hearted efforts when retaking a class.
Group Projects
- Professors assign group projects to help build teamwork skills.
- Adopt an attitude of learning about project management and collaboration.
- Ask professor for assistance if necessary.
Academic Honesty
- Engaging in academic dishonesty can lead to lifelong regrets and loss of degree.
- Earned degrees are a proud accomplishment, while stolen ones feel tarnished.
Future Planning
- Secure strong letters of recommendation by providing professors with key achievements and details.
- Find a mentor for career planning through advisors or department heads.
- Extracurricular activities develop leadership skills but should not detract from academic performance.
Field Placements and Internships
- Practical experiences applying psychology principles
- Provide insight into desired workplace type
- Opportunity to receive job offers from host agencies
- Can help determine if certain types of work are satisfying
- Some students perform exceptionally well in field placements
Graduate Record Exam (GRE)
When to Take
- Deadlines vary by graduate schools
- Best to take early fall of final year
- Receiving results early can help secure assistantships or grants
Preparation
- Using practice exam books or online resources
- Developing pace for dealing with large number of questions
- Reviewing introductory psychology textbooks
- Building confidence through study groups
Retaking the Exam
- Analyze causes for poor performance
- Improve understanding of material or address anxiety
- Choose desired score to be forwarded to programs
If Not Accepted into Graduate School
- Psychology graduate programs are competitive
- Strengthen application through research or clinical experiences
- Volunteer with active research teams
Thought Questions
Being an Intentional Student
- Practicing thoughtful decision making
- Ensuring satisfaction with major choice
- Maximizing potential as a student and future professional
Hallmarks of Students' Thinking in Psychology
- Open-mindedness to new ideas
- Ability to analyze complex concepts
- Critical thinking skills
Research Concerns
- Importance of research in psychology field
- Developing research skills early on
- Preparation for graduate school and future careers
Pathways for Majors
- Differences between workforce and graduate school plans
- Tailoring education to career goals
Registering for Courses
- Seeking help when needed
- Avoiding risks of taking statistics and research methods late
Academic Dishonesty
- Negative consequences for academic integrity
- Importance of maintaining ethical standards
- Long-term benefits of honesty in education.
Context for Research in Psychology:
- Required class for psychology majors
- Students will design and execute their own experiments
- No prior experience necessary, instruction will be gradual
Reviewing Research Fundamentals:
Psychological research is empirical:
- Generates objective evidence to describe, explain, or predict behavior
- Uses both quantitative (numbers-based) and qualitative (narrative-based) research
Strategies for Addressing Research Questions:
- Basic: explaining fundamental "laws" of behavior
- Applied: practical concerns
- Experimental research: controlled comparisons, manipulating variables
Experiments:
- Involve controlled comparisons
- Manipulate independent variable (IV) and measure dependent variable (DV)
- Differences in groups allow for cause-and-effect relationships
- Random assignment ensures equal chance for treatment or control group
Common Research Alternatives to Experiments:
- Correlational studies
- Case studies
- Surveys and questionnaires
- Naturalistic observations
Creating Research Ideas:
- Based on literature, not personal experience
- Make scientific claims
- Write stylistically appropriate research papers and lab reports
Developing Research Ideas:
- Personal Interest: Identify topics that interest you
- Literature Review: Read extensively about a topic to identify gaps in knowledge
- Brainstorming: Generate multiple ideas, then narrow down to the most feasible and interesting one
- Collaboration: Work with peers or professors for suggestions and feedback
- Refining Your Idea: Clearly define your research question, hypothesis, and methods
Using Library Resources:
- Psychology databases: PsycINFO, ERIC, PubMed
- Keywords: Use specific terms related to your topic
- Citation management tools: EndNote, Mendeley, Zotero
Using Cyberspace Wisely:
- Evaluate sources: Check for credibility, accuracy, and bias
- Avoid plagiarism: Properly cite all sources used
Writing Styles:
- APA (American Psychological Association) style: Common in psychology research
- Clear, concise writing
- Use of headings, subheadings, and bullet points
Presenting Findings:
- Written reports: Lab reports, research papers
- Oral presentations: Poster sessions, conference presentations
- Tips for effective presentations: Engage audience, use visuals, practice delivery.
Alternative Research Approaches in Psychological Experiments
Observational Approaches
- Observational research: investigator observes and records ongoing behavior of humans or organisms, reports results qualitatively and quantitatively.
- Case study research: detailed examination of a person's behavior, qualitative, narrative description.
- Naturalistic research: researchers make careful records of behavior in nonexperimental contexts.
Correlational Approaches (Establishing Associations but Not Causality)
- Correlational research: identifies nature of associations between variables, not causal results.
- Survey research: sample of people answer standardized questions to infer feelings/thoughts about a topic or issue.
- Archival research: uses existing records to determine patterns among variables (measures of academic achievement, work performance, traffic citation records).
- Quasi-experimental research: uses experimental format without random assignment of participants to groups, investigators unsure if result due to independent variable or participant qualities.
Approaches Focusing on Published Information
- Literature reviews: summarize peer-reviewed information about a topic.
- Meta-analyses: synthesize trends across related studies to determine where evidence lies in explaining behavior.
Finding Research Ideas
- Observe and investigate behaviors around you.
- Extend published research by altering hypotheses or conditions.
- Find paradoxes that contradict expectations.
- Identify real-life problems that could be addressed through psychological interventions.
Example of a Successful Psychology Researcher: Jim, the Director of a Perception Lab
- Jim declared psychology major in college and was inspired by Freud's work.
- Got sidetracked by experimental psychology and psychophysics during graduate school.
- Fascinated by auditory perception due to love of music and sound.
- Joined university's perception lab, now serves as director, writes grants, publishes findings, and teaches.
- Primary work focuses on digital methods of altering speech signals for better communication.
- Enjoys designing experiments and analyzing results but feels strain from grant writing and publication pressures.
- Advice: be concise, clear, compelling in scientific writing to keep readers engaged.
I. Introduction
- Marcus' experience writing a developmental psychology research paper on birth-order effects
- Importance of generating good research ideas for psychology papers or projects
II. Brainstorming Technique for Generating Research Ideas
- Identify an area of psychology that interests you
- Write down as many ideas related to the chosen area as possible
- Don't censor yourself during brainstorming session
- Evaluate ideas after generating a list
III. Group Brainstorming
- One person serves as the leader and keeps ideas flowing
- Recorder writes down all ideas without judgment
- Discuss and edit ideas to determine potential topics
IV. Importance of Using Published Research in Psychology Papers
- Instructors expect data to be scientifically reliable
- Personal experience or opinion, casual observation, hearsay not considered valid sources
- Popular sources like newspapers, magazines, social media, television programs, YouTube videos not reliable
V. Reliable Sources for Psychology Research
- Journal Articles
- Peer-reviewed scientific or scholarly articles
- Claims supported by agreed-upon theories, research methods, and public evidence
- Process of peer review ensures objectivity and quality
- Make one main argument with supporting evidence from literature and experiments
- Major journals publish regularly and discuss current topics in psychology
- Other Sources
- Chapters and books that summarize empirical evidence
- Encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks
- Government publications and reports
- Theses and dissertations
Conclusion
- Brainstorming is an effective technique for generating research ideas in psychology
- Use reliable sources like peer-reviewed journal articles as the primary source of data for papers
- Incorporate other sources to provide additional context and support.
APA Journals:
- American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
- American Psychologist
- Archives of Scientific Psychology
- Asian American Journal of Psychology
- Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice
- Behavioral Development
- Behavioral Neuroscience
- Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science
- Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology
- Clinicians Research Digest: Adult Populations
- Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research
- Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice
- Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology
- Developmental Psychology
- Dreaming
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Journal of Family Psychology
- Journal of Latinx Psychology
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Journal of Psychotherapy Integration
- Journal of Rural Mental Health
- Law and Human Behavior
- Motivation Science
- Neuropsychology
- Practice Innovations
- Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
- Psychiatric Rehabilitation
- Psychoanalytic Psychology
- Psychological Assessment
- Psychological Bulletin
- Psychological Methods
- Rehabilitation Psychology
- Review of General Psychology
- School Psychology
- Spirituality in Clinical Practice
- Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
- Stigma and Health
- Training and Education in Professional Psychology
- Traumatology
| APA Journals | |
|---|---|
| American Journal of Orthopsychiatry American Psychologist | Archives of Scientific Psychology |
| Asian American Journal of Psychology | Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice |
| Behavioral Development | Behavioral Neuroscience |
| Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science | Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology |
| Canadian Psychology | Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology |
| Clinicians Research Digest: Adult Populations | Clinicians Research Digest: Child and Adolescent Populations |
| Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research | Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice |
| Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology | Decision |
| Developmental Psychology | Dreaming |
| Emotion | Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences |
| Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology | Families, Systems, & Health |
| Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice | Health Psychology History of Psychology |
| The Humanistic Psychologist | International Journal of Play Therapy |
| International Journal of Stress Management | International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation |
| Journal of Abnormal Psychology | Journal of Applied Psychology |
| Journal of Comparative Psychology | Journal of Counseling Psychology |
| Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | Journal of Diversity in Higher Education |
| Journal of Educational Psychology | Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition |
| Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied | Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |
| Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance | Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |
| Journal of Family Psychology | Journal of Latinx Psychology |
| Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics | Journal of Occupational Health Psychology |
| Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | Journal of Psychotherapy Integration |
| Journal of Rural Mental Health | Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology |
| Journal of Threat Assessment and Management | Law and Human Behavior |
| Motivation Science | Neuropsychology |
| Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology | Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment |
| Practice Innovations | Professional Psychology: Research and Practice |
| Psychiatric Rehabilitation | Psychoanalytic Psychology |
| Psychological Assessment | Psychological Bulletin |
| Psychological Methods | Psychological Review |
| Psychological Services | Psychological Irauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy |
| The Psychologist-Manager Journal | Psychology & Neuroscience |
| Psychology and Aging | Psychology of Addictive Behaviors |
| Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts | Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice |
| Psychology of Men & Masculinities | Psychology of Popular Media Culture |
| Psychology of Religion and Spirituality | Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity |
| Psychology of Violence | Psychology, Public Policy and Law |
| Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain | Psychotherapy |
| Qualitative Psychology | Rehabilitation Psychology |
| Review of General Psychology | Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology |
| School Psychology | Spirituality in Clinical Practice |
| Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology | Stigma and Health |
| Training and Education in Professional Psychology | Translational Issues in Psychological Science |
| Traumatology |
APS Journals:
- Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science
- Clinical Psychological Science
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Psychological Science
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest
Literature Review in Psychology: Using Chapters, Books, and Databases
Books and Chapters
- Psychologists' research on specific topics are often summarized in book chapters or entire books.
- Peer-reviewed by experts in the field before publication.
- Can cover one topic extensively or a variety of topics.
- May take longer to publish than journal articles, making information less timely.
- Useful supplements to recent journal articles.
Finding Relevant Sources
Begin with recent journal articles on your topic of interest.
Supplement with relevant chapters or books if needed.
Preferably, use recently published sources (within the last 5 years).
Locating Psychological Literature
Academic Libraries
- Connect users to various disciplines and fields of study.
- Enrich learning in all courses.
- Focus on familiarizing yourself with your school's library resources.
Using PsycINFO
- Database containing citations and abstracts from psychology literature since 1887.
- Allows users to search for research sources from related fields like sociology, nursing, psychiatry, and education.
- Contains the full text of articles published in APA journals through PsycARTICLES.
Searching PsycINFO
- Use search terms (keywords) related to your topic.
- Expand your list by accessing index terms in PsycINFO's online thesaurus.
- Refine your search using various field options.
- Narrow down results by looking for empirical articles or those published recently.
- Ask a reference librarian for help if needed.
Common Encyclopedias of Psychology
- Baumeister & Vohs. (2007). Encyclopedia of social psychology.
- Corsini. (2010). The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology and human behavior.
- Eysenck, Arnold & Meili. (1982). Encyclopedia of psychology.
- Harré & Lamb. (1988). Encyclopedic dictionary of psychology.
- Kazdin. (2000). Encyclopedia of psychology.
- Ramachandran. (2012). Encyclopedia of human behavior.
Using the Library Catalog
- Search by author, title, or keyword.
- Use Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) to find related search terms and books.
- Look for subject headings associated with promising books and click on them to start a search.
Searching for Sources in PsycINFO and Library Catalog:
- If PsycINFO search suggests chapters or books, check library catalog to see if they have a copy.
- Keep record of call numbers for easy reference.
- Order interlibrary loans through your school's service if not available.
Locating References Through Existing Sources:
- Examine reference sections of articles, chapters, or books for major references on a topic.
- Search by author in PsycINFO to find relevant publications.
- Use reference lists to identify main authors and their publications.
Asking for Assistance:
- If unable to locate useful sources, ask a reference librarian for help.
- Campus librarians are experts at finding peer-reviewed sources.
- They can suggest new search strategies and optimize database searches.
Searching the Internet:
- Evaluate internet sources critically and find independent verification.
- Ask these questions when evaluating evidence from the Internet:
- Who is the author? What are their credentials?
- Was it published by an established organization?
- Is the evidence informed by existing research?
- Does the site have a point of view or agenda?
- How up-to-date is the source?
- Use established websites maintained by professional organizations in psychology for reliable sources.
Search Process Summary: (Table 7.4)
- Define your topic and research question.
- Identify key concepts and search terms.
- Search PsycINFO, library catalog, and other databases.
- Evaluate sources based on relevance, credibility, and reliability.
- Use reference lists and bibliographies to find additional sources.
- Ask for assistance from a librarian or professor.
- Synthesize and analyze the information you've gathered.
- Cite your sources correctly in your paper or project.
- Step 1: Identify your research topic:
- Use topic-generation strategies or choose from course materials, books, or readings.
- Step 2: Gather search terms:
- Search PsycINFO database using identified keywords.
- Step 3: Collect sources:
- Obtain journal articles from libraries and downloadable sources.
- Acquire books, book chapters, and interlibrary loans as needed.
- Step 4: Search references:
- Repeat step 3 with sources' reference lists.
- Step 5: Consult a librarian:
- Seek help expanding or focusing your search.
- Step 6: Internet search:
- Be critical and skeptical of sources found online.
Evaluating Psychology Sources
When reviewing a source, consider the following questions:
Accuracy
- Is it an original or primary source?
- Are facts provided?
- Are they supported with sources?
- Was the research peer-reviewed?
Authority and Credibility
- Is the author an expert in the field?
- How do you know if the author is an expert?
Objectivity
- What are the goals of the research?
- What opinions are expressed by the author?
- Who is the intended audience?
Currency
- When was the research published?
- Has it been updated since then?
- Are new studies being conducted on the same topic?
Coverage
- How narrow and detailed is the research topic?
- Does the author give any background about or context for the research?
Overall Evaluation
- Is the research helpful to you?
- Is it believable?
- Would the research be useful in helping you form a reasonable opinion or decision?
Writing About Psychology and APA Style
- Psychology majors are critical thinkers and good storytellers.
- Two types of papers: lab reports and literature reviews.
- Use APA style for clear, consistent communication.
APA Style in Brief
- Agreed-upon set of rules for communicating research results.
- Makes theories, methods, and explanations open and objective.
- Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) provides complete summary.
The Research or Lab Report
- Includes an introduction and three sections: Method, Results, and Discussion.
- Introduction: Provides a focused review of related literature.
- What is already known about topic?
- Why is the current study being conducted?
- What question does it address?
- How can new findings extend knowledge?
- Describes variables measured and manipulated.
- States hypothesis and rationale.
- Method: Provides a detailed guide to the study.
- Participants: Demographic information.
- Materials: Equipment, surveys, questionnaires.
- Procedure: Chronology of what took place.
- Results: Describes research findings factually and concisely.
- Indicates how participants behaved.
- Supports statistical analyses.
- Discussion: Interprets findings and relates them to the larger research literature.
APA-Style Paper: This text discusses the different sections of an APA-style research paper or lab report, with a focus on the Discussion section.
Sections of an APA-Style Manuscript: The paper outlines the following sections of an APA-style manuscript:
- Title page: Includes the title, author name and affiliation, running head, and any necessary author notes.
- Abstract: A brief summary (120 words or fewer) of the hypothesis, method, results, and implications of the work.
- Introduction: Overview of the research question, review of relevant studies, and purpose and hypothesis of the present experiment.
- Method: Description of participants, materials used, and procedure.
- Results: Presentation of behavioral outcomes and statistical results without interpretation.
- Discussion: Interpretation of findings, implications for understanding the research question, and suggestions for future research.
- References: List of sources cited in alphabetical order using APA citation style.
- Table(s) and Figure(s): Included as needed to explain the results.
Discussion Section: The Discussion section is an opportunity for authors to interpret their findings, place them in context, and suggest directions for future research. They may also discuss strengths and limitations of the study and any improvements that could be made.
APA-Style Formatting: Key formatting requirements include double-spacing throughout the paper, 12-point font, 1-inch margins on all sides, and numbered pages (except for figures). The first line of each paragraph is indented, and references appear in a hanging-indent format.
Literature Reviews: Literature reviews are psychology term papers that summarize what is known about a specific topic in psychology. They typically follow the basic outline of an APA-style paper but do not include Method or Results sections since they do not contain original experiments. Instead, they have three main parts: a topic overview, a review of specific topics and issues drawn from relevant studies, and a closing section that identifies main conclusions and suggests directions for future research.
Writing Formats in Psychology
Professors assign various types of writing assignments to teach students effective writing skills.
Here are some common writing formats with pointers for each:
- Posters
- Convert research projects into posters instead of or in addition to traditional reports.
- Include headings, summarize key ideas concisely, use readable fonts, and add visual interest with graphics.
- List important references (APA format).
- Grant Proposals
- Request funding for specific research projects to solve problems.
- Minimum requirements: authors, problem statement, literature review (APA), measurement of success, timeline, budget.
- Campus grant writing offices may offer assistance.
- Technical Reports
- Outline process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research projects.
- Precise and objective writing; follow instructor's guidelines for APA-style references.
- Case Notes
- Document interactions with clients in confidential records.
- Objective and free from bias or judgmental descriptions.
- Confidentiality, adhere to agency policies, seek feedback.
- Journal Entries
- Reflect on learning experiences without APA format or literature citations.
- Exercise discretion about personal information disclosure.
- Memorandums
- Formal business communication for coursework via email or attachment.
- Provide context, set clear problem and deadlines, add full name and good subject heading.
Additional Tips
- Stand and Deliver: Overcome nerves, introduce yourself, rehearse, practice with technology, stay on topic, engage audience, don't end abruptly.
Thought Questions
- Suggestions for generating research or paper topic ideas?
- Why are journal articles preferred in psychology? Peer review importance?
- Challenges associated with using research from Internet sites?
- If you had to write a research paper in psychology right now, what would your topic be? Why?
- Importance of meeting time or page limits in communications assignments?
- Situations requiring memorandums vs. emails? Problems more appropriate for memos?
- Presentation tip addressing public-speaking weaknesses? Addressing problem?
Sam, a recent psychology graduate, expressed regret for not taking advantage of opportunities to enhance his college experience beyond academics. He believed that missing out on an internship would prevent him from getting a job in his field. However, the lack of an internship doesn't necessarily hinder employment prospects; it just makes demonstrating competence more challenging.
Challenges for Students
Many students work while pursuing their degree, leaving little time for extracurricular activities that could make them more valuable to employers. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, approximately 40% of full-time students aged 16-24 worked in 2013, with just under 10% working a minimum of 35 hours per week.
High-Impact Practices (HIPs)
Pascarella and Terenzini suggest that successful undergraduates effectively balance academic, personal, and extracurricular pursuits. Kuh et al. recommend students engage in at least one HIP during their first year and another during their senior year. HIPs include opportunities like being part of a professor's research team or participating in community projects.
Value of HIPs for Psychology Majors
Participating in HIPs can lead to:
- Applying psychology concepts and principles in real-world settings
- Developing leadership skills
- Building relationships with potential recommenders
- Expanding your portfolio with impressive abilities and traits
- Demonstrating commitment to improving others' lives
Making Strategic Decisions
Students should consider their time carefully when choosing enrichment activities. Academic success is the primary priority, so avoid overcommitting to activities that may hinder academic performance. Jeremy's story illustrates the importance of balancing leadership opportunities with academics.
High-Impact Practices in Psychology
- Establishing and leading study groups: This HIP directly supports academic growth and can help students develop leadership skills.
- Assisting in department activities: Working as an assistant or volunteer in the psychology department can provide valuable experiences related to your major.
- Term abroad: Studying abroad can broaden horizons, improve language skills, and build self-efficacy.
- Formal leadership positions: Serving in student government, campus organizations, or community projects can lead to exceptional leadership experience but requires a significant time commitment.
- Research opportunities: Participating in research projects with faculty members can deepen understanding of your chosen discipline and enhance your resume.
- Community service: Volunteering in local organizations or initiatives can demonstrate your commitment to making a positive impact on others' lives.
- Internships: Although Sam believed an internship was essential for employment, it is not the only pathway; however, gaining practical experience in your field can be beneficial.
- Study abroad programs with a psychology focus: These programs offer academic and cultural experiences that can broaden your perspective and enhance your resume.
- Honors programs: Participating in honors programs can challenge you academically and provide opportunities for research, leadership, and networking.
- Student organizations: Joining psychology-related student organizations can help you build relationships with peers and professionals in your field.
Students are encouraged to assess their own leadership styles by checking the items below that apply to them.
Leadership Characteristics:
Personal Attributes:
- Extroverted vs. introverted
- Energetic
- Self-disciplined
- Keeps promises
- Punctual
- Integrity
- Speaks with authority
- Can rebound from setbacks
- Visionary
- Maintains a positive outlook
Problem-Solving Skills:
- Notices problems before others do
- Understands situations thoroughly
- Willing to do background research and planning
- Takes immediate action once a plan is formulated
- Predicts consequences from plans
- Enjoys change
- Can take calculated risks
- Shows courage under pressure
- Takes responsibility for errors and corrects mistakes
Team Skills:
- Oriented toward serving the needs of others
- Relates to and appreciates a wide variety of people
- Includes others in plans
- Can persuade others to take action
- Builds and maintains effective collaborations
- Encourages team members to work from their strengths
- Manages conflict
- Has strategies for working with difficult people
- Recognizes and celebrates achievements
- Shares the glory following an achievement
Leadership Opportunities in College:
Organizing Study Groups:
- Establish intentions to be successful
- Discuss course materials
- Develop team skills and leadership
- Make group experience effective:
- Identify five test-worthy concepts
- Construct master list of concepts
- Write potential test questions
- Spend time answering each question
- Construct one master summary sheet
Undergraduate Teaching Assistants:
- Express desire to become teachers
- Serve as teaching assistant (TA)
- Gain experience in teaching and learning
- Receive feedback from professor and students
- Prepare for graduate school
Peer Advisors:
- Practicize counseling skills
- Provide practical advice to students
- Handle routine advising questions
- Make referrals to special services
Honors Programs:
- Enroll in enriched program
- Smaller class sizes and advanced registration
- Highly motivated classes and vibrant faculty
- Writing intensive and often require a thesis
- Produce multiple benefits: high self-esteem, appreciation of arts, satisfaction with instruction, persistence, and graduate/professional school pursuit.
- A new form of High-Impact Practices (HIP) within majors
- Establish strong esprit de corps among first-year students taking common curriculum
- Students often housed together, attract exemplary faculty members
- Result in stronger persistence to graduation, higher GPAs, improved skills and competencies, enhanced student involvement, and higher satisfaction
- Selective, give students a head start on professional goals
- Examples: James Madison University's Psychology Learning Community, Rutgers' Psychology Discovery House
Study-Abroad Programs in Psychology
- Provide eye-opening experience, strengthen background in psychology, adapt to new culture
- Most programs conducted in English, secure independent study arrangements through international studies office or specific psychology programs
- Develop confidence and problem-solving skills, greater tolerance for people from different backgrounds, influence on career directions and personality development
- Predicted changes in Big 5 personality framework: increased openness, agreeableness, decreased neuroticism (McCrae & Costa, 2003; Zimmerman & Neyer, 2013)
Undergraduate Research in Psychology
- Engage in research early, build strong portfolio of experience
- Improvements in skill sets: critical thinking, ability to work with primary literature, communication, teamwork (Lopatto, 2010)
- Overcome obstacles, build self-confidence and independence
- Inspire students to pursue more complex research designs
Service Learning in Psychology
- Apply learning to practical problems in the community
- Hands-on focus, promote civic engagement
- Caliber of experience depends on supervision and scope of responsibilities
- Develop knowledge, attitudes, and skills in specific classes
- Project-based, grounded in relevant research literature
- Examples: volunteering in clinical settings, consulting with child abuse agency to make recommendations for changes to parent-training curricula.
- Intense form of experiential learning for psychology students
- Students move outside classroom structure and try professional roles related to psychological concerns
- Receive feedback from on-site mentor and faculty member
- Array of potential internships is broad as psychology relates to data or people
- Valuable for helping students decide which directions not to pursue
- Not all undergraduate programs provide access to meaningful internships
- Recent graduates place great value on internship experiences for workforce preparation
Psychology Interest Groups
- Established by psychology students to deepen their involvement in the discipline
- Faculty sponsor provides light guidance on activities
- Field trips, alumni visits, careers days, and service learning
- Example: John "Trey" McClendon's experience leading a psychology club
Psychology Honorary Organizations
- Psi Chi: confers membership based on academic achievement (top 35% of class and minimum 3.0 GPA)
- Over 1,000 chapters worldwide with 750,000 lifetime members
- Advantages: awards, grants, publications, special sessions at conferences, career enhancement for civil service
- Psi Beta: operates at community college level, similar selection criteria as Psi Chi
Other Extracurricular Activities
- Develop leadership skills and expand social network through hobbies and interests
- Affiliating with others and planning events
A Major Success Story: Parlaying Student Leadership Into Professional Success - John "Trey" McClendon
- Involved in psychology-related HIPs (humanity in psychology)
- Attended guest lecture by suicide survivor, cemented desire to become involved as a professional helper
- Inducted into Phi Theta Kappa, affiliated with Psi Chi, became president of his organization's chapter
- Spearheaded social events and service projects
- Completed service-learning project on survival backpacks for victims of human trafficking
- Designated most outstanding psychology student on graduation
- Overcame physical challenges (quadriplegia) to pursue graduate degree in social work
- Offered graduate assistantship due to undergraduate performance
On-Campus Employment
- Faculty members expect students can manage between 10 and 15 hours per week
- Multiple advantages: flexible schedule, work-study program, financial aid impact, close-up look at academic department functions.
- Jane's experience at Midwestern Psychological Association (MPA) convention as an undergraduate was exciting and contributed to her interest in graduate school.
- Academic psychology sponsors various conventions and conferences, providing ample opportunities for students.
- Faculty may sponsor student travel groups or expect top-performing students to participate in student-oriented poster sessions.
Types of Conferences
State Conferences: More focused on clinical practice but have sections for high-quality student work presentation. Regional Conferences: Scheduled near the end of spring term, often held at specific hotels or rotating among larger cities within the region. Some are more undergraduate-oriented. National Conferences: Dedicate specific parts to students but mostly geared towards graduate students.
Examples of National and Regional Conferences:
| Organization | Conference Name | Frequency | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| American Psychological Association (APA) | APA Convention | Annual | Largest cities in North America |
| Psi Chi | National Convention | Biennial | Various locations |
| Psi Beta | Regional Conferences | Annual | Various locations |
| Association for Psychological Science (APS) | APS Convention | Annual | Various U.S. cities |
Preparing for Conferences
- Well-organized undergraduate programs facilitate student travel and provide orientation information.
- Fundraising events, such as bake sales or carwashes, can help students attend conferences.
- Student fees are usually modest.
- Working at the registration table in exchange for the registration fee is an option.
Student Presentations at Conferences
- Regional conferences showcase student work through presentations and poster sessions.
- Faculty may ask students to participate if they have been part of a research team.
- Poster sessions are increasingly popular.
- Student conferences provide opportunities for practicing professional communication skills.
Mentor Relationships
- Finding a mentor from among experienced students or faculty can help students avoid dead-end classes and join research teams early in their college career.
- Faculty mentors welcome in-person visits from enthusiastic students and can provide valuable advice about post-graduation plans and strong letters of reference.
IUP Undergraduate Scholars Forum Poster Session Evaluation Rubric
Poster Number: ________, Judge: ________
The following judging rubric outlines and explains the 7 elements used to evaluate posters at the IUP Undergraduate Scholars Forum, totaling 35 points.
| Criteria | 1-2 Points | 3-4 Points | 5 Points |
|---|---|---|---|
| Organization of Content (5 pts) | Poster lacks a clear organization. Components and content are difficult to identify and find. | Most components and content can be found, but they are not clearly identified and/or not logically organized. | Components and content are easy to identify/find and follow. Appropriate, logical organization. |
| Scholarly Presentation (5 pts) | Presentation may be informational or educational, but it does not reflect a scholarly presentation. | Poster contains some elements of a scholarly presentation, but does not consistently reflect a scholarly approach to presenting content throughout. | Reflects a scholarly presentation, includes components common to scholarly presentations in the discipline (i.e., abstract, research question, review of literature, methods, results, etc.). |
| Scholarly Knowledge (5 pts) | Content may report information but includes little or no scholarly knowledge (theory and/or research): includes no original research by the students. | Content reflects scholarly knowledge (theory and/or research), but no original research conducted by the student(s). | Content includes scholarly knowledge (theory and/or research), and reports on original research conducted by the student(s). |
| Clarity of Information Presented (5 pts) | Fails to convey key ideas and/or information; or information does not clearly convey the pragmatics of the topic/project. | Some lack of clarity. Some connections may be unclear. Some information not presented concisely. | Information is presented clearly and concisely. Effectively synthesizes scholarly knowledge and summarizes results of the research project. Provides a clear picture of the pragmatics of the topic/project. |
| Accuracy of Information (5 pts) | Poster contains substantial inaccuracies. Three or more errors in grammar and/or spelling. | Poster reflects minor inaccuracies. One or two minor grammatical or spelling errors. | Poster contains no discernable inaccuracies. No grammatical or spelling errors. |
| References (5 pts) | No citations in text and/or no list of references, or cited references missing from reference list. | Only one or two errors in citing references (failures to cite sources or include a reference in the list of references). | All references are cited in the text and included in a list of references. |
| Aesthetics (5 pts) | Presentation is neither neat nor professional looking. Colors may not coordinate or may distract from content. Title and/or font in text are too small. Font types and/or margins are not uniform. | Presentation is neat in appearance but lacks professional polish. Colors may coordinate, but still distract. Fonts may not all match. Title not quite large enough and/or text slightly too large or too small. | Presentation is neat and professional in appearance. Colors coordinate. Fonts are uniform. Title is large and easy to read; font of text is easy to read. |
Summer Opportunities
- Use summertime wisely to gain more psychology-related experience and potentially enhance leadership skills.
- Campus may provide a service to help students locate work that applies psychology principles, exercises leadership skills, and earns money for the next academic year.
Engaging as a Psychology Major
- Strategies to stand out from peers: become involved in research, high-impact practices (HIPs), and outside activities.
- High-impact practices include:
- study group organizer
- undergraduate teaching assistant
- peer advisor
- honors program
- learning community
- study abroad
- undergraduate research assistant
- service learning
- internship or field experience
- psychology club
- psychology honorary (Psi Beta, Psi Chi)
- other extracurricular activity
- on-campus employment
- convention attendance
- conference presentation
- formal mentoring experience
- and off-campus employment
- Identify completed HIPs, rate appeal of unexperienced HIPs, and strategize about participation.
Questions for Thought
- What kinds of high-impact practices appeal most to you?
- What are the advantages and disadvantages of studying abroad?
- How motivated might you be to participate in a study-abroad program while an undergraduate?
- Where and when have you been able to exercise your leadership skills?
- What would you need to do in general to make a study group effective?
- What kind of research team would be most attractive to you?
- What kind of research team would you want to avoid?
- How would you manage the cost of attending a student research conference?
- What style of mentor would best suit your needs for planning for your future?
CHAPTER 9: WHAT CAREER OPTIONS EXIST FOR STUDENTS WITH A BACHELOR'S OR AN ASSOCIATE'S DEGREE IN PSYCHOLOGY?
Misconceptions About Psychology Majors and Employability
- Jeb Bush's attack on psychology majors' employability sparked controversy.
- Many psychology graduates end up working in entry-level jobs, but these can be stepping stones to higher positions or valuable experiences.
- The stigma surrounding psychology degrees is misunderstood; the field offers various job opportunities.
Defending Your Major Decision
- Be prepared for criticism about your major choice at family gatherings or other social events.
- Use the following points to defend your decision:
- Types of jobs available: Psychology graduates can find employment in a wide range of fields, including human services, education, research, healthcare, and business.
- Enthusiasm for working with people: A psychology degree prepares students to work effectively with individuals, groups, or communities, making it an excellent foundation for careers in counseling, social work, and human resources.
- Expertise in managing data: Psychology graduates have strong analytical skills and can process complex information, which is valuable in research, data analysis, and other fields.
- Entry salaries and living wage: Many psychology-related jobs offer competitive starting salaries and the potential for growth.
- Entry salaries as a starting point: Starting salaries may not be high initially, but they can serve as a foundation for future career advancement.
- Willingness to go to graduate school: Some psychology careers require advanced degrees, but many do not.
- Importance of values other than economic: A psychology degree provides students with valuable skills and knowledge that extend beyond financial gain, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication abilities.
- Opportunity to make creative contributions: Psychology graduates can apply their skills and knowledge in innovative ways to create positive change in various industries.
Career Pathways for Psychology Graduates
- The following sections will explore different career paths for psychology graduates, including human services, education, research, healthcare, and business.
- Each section will provide examples of jobs, required qualifications, and potential career progression.
- Strategies for targeting job opportunities that align with your skills and interests will also be discussed.
Conclusion
- The job market for psychology graduates is diverse and offers numerous opportunities to apply the skills and knowledge gained from a psychology degree.
- Understanding how to translate your experience and values into an appealing profile for prospective employers is crucial in securing employment.
- Being prepared to defend your major decision and address common misconceptions about psychology careers can help you navigate family gatherings or other situations where criticism may arise.
- Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree
- Bachelor of Science (BS) degree
- Associate of Arts (AA) degree
- Associate of Science (AS) degree
Bachelor of Arts (BA) Degree:
- Awarded after 4 years of undergraduate study in humanities or social sciences, including psychology.
- Students complete a series of courses in liberal arts, mathematics, statistics, and natural sciences.
- Allows students to take electives and pursue minors or second majors.
- Provides career flexibility, potential for mobility, and greater earnings.
Bachelor of Science (BS) Degree:
- Awarded after 4 years of undergraduate study focusing on sciences.
- Psychology departments may be housed with natural science departments.
- Students take more math and lab-oriented science classes than general education requirements.
- Provides fewer elective slots but still allows for minors or second majors.
Associate Degrees (AA/AS):
- An undergraduate degree earned at community colleges, junior colleges, technical schools, or 4-year institutions.
- Students may opt for an AA as a stepping stone to a bachelor's degree or as a valuable end in itself.
- Equivalent to the first 2 years of coursework in a bachelor's degree.
- Provides targeted preparation for specific jobs in the workforce.
Career Opportunities for Bachelor's Degrees in Psychology:
- 62% of former psychology majors have careers related to or dealing with psychology.
- Jobs can be categorized as "professional psychology" (requiring graduate school) or "psychology related/workforce psychology."
- Graduates work in various fields, including STEM, healthcare, social services, management, business, and education.
Employer Expectations:
- Employers seek applicants with good grades and a strong work ethic.
- They want employees who possess some skills already and are enthusiastic about learning new ones.
- Employers are willing to train their employees but prefer hiring those who have a foundation in the necessary skills.
APA's Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major 5.5: This section of APA's guidelines focuses on helping students develop professional direction after completing their first two years of study. The goals are divided into several categories: motivation and work habits, career planning, communication of psychology-related skills, understanding of work settings, having a mentor, creating a curriculum vitae or resume, adapting to social change, and workplace skills.
Career-seeking skills at the Associate (AA/AS) and Baccalaureate (BA/BS) levels: The following subsections outline specific expectations for students at each level regarding career readiness.
At the AA/AS Level:
- 5.5a: Describe academic experiences and advanced course choices that will best shape career readiness
- 5.5d: Actively seek and collaborate with a mentor
- 5.5e: Describe how a curriculum vitae or resume is used to document skills expected by employers
- 5.5F: Develop strategies to enhance resilience and maintain skills in response to rapid social change and related changes in the job market
At the BA/BS Level:
- 5.5a: Formulate career plan contingencies based on accurate self-assessment of abilities, achievement
- 5.5b: Articulate skill sets desired by employers who hire or select people with psychology backgrounds
- 5.5c: Describe settings in which people with backgrounds in psychology typically work
- 5.5d: Actively seek and collaborate with a mentor
- 5.5e: Create and continuously update a curriculum vitae or resume
- 5.5f: Recognize how rapid social change influences behavior and affects one's value in the workplace
- 5.5g: Develop strategies to enhance resilience and maintain skills in response to rapid social change and related changes in the job market
Beyond good grades and psychology-related skills: Employers are looking for a range of skills and character qualities, as outlined in "Measuring Up: Developing A Digital Profile."
Digital portfolio: Creating a digital portfolio is an effective way to showcase your abilities, achievements, and unique spirit. It should demonstrate your ability to express yourself eloquently, manage technology, and communicate professionally. The following questions should be addressed in the portfolio:
- What is your current occupational objective?
- What achievements provide support for your goals?
- What classroom experiences have contributed to your aspirations?
- What are your strengths and areas of development?
- Who can vouch for your character?
Workplace skills: Employers value various workplace skills, some of which can be developed during college. These include:
- Solid work ethic
- Computer/digital technology skills
- Honesty/integrity
- Ability to function well on a team
- Oral and written communication skills
- Analytical/research skills
- Self-direction/initiative
- Interpersonal/social skills
- Adaptability/flexibility
- Professionalism
- Listening ability
- Problem-solving skills
- Willingness to learn new things
- Client/customer focus
- Quantitative skills
- Multicultural awareness and sensitivity
- Planning/organizing skills
- Time management skills
- Leadership skills
Perceived distinctions between college campus and workplace cultures: The transition from college to the workplace can be challenging due to differences in culture. Some perceived distinctions include:
- Professors vs. managers or supervisors
- Individual effort and performance vs. team effort and performance
- Frequent and concrete feedback on performance vs. infrequent and often not specific feedback
- More freedom and control to set schedule vs. less freedom or even control over schedule
- Frequent breaks, time off, vacations vs. limited time off and vacation days that are earned over time
- Structured courses and curricula vs. less structure and fewer directions
- Few changes in routine vs. constant and unexpected changes
- Academic or intellectual challenges vs. organizational, coworker, and client challenges
- Environment of personal support vs. usually less personal support
- Correct answers are usually available vs. few "right" answers
Jobs that attract psychology graduates: Psychology graduates can find employment in a variety of fields, including sales, education, health care, research, consulting, human resources, and more. Some common jobs for psychology graduates include:
- Sales agents
- Educators
- Health-care providers
- Researchers and consultants
- Human resource managers and personnel specialists
- Probation officers
- Employment counselors
- Writers
This list is not exhaustive, and there may be other career options that are a good fit for psychology majors.
Psychology Bachelor's Degree: Selected Workforce Occupations
Related to Children
- Assistant youth coordinator
- Behavior analyst
- Career counselor
- Career planning and placement advisor
- Child-care worker
- Child-protection worker
- Day care--center supervisor
- Foster home parent
- Residential youth counselor
- Youth minister
Related to Communications/Writing
- Film researcher/copywriter
- Historical research assistant
- Media buyer
- Newspaper reporter
- Public affairs coordinator
- Public information officer
- Public relations specialist
- Radio/TV research assistant
- Technical writer
Related to Government/Public Service
- Congressional aide
- Intelligence officer
- Lobbying organizer
- Political campaign worker
- Director of volunteer services
- Fast-food restaurant manager
- Hotel management
- Intellectual disability unit manager
- Nursing home administrator
- Program manager
Related to Management
- Administrative assistant
- Advertising agent
- Advertising trainee
- Events coordinator
- Management trainee
- Marketing representative
- Marketing researcher
- Office manager
- Small business owner
- Store manager
- Warehouse manager
Related to Data Management/Research
- Energy researcher
- Director of fundraising
- Financial researcher
- Laboratory assistant
- Property management
- Publications researcher
- Research assistant
- Statistical reports compiler
- Statistical assistant
- Urban planning research assistant
Related to the Military
- Veterans' advisor
- Administrative assistant
- Advertising agent
- Advertising trainee
- Events coordinator
- Management trainee
- Marketing representative
- Marketing researcher
- Office manager
- Small business owner
- Store manager
- Warehouse manager
Related to Criminal Populations
- Corrections officer
- Crime-prevention coordinator
- Juvenile probation officer
- Law enforcement officer
- Parole officer
- Probation officer
- Security officer
- Camp staff director
- Community organizer
- Community recreation worker
- Community relations officer
- Neighborhood outreach worker
- Parks and recreation director
- Task force coordinator
- Volunteer coordinator
- Work activity program director
Related to Human Services
- Camp staff director
- Community organizer
- Community recreation worker
- Community relations officer
- Neighborhood outreach worker
- Parks and recreation director
- Task force coordinator
- Volunteer coordinator
- Work activity program director
Related to Human Resources
- Affirmative action representative
- Employee counselor
- Employee relations assistant
- Human resources director
- Human resources recruiter
- Job analyst
- Occupational analyst
- Personnel worker/administrator
- Staff trainer and developer
Related to Education
- Driving instructor
- Educational coordinator
- Private tutor
- Secondary school teacher
- Teacher
Related to Customer Service
- Airline reservations clerk
- Bank manager
- Claims specialist
- Customer relations agent
- Customer service representative
- Hospital patient service representative
- Insurance agent
- Insurance claims/underwriter
- Loan officer
- Sales representative
Major Success Stories: Building a Mental Health-Focused Career
Background: Yasmine Nabulsi's passion for understanding human behavior and helping those in trouble was met with resistance in her Arab culture, where mental health disorders are often viewed as a result of flawed character or lack of faith. However, moving back to the United States at age 17 opened up new opportunities for her.
Early Experiences: Yasmine's drive for experience was insatiable. She volunteered at both a rape crisis center and a suicide hotline, which helped develop her interpersonal skills and confidence. She also sought informal advice from multiple professors in her undergraduate program to get feedback on her professional direction.
Education and Certifications: After graduation, Yasmine became a psychology technician at a clinic doing interesting work in the area of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Her current job involves duties such as psychometric testing of children, research coordination, and technician responsibilities for TMS research. She has also earned multiple certifications that add value to her undergraduate degree.
Advice: Yasmine advises not waiting around for a bachelor's degree to lead you somewhere. Instead, let yourself be known and apply your unique ideas and passion to grow. This is a unique field with tremendous job opportunities.
Thought Questions:
- Are you prepared to deal with negative feedback about your choice of major?
- What degree are you seeking? Why?
- Do you have any idea what sort of work appeals to you?
- What would your ideal workplace be like?
- What population has the greatest appeal for you?
- What are your current skills?
- What other skills would you like to develop before seeking employment?
- Is it possible to develop a satisfying career without going to graduate school?
Carl Bolano's Career Journey as a Psychology Major
Background and Education:
- Born in the Philippines, emigrated to the US after high school
- AA from community college
- BA in Psychology with a minor in Statistics from a 4-year school
Career in Health:
- Hired as an instructor to help psychology students pursue research careers
- Values passion, experiences, and connections over monetary rewards
- Research Background in Psychology:
- Applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy with children and teenagers diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder
- Learned behavior modification techniques from psychology courses and field work
- Improved clients' communication, social, and adaptive skills
- Data-management skills used at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Jobs:
- Behavior interventionist: applied ABA therapy to children with autism spectrum disorder
- Instructor: helped psychology students pursue research careers
- Program manager, public health associate, cancer survivorship researcher, and public health researcher at CDC
Skills Utilized:
- Research and statistical skills
- Behavior modification techniques (positive and negative reinforcement)
- Data management
- Oral presentation skills
Advice:
- Expect the unexpected
- Be open
- Be flexible
- Be adaptable
- Utilize your uniqueness in creating your own path.
Amy Salada's Career in Counseling: A Camp Prediction Come True
- Early experience at camp: Amy helped tentmate during her first period, received compliment from counselor
- Professional interest in helping others cope with trauma
- Bachelor's degree in psychology
- Trauma defined as "the lemons life throws at everyone"
- Focus on coping skills in individual and group therapy
- Society's emphasis on immediate gratification hinders healing
- Critique of education system: essential life skills neglected
Career in Addictions Counseling
- Satisfying 20-year career
- Clients resistant to professional help
- Belief that work plants seeds for future growth
- Continued contact from prior clients
- Low societal value placed on addictions work
- Intense nature of work not reflected in salaries
Advice for Future Counselors
- Importance of self-care:
- Vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue
- De-escalate emotions and cope with feelings
- Know personal boundaries and limitations
Key Concepts
- Trauma: unexpected life events causing stress
- Essential life skills: empathy, coping, listening
- Societal emphasis on immediate gratification
- Vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue
- Personal boundaries and limitations
- Inspired by Batman's psychological depth, Tyler Secor developed an interest in human nature and psychology.
- Enrolled in a psychology course to explore this interest further.
- Initially faced skepticism from family about the value of a psychology degree.
Early Career and Education
- Found research in psychology exhilarating and discovered its practical applications.
- Worked in child-care settings focusing on mental health interventions and supervised family visits.
- Earned an MS in education psychology to deepen understanding of human behavior.
Combining Research and Clinical Service
- Theorized about the use of art, particularly video games, as therapeutic tools for processing emotions.
- Utilized video games to help adolescents work through complex emotions like anxiety or grief.
- Aims to earn a doctorate to continue research and clinical service.
Key Concepts and Advice
- Relationships: Developing relationships is crucial for success in the field of psychology.
- Volunteering and Involvement: Get involved with local nonprofits and volunteer to gain practical experience, build relationships, and enrich classroom learning.
- Natural disasters can have unexpected positive outcomes
- Jarred Honora's experience with Hurricane Katrina and its impact on his life
Background
- Born and raised in New Orleans, Louisiana
- Devastating consequences of Hurricane Katrina in 2005
- Upended senior year in high school
- Raised by a single mother
- Struggled to find time to be a kid
- Discovered passion for helping people
Impact of Hurricane Katrina
- Devastated city of New Orleans
- Inspired Jarred to pursue psychology as a major
- Served as a role model for his sister
- Wanted to make a positive impact on society
Inspiration from College
- Attended college in New Orleans
- Talented professors inspired him
- Became a lifelong learner
- Dedicated himself to psychology major
- Potential for healing and making a positive impact
Current Role
- Director of admissions for a high school in New Orleans
- Previously an admissions counselor at his alma mater
- Background in psychology helps him work effectively with students
- Emphasizes creating goals, monitoring progress, and preparing for future opportunities
- Provides "a road map and a verbal compass" to help students navigate their journey
Advice from Jarred
- Do not limit focus to one area of psychology
- Enjoy the journey through the major
- Learned about himself and healed through his studies
- Inspired curiosity in the major.
I. Preparing for the Job Search
A. Austin's Situation
- Austin is a senior psychology major planning to graduate in 6 months.
- He wants to apply his skills in behavior to business settings, such as marketing or sales.
- He visits his university's career center for advice on job opportunities and search strategies.
B. Finding Meaningful Work
- Students like Austin need to find work that fits their skills and interests.
- This chapter offers suggestions for job searching, writing a resume and cover letter, requesting letters of recommendation, and interviewing.
II. Searching for Jobs: Where to Begin
A. Campus Career Center
- Most colleges have career services centers that help students identify careers.
- They offer resources like vocational tests, job listings, mock interviews, and resume writing assistance.
- Many continue to assist graduates as well.
B. Alumni Networks
- Alumni networks can provide valuable advice, insights, expertise, and potential job leads.
- Students should reach out to graduates for guidance in their chosen field.
C. Internships
- Internships offer students practical experience and insight into a career or workplace setting.
- Many colleges have internship offices that maintain lists of local sites.
- Some are for course credit, while others are volunteer or paid experiences.
D. Job Shadowing
- Job shadowing allows students to spend a day observing a professional in their field.
- Students can check with their campus career center or contact professionals directly.
E. The Occupational Information Network (O*NET)
- O*NET is an online resource for information about various occupations.
- It provides details on required knowledge, skills, abilities, and work context.
III. Other Resources for the Job Search
A. Books
- Kuther, T. L., & Morgan, R. D. (2020). Careers in Psychology: Opportunities in a changing world.
- Landrum, R. E. and Davis, S. (2014). The Psychology Major: Career Options and Strategies for Success.
- Sternberg, R. J. (2017). Career paths in Government employment psychology.
B. Websites
- Indeed.com
- CareerRookie.com
- Monster.com
- Governmentjobs.com
- Salary.com
C. Informal Networks
- Personal connections can provide helpful suggestions and job leads.
- Students should ask family, friends, and coworkers about their experiences and opportunities.
D. Other Resources
- Table 10.1 lists additional resources for locating information on jobs for psychology majors.
Writing a Resume: A well-written resume is essential for securing job interviews and potential careers. It should be thoughtfully conceived, polished, and focused, with both a hard copy and an electronic version available.
Basic Requirements:
- Set text on high-quality paper (8.5 x 1 inch, white, ivory, or lightbeige) and print on one side only.
- Use action-oriented words and avoid complete sentences or the word "I."
- Do not include unrelated personal information.
- Keep it brief (one page for college students/recent graduates, never exceeding two pages).
- Proofread carefully and have multiple reviewers check for errors.
- Use a basic font like Times New Roman in a 12-point size.
- Do not fold or staple the resume.
Parts of a Resume:
Heading:
- Center your name at the top of the page.
- Include address and contact information below your name.
Objective or Skills Summary:
- A concise statement regarding desired employment (objective) or a list of six bullet points highlighting achievements/abilities (skills summary).
- Customize for different positions.
Education:
- List degrees, schools, and majors.
- Include academic honors and awards.
Experience:
- Chronological list of previous work experiences.
- Include dates, responsibilities, and accomplishments.
Activities:
- List key extracurricular activities, including internships and volunteer work.
- Avoid padding the resume with too many things.
Awards:
- Briefly note any important contributions or achievements.
References:
- Indicate availability upon request.
- Obtain permission before listing contact information for references.
Writing a Skills Summary:
- Write down as many skills as possible.
- Be critical and select the six best skills.
- Describe concrete examples of behaviors or situations demonstrating each skill.
Résumé Analysis and Improvement
ELIZABETH ANN GORDEN (Call Me Lizzie!) email hotbabe+9@massnet.com social security no 555-62-1234 address I'm moving and will let you know when I get my leased signed
Long-Term Employment Goals To become a clinical psychologist Education Hard Knocks Universtiy Majored In Anatomy, Home Econmics, Logistics, and Psychology Grade Point Overall 2.2 (It could have been higher but I had a lot of family troubles that meant I couldn't always make it to class). Hobbies Knife collection, salsa dancing, travel Skills People say I'm really good with people. So if this job has anything to do with people, I can probably do it pretty good. I really like working with people. I'm also a quik learner. Work Experience exotic dancer Tool sharpener Video game developer Awards None. References You can ask me for these if you give me an interview.
1. Résumé of Elizabeth Ann Gorden (Lizzie)
- Lacking professionalism and formality
- Multiple errors and inconsistencies
- Inappropriate content
2. Improvements for Lizzie's Résumé
Heading:
- Use a formal and clear heading with name, contact information, and professional title (e.g., Elizabeth Ann Gorden - Human Resources Professional)
Email:
- Replace the unprofessional email address with a more appropriate one (e.g., elizabeth.gorden@email.com)
Address:
- Provide a clear and concise address without coyness or instability implications
Long-Term Employment Goals:
- Align long-term goals with the job being applied for
Education:
- Focus on relevant majors and degrees
- Remove irrelevant information (e.g., Anatomy, Home Economics)
Hobbies:
- Only include hobbies that are directly related to the job or industry
Skills:
- Use bullet points and clear, concise descriptions
- Emphasize relevant skills
Work Experience:
- Provide specific details about responsibilities and achievements in each role
- Tailor experiences to the job being applied for
Awards:
- If no awards, remove this section
References:
- Provide references in a professional manner (e.g., "Available upon request")
3. Cover Letter
Importance of a Cover Letter
- A cover letter is essential to accompany the résumé
- Tailored and brief, usually one page or less in length
Structure of a Cover Letter
First Paragraph:
- Explain the reason for the letter
- Identify the position being applied for
- Mention how you heard about the opening
Second Paragraph:
- Describe your background and qualifications
- Highlight how your skills match the needs of the organization or position
Third Paragraph:
- Express interest in the job and invite the reader to contact you
Formatting and Style
- Use a formal tone and style
- Keep it concise and easy to read
4. Interviewing Skills
Preparation for an Interview
- Research the company or organization thoroughly
- Prepare answers for common interview questions
- Dress appropriately and arrive early
Types of Interviews
- Traditional face-to-face interviews
- Online interviews using web interfaces like Skype
Online Interviews
- Test your technology setup beforehand
- Ensure a good camera angle and lighting
Competing with Other Candidates
- Understand that you are likely to be competing with other candidates for the job
Interview Process
- Be knowledgeable about the company or organization
- Convince interviewers that you are the right person for the job
- Address any potential weaknesses or concerns
Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews
- Prepare for both types of questions
- Understand that interviewers may rely on data from interviews to rule out prospects rather than declare a winner
Interview Preparation:
- Structured Questions:
- Behavioral questions that require specific examples of past experiences
- Examples: describe a problem-solving situation, working with difficult people, demonstrating leadership, effective teamwork
- Unstructured Questions:
- General questions about motivation, strengths, weaknesses, personal information
Presenting Yourself Well:
- Appearance:
- Dress appropriately for the job and company culture
- Make a good first impression
- Poise and Eye Contact:
- Maintain a relaxed and attentive demeanor
- Smile and make friendly eye contact
- Questions to Ask:
- Prepare several questions about the job and company
- Ask questions that emerge naturally during the interview
- Thank-You Note:
- Send a professional and brief note after the interview expressing continued interest in the position.
Additional Tips:
- Be patient and prepared to wait for a response from the employer
- Follow up with a friendly inquiry if you don't hear back within a reasonable timeframe.
Title: Major Success Story in HR Consulting: reConnect HR and Sadie O'Neill
Background:
- Sadie O'Neill, industrial-organizational psychology PhD, launched her own HR consulting business, reConnect HR.
- Transforms data into specific steps for companies to improve their environment and make better people decisions.
- Specializes in diversity equity issues and follows up with analysis to demonstrate intervention effectiveness.
Benefits of HR Consulting:
- Growth of tech start-ups increases demand for strategic HR departments.
- People account for a third of a company's investment, making smart hiring crucial.
- Data-driven decisions reduce costly bad hires and improve overall performance.
Sadie O'Neill's Advice:
- Look at job descriptions and postings to determine required skills.
- Gain relevant experience and skills before pursuing higher education.
- Be persistent during the job search process.
- Acquire additional skills while searching for a position.
Post-Interview Scenarios:
If You Don't Get the Job:
- Reflect on interview performance and identify areas for improvement.
- Focus on controlling controllable factors in the hiring process.
- Continue job search and hone skills for future interviews.
If You Get the Job:
- Maintain a positive attitude and take initiative.
- Set priorities, seek regular feedback, and be committed to the job.
- Avoid common mistakes such as missing deadlines or acting unethically.
Thought Questions:
- What degree are you seeking? Why?
- What kind of work appeals to you? What would your ideal workplace look like?
- Have you considered doing an internship? What sort would you want to pursue?
- What are your current skills? What other skills would you like to develop before looking for work?
- What experiences have you already had that you can put on a resume?
- What questions would you ask a prospective employer?
- What look will you strive to have for a face-to-face interview?
Factors Influencing the Decision to Pursue Graduate Study
- Approximately 45.3% of psychology majors obtain a graduate degree, with only 35.1% of all college graduates earning one (APA Monitor on Psychology, 2016)
- Graduate education is costly and time-consuming, requiring commitment and potential relocation
- Competitive application process with many not getting accepted the first time they apply
Advantages of Pursuing an Advanced Degree in Psychology
- Opens up various professional pathways
- Majority of advanced degree holders work in: professional service (47%), research (18%), teaching (16%), management (14%), and sales and marketing (3%)
Types of Graduate Degrees
Master's-Level Training
- Reasons for pursuing a master's degree: undecided career goal, stepping stone to doctoral level, or terminal degree
- Two types of master's degrees: Master of Arts (MA) and Master of Science (MS)
- Concentrations: experimental, clinical/counseling, or industrial-organizational
- Provides expertise in psychology without long-term obligations of doctoral training
- Autonomy depends on context and type of psychology practiced
- Graduates can work in various settings such as higher education, government-sponsored human services, clinical contexts, and business contexts
Employment Opportunities for Master's Degree Graduates
In Higher Education
- Community college teacher
- Four-year college adjunct teacher
- Academic adviser or academic recruiter
- Career counselor
- Rehabilitation counselor
In Government-Sponsored Human Services
- Vocational rehabilitation specialist
- Substance abuse counselor
- Human resource manager
- Parole officer
In Clinical Contexts
- Behavioral counselor
- Health-care coordinator
- Mental health technician
- Mental health therapist
- Rehabilitation specialist
- Group home supervisor
- Child-protection specialist
- Child-care program manager
In Business Contexts
- Human resource manager
- Employee developer
- Advertising and marketing specialist
- Public relations specialist
- Project manager
- Sales representative
- Store manager
Measuring Up: Degrees and Careers in Psychology
Questions to Consider:
- Do you plan to pursue a graduate degree in psychology?
- If yes, would you aim for a master's or doctoral degree? Reasons:
- Master's Degree: Which career(s) from Table 11.1 appeal to you? Why?
- Doctoral Degree: Which type -- PhD, PsyD, or EdD -- would you prefer? Why?
- Which psychology subfields interest you? Reasons:
Doctoral Degree Options:
- Psychologists with doctoral training are employed primarily in university (26%) and health-care settings (25%).
- PhD: Most prestigious degree, prepares students for careers in academia, research, and clinical/business settings.
- Research focus
- Takes about 7 years to complete
- Requires a research dissertation
- Acceptance rates: 1 in 10 applications
- Program size: 9 admissions
- Financial support: Grants, assistantships
- PsyD: Clinical focus, reduced emphasis on research.
- Takes comparable time to PhD (4-7 years)
- Acceptance rates: 4 out of 10 applications
- Program size: 16 students
- Financial support: Less than PhD programs
- Theoretical orientation: More diverse, including psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, and family systems
- EdD: Focus on mild dysfunction, offered in education departments.
- Takes 3-5 years to complete (assumes master's degree)
- Area concentration: Counseling, developmental psychology, or school psychology
- Emphasis on research but less rigorous than PhD
- Workplace: Educational settings
- Lower reimbursement rates from insurance companies
Subfields of Psychology: Acceptance rates vary depending on the subfield and degree level. A low acceptance rate should not deter applicants, but awareness of competitiveness is important. (Figure 11.2)
Clinical Psychologists:
- Work in mental health-care settings to alleviate emotional or behavioral disorders
- Conduct psychological tests and design therapy programs for individuals, groups, and families
Cognitive Psychologists:
- Focus on how people think, remember, reason, and make decisions
- Work in research contexts and help create treatment plans for those with cognitive impairment
Community Psychologists:
- Work in larger social systems to improve community mental health
- Provide assistance after trauma or focus on prevention programs
Counseling Psychologists:
- Focus on everyday adjustment issues
- Found in schools, hospitals, and businesses
- Clients' problems less severe than clinical psychologists
Developmental Psychologists:
- Concentrate on behavior across the life span
- Originally focused on childhood and adolescence, now increasingly working with aging populations
Educational Psychologists:
- Explore issues that hinder learning
- Design effectiveness studies in classrooms or consult with teachers
Engineering (Human Factors) Psychologists:
- Work at the intersection of machines and humans
- Assist in designing efficient and adaptive devices
Environmental Psychologists:
- Examine impact of environments on behavior
- Consult architects, improve adherence to practices reducing pollution and waste
Experimental Psychologists:
- Apply knowledge of good experimental design to advance science
- Publish research in academic settings or manufacturing and engineering
Forensic Psychologists:
- Support the judicial system
- Provide expert testimony, conduct research on jury selection, or evaluate child custody cases
Health Psychologists:
- Consult in health-care systems
- Develop interventions addressing psychological reasons for noncompliance with doctor's orders
- Conduct research on large-scale health challenges
Industrial-Organizational Psychologists:
- Make workplaces better through improving production systems, HR training, and personnel processes
- Serve as agents for change within organizations
Military Psychologists:
- Focus on unique psychological needs of armed services members and their families
- Address deployment concerns and reentry problems
Neuropsychologists:
- Examine brain function
- Work with individuals who have had traumatic brain injury or disease
Personality Psychologists:
- Examine individual differences in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
- Develop assessment tools identifying people's characteristic responses to stimuli
Quantitative Psychologists:
- Combine expertise in psychology research design with mathematics
- Assist in high-quality data analysis
- Propose mathematical modeling for complex behaviors
Rehabilitation Psychologists:
- Provide direct service to patients with stroke, disability, or developmental delays
- Help clients adapt to situations and overcome problems
- Work in teams with other health-care professionals
- Offer expert testimony in legal cases related to rehabilitation and disability
School Psychologists:
- Provide a wide range of services to children and families in education settings
- Counseling, testing, designing interventions to improve school performance
Social Psychologists:
- In great demand for expertise on how people form and change attitudes
- Consult with businesses to shape advertising and marketing strategies
- Provide coaching on ways to enhance group performance
Sports Psychologists:
- Help athletes achieve their goals by reducing fears and improving motivation
Additional Facts About Professional Helpers:
- Psychologists providing therapy must complete additional steps for licensure, including passing a comprehensive content and ethics examination and working under clinical supervision
- Laws governing professional psychology vary by state; the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards oversees this process
- Social work is another popular option to become professional helpers without an intense focus on science and math required in psychology
Job Outlook for Psychologists:
- Expected growth rate from 2016 to 2026: 14%, faster than the average growth of all other occupations (7%)
- BA/BS psychology salaries are among the lowest in liberal arts, but they improve with each level of degree
- Highest-paid jobs in psychology related fields are those that combine disciplinary expertise with management or scientific and technological enterprises
- Lowest salaries are for psychologists working in community or nonprofit sector
Estimated Salaries in Psychology by Category
Doctoral-level training
- Industrial/organizational psychologist: $109,030
- University administrator: $94,340
- Neuropsychologist: $86,000
- Forensic psychologist: $85,000
- College faculty: $78,470
- Clinical psychologist: $76,990
Master's-level training
- Advertising manager: $132,620
- Sales manager: $124,220
- Public relations: $114,800
- Human resource manager: $113,300
- Training and development manager: $107,770
- Personal financial advisor: $99,920
- Educational administrator: $95,390
- Management analyst: $89,990
- Social worker: $74,700
- Social service manager: $65,750
- Claims adjuster: $65,670
- Vocational counselor: $56,160
- Sports psychologist: $55,000
- Health educator: $53,800
- School counselor: $56,310
- Child-care manager: $52,010
- Marriage therapist: $50,090
- Mental health counselor: $43,700
- Substance abuse counselor: $41,090
Note: Some occupations at the master's level have higher salaries than doctoral-level due to business contexts or administrative responsibilities.
Average Salaries of Psychologists by State
- Salaries vary by region and are affected by cost of living and availability of people to do the work
- The most lucrative jobs for psychologists appear to be in Florida, California, Connecticut, Georgia, Kansas, Maryland, New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, Washington DC, and Washington.
Annual mean wage:
- $69,870-$83,030
- $83,550-$87,940
- $88,120-$94,260
- $95,380-$114,860
Calculating Debt Load for Graduate Degrees
Before pursuing a graduate degree, it's essential to carefully consider the financial implications. Here are some steps to help determine whether you can afford the degree:
Reality Check: Can I Truly Afford a Graduate Degree?
- Estimate the total cost of the degree:
- Use net cost calculators on university admission websites.
- Project the total income during graduate study:
- Consider teaching or research-based assistantships, grants, and part-time work.
- Estimate post-degree first-year salary:
- Look up job salaries on websites like Glassdoor.com or Salary.com.
- Check the Occupational Outlook Handbook for demand in your field.
- Consider debt load and repayment:
- Ensure that undergraduate and graduate debt won't exceed first-year salary.
- Determine if you can pay back loans within 10 years without sacrificing quality of life.
- Calculate the lifetime impact of the degree:
- Estimate income-generating years between graduation and retirement.
- Consider the opportunity cost of attending graduate school instead of working.
- Recognize potential uncertainties:
- Be prepared for unknowns like job availability, salary, and economic downturns.
Preparing for Employment with a Graduate Degree
- Determine income to support desired lifestyle:
- Research salaries in your field and consider work ethic and values.
- Consider work-life balance:
- Understand job requirements and factors contributing to work-life balance satisfaction.
- Assess required independence:
- Consider the level of autonomy you'll need for professional fulfillment.
- Consider location:
- Be flexible about where you are willing to live to increase employability.
- Build a network:
- Join professional organizations, attend conferences, and make connections.
- Monitor job availability comprehensively:
- Look beyond "Psychologist wanted" listings for opportunities.
- Be flexible about moving on:
- Prepare for new jobs that may provide a more satisfying life.
- Leverage your psychology degree:
- Explore part-time work, consulting, and writing to increase income.
Title: The Value and Diversity of Careers in Psychology: Success Stories
Introduction:
- The authors, as psychology professors, believe they have the best jobs in the world.
- According to Money magazine, both "college professor" (ranked #2) and "psychologist" (ranked #10) are among the top 50 best jobs in America.
- Psychology offers flexibility, creativity, and career advancement opportunities.
- Despite a competitive job market, the demand for psychology professors is expected to grow more than 30% in the next decade.
Choosing an Academic Career: Darren's Story Background:
- Born in Jamaica, Darren aspired to be an archaeologist but became interested in psychology due to his curiosity about dreaming.
- He completed a PhD in counseling psychology and embarked on an academic career in the US.
Advantages of Academic Life:
- Direct impact on many students
- Explore new ideas every day
- Passion for learning inspires future generations
- Satisfying work that doesn't feel like work
Best Advice:
- Follow your passion
- Pursue a promising direction
- Trust that good things will happen
Animal Behavior: Summer Brooks' Story Background:
- Grew up in San Diego and fell in love with animals
- Became a veterinary assistant but didn't enjoy the "blood and guts" side of the job
- Recognized that psychology offered the information she needed to make a difference
Education and Career:
- Earned an MS in interdisciplinary studies with an emphasis on animal behavior
- Teaches an online course on animal behavior
- Works as a registered veterinary technician
Best Advice:
- Volunteer or intern anywhere you can
- Do it to see what the work day is like
- Connect with people who share similar interests
Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Jacob Entinger's Story Background:
- Initially interested in helping those less fortunate
- Learned about the wide range of options in psychology
- Had a "this is it moment" when he discovered industrial-organizational psychology
Career:
- Joined a team of research psychologists working with the US Navy
- Performs literature reviews, writes proposals, and creates presentations
- Expects opportunities to become more diverse over time
Best Advice:
- Ask yourself why you chose psychology
- Formulate where you want it to take you
- Build relationships with faculty and graduate students for wisdom and inspiration
Human Resources: David's Story Background:
- Majored in psychology because he found the content fascinating
- Decided to minor in business and pursue a master's degree in industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
- Captured an internship at OVC as part of his program
Career:
- Became an HR director for QVC
- Developed a niche in helping organizations cope with change
- Built an HR department in the commercial division of a prominent cruise line
Best Advice:
- Think about the "sweet spot" where experience and education align
- Consider pursuing a master's degree as a great passport into a satisfying professional choice and lifestyle.
Background and Interest in Forensic Psychology
- Karima Mohadidi's interest in forensic concerns was sparked by an encounter with a criminal in middle school.
- She was disappointed with the discrepancy between her poor eyewitness recall and the dramatic portrayals of eyewitness testimony in TV crime dramas.
Education and Expertise
- Mohadidi pursued a degree that combined psychology and criminal justice matters, earning a PhD in this field.
- Her research focuses on eyewitness identification and jury decision-making to make positive changes in the judicial system.
- Her psychology background allows her to use solid experimental methods to explore interesting questions.
Current Research and Satisfying Work
- One of Mohadidi's current research questions involves looking at differential driver's license-suspension practices that appear to show disproportionate sentencing of African Americans.
- Her most satisfying work has been with the Innocence Project, an organization that strives to free innocent people who have been wrongly convicted of a crime.
Advice for Students
- Mohadidi advises students not to worry about choosing a major or a job early and to take time to explore what interests them.
- She encourages students not to let others decide their future paths.
Marissa Frangione's Journey in Psychology: A Major Success Story and a Master of Resilience
Background
- Marissa Frangione's interest in psychology was sparked by an AP course in high school.
- She was fascinated by how the brain interprets experience and wanted to support athletes with psychological theory.
- Decided to become a sports psychology consultant and enrolled in a master's program.
Graduate School Experience
- Graduate school is financially challenging, Marissa had to take out loans but also worked each semester.
- Recommended securing a teaching or graduate assistantship for tuition remission.
- Current job: "Master Resilience Trainer/Performance Expert" on a government contract.
- Provides classes and one-on-one training with army personnel on various skills.
- Enjoys traveling to different Army bases.
Advice from Marissa
- Psychology major offers diverse career paths, not limited to becoming a psychologist or psychiatrist.
- Understanding people is essential in any career.
- Reach out to professionals in desired fields for advice and guidance.
Thought Questions
- Why do average starting salaries for psychologists differ so widely between states?
- Which state would you especially want to live in based on salary and job opportunities?
- What subspecialties in doctoral-level training are the most appealing to you?
- Which occupations tend to provide the highest and lowest salaries in psychology?
- What does a master's degree in psychology qualify you to do?
- What strategies should be used during graduate school to prepare for a future job search?
- How much economic risk are you willing to take to secure an advanced degree in psychology?
- What do you think the best part of being a college teacher would be?
- What would make being a professor a challenging career?
- When do you plan to enroll in graduate school, and how long will it take you to finish your degree?
Key Concepts
- Passionate about learning
- Financial challenges of graduate school
- Diverse career paths in psychology
- Importance of understanding people
- Reaching out for advice and guidance.
Prerequisites for Graduate School in Psychology
- Strong intellectual curiosity
- Strategic planning and preparation
- Willingness to make sacrifices (moving, low income, delayed career)
- Passionate commitment
Deciding to Go to Graduate School in Psychology
Why You Want to Go?
- Reasons for applying:
- Become a scientific researcher or professional
- Contribute to the discipline
- Desire for advanced degrees (Doctor/Professor)
- Dedication to promoting psychological well-being
- Curiosity about human condition
- Enjoyment of academic work
Interpretation:
- Odd-numbered rationales: Consistent with genuine motivation
- Even-numbered rationales: Shallow motives, may not sustain commitment
Preparing for Graduate School During College
Steps to Take:
- Begin planning in junior year
- Develop a comprehensive application strategy
- Evaluate strengths and weaknesses
- Research programs and their selectivity levels
- Speak with instructors for recommendations
- Focus on academic performance (high GPA)
- Prepare application materials (CV, statement of purpose, letters of recommendation)
- Apply to multiple programs
- Be persistent and follow up on applications
- Consider alternative paths if not accepted initially
Preparation Timeline:
- Junior year: Research programs, evaluate strengths/weaknesses
- Summer before senior year: Conduct research, prepare application materials
- Senior year: Submit applications (November or early December)
Additional Considerations
- Financial aid and funding opportunities
- Location preferences
- Program size and focus
- Diversity and inclusivity
- Personal fit and compatibility with faculty and students.
Graduate School Factors to Consider
- Cost
- Some programs offer funding through fellowships, teaching assistantships, or other sources
- Decision on taking out loans for tuition and living expenses
- Selective programs may provide good student funding but competition for admission is fierce
- Easier programs may have higher student debt upon graduation
- Research Mentor
- Identify faculty members in each program whose research interests align with yours
- High-quality programs often assign admitted students to a research advisor
- Compatibility can be beneficial during the application process
- Location
- Willingness to move for graduate school
- Preference for urban or rural setting
- Reasons for staying close to home
- Placement
- Research graduates' job market performance and career choices
- Align interests with programs that specialize in those research areas
Applying to Psychology Graduate School
- Required undergraduate courses
- Introductory psychology
- One research methods course and one statistics course
- One course in each core area: neuroscience, developmental, cognition, sociocultural
- At least one applied course (health psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, environmental psychology)
- Capstone course
- Demonstrate rigor as a student
- Avoid filler classes
- Choose classes that build foundation for graduate study
- Acquire skills in designing experiments, analyzing data, navigating literature, and writing lab reports or theoretical reviews
Identifying an Area of Interest
- Importance of identifying and pursuing a specific area of interest
- Student interest linked with course work
- Learn more about psychology across the life span to decide on area of specialization (developmental psychology as an example)
- Find good programs by speaking to academic advisors, faculty members, or using APA's Graduate Study in Psychology (GSIP) publication and database.
Graduate School Application Criteria
- Most important criteria for admission
- Letters of recommendation
- College GPA
- Applicant's statement of goals
- Research experience
- GRE scores
- Least important criterion for admission to graduate programs
- Extracurricular activities.
Importance and Ways to Gain Research Experience
Traditional PhD Programs in Psychology and Research Experience
- Traditional PhD programs in psychology focus on producing scientific research.
- Applicants need to demonstrate their research capabilities to admissions committees.
- Having research experience is almost as important as having good grades (GSIP).
- Gaining research experience before applying to graduate school helps determine if a research career appeals to you.
Advantages of Research Experience for Undergraduates
- Learning about different research approaches and methodologies.
- Hands-on experience in psychology outside the classroom.
- Improving teamwork skills by collaborating with faculty members and students.
- Developing writing and speaking skills through summarizing research results.
- Contributing to psychological literature as a team member or coauthor.
Gaining Research Experience: Becoming a Research Assistant
- Best way for undergraduates to gain research experience.
- Approach faculty members in your psychology department for opportunities.
- Participate in lab meetings, run data collection sessions, enter data, and write research summaries.
- Beneficial even if not in your area of interest.
Senior Thesis or Independent Study
- Writing an in-depth literature review or conducting an experiment/research project from start to finish.
- High levels of initiative, organization, independence, effort, and tenacity required.
- Produces a written thesis and may involve oral presentations or poster sessions.
- Prepares students for graduate school research projects.
Collaborating on Faculty Research and Teaching Assistantships
- Collaborating on faculty research enhances learning about research and developing skills.
- Becoming a teaching assistant (TA) prepares students for formal teaching during graduate school.
Summer Programs for Undergraduate Research
- Opportunities to join existing research teams and gain financial support.
- National summer research opportunities provide funds and experience.
- Check with your advisor about suitable options for your applications.
Assessing Your Research Chops: Reality Check
- Graduate programs focus on research skills and assume students will be enthusiastic about it.
- Work through the following questions to assess your interest in generating research:
- What is your favorite research study? Why is it your favorite?
- What was the hypothesis of the study?
- Did the results confirm the hypothesis?
- Were there any ethical concerns?
- Describe one other variable related to the phenomenon being researched.
- Speculate about a hypothesis that could extend the study.
- If you can think about behavior in terms of variables and their effects, you are well-prepared for graduate research work.
Sharing research findings with others is an essential aspect of the research process. While writing a senior thesis or other paper achieves this goal, presenting research at a psychology conference enhances a graduate student's potential.
Types of Conferences
- Undergraduate conferences: offered by individual colleges or universities or consortia, where few text and an emphasis on tables and graphs are used to summarize the research project.
- Poster sessions: lower-stress presentation mode with quick 2-minute summaries for interested attendees.
- Oral presentations: talks where the speaker stands in front of an audience to present research for 15 or 20 minutes, requiring focus on hypothesis, methods, findings, and answering questions from the audience.
Preparing for a Conference
- Joining an organization: most conferences are sponsored by organizations (APA), requiring student affiliate membership for undergraduates to present.
- Submitting a conference proposal: must be reviewed and accepted, with research supervisor typically being a full member of the organization.
- Creating a poster or preparing an oral presentation: follow APA style, emphasizing visuals and clear communication.
Benefits of Presenting at a Conference
- Enhances potential as a graduate student: showcases research skills to peers and professionals.
- Valuable skill for graduate school and the workplace: public speaking, leading discussions, and presenting reports.
Self-Assessment:
- Honest evaluation of chances of admission
- Review admissions data seriously
- Look for programs with faculty whose research appeals to you
- Contact faculty members directly if interested
- Be prepared for rejection
Factors to Consider When Applying to Graduate Schools:
Application Strategy:
- Apply to programs where you have a reasonable chance of being accepted
- Search for programs with specific faculty members whose research aligns with your interests
- Contact faculty members directly if interested in their research
- Do not apply to more schools than you can realistically attend
Degree Options:
Doctoral vs. Master's Degrees:
- Pursuing a doctorate is generally the wiser course for professional opportunities requiring a doctorate
- A master's degree may be a good option if it matches your career goals
- Decide on degree type before application deadlines
- Some programs offer combined doctoral and master's degrees
- Applying to both doctoral and master's programs simultaneously is an option for those not admitted to doctoral programs
Important Factors:
- Commitment required for graduate education
- Graduate school can take several years to complete
- Consider location, debt, and other personal factors when deciding on a school
Applying to Doctoral-Level Clinical Psychology Programs:
- Competition is high due to large number of applicants
- Higher GPA and GRE scores required
- Alternative: PsyD degree (Doctorate of Psychology)
- Emphasizes clinical practice over research
- For-profit programs tend to be less selective but generate substantial debt
- Consider accreditation status and internship placement records when choosing schools
Background: Joann's Journey from BA to PSYD to Rehab Psychologist
- Undergraduate Education: Joann knew traditional clinical PhD pathway wasn't for her due to research requirements not aligning with her strengths.
- Alternative: PsyD Degree: Enrolled in a new and rigorous PsyD program, thrived during clinical training.
- Clinical Training: Gained experience with various populations; drawn to those facing physical challenges.
- Rehabilitation Psychologist: Collaborates with multidisciplinary team in trauma recovery (accidents, strokes).
- Advice: Networking and electives crucial for success in clinical programs.
Challenges in Clinical Programs: Internships
- Emerging Problem: Ensuring students have access to quality internships due to increasing numbers of PsyD-trained candidates from for-profit programs.
- APA's Response: Dedicating resources to increase the number of quality internships.
- Internship Placement Success: Clinical programs should report their students' success in obtaining appropriate internships after formal training.
- Caution: Be wary of programs with poor internship-match percentages; unaccredited placements limit professional credibility and job options.
Applying to Graduate School: Number of Applications
- Application Fees: Most graduate schools charge application fees, but some waive them for students with limited income.
- Number of Applications: No magic number; consider cost, desires, and chances of admission.
- Realistic Appraisal: Balance dreams with realistic expectations regarding program admissions.
Grades and Test Scores in Graduate Programs
- Undergraduate grades matter for admission to selective graduate programs
- Graduate schools examine students' GPAs in all courses, not just psychology major
- Minimum GPA requirement is usually 3.0, but competitive programs may require higher GPAs
- Most graduate programs in psychology require students to submit scores on the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) and the Psychology Subject Test
- GRE contains questions assessing verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and analytical writing
- Psychology Subject Test covers experimental and natural science sides, social science side, history of psychology, statistics, research methods, and applied psychology
- Official testing centers administer the tests by computer throughout the year
- Higher scores on both tests increase chances of admission to competitive graduate programs
- Some programs may not require GRE but might specify the Miller Analogies Test instead
- Prepare for both general and disciplinary tests with books, courses, or self-study
- Retake exams if disappointed with scores, but additional preparation is necessary for improved results
Requesting Letters of Recommendation
- Instructors, academic advisors, professors, former supervisors, and employers may be asked to write letters of recommendation or serve as references
- Provide recommenders with a list of addresses and due dates for letters, curriculum vitae (CV), résumé, personal statement, list of courses and grades, unofficial transcript, GRE scores, required recommendation forms, and preaddressed envelopes
- Many letters are now uploaded to university websites by recommenders themselves
- Waive your right to see confidential letters of recommendation to ensure candid assessments of abilities and character
- Follow up with graduate programs to make sure all recommenders have sent in their letters before deadlines.
Writing a Personal Statement for Graduate Applications
A personal statement is an essential component of graduate applications, allowing applicants to present themselves and share their interests, skills, experiences, and career goals. It is the one personal aspect of the application and serves several purposes:
- Introduce yourself
- Explain your interest in psychology
- Share relevant background information
- Provide a sample of your writing skills
Key Components of a Personal Statement
- Academic Interest Areas in Psychology: Discuss your specific areas of interest within psychology and why they appeal to you.
- Academic Background and Achievements: Highlight your academic accomplishments, including degrees, GPAs, and honors or awards.
- Motivation for Applying: Explain why you are applying to the specific program and what attracted you to it.
- Research Experiences: Describe any research experiences in psychology or related disciplines in detail.
- Teaching Experiences: Discuss any teaching experiences relevant to psychology.
- Relevant Internship or Volunteer Experiences: Share experiences in youth counseling, clinical settings, or other related fields.
- Objectives for Graduate School and Career Plans: Outline your goals for graduate school and future career plans.
- Faculty Interests: Identify faculty members in the graduate program with whom you might want to work due to similar research interests.
- Skills: List any relevant skills, such as math, statistics, programming, or foreign languages.
- Personal Material: Share personal information that the admissions committee should know but be judicious in what you share.
Writing and Revising Your Personal Statement
- Be concise and avoid redundancy with other application materials.
- Tailor each statement for individual applications based on program requirements.
- Seek feedback from advisors, faculty members, excellent grammar helpers, and general readers to improve clarity and persuasiveness.
Creating Your First Curriculum Vitae (CV)
A CV summarizes your academic life, particularly any scholarly accomplishments or experiences you have had. It is essential for graduate students as they progress through their programs. A CV includes:
- Personal information (address, contact details)
- Educational background (institutions, degrees, GPAs)
- Honors and awards
- Professional experiences related to psychology
- Research interests and current projects
- Teaching interests
- Professional publications (APA style)
- Conference presentations and other talks (APA style)
- References (names, addresses, email addresses for professionals who know you and your work or an indication that you will provide such information upon request).
Formatting Guidelines
Use white or off-white paper, 12-point font, and follow the formatting guidelines provided in Chapter 8. Use Table 12.1 as a guide for developing your own CV, which you might want to include in your graduate school application packets.
Graduate School Applications: Components and Preparation
Components of a Graduate School Application
- Undergraduate transcript: Official copies must be sent from the undergraduate school's registrar.
- Standardized test scores (GRE, GRE Psychology Subject Test): Officially sent from Educational Testing Service (ETS).
- Completed application form: Includes a list of major courses and future plans.
- Personal statement: Content varies depending on program requirements.
- Letters of recommendation: Usually three; some to be sent directly by the recommender, others in sealed envelopes signed by them.
- Optional: Curriculum vitae or resume.
Preparation and Tips
- Allow a cushion time before application deadlines.
- Be aware of planning fallacy and its consequences.
- Review each program's requirements before submitting the application.
- If invited for an interview, attend if possible; consider online alternatives.
- Campus visits are opportunities to get to know the faculty and location.
- Being invited to an interview does not guarantee admission.
If Not Admitted
- Evaluate your credentials: Were the standards too high?
- Review standardized test scores: Consider taking a prep class.
- Gain more research experience: Apply for openings or volunteer.
- Apply to both doctoral and master's programs.
- Consult faculty advisor for feedback on credentials.
- Persist in pursuing graduate school in psychology.
Thought Questions
- What are your specific reasons for attending graduate school in psychology?
- Will you pursue doctoral or master's-level training, and why?
- Is there a particular area of psychology that interests you?
- Have you had any research experience? What did you like/dislike about it?
- If writing a personal statement now, what would you say to explain your motivation to study psychology at the graduate level?
- How would you persuade a researcher that you could enhance their team's productivity?
- What strategies would you use to cope with the disappointment of not getting accepted (plan B)?
- A distinctive way of thinking about the world fostered by an undergraduate major in psychology
- Supports specific values that change how students see the world
- Metacognitive attributes that set psychology majors apart from others in liberal education
Distinctive Features of Psychological Thinkers
Observant:
- Careful observers of behavior
- Effective observation derived from careful definitions and measurement
Empirically Oriented:
- Make decisions based on empirical evidence
- Disavow personal testimony as a source for cause-effect conclusions
- Prefer well-controlled empirical research
Curious:
- Thrive on curiosity and scientific investigation
- Challenge simplistic explanations
- Expect complexity
Ambiguity Tolerant:
- Capacity to tolerate ambiguity
- Strive to reduce ambiguity through research designs
- Enjoy pondering the unknown
Quantitative Enterprise:
- Precision in description and measurement
- Thrilling to verify conclusions with statistically significant results
- High-quality psychology writing strives for precision
Entertained by Observation:
- Opportunities for psychological thinkers to entertain themselves through observation
- Diminished opportunities due to omnipresence of smartphones
Appreciation for Communication:
- Recognize the importance of undivided attention and meaning in communication
- Pay attention to subtleties and nuances of speech and body language
- Intentional in communication strategies
Staying Connected to Psychology
- Formal organizations: American Psychological Association (APA), Psi Chi, local psychological associations
- Internet and media resources: Psychology Today, APA journals, YouTube channels, podcasts, blogs, social media groups
- Attend conferences, workshops, and seminars
- Engage in lifelong learning through continuing education courses and certifications
- Volunteer or work in psychology-related fields
- Stay informed about current research and developments in the field
- Connect with other psychology professionals and students.
Barbara Delinsky: A Successful Writer and Breast Cancer Survivor
- BA in psychology
- Lost mother to breast cancer at age 8
- Survived midlife breast cancer diagnosis and treatment
- Wrote nonfiction account of experience, Uplift: Secrets from the Sisterhood of Breast Cancer Survivors
- All profits go to a research fellowship at Massachusetts General Hospital
- Published over 20 novels under her name and pseudonyms
- New York Times bestseller multiple times
Early Life:
- Inspired by three famous women writers
- Failed honors English in high school for missing deadlines
- Sold first book after 3 months of effort
- Established success in romance genre, then deeper treatments of marriage, parenthood, and friendship
- Work ethic: 11-hour workdays in the office over the garage
Career:
- Served as researcher with Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
- Photographer and reporter for Belmont Herald
Psychology and Career:
- BA in psychology helped her understand human behavior and emotions
- Inspired by Mary Whiton Calkins, a female student denied entrance to Harvard who became president of APA and APS
- Psychology's recognition and encouragement of diversity
Advice for Aspiring Writers:
- Read extensively
- Study structure of favorite books
- Start writing
Psychology:
- Helping profession
- Addresses various issues, from clinical to practical
- Recognizes the importance of diversity
- Encourages openness and humility in understanding human behavior and decision making
Key Concepts:
- Defense mechanisms: humans distort thinking to protect themselves
- Cognitive research: better understanding of human judgment and decision making
- Psychological thinkers: tentative, open-minded, service oriented.
Attributes of Psychologists
- Observant: paying close attention to details and noticing important information
- Personal Example: observing body language or subtle cues in social situations
- Empirically Oriented: basing beliefs on facts and evidence rather than assumptions
- Personal Example: conducting research or experimentation to test hypotheses
- Curious: having a strong desire to learn and explore new ideas
- Personal Example: asking questions and seeking answers to complex problems
- Expecting Complexity: recognizing that situations are often multifaceted and nuanced
- Personal Example: understanding that people have multiple motivations and influences
- Tolerant of Ambiguity: being comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguous situations
- Personal Example: accepting that not all questions have definitive answers
- Precise in Communication: expressing ideas clearly and concisely
- Personal Example: using specific language to avoid misunderstandings
- Intentional in Communication: considering the impact of words on others
- Personal Example: choosing language that is respectful and considerate
- Easily Entertained: finding enjoyment in a wide range of experiences
- Personal Example: engaging in activities that challenge or stimulate the mind
- Empathetic: understanding and sharing the feelings of others
- Personal Example: showing compassion and kindness to those in need
- Nonjudgmental: avoiding making snap judgments about people or situations
- Personal Example: withholding judgment until all information is considered
- Enthusiastic about Diversity: appreciating differences and valuing individual uniqueness
- Personal Example: celebrating cultural traditions and learning from others
- Service Oriented: contributing to the well-being of others and the community
- Personal Example: volunteering time or resources to help those in need
Staying Connected to Psychology After Graduation
Psi Chi and Psi Beta
- International honor societies for psychology students
- Recognize academic achievement and encourage engagement with psychology
- Membership offers career advantages, access to resources, and intellectual ties
Professional Organizations
- American Psychological Association (APA) and Association for Psychological Science (APS)
- Provide access to research, events, and networking opportunities
- Student memberships offer discounted rates and specialized resources
Specialized Professional Psychology Groups
- Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP)
- Offers teaching-related resources and opportunities for undergraduates and graduates
Cinema and Psychology
- Hollywood's preoccupation with psychological themes keeps audiences engaged
- Some films accurately depict psychological concepts, while others may contain inaccuracies or creative license
Books
- Psychologists recommend checking science, education, and psychology sections for accurate and thought-provoking reads
- Avoid self-help and pseudoscience volumes
Understanding the attributes of psychologists and staying connected to the psychological community can help individuals continue their growth and development in the field. Engaging with professional organizations, honor societies, and resources offers opportunities for intellectual stimulation, networking, and personal growth.