char.cr

require "comparable"
require "steppable"

# A `Char` represents a [Unicode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode) [code point](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_point).
# It occupies 32 bits.
#
# It is created by enclosing an UTF-8 character in single quotes.
#
# ```
# 'a'
# 'z'
# '0'
# '_'
# 'あ'
# ```
#
# You can use a backslash to denote some characters:
#
# ```
# '\'' # single quote
# '\\' # backslash
# '\e' # escape
# '\f' # form feed
# '\n' # newline
# '\r' # carriage return
# '\t' # tab
# '\v' # vertical tab
# ```
#
# You can use a backslash followed by an *u* and four hexadecimal characters to denote a unicode codepoint written:
#
# ```
# '\u0041' # == 'A'
# ```
#
# Or you can use curly braces and specify up to four hexadecimal numbers:
#
# ```
# '\u{41}' # == 'A'
# ```
#
# See [`Char` literals](https://crystal-lang.org/reference/syntax_and_semantics/literals/char.html) in the language reference.
struct Char
  include Comparable(Char)
  include Steppable

  # The character representing the end of a C string.
  ZERO = '\0'

  # The maximum character.
  MAX = 0x10ffff.unsafe_chr

  # The maximum valid codepoint for a character.
  MAX_CODEPOINT = 0x10ffff

  # The replacement character, used on invalid UTF-8 byte sequences.
  REPLACEMENT = '\ufffd'

  # Returns the difference of the codepoint values of this char and *other*.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a' - 'a' # => 0
  # 'b' - 'a' # => 1
  # 'c' - 'a' # => 2
  # ```
  def -(other : Char) : Int32
    ord - other.ord
  end

  # Concatenates this char and *string*.
  #
  # ```
  # 'f' + "oo" # => "foo"
  # ```
  def +(str : String) : String
    bytesize = str.bytesize + self.bytesize
    String.new(bytesize) do |buffer|
      count = 0
      each_byte do |byte|
        buffer[count] = byte
        count += 1
      end

      (buffer + count).copy_from(str.to_unsafe, str.bytesize)

      {bytesize, str.size + 1}
    end
  end

  # Returns a char that has this char's codepoint plus *other*.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a' + 1 # => 'b'
  # 'a' + 2 # => 'c'
  # ```
  def +(other : Int) : Char
    (ord + other).chr
  end

  # Returns a char that has this char's codepoint minus *other*.
  #
  # ```
  # 'c' - 1 # => 'b'
  # 'c' - 2 # => 'a'
  # ```
  def -(other : Int) : Char
    (ord - other).chr
  end

  # The comparison operator.
  #
  # Returns the difference of the codepoint values of `self` and *other*.
  # The result is either negative, `0` or positive based on whether `other`'s codepoint is
  # less, equal, or greater than `self`'s codepoint.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a' <=> 'c' # => -2
  # 'z' <=> 'z' # => 0
  # 'c' <=> 'a' # => 2
  # ```
  def <=>(other : Char)
    self - other
  end

  # Performs a `#step` in the direction of the _limit_. For instance:
  #
  # ```
  # 'd'.step(to: 'a').to_a # => ['d', 'c', 'b', 'a']
  # 'a'.step(to: 'd').to_a # => ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
  # ```
  def step(*, to limit = nil, exclusive : Bool = false, &)
    if limit
      direction = limit <=> self
    end
    step = direction.try(&.sign) || 1

    step(to: limit, by: step, exclusive: exclusive) do |x|
      yield x
    end
  end

  # :ditto:
  def step(*, to limit = nil, exclusive : Bool = false)
    if limit
      direction = limit <=> self
    end
    step = direction.try(&.sign) || 1

    step(to: limit, by: step, exclusive: exclusive)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII character
  # (codepoint is in (0..127))
  def ascii? : Bool
    ord < 128
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII number in specified base.
  #
  # Base can be from 2 to 36 with digits from '0' to '9' and 'a' to 'z' or 'A' to 'Z'.
  #
  # ```
  # '4'.ascii_number?     # => true
  # 'z'.ascii_number?     # => false
  # 'z'.ascii_number?(36) # => true
  # ```
  def ascii_number?(base : Int = 10) : Bool
    !!to_i?(base)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a number according to unicode.
  #
  # ```
  # '1'.number? # => true
  # 'a'.number? # => false
  # ```
  def number? : Bool
    ascii? ? ascii_number? : Unicode.number?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a lowercase ASCII letter.
  #
  # ```
  # 'c'.ascii_lowercase? # => true
  # 'ç'.lowercase?       # => true
  # 'G'.ascii_lowercase? # => false
  # '.'.ascii_lowercase? # => false
  # ```
  def ascii_lowercase? : Bool
    'a' <= self <= 'z'
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a lowercase letter.
  #
  # ```
  # 'c'.lowercase? # => true
  # 'ç'.lowercase? # => true
  # 'G'.lowercase? # => false
  # '.'.lowercase? # => false
  # 'Dz'.lowercase? # => false
  # ```
  def lowercase? : Bool
    ascii? ? ascii_lowercase? : Unicode.lowercase?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII uppercase letter.
  #
  # ```
  # 'H'.ascii_uppercase? # => true
  # 'Á'.ascii_uppercase? # => false
  # 'c'.ascii_uppercase? # => false
  # '.'.ascii_uppercase? # => false
  # ```
  def ascii_uppercase? : Bool
    'A' <= self <= 'Z'
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an uppercase letter.
  #
  # ```
  # 'H'.uppercase? # => true
  # 'Á'.uppercase? # => true
  # 'c'.uppercase? # => false
  # '.'.uppercase? # => false
  # 'Dz'.uppercase? # => false
  # ```
  def uppercase? : Bool
    ascii? ? ascii_uppercase? : Unicode.uppercase?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a titlecase character, i.e. a ligature
  # consisting of an uppercase letter followed by lowercase characters.
  #
  # ```
  # 'Dz'.titlecase? # => true
  # 'H'.titlecase? # => false
  # 'c'.titlecase? # => false
  # ```
  def titlecase? : Bool
    !ascii? && Unicode.titlecase?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII letter ('a' to 'z', 'A' to 'Z').
  #
  # ```
  # 'c'.ascii_letter? # => true
  # 'á'.ascii_letter? # => false
  # '8'.ascii_letter? # => false
  # ```
  def ascii_letter? : Bool
    ascii_lowercase? || ascii_uppercase?
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a letter.
  #
  # All codepoints in the Unicode General Category `L` (Letter) are considered
  # a letter.
  #
  # ```
  # 'c'.letter? # => true
  # 'á'.letter? # => true
  # '8'.letter? # => false
  # ```
  def letter? : Bool
    ascii? ? ascii_letter? : Unicode.letter?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII letter or number ('0' to '9', 'a' to 'z', 'A' to 'Z').
  #
  # ```
  # 'c'.ascii_alphanumeric? # => true
  # '8'.ascii_alphanumeric? # => true
  # '.'.ascii_alphanumeric? # => false
  # ```
  def ascii_alphanumeric? : Bool
    ascii_letter? || ascii_number?
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a letter or a number according to unicode.
  #
  # ```
  # 'c'.alphanumeric? # => true
  # '8'.alphanumeric? # => true
  # '.'.alphanumeric? # => false
  # ```
  def alphanumeric? : Bool
    letter? || number?
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII whitespace.
  #
  # ```
  # ' '.ascii_whitespace?  # => true
  # '\t'.ascii_whitespace? # => true
  # 'b'.ascii_whitespace?  # => false
  # ```
  def ascii_whitespace? : Bool
    self == ' ' || 9 <= ord <= 13
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a whitespace according to unicode.
  #
  # ```
  # ' '.whitespace?  # => true
  # '\t'.whitespace? # => true
  # 'b'.whitespace?  # => false
  # ```
  def whitespace? : Bool
    ascii? ? ascii_whitespace? : Unicode.whitespace?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII hex digit ('0' to '9', 'a' to 'f', 'A' to 'F').
  #
  # ```
  # '5'.hex? # => true
  # 'a'.hex? # => true
  # 'F'.hex? # => true
  # 'g'.hex? # => false
  # ```
  def hex? : Bool
    ascii_number? 16
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is matched by the given *sets*.
  #
  # Each parameter defines a set, the character is matched against
  # the intersection of those, in other words it needs to
  # match all sets.
  #
  # If a set starts with a ^, it is negated. The sequence c1-c2
  # means all characters between and including c1 and c2
  # and is known as a range.
  #
  # The backslash character \ can be used to escape ^ or - and
  # is otherwise ignored unless it appears at the end of a range
  # or set.
  #
  # ```
  # 'l'.in_set? "lo"          # => true
  # 'l'.in_set? "lo", "o"     # => false
  # 'l'.in_set? "hello", "^l" # => false
  # 'l'.in_set? "j-m"         # => true
  #
  # '^'.in_set? "\\^aeiou" # => true
  # '-'.in_set? "a\\-eo"   # => true
  #
  # '\\'.in_set? "\\"    # => true
  # '\\'.in_set? "\\A"   # => false
  # '\\'.in_set? "X-\\w" # => true
  # ```
  def in_set?(*sets : String) : Bool
    if sets.size > 1
      return sets.all? { |set| in_set?(set) }
    end

    set = sets.first
    not_negated = true
    range = false
    previous = nil

    set.each_char do |char|
      case char
      when '^'
        unless previous # beginning of set
          not_negated = false
          previous = char
          next
        end
      when '-'
        if previous && previous != '\\'
          range = true

          if previous == '^' # ^- at the beginning
            previous = '^'
            not_negated = true
          end

          next
        else # at the beginning of the set or escaped
          return not_negated if self == char
        end
      end

      if range && previous
        raise ArgumentError.new "Invalid range #{previous}-#{char}" if previous > char

        return not_negated if previous <= self <= char

        range = false
      elsif char != '\\'
        return not_negated if self == char
      end

      previous = char
    end

    return not_negated if range && self == '-'
    return not_negated if previous == '\\' && self == previous

    !not_negated
  end

  # Returns the downcase equivalent of this char.
  #
  # Note that this only works for characters whose downcase
  # equivalent yields a single codepoint. There are a few
  # characters, like 'İ', than when downcased result in multiple
  # characters (in this case: 'I' and the dot mark).
  #
  # For more correct behavior see the overload that receives a block.
  #
  # ```
  # 'Z'.downcase # => 'z'
  # 'x'.downcase # => 'x'
  # '.'.downcase # => '.'
  # ```
  #
  # If `options.fold?` is true, then returns the case-folded equivalent instead.
  # Note that this will return `self` if a multiple-character case folding
  # exists, even if a separate single-character transformation is also defined
  # in Unicode.
  #
  # ```
  # 'Z'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) # => 'z'
  # 'x'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) # => 'x'
  # 'ς'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) # => 'σ'
  # 'ꭰ'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) # => 'Ꭰ'
  # 'ẞ'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) # => 'ẞ' # not U+00DF 'ß'
  # 'ᾈ'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) # => "ᾈ" # not U+1F80 'ᾀ'
  # ```
  def downcase(options : Unicode::CaseOptions = :none) : Char
    if options.fold?
      Unicode.foldcase(self, options)
    else
      Unicode.downcase(self, options)
    end
  end

  # Yields each char for the downcase equivalent of this char.
  #
  # This method takes into account the possibility that an downcase
  # version of a char might result in multiple chars, like for
  # 'İ', which results in 'i' and a dot mark.
  #
  # ```
  # 'Z'.downcase { |v| puts v }                             # prints 'z'
  # 'ς'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) { |v| puts v } # prints 'σ'
  # 'ẞ'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) { |v| puts v } # prints 's', 's'
  # 'ᾈ'.downcase(Unicode::CaseOptions::Fold) { |v| puts v } # prints 'ἀ', 'ι'
  # ```
  def downcase(options : Unicode::CaseOptions = :none, &)
    if options.fold?
      Unicode.foldcase(self, options) { |char| yield char }
    else
      Unicode.downcase(self, options) { |char| yield char }
    end
  end

  # Returns the upcase equivalent of this char.
  #
  # Note that this only works for characters whose upcase
  # equivalent yields a single codepoint. There are a few
  # characters, like 'ffl', than when upcased result in multiple
  # characters (in this case: 'F', 'F', 'L').
  #
  # For more correct behavior see the overload that receives a block.
  #
  # ```
  # 'z'.upcase # => 'Z'
  # 'X'.upcase # => 'X'
  # '.'.upcase # => '.'
  # ```
  def upcase(options : Unicode::CaseOptions = :none) : Char
    Unicode.upcase(self, options)
  end

  # Yields each char for the upcase equivalent of this char.
  #
  # This method takes into account the possibility that an upcase
  # version of a char might result in multiple chars, like for
  # 'ffl', which results in 'F', 'F' and 'L'.
  #
  # ```
  # 'z'.upcase { |v| puts v } # prints 'Z'
  # 'ffl'.upcase { |v| puts v } # prints 'F', 'F', 'L'
  # ```
  def upcase(options : Unicode::CaseOptions = :none, &)
    Unicode.upcase(self, options) { |char| yield char }
  end

  # Returns the titlecase equivalent of this char.
  #
  # Usually this is equivalent to `#upcase`, but a few precomposed characters
  # consisting of multiple letters may return a different character where only
  # the first letter is uppercase and the rest lowercase.
  #
  # Note that this only works for characters whose titlecase
  # equivalent yields a single codepoint. There are a few
  # characters, like 'ffl', than when titlecased result in multiple
  # characters (in this case: 'F', 'f', 'l').
  #
  # For more correct behavior see the overload that receives a block.
  #
  # ```
  # 'z'.titlecase # => 'Z'
  # 'X'.titlecase # => 'X'
  # '.'.titlecase # => '.'
  # 'DZ'.titlecase # => 'Dz'
  # 'dz'.titlecase # => 'Dz'
  # ```
  def titlecase(options : Unicode::CaseOptions = :none) : Char
    Unicode.titlecase(self, options)
  end

  # Yields each char for the titlecase equivalent of this char.
  #
  # Usually this is equivalent to `#upcase`, but a few precomposed characters
  # consisting of multiple letters may yield a different character sequence
  # where only the first letter is uppercase and the rest lowercase.
  #
  # This method takes into account the possibility that a titlecase
  # version of a char might result in multiple chars, like for
  # 'ffl', which results in 'F', 'f' and 'l'.
  #
  # ```
  # 'z'.titlecase { |v| puts v } # prints 'Z'
  # 'DZ'.titlecase { |v| puts v } # prints 'Dz'
  # 'ffl'.titlecase { |v| puts v } # prints 'F', 'f', 'l'
  # ```
  def titlecase(options : Unicode::CaseOptions = :none, &)
    Unicode.titlecase(self, options) { |char| yield char }
  end

  # See `Object#hash(hasher)`
  def hash(hasher)
    hasher.char(self)
  end

  # Returns the successor codepoint after this one.
  #
  # This can be used for iterating a range of characters (see `Range#each`).
  #
  # ```
  # 'a'.succ # => 'b'
  # 'あ'.succ # => 'ぃ'
  # ```
  #
  # This does not always return `codepoint + 1`. There is a gap in the
  # range of Unicode scalars: The surrogate codepoints `U+D800` through `U+DFFF`.
  #
  # ```
  # '\uD7FF'.succ # => '\uE000'
  # ```
  #
  # Raises `OverflowError` for `Char::MAX`.
  #
  # * `#pred` returns the predecessor codepoint.
  def succ : Char
    case self
    when '\uD7FF'
      '\uE000'
    when MAX
      raise OverflowError.new("Out of Char range")
    else
      (ord + 1).unsafe_chr
    end
  end

  # Returns the predecessor codepoint before this one.
  #
  # This can be used for iterating a range of characters (see `Range#each`).
  #
  # ```
  # 'b'.pred # => 'a'
  # 'ぃ'.pred # => 'あ'
  # ```
  #
  # This does not always return `codepoint - 1`. There is a gap in the
  # range of Unicode scalars: The surrogate codepoints `U+D800` through `U+DFFF`.
  #
  # ```
  # '\uE000'.pred # => '\uD7FF'
  # ```
  #
  # Raises `OverflowError` for `Char::ZERO`.
  #
  # * `#succ` returns the successor codepoint.
  def pred : Char
    case self
    when '\uE000'
      '\uD7FF'
    when ZERO
      raise OverflowError.new("Out of Char range")
    else
      (ord - 1).unsafe_chr
    end
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is an ASCII control character.
  #
  # This includes the *C0 control codes* (`U+0000` through `U+001F`) and the
  # *Delete* character (`U+007F`).
  #
  # ```
  # ('\u0000'..'\u0019').each do |char|
  #   char.control? # => true
  # end
  #
  # ('\u007F'..'\u009F').each do |char|
  #   char.control? # => true
  # end
  # ```
  def ascii_control? : Bool
    ord < 0x20 || ord == 0x7F
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a control character according to unicode.
  def control? : Bool
    ascii? ? ascii_control? : Unicode.control?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a mark character according to unicode.
  def mark? : Bool
    Unicode.mark?(self)
  end

  # Returns `true` if this char is a printable character.
  #
  # There is no universal definition of printable characters in Unicode.
  # For the purpose of this method, all characters with a visible glyph and the
  # ASCII whitespace (` `) are considered printable.
  #
  # This means characters which are `control?` or `whitespace?` (except for ` `)
  # are non-printable.
  def printable?
    !control? && (!whitespace? || self == ' ')
  end

  # Returns a representation of `self` as a Crystal char literal, wrapped in single
  # quotes.
  #
  # Non-printable characters (see `#printable?`) are escaped.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a'.inspect      # => "'a'"
  # '\t'.inspect     # => "'\\t'"
  # 'あ'.inspect      # => "'あ'"
  # '\u0012'.inspect # => "'\\u0012'"
  # '😀'.inspect      # => "'\u{1F600}'"
  # ```
  #
  # See `#unicode_escape` for the format used to escape characters without a
  # special escape sequence.
  #
  # * `#dump` additionally escapes all non-ASCII characters.
  def inspect : String
    dump_or_inspect do |io|
      if printable?
        to_s(io)
      else
        unicode_escape(io)
      end
    end
  end

  # :ditto:
  def inspect(io : IO) : Nil
    io << inspect
  end

  # Returns a representation of `self` as an ASCII-compatible Crystal char literal,
  # wrapped in single quotes.
  #
  # Non-printable characters (see `#printable?`) and non-ASCII characters
  # (codepoints larger `U+007F`) are escaped.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a'.dump      # => "'a'"
  # '\t'.dump     # => "'\\t'"
  # 'あ'.dump      # => "'\\u3042'"
  # '\u0012'.dump # => "'\\u0012'"
  # '😀'.dump      # => "'\\u{1F600}'"
  # ```
  #
  # See `#unicode_escape` for the format used to escape characters without a
  # special escape sequence.
  #
  # * `#inspect` only escapes non-printable characters.
  def dump : String
    dump_or_inspect do |io|
      if ascii_control? || ord >= 0x80
        unicode_escape(io)
      else
        to_s(io)
      end
    end
  end

  # :ditto:
  def dump(io)
    io << dump
  end

  private def dump_or_inspect(&)
    case self
    when '\'' then "'\\''"
    when '\\' then "'\\\\'"
    when '\a' then "'\\a'"
    when '\b' then "'\\b'"
    when '\e' then "'\\e'"
    when '\f' then "'\\f'"
    when '\n' then "'\\n'"
    when '\r' then "'\\r'"
    when '\t' then "'\\t'"
    when '\v' then "'\\v'"
    when '\0' then "'\\0'"
    else
      String.build do |io|
        io << '\''
        yield io
        io << '\''
      end
    end
  end

  # Returns the Unicode escape sequence representing this character.
  #
  # The codepoints are expressed as hexadecimal digits with uppercase letters.
  # Unicode escapes always use the four digit style for codepoints `U+FFFF`
  # and lower, adding leading zeros when necessary. Higher codepoints have their
  # digits wrapped in curly braces and no leading zeros.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a'.unicode_escape      # => "\\u0061"
  # '\t'.unicode_escape     # => "\\u0009"
  # 'あ'.unicode_escape      # => "\\u3042"
  # '\u0012'.unicode_escape # => "\\u0012"
  # '😀'.unicode_escape      # => "\\u{1F600}"
  # ```
  def unicode_escape : String
    String.build do |io|
      unicode_escape(io)
    end
  end

  # :ditto:
  def unicode_escape(io : IO) : Nil
    io << "\\u"
    io << '{' if ord > 0xFFFF
    io << '0' if ord < 0x1000
    io << '0' if ord < 0x0100
    io << '0' if ord < 0x0010
    ord.to_s(io, 16, upcase: true)
    io << '}' if ord > 0xFFFF
  end

  # Returns the integer value of this char if it's an ASCII char denoting a digit
  # in *base*, raises otherwise.
  #
  # ```
  # '1'.to_i     # => 1
  # '8'.to_i     # => 8
  # 'c'.to_i     # raises ArgumentError
  # '1'.to_i(16) # => 1
  # 'a'.to_i(16) # => 10
  # 'f'.to_i(16) # => 15
  # 'z'.to_i(16) # raises ArgumentError
  # ```
  def to_i(base : Int = 10) : Int32
    to_i?(base) || raise ArgumentError.new("Invalid integer: #{self}")
  end

  # Returns the integer value of this char if it's an ASCII char denoting a digit
  # in *base*, `nil` otherwise.
  #
  # ```
  # '1'.to_i?     # => 1
  # '8'.to_i?     # => 8
  # 'c'.to_i?     # => nil
  # '1'.to_i?(16) # => 1
  # 'a'.to_i?(16) # => 10
  # 'f'.to_i?(16) # => 15
  # 'z'.to_i?(16) # => nil
  # ```
  def to_i?(base : Int = 10) : Int32?
    raise ArgumentError.new "Invalid base #{base}, expected 2 to 36" unless 2 <= base <= 36

    if base == 10
      return unless '0' <= self <= '9'
      self - '0'
    else
      ord = ord()
      if 0 <= ord < 256
        digit = String::CHAR_TO_DIGIT.to_unsafe[ord]
        return if digit == -1 || digit >= base
        digit.to_i32
      end
    end
  end

  # Same as `to_i`.
  def to_i32(base : Int = 10) : Int32
    to_i(base)
  end

  # Same as `to_i?`.
  def to_i32?(base : Int = 10) : Int32?
    to_i?(base)
  end

  {% for type in %w(i8 i16 i64 i128 u8 u16 u32 u64 u128) %}
    # See also: `to_i`.
    def to_{{type.id}}(base : Int = 10)
      to_i(base).to_{{type.id}}
    end

    # See also: `to_i?`.
    def to_{{type.id}}?(base : Int = 10)
      to_i?(base).try &.to_{{type.id}}
    end
  {% end %}

  # Returns the integer value of this char as a float if it's an ASCII char denoting a digit,
  # raises otherwise.
  #
  # ```
  # '1'.to_f # => 1.0
  # '8'.to_f # => 8.0
  # 'c'.to_f # raises ArgumentError
  # ```
  def to_f : Float64
    to_f64
  end

  # Returns the integer value of this char as a float if it's an ASCII char denoting a digit,
  # `nil` otherwise.
  #
  # ```
  # '1'.to_f? # => 1.0
  # '8'.to_f? # => 8.0
  # 'c'.to_f? # => nil
  # ```
  def to_f? : Float64?
    to_f64?
  end

  # See also: `to_f`.
  def to_f32 : Float32
    to_i.to_f32
  end

  # See also: `to_f?`.
  def to_f32? : Float32?
    to_i?.try &.to_f32
  end

  # Same as `to_f`.
  def to_f64 : Float64
    to_i.to_f64
  end

  # Same as `to_f?`.
  def to_f64? : Float64?
    to_i?.try &.to_f64
  end

  # Yields each of the bytes of this char as encoded by UTF-8.
  #
  # ```
  # puts "'a'"
  # 'a'.each_byte do |byte|
  #   puts byte
  # end
  # puts
  #
  # puts "'あ'"
  # 'あ'.each_byte do |byte|
  #   puts byte
  # end
  # ```
  #
  # Output:
  #
  # ```text
  # 'a'
  # 97
  #
  # 'あ'
  # 227
  # 129
  # 130
  # ```
  def each_byte(&) : Nil
    # See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8#Sample_code

    c = ord
    if c < 0x80
      # 0xxxxxxx
      yield c.to_u8
    elsif c <= 0x7ff
      # 110xxxxx  10xxxxxx
      yield (0xc0 | c >> 6).to_u8
      yield (0x80 | c & 0x3f).to_u8
    elsif c <= 0xffff
      # 1110xxxx  10xxxxxx  10xxxxxx
      yield (0xe0 | (c >> 12)).to_u8
      yield (0x80 | ((c >> 6) & 0x3f)).to_u8
      yield (0x80 | (c & 0x3f)).to_u8
    else
      # 11110xxx  10xxxxxx  10xxxxxx  10xxxxxx
      yield (0xf0 | (c >> 18)).to_u8
      yield (0x80 | ((c >> 12) & 0x3f)).to_u8
      yield (0x80 | ((c >> 6) & 0x3f)).to_u8
      yield (0x80 | (c & 0x3f)).to_u8
    end
  end

  # Returns the number of UTF-8 bytes in this char.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a'.bytesize # => 1
  # '好'.bytesize # => 3
  # ```
  def bytesize : Int32
    # See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8#Sample_code

    c = ord
    if c < 0x80
      # 0xxxxxxx
      1
    elsif c <= 0x7ff
      # 110xxxxx  10xxxxxx
      2
    elsif c <= 0xffff
      # 1110xxxx  10xxxxxx  10xxxxxx
      3
    else
      # 11110xxx  10xxxxxx  10xxxxxx  10xxxxxx
      4
    end
  end

  # Returns this char bytes as encoded by UTF-8, as an `Array(UInt8)`.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a'.bytes # => [97]
  # 'あ'.bytes # => [227, 129, 130]
  # ```
  def bytes : Array(UInt8)
    bytes = [] of UInt8
    each_byte do |byte|
      bytes << byte
    end
    bytes
  end

  # Returns this char as a string containing this char as a single character.
  #
  # ```
  # 'a'.to_s # => "a"
  # 'あ'.to_s # => "あ"
  # ```
  def to_s : String
    bytesize = self.bytesize
    String.new(bytesize) do |buffer|
      appender = buffer.appender
      each_byte { |byte| appender << byte }
      {bytesize, 1}
    end
  end

  # Appends this char to the given `IO`.
  #
  # This appends this char's bytes as encoded by UTF-8 to the given `IO`.
  def to_s(io : IO) : Nil
    if ascii?
      byte = ord.to_u8

      # Optimization: writing a slice is much slower than writing a byte
      if io.has_non_utf8_encoding?
        io.write_string Slice.new(pointerof(byte), 1)
      else
        io.write_byte byte
      end
    else
      chars = uninitialized UInt8[4]
      i = 0
      each_byte do |byte|
        chars[i] = byte
        i += 1
      end
      io.write_string chars.to_slice[0, i]
    end
  end

  # Returns `true` if the codepoint is equal to *byte* ignoring the type.
  #
  # ```
  # 'c'.ord       # => 99
  # 'c' === 99_u8 # => true
  # 'c' === 99    # => true
  # 'z' === 99    # => false
  # ```
  def ===(byte : Int)
    ord === byte
  end

  def clone
    self
  end
end