test_get_author.yaml

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    content: '{"authorId": "2262347", "externalIds": {"DBLP": ["Alan M. Turing"]},
      "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/author/2262347", "name": "A. Turing",
      "affiliations": [], "homepage": null, "paperCount": 59, "citationCount": 13236,
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      null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5d10faffeae5e9f2ae868626b29e6e9b8047cecb",
      "title": "Dystopian or Utopian? Two Images of Alan Turing", "abstract": "Turing
      made intriguing statements about the future of arti\ufb01cial intelligence (AI)
      in society. He predicted that machines would eventually \u2018compete with men
      in all purely intellectual \ufb01elds,\u2019 and added that at some stage they
      could be expected \u2018to take control.\u2019 Turing has been associated by
      his biographer, Andrew Hodges, with Dr. Frankenstein from Mary Shelley\u2019s
      dystopian novel. However, he has also been described by his contemporary Geoffrey
      Jefferson as a \u2018scienti\ufb01c\u2019 Percy B. Shelley, the English Romantic
      poet who was posthumously championed as a utopian and radical thinker. This
      article then asks: in what way did Turing envision a society permeated with
      intelligent machines? Did he see it as a utopia or a dystopia? These questions
      are thoroughly examined using Turing\u2019s own texts and related sources. This
      study reconstructs Turing\u2019s historical context in postwar England and analyzes
      his irony and sense of humor, as well as the in\ufb02uence of Samuel Butler
      on his vision. Contrary to recent views in AI science and \ufb01ction, on the
      one hand, a mismatch is shown between Turing and the incautious Frankenstein;
      on the other hand, Turing\u2019s radical Shelley-like qualities are substantiated.
      The article shows that Turing\u2019s utopianism entrusted intelligent machines
      with the task of teaching lessons of rationality and intellectual integrity
      over our place in nature and prejudices. Further, Turing\u2019s irony is shown
      to have targeted intellectuals who sacri\ufb01ce independent thinking to retain
      their power. These, he hoped, would be eventually rivaled and surpassed by intelligent
      machines.", "venue": "", "year": 2022, "referenceCount": 58, "citationCount":
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      "externalIds": {"DBLP": "journals/cryptologia/X20", "DOI": "10.1080/01611194.2019.1650846",
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      "name": "Cryptologia", "type": "journal", "issn": "0161-1194", "url": "http://www.informaworld.com/1558-1586",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucry20", "http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ucry20/current#.UkSZ03nD_Qw"]},
      "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/6b7b392d5f3284a78fd559439bc735f3f0b08bae",
      "title": "Review of two collections of essays about Alan Turing", "abstract":
      "2012 was the Alan Turing Year \u2014 the celebration of the 100th anniversary
      of Alan Turing\u2019s birth. Turing\u2019s biographer Andrew Hodges in the \u201cForward\u201d
      to The Turing Guide comments that \u201cTuring\u2019s centenary year reflected
      a general public sense that the issues of Alan Turing\u2019s life and work are
      as relevant as ever in the twentyfirst century.\u201d The Turing Guide consists
      of 42 essays that are written for general readers and that celebrate Turing\u2019s:
      life (38 pages), accomplishments in mathematics (44 pages), codebreaking (120
      pages), On Computable Numbers and the Turing machine (36 pages), postwar work
      on computers (67 pages), contributions to morphogenesis (32 pages), ideas related
      to machine intelligence (86 pages), and legacy (32 pages). Eleven essays deal
      directly with codebreaking. Copeland either wrote, participated in the writing
      of, or revised 16 of the essays. Of the eight essays in the section \u201cArtificial
      Intelligence and the Mind,\u201d three were written by Diane Proudfoot and one
      includes her as a coauthor with Copeland (who wrote one other essay and coauthored
      a third essay in that section). The book begins with an overview of Turing\u2019s
      life and work by Copeland and Bowen. The essay is mostly a timeline of Turing\u2019s
      life. The authors suggest that Turing\u2019s death might have been accidental.
      Chapter 3, \u201cMeeting a Genius\u201d (4 pages), is by mathematician and Bletchley
      Park codebreaker Peter Hilton (1923\u20132010). Notes to the chapter (p. 485)
      state that the chapter was \u201cassembled by Jack Copeland\u201d and \u201cpublished
      with the permission of [Hilton\u2019s] wife.\u201d It is also noted that \u201c[in]
      2001 and again in 2002 [Hilton] visited Copeland at the University of Canterbury
      in New Zealand, where he delivered lectures on Turing and codebreaking. [The]
      chapter is a compilation of extracts from [Hilton\u2019s] papers and notes left
      in New Zealand, together with extracts from [Hilton\u2019s]", "venue": "Cryptologia",
      "year": 2020, "referenceCount": 2, "citationCount": 0, "influentialCitationCount":
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      Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"},
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      "Review"], "publicationDate": "2020-01-02", "journal": {"volume": "44", "pages":
      "82 - 86", "name": "Cryptologia"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name":
      "A. Turing"}, {"authorId": "1772040", "name": "Jonathan P. Bowen"}, {"authorId":
      "3075367", "name": "Mark D. Sprevak"}, {"authorId": "2109033245", "name": "Robin
      J. Wilson"}, {"authorId": "2085428", "name": "A. Bokulich"}]}, {"paperId": "fd77c9ac5ead99b216633aa16d9b664516e6d24a",
      "externalIds": {"DOI": "10.1007/978-1-4842-6258-0_10", "CorpusId": 240057602},
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      "title": "Text Processing", "abstract": null, "venue": "Raku Recipes", "year":
      2020, "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount": 0, "influentialCitationCount": 0,
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      [{"authorId": "72482255", "name": "C. Gregg"}, {"authorId": "1764547", "name":
      "M. Sahami"}, {"authorId": "144124712", "name": "J. Clarke"}, {"authorId": "2262347",
      "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "87aebbd963f929cfb5ac46b0facb5128148758ad",
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      null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/87aebbd963f929cfb5ac46b0facb5128148758ad",
      "title": "Development of Moore \u2019 s Law", "abstract": "Many theorists would
      agree that, had it not been for courseware, the construction of online algorithms
      might never have occurred. In this paper, we confirm the visualization of superblocks.
      In this paper we argue that the Turing machine can be made pseudorandom, metamorphic,
      and low-energy.", "venue": "", "year": 2019, "referenceCount": 27, "citationCount":
      0, "influentialCitationCount": 0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null,
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      "journal": null, "authors": [{"authorId": "117077595", "name": "Olivier Pirson"},
      {"authorId": "2153307", "name": "R. Stallman"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name":
      "A. Turing"}, {"authorId": "1717349", "name": "D. Knuth"}]}, {"paperId": "ecb77b338846ac6dbaecf953984f8d44e76a8def",
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      "title": "Machine Learning, a key component in business model transformation",
      "abstract": null, "venue": "", "year": 2018, "referenceCount": 38, "citationCount":
      1, "influentialCitationCount": 0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null,
      "fieldsOfStudy": null, "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science",
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      "journal": null, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]},
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      "title": "What \u2019 s Missing from Deep Learning ?", "abstract": "A neural
      network model for a mechanism of visual pattern recognition is proposed in this
      paper. The network is self-organized by \"learning without a teacher\", and
      acquires an ability to recognize stimulus patterns based on the geometrical
      similarity (Gestalt) of their shapes without affected by their positions. This
      network is given a nickname \"neocognitron\". After completion of self-organization,
      the network has a structure similar to the hierarchy model of the visual nervous
      system proposed by Hubel and Wiesel. The network consists of an input layer
      (photoreceptor array) followed by a cascade connection of a number of modular
      structures, each of which is composed of two layers of cells connected in a
      cascade. The first layer of each module consists of \"S-cells'', which show
      characteristics similar to simple cells or lower order hypercomplex cells, and
      the second layer consists of \"C-cells\" similar to complex cells or higher
      order hypercomplex cells. The afferent synapses to each S-cell have plasticity
      and are modifiable. The network has an ability of unsupervised learning: We
      do not need any \"teacher\" during the process of selforganization, and it is
      only needed to present a set of stimulus patterns repeatedly to the input layer
      of the network. The network has been simulated on a digital computer. After
      repetitive presentation of a set of stimulus patterns, each stimulus pattern
      has become to elicit an output only from one of the C-cells of the last layer,
      and conversely, this C-cell has become selectively responsive only to that stimulus
      pattern. That is, none of the C-cells of the last layer responds to more than
      one stimulus pattern. The response of the C-cells of the last layer is not affected
      by the pattern''s position at all. Neither is it affected by a small change
      in shape nor in size of the stimulus pattern.", "venue": "", "year": 2017, "referenceCount":
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      "name": "M. Minsky"}, {"authorId": "143805238", "name": "John McCarthy"}, {"authorId":
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      Wiener"}, {"authorId": "2067567609", "name": "Warren S. McCulloch"}, {"authorId":
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      DRESDEN,2", "abstract": null, "venue": "", "year": 2016, "referenceCount": 0,
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      {"volume": "", "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "3154491", "name": "A.
      Tarski"}, {"authorId": "50455788", "name": "S. Maclane"}, {"authorId": "40384728",
      "name": "H. B. Curry"}, {"authorId": "122394125", "name": "Paul Marhenkei"},
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      "Karl-Heinz Menger"}, {"authorId": "123809183", "name": "Frederic B. FiTCHc"},
      {"authorId": "49957888", "name": "E. Nagel"}, {"authorId": "49836121", "name":
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      {"authorId": "2072295124", "name": "C. Duca"}]}, {"paperId": "293a50e86c2a2f4a2e213a42e057910aeda09d82",
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      "title": "\u2022 Hilbert spaces. Weak derivatives. Classical and weak solutions.
      \u2022 Galerkin approximation of elliptic equations. Spectral approximation.
      Finite element approximation in one dimension. Energy estimates. \u2022 Parabolic
      PDEs. Semigroups of operators. Method of lines. Stability of numerical", "abstract":
      null, "venue": "", "year": 2014, "referenceCount": 2, "citationCount": 0, "influentialCitationCount":
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      null, "journal": {"volume": "", "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "104483519",
      "name": "Lecturer Sean Holman"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"},
      {"authorId": "103905785", "name": "January Exam"}]}, {"paperId": "9f07386256530a0060d99a1ba483a8f5c1f4194b",
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      "title": "Turing: Oracles and Computation", "abstract": null, "venue": "", "year":
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      "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate": "2014-03-01",
      "journal": {"volume": "56", "pages": "64-65", "name": "Itnow"}, "authors": [{"authorId":
      "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "0a3aa98358b0dd7fc3e0bcf6eef65d959aff3565",
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      "title": "Dusting Off the Turing Test", "abstract": "then inter- est theory
      and a problem about the observation of quantum systems (now as the quantum Zeno
      effect). With his death, train was lost, but the question computa- tion to fundamental
      physics has remained. Since the computing given a practical technological arena
      in which computation and quantum physics interact excitingly, it has not yet
      changed Tur- ing\u0092 s picture of what is computable. There are also thought-experiment
      models that explore what it would mean beyond the ally require machine operate
      with speed or allow unlim- ited accuracy probe more the nature physical world.
      Perhaps the body of ideas is that of Roger Penrose ( 7). These draw strongly
      on the very thing motivated Tur- ing\u0092 s early relationship operations to
      the imply that uncomputable physics abstract of how states are in the world.
      The problem remains: Does computation with discrete symbols a complete the world?
      If it does, how can make this connection manifest? If it does not, where does
      fail, and what would this tell us about fundamental science?", "venue": "",
      "year": 2012, "referenceCount": 1, "citationCount": 6, "influentialCitationCount":
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      {"volume": "", "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "144443425", "name": "A.
      Hodges"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "422ec845a15242fdfc904e1c7d2bfe132c7ec248",
      "externalIds": {"CorpusId": 18051598}, "corpusId": 18051598, "publicationVenue":
      null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/422ec845a15242fdfc904e1c7d2bfe132c7ec248",
      "title": "PLANES OF MORPHISMS AND THE CHARACTERIZATION OF CONTINUOUSLY INTEGRAL,
      COMPLETE RANDOM VARIABLES", "abstract": "Let \u03b8m,\u03bc be an independent,
      right-composite, anti-naturally continuous polytope. Recent interest in smooth
      systems has centered on describing additive subsets. We show that there exists
      a non-universal non-injective subalgebra. In contrast, it is not yet known whether
      \u03b8 < D, although [25] does address the issue of existence. So recent developments
      in modern integral PDE [25] have raised the question of whether e ( 0 ) 6= log
      ( 1 \u2016\u03c7\u2016 ) \u222a c ( 1 \u2229 i, \u03c0 )", "venue": "", "year":
      2012, "referenceCount": 32, "citationCount": 0, "influentialCitationCount":
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      "name": "M. Lafourcade"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}, {"authorId":
      "50294906", "name": "M. Abel"}]}, {"paperId": "4f4b42aa137d5b6df85889cf53901f44cbee643b",
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      "title": "Could a machine think", "abstract": null, "venue": "", "year": 2012,
      "referenceCount": 6, "citationCount": 0, "influentialCitationCount": 0, "isOpenAccess":
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      "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2055661501", "name": "Pascal Ludwig"},
      {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}, {"authorId": "34493294", "name":
      "J. Searle"}]}, {"paperId": "594da152fe98e400c4886d397b29b1ca2d499138", "externalIds":
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      "name": "Automatic Documentation and Mathematical Linguistics", "type": "journal",
      "alternate_names": ["Autom Doc Math Linguistics", "Nauchno-technicheskaja informacija"],
      "issn": "0005-1055", "alternate_issns": ["0548-0027"], "url": "https://link.springer.com/journal/11952",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://catalog.viniti.ru/search_extra.asp"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/594da152fe98e400c4886d397b29b1ca2d499138",
      "title": "The philosophical view of information and information technology",
      "abstract": null, "venue": "Automatic Documentation and Mathematical Linguistics",
      "year": 2012, "referenceCount": 15, "citationCount": 1, "influentialCitationCount":
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      "journal": {"volume": "46", "pages": "94-104", "name": "Automatic Documentation
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      {"authorId": "39617026", "name": "R. Buckland"}, {"authorId": "2229687348",
      "name": "Capurro"}, {"authorId": "2229457272", "name": "Eugene Chiu"}, {"authorId":
      "2229676890", "name": "Claude Shannon"}, {"authorId": "2227214708", "name":
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      be described in terms of a game which we call the \u201cimitation game.\u201d
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      (C) who may be of either sex. The interrogator stays in a room apart front the
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      X and Y, and at the end of the game he says either \u201cX is A and Y is B\u201d
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      definitions might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use
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      "title": "Can Automatic Calculating Machines Be Said to Think", "abstract":
      "Trainable methodologies and the transistor have garnered profound interest
      from both steganographers and cyberinfo rmaticians in the last several years.
      Given the current statu s of compact technology, computational biologists particul
      arly desire the visualization of forward-error correction, whi ch embodies the
      essential principles of networking. Our focus in this paper is not on whether
      the infamous certifiable algorit hm for the refinement of thin clients by P.
      Jackson et al. [54], [5 8], [59], [62], [68], [68], [70], [95], [95], [99],
      [114], [114] , [128], [129], [148], [152], [168], [179], [188], [191] is recursiv
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      {"authorId": "2060159667", "name": "Geoffrey Jefferson"}, {"authorId": "34635194",
      "name": "R. Braithwaite"}, {"authorId": "1692491", "name": "S. Shieber"}]},
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      "title": "The Essential Turing: Seminal Writings in Computing, Logic, Philosophy,
      Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Life plus The Secrets of Enigma", "abstract":
      "Alan Turing 1912-1954 Computable Numbers: A Guide 1. On Computable Numbers,
      with an Application to the Entscheidensproblem (1936) 2. On Computable Numbers:
      Corrections and Critiques 3. Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals (1938) 4. Letters
      on Logic to Max Newman (c. 1940) Enigma 5. History of Hut 8 to December 1941
      (1845) 6. Bombe and Spider (1940) 7. Letter to Winston Churchill (1941) 8. Memorandum
      to OP-20-G on Naval Enigma (c. 1941) Artificial Intelligence 9. Lecture on the
      Automatic Computing Machine (1947) 10. Intelligent Machinery (1948) 11. Computing
      Machinery and Intelligence (1950) 12. Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory
      (c. 1951) 13. Can Digital Computers Think? 14. Can Automatic Calculating Machines
      Be Said to Think? (1952) Artificial Life 15. The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis
      (1952) 16. Chess (1953) 17. Solvable and Unsolvable Problems (1954)", "venue":
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      "title": "Letter to Winston Churchill (1941)", "abstract": "During 1941, codebreaking
      at Bletchley Park was hindered by shortages of typists and unskilled staV. These
      shortages could have been easily rectiWed, but the codebreakers\u2019 urgent
      requests were ignored by oYcials in Whitehall. Going over the heads of those
      in command at GC & CS, Turing and his co-signatories wrote directly to the Prime
      Minister, Winston Churchill. On receiving the letter Churchill minuted his Chief
      of StaV, General Ismay: \u2018action this day Make sure they have all they want
      on extreme priority and report to me that this had been done.\u20191 It fell
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      Street. In 1986, Milner-Barry recalled his trip to Whitehall:", "venue": "",
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      "A. Turing"}, {"authorId": "73506204", "name": "Gordon Welchman"}]}, {"paperId":
      "48ce988e6f5c63cda3d06e3a40bf06dbaf922bb8", "externalIds": {"MAG": "2030737075",
      "DBLP": "journals/cryptologia/Turing03", "DOI": "10.1080/0161-110391891748",
      "CorpusId": 12703115}, "corpusId": 12703115, "publicationVenue": {"id": "ec317d71-24e9-4750-b911-76378b2fa378",
      "name": "Cryptologia", "type": "journal", "issn": "0161-1194", "url": "http://www.informaworld.com/1558-1586",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucry20", "http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ucry20/current#.UkSZ03nD_Qw"]},
      "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/48ce988e6f5c63cda3d06e3a40bf06dbaf922bb8",
      "title": "ALAN M. TURING''S CRITIQUE OF RUNNING SHORT CRIBS ON THE U. S. NAVY
      BOMBE", "abstract": "Unified lossless information have led to many natural advances,
      including the partition table and massive multiplayer online roleplaying games.
      In this work, we disprove the analysis of B-trees that would make synthesizing
      Lamport clocks a real possibility. In this position paper, we argue that Boolean
      logic and Markov models can agree to accomplish this purpose.", "venue": "Cryptologia",
      "year": 2003, "referenceCount": 107, "citationCount": 1, "influentialCitationCount":
      0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"},
      {"category": "Computer Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}, {"category": "Mathematics",
      "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle"], "publicationDate":
      "2003-01-01", "journal": {"volume": "27", "pages": "44 - 49", "name": "Cryptologia"},
      "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "26c97e0bccfe60aa7c4c1b613bc890c8ed9a32b9",
      "externalIds": {"DBLP": "journals/cryptologia/Turing01", "MAG": "1992023589",
      "DOI": "10.1080/0161-110191889734", "CorpusId": 14207094}, "corpusId": 14207094,
      "publicationVenue": {"id": "ec317d71-24e9-4750-b911-76378b2fa378", "name": "Cryptologia",
      "type": "journal", "issn": "0161-1194", "url": "http://www.informaworld.com/1558-1586",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucry20", "http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ucry20/current#.UkSZ03nD_Qw"]},
      "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/26c97e0bccfe60aa7c4c1b613bc890c8ed9a32b9",
      "title": "VISIT TO NATIONAL CASH REGISTER CORPORATION OF DAYTON, OHIO", "abstract":
      "In recent years, much research has been devoted to the study of Boolean logic;
      however, few have developed the extensive unification of the location-identity
      split and co ntextfree grammar. After years of appropriate research into mode
      l checking, we verify the visualization of systems. In our research, we validate
      that the lookaside buffer and red-bla ck trees are never incompatible [54],
      [58], [59], [62], [68], [ 68], [68], [70], [95], [99], [114], [128], [129],
      [148], [152], [ 168], [168], [179], [188], [191].", "venue": "Cryptologia",
      "year": 2001, "referenceCount": 103, "citationCount": 190, "influentialCitationCount":
      1, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"},
      {"category": "Computer Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes":
      ["JournalArticle"], "publicationDate": "2001-01-01", "journal": {"volume": "25",
      "pages": "1 - 10", "name": "Cryptologia"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347",
      "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "b52adf784f9a0ca3b936f39a90cf3445b48dc408",
      "externalIds": {"MAG": "2798463542", "DOI": "10.1007/3-540-31288-9_9", "CorpusId":
      125729536}, "corpusId": 125729536, "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b52adf784f9a0ca3b936f39a90cf3445b48dc408",
      "title": "Mathematical logic", "abstract": null, "venue": "", "year": 2001,
      "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount": 2, "influentialCitationCount": 1, "isOpenAccess":
      false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy":
      [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Mathematics",
      "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate": null,
      "journal": {"volume": "", "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name":
      "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "ff86cd6a800d402b7e64ca0ea913fed5351dc2b5", "externalIds":
      {"CorpusId": 36555737}, "corpusId": 36555737, "publicationVenue": null, "url":
      "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ff86cd6a800d402b7e64ca0ea913fed5351dc2b5",
      "title": "Five 1951 BBC Broadcasts on Automatic Calculating Machines", "abstract":
      "Researchers of Britain\u2019s early postwar history of computing have known
      for some time that a series of five British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) radio
      broadcasts under the general title of \u201cAutomatic Calculating Machines\u201d
      was broadcast on the BBC\u2019s Third Programme radio service in May\u2013June
      1951. In these broadcasts, five British pioneers of computing spoke about their
      work. In the order of their broadcasts, they were Douglas Hartree, Max Newman,
      Alan Turing, Frederic (\u201cFreddie\u201d) Williams, and Maurice Wilkes. Apart
      from Turing\u2019s broadcast, which has been discussed by B. Jack Copeland1
      and Andrew Hodges,2 these broadcasts have received little attention from historians
      of computing. No sound recordings of the broadcasts survive, although they all
      were recorded on acetate phonograph discs prior to transmission. However, texts
      of all five broadcasts survive as BBC transcripts, which were taken from the
      recordings shortly after they were made. These transcripts are held at the BBC\u2019s
      Written Archives Centre in Caversham, near Reading, and are the basis for this
      article. In addition to the existence of the five BBC transcripts, three of
      the speakers\u2019 scripts are known to have survived. These are Turing\u2019s,
      held at the Alan Turing archive at King\u2019s College, Cambridge, and those
      of Wilkes and Newman, copies of which are held by Wilkes. Turing\u2019s script
      has been published,3 although curiously not in the Collected Works of A.M. Turing,4
      and is also available on the Word Wide Web.5 None of the other scripts has been
      published. All five of the speakers in this series were, or had been, involved
      with one or more of the three major computing projects in the UK in the immediate
      postwar period: \u2022 ACE (Automatic Computing Engine), at the National Physical
      Laboratory, designed by Turing, launched in 1946 and experimentally operational
      in a pilot version in 1950, although not completed until late 1951.6 \u2022
      EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer), at Cambridge University,
      designed by Wilkes, begun in 1947 and operational in May 1949.7 \u2022 Mark
      1 Prototype at Manchester University, associated with Newman, Williams, and
      (from 1948) Turing. Operational from April 1949 to August 1950, having evolved
      from an earlier \u201cBaby\u201d test machine (operational June 1948) and replaced
      in February 1951 by the Ferranti Mark 1.8", "venue": "", "year": 2001, "referenceCount":
      25, "citationCount": 1, "influentialCitationCount": 0, "isOpenAccess": false,
      "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": null, "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category":
      "Computer Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}, {"category": "History", "source":
      "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate": null, "journal":
      null, "authors": [{"authorId": "16620717", "name": "D. Hartree"}, {"authorId":
      "2233530095", "name": "Max Newman"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]},
      {"paperId": "650d4e7c4fbd68b05f87a46985f1da6f2f4f0ed8", "externalIds": {"MAG":
      "2316135739", "DOI": "10.1093/PHILMAT/4.3.256", "CorpusId": 5213112}, "corpusId":
      5213112, "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/650d4e7c4fbd68b05f87a46985f1da6f2f4f0ed8",
      "title": "Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory*", "abstract": "The analysis
      of interrupts is a structured quagmire. In this position paper, we demonstrate
      the investigation of simulated annealing. KaliNil, our new methodology for DNS,
      is the solution to all of these problems.", "venue": "", "year": 1996, "referenceCount":
      101, "citationCount": 214, "influentialCitationCount": 8, "isOpenAccess": true,
      "openAccessPdf": {"url": "https://academic.oup.com/philmat/article-pdf/4/3/256/21430726/4-3-256.pdf",
      "status": null}, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Mathematics"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category":
      "Mathematics", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Computer Science", "source":
      "s2-fos-model"}, {"category": "Philosophy", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes":
      null, "publicationDate": "1996-09-01", "journal": {"volume": "4", "pages": "256-260",
      "name": "Philosophia Mathematica"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name":
      "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "509a622da7869a8eb345eea921ed30924a73e6fa", "externalIds":
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      "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/509a622da7869a8eb345eea921ed30924a73e6fa",
      "title": "Computer poker", "abstract": "Games are an interesting and challenging
      domain for computer science research, having the nice characteristics of a clearly
      deened set of rules and a speciic goal. Developing a program to play a strategic
      game well often involves the application of theoretical concepts to practical
      situations, and the relative success of that endeavour can be measured with
      quantiiable results. The game of poker is logistically simple yet strategically
      complex, and ooers many properties not exhibited by chess, checkers, and most
      other well-studied games. Most importantly, poker is a non-deterministic game
      with imperfect (hidden) information. Handling unreliable or incomplete information
      is a fundamental problem in computer science, and poker provides an excellent
      domain for investigating problems of decision making under conditions of uncertainty.
      Somewhat surprisingly, the potential beneets of studying poker have been largely
      overlooked by computer scientists and game researchers. In this essay we survey
      what resources are available for academic researchers, and lay some foundations
      for the sci-entiic exploration of this fascinating game.", "venue": "", "year":
      1995, "referenceCount": 129, "citationCount": 12, "influentialCitationCount":
      1, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": null, "s2FieldsOfStudy":
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      ["Review"], "publicationDate": null, "journal": null, "authors": [{"authorId":
      "39261667", "name": "Darse Billings"}, {"authorId": "41224665", "name": "J.
      Neumann"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}, {"authorId": "144461837",
      "name": "C. Shannon"}, {"authorId": "143805236", "name": "J. McCarthy"}, {"authorId":
      "1717349", "name": "D. Knuth"}, {"authorId": "48603437", "name": "A. Newell"},
      {"authorId": "2055346931", "name": "Herbert A. Simon"}, {"authorId": "7991309",
      "name": "A. Samuel"}, {"authorId": "145878706", "name": "D. Michie"}, {"authorId":
      "102213388", "name": "K. Thompson"}]}, {"paperId": "e972b5110d036991078e55bede6608a7cdaf48b1",
      "externalIds": {"CorpusId": 8597454, "PubMed": "7564963"}, "corpusId": 8597454,
      "publicationVenue": {"id": "2060f67b-894f-4036-95ff-a11601fc257a", "name": "M.D.Computing",
      "type": "journal", "alternate_names": ["M.D comput  comput med pract", "M.D.
      computing : computers in medical practice", "M D Comput", "M D Computing"],
      "issn": "0724-6811"}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e972b5110d036991078e55bede6608a7cdaf48b1",
      "title": "Lecture to the London Mathematical Society on 20 February 1947. 1986.",
      "abstract": null, "venue": "M.D.Computing", "year": 1995, "referenceCount":
      0, "citationCount": 147, "influentialCitationCount": 15, "isOpenAccess": false,
      "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Medicine"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category":
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      "s2-fos-model"}, {"category": "Mathematics", "source": "s2-fos-model"}, {"category":
      "Medicine", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle"],
      "publicationDate": null, "journal": {"volume": "12 5", "pages": "\n          390-7\n        ",
      "name": "M.D. computing : computers in medical practice"}, "authors": [{"authorId":
      "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "33adb5256f85d7835696611b2517797dcb260ddb",
      "externalIds": {"MAG": "1577952063", "CorpusId": 60626324}, "corpusId": 60626324,
      "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/33adb5256f85d7835696611b2517797dcb260ddb",
      "title": "Manchester computing machine: general topics", "abstract": null, "venue":
      "", "year": 1989, "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount": 1, "influentialCitationCount":
      0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"},
      {"category": "Computer Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}, {"category": "Engineering",
      "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate": "1989-05-01",
      "journal": {"volume": "", "pages": "194-196", "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId":
      "90657571", "name": "M. J. Lighthill"}, {"authorId": "16909947", "name": "G.
      C. Tootill"}, {"authorId": "143726570", "name": "J. Miller"}, {"authorId": "2262347",
      "name": "A. Turing"}, {"authorId": "143809548", "name": "E. A. Newman"}]}, {"paperId":
      "a28fe905a92c75ae2098acacad53c992e4bce52d", "externalIds": {"MAG": "1506559289",
      "CorpusId": 60659734}, "corpusId": 60659734, "publicationVenue": null, "url":
      "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a28fe905a92c75ae2098acacad53c992e4bce52d",
      "title": "Local programming methods and conventions", "abstract": null, "venue":
      "", "year": 1989, "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount": 138, "influentialCitationCount":
      3, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"},
      {"category": "Computer Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes":
      null, "publicationDate": "1989-05-01", "journal": {"volume": "", "pages": "178",
      "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId":
      "b7682dfbd4c03e287265d64e46388d21eedf3394", "externalIds": {"MAG": "46849891",
      "DOI": "10.1093/oso/9780198250791.003.0017", "CorpusId": 172414532}, "corpusId":
      172414532, "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b7682dfbd4c03e287265d64e46388d21eedf3394",
      "title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence (1950)", "abstract": null, "venue":
      "Ideas That Created the Future", "year": 1989, "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount":
      51, "influentialCitationCount": 1, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null,
      "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer
      Science", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Computer Science", "source":
      "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate": "1989-06-01",
      "journal": {"name": "Ideas That Created the Future"}, "authors": [{"authorId":
      "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "f50fef843592d31124e629420a5d7df39a51fcd7",
      "externalIds": {"MAG": "1723067587", "CorpusId": 56518797}, "corpusId": 56518797,
      "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f50fef843592d31124e629420a5d7df39a51fcd7",
      "title": "Checking a large routine", "abstract": null, "venue": "", "year":
      1989, "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount": 402, "influentialCitationCount":
      39, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"},
      {"category": "Computer Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes":
      null, "publicationDate": "1989-05-01", "journal": {"volume": "", "pages": "70-72",
      "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId":
      "fc5ef435b26155d2ea554a8062781739c8ccf296", "externalIds": {"MAG": "627474889",
      "CorpusId": 190961434}, "corpusId": 190961434, "publicationVenue": null, "url":
      "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/fc5ef435b26155d2ea554a8062781739c8ccf296",
      "title": "Intelligence service : Schriften", "abstract": null, "venue": "",
      "year": 1987, "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount": 43, "influentialCitationCount":
      0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Psychology"],
      "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Psychology", "source": "external"}], "publicationTypes":
      null, "publicationDate": null, "journal": {"volume": "", "name": ""}, "authors":
      [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "401226dbe808714439b7f4fe6ce17e3fb5a6e790",
      "externalIds": {"CorpusId": 7990676}, "corpusId": 7990676, "publicationVenue":
      null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/401226dbe808714439b7f4fe6ce17e3fb5a6e790",
      "title": "Artificial Intelligence : Usfssg Computers to Think about Thinking
      . Part 1", "abstract": "In 1950, Alan M. Turing, the late deputy director of
      the University of Manchester\u2019s Computing Laboratory in England, proposed
      a novel test to determine whether a machine was capable of thinking. In thk
      test, an interrogator has a teletype conversation with a man and a woman, both
      of whom must try to convince the interrogator that they are the woman. At some
      point unknown to the interrogator, the man is replaced by a machine. If the
      interrogator is fooled as often by the machine as by the man, that machine can
      be said to have displayed intelligent behavior. 1 Some 30 years after Turing
      proposed this test, many aspects of human behavior have been simulated by a
      computer. Programs have been designed to play checkersz and chess,J prove mathematical
      theorems ,4,5 and even mimic the behavior of a paranoid human being.b Despite
      the success of these and many other programs, none of the researchers investigating
      what\u2019s been variously cafled \u201capplied epistemology\u201d or \u201cartificial
      intelligence\u201d (AI) would claim this means the \u201cthinking machine\u201d
      has arrived. Instead, they would agree that these programs have contributed
      important information about human behavior, and how computers can simulate it.
      The first part of this two-part essay will review some of the theones AI researchers
      have developed to explain human \u201cinformation processing.\u201d The second
      part of the essay will cover some applications of AI research. These include
      programs used in robotics, programs that communicate with computer users in
      natural languages such as English, and \u201cexpert systems\u201d which help
      chemists, physicians, and others perform decision-making tasks. The \u201cpioneer\u201d
      expert system, DENDRAL, will be discussed in some detail.T.~ AI grew out of
      the convergence of ideas in several different fields, and the availability of
      new technologies. According to Avrom Barr and Edward A. Feigenbaum, Stanford
      University, California, the single most important factor contributing to the
      birth of the field was the invention of the computer.9 They point out that human
      beings have always drawn analogies between mechanical devices and their own
      behavior. Computers, with their memories and information-processing abilities,
      naturafly invited analogies with the human brain. Shortly after digital computers
      became available, computer scientists began creating programs that, they hoped,
      would perform tasks generally considered to require intelligence. Their earliest
      efforts were directed at programming computers to solve puzzles, play games
      such as chess, backgammon, and checkers, solve mathematical theorems, and translate
      text from one language to another. The early computer programs performed these
      tasks, but not very well. For example, chess programs were successful at following
      the step-by-step instructions for moving chessmen. But computers couldn\u2019t
      independently gen-", "venue": "", "year": 1983, "referenceCount": 96, "citationCount":
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      null, "fieldsOfStudy": null, "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science",
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      "publicationTypes": ["Review"], "publicationDate": null, "journal": null, "authors":
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      "name": "Proceedings of the IEEE", "type": "journal", "alternate_names": ["Proc
      IEEE"], "issn": "0018-9219", "alternate_issns": ["1558-2256"], "url": "http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/proceedings/",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.ieee.org/products/onlinepubs/pub/about_conference.html",
      "https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/servlet/opac?punumber=5", "http://proceedingsoftheieee.ieee.org/"]},
      "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d4debce0b1f19a9840796b75371ba98f8a3645a3",
      "title": "Introduction to computer organization", "abstract": "That platform
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      to read!", "venue": "Proceedings of the IEEE", "year": 1983, "referenceCount":
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      [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Computer
      Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate":
      "1983-09-01", "journal": {"volume": "71", "pages": "1117-1117", "name": "Proceedings
      of the IEEE"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "1754655", "name": "G. Sohi"}, {"authorId":
      "2070119934", "name": "Greg Byrd"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]},
      {"paperId": "a21e47f764df82cd14313faa41e33bda8c232fe7", "externalIds": {"MAG":
      "2171014865", "DOI": "10.1093/BIOMET/66.2.393", "CorpusId": 64330274}, "corpusId":
      64330274, "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a21e47f764df82cd14313faa41e33bda8c232fe7",
      "title": "Studies in the History of Probability and Statistics. XXXVII", "abstract":
      "SUMMARY An account is given of A. M. Turing''s unpublished contributions to
      statistics during 1941 or 1940.", "venue": "", "year": 1979, "referenceCount":
      15, "citationCount": 168, "influentialCitationCount": 2, "isOpenAccess": false,
      "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer Science", "Mathematics"],
      "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"},
      {"category": "Mathematics", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Mathematics",
      "source": "s2-fos-model"}, {"category": "History", "source": "s2-fos-model"}],
      "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate": "1979-08-01", "journal": {"volume":
      "", "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}, {"authorId":
      "145179124", "name": "I. Good"}]}, {"paperId": "24fade315dc6a15961184a3c6dfec064591edcd5",
      "externalIds": {"MAG": "1553055254", "CorpusId": 60504948}, "corpusId": 60504948,
      "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24fade315dc6a15961184a3c6dfec064591edcd5",
      "title": "Review: Arthur W. Burks, The Logic of Programming Electronic Digital
      Computers", "abstract": null, "venue": "", "year": 1953, "referenceCount": 0,
      "citationCount": 196, "influentialCitationCount": 2, "isOpenAccess": false,
      "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy":
      [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Computer
      Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["Review"], "publicationDate":
      "1953-06-01", "journal": {"volume": "18", "pages": "179-179", "name": "Journal
      of Symbolic Logic"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]},
      {"paperId": "62660c27d93c50f69b1ed614ad9499f4d849aeec", "externalIds": {"MAG":
      "2317224626", "DOI": "10.2307/2268956", "CorpusId": 61881712}, "corpusId": 61881712,
      "publicationVenue": {"id": "63b08ff1-8bea-4d94-af61-35bf9dbaeef6", "name": "Journal
      of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "type": "journal", "alternate_names": ["J Symb Log",
      "Journal of Symbolic Logic", "J Symb Log (JSL"], "issn": "0022-4812", "url":
      "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-symbolic-logic", "alternate_urls":
      ["http://www.aslonline.org/journals-journal.html", "http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JSL",
      "https://www.jstor.org/journal/jsymboliclogic"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/62660c27d93c50f69b1ed614ad9499f4d849aeec",
      "title": "Arthur W. Burks. The logic of programming electronic digital computers.
      Industrial mathematics (Detroit), vol. 1 (1950), pp. 36\u201352.", "abstract":
      "ARTHUR W. BURKS. The logic of programming electronic digital computers. Industrial
      mathematics (Detroit), vol. 1 (1950), pp. 36-52. This article does not deal
      primarily with \"logic\" in the technical sense. I t is an account of the general
      principles of programming, written for the benefit of the technically well informed
      reader who wishes to know what sort of an activity programming is. Comparisons
      with logic are however introduced, in connection with \"conditional control
      transfers\" and the free and bound variables of a programme as defined by Goldstine
      and von Neumann. Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing
      instrument, vol. 1, Institute for Advanced Study, 1947.", "venue": "Journal
      of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "year": 1953, "referenceCount": 0, "citationCount":
      0, "influentialCitationCount": 0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null,
      "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer
      Science", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Computer Science", "source":
      "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate": "1953-06-01",
      "journal": {"volume": "18", "pages": "179 - 179", "name": "Journal of Symbolic
      Logic"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId":
      "2d5673caa9e6af3a7b82a43f19ee920992db07ad", "externalIds": {"DBLP": "journals/x/Turing50",
      "MAG": "2145482038", "DOI": "10.1093/MIND/LIX.236.433", "CorpusId": 14636783},
      "corpusId": 14636783, "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2d5673caa9e6af3a7b82a43f19ee920992db07ad",
      "title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", "abstract": "I propose to consider
      the question, \u201cCan machines think?\u201d\u2663 This should begin with definitions
      of the meaning of the terms \u201cmachine\u201d and \u201cthink\u201d. The definitions
      might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use of the words,
      but this attitude is dangerous. If the meaning of the words \u201cmachine\u201d
      and \u201cthink\u201d are to be found by examining how they are commonly used
      it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the meaning and the answer to
      the question, \u201cCan machines think?\u201d is to be sought in a statistical
      survey such as a Gallup poll.", "venue": "The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence",
      "year": 1950, "referenceCount": 14, "citationCount": 9664, "influentialCitationCount":
      525, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science", "Sociology"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science",
      "source": "external"}, {"category": "Sociology", "source": "external"}, {"category":
      "Computer Science", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle",
      "Review"], "publicationDate": "1950-10-01", "journal": {"volume": "LIX", "pages":
      "433-460", "name": "Mind"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A.
      Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "c35cf8a54e655e91f8657cf8403d578994fb27c5", "externalIds":
      {"MAG": "2419349071", "DOI": "10.2307/j.ctv8d5sh5.6", "CorpusId": 148545092},
      "corpusId": 148545092, "publicationVenue": null, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/c35cf8a54e655e91f8657cf8403d578994fb27c5",
      "title": "PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY", "abstract": "1. The Imitation Game. I
      PROPOSE tO consider the question, ''Can machines think ? This should begin with
      definitions of the meaning of the terms ''machine'' and ''think''. The definitions
      might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use of the words,
      but this attitude is dangerous. If the meaning of the words ''machine'' and
      ''think ''are to be found by examining how they are commonly used it is difficult
      to escape the conclusion that the meaning and the answer to tlie question, ''
      Can machines think ? '' is to be sought in a statistical survey such as a Gallup
      poll. But this is absurd. Instead of attempting such a definition I shall replace
      the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in
      relatively unambiguous words. The new form of the problem can be described in
      terms of a game which we call the ''imitation game''. It is played with three
      people, a man (A), a woman (B), and an interrogator (C) who may be of either
      sex. The interrogator stays in a room apart from the other two. The object of
      the game for the interrogator is to determine which of the other two is the
      man and which is the woman. He knows them by labels X and Y, and at the end
      of the game he says either '' X is A and Y is B '' or '' X is B and Y is A''.
      The interrogator is allowed to put questions to A and B thus: C: Will X please
      tell me the length of his or her hair 2 Now suppose X is aetually A, then A
      must answer. It is A''s", "venue": "", "year": 1950, "referenceCount": 6, "citationCount":
      27, "influentialCitationCount": 0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null,
      "fieldsOfStudy": ["Psychology"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Psychology",
      "source": "external"}, {"category": "Philosophy", "source": "s2-fos-model"}],
      "publicationTypes": ["Review"], "publicationDate": null, "journal": {"volume":
      "", "name": ""}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]},
      {"paperId": "092da8384571c8261858e91e3278e765eedde1d5", "externalIds": {"DBLP":
      "journals/jsyml/Turing48", "MAG": "2092575189", "DOI": "10.2307/2267329", "CorpusId":
      5770563}, "corpusId": 5770563, "publicationVenue": {"id": "63b08ff1-8bea-4d94-af61-35bf9dbaeef6",
      "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "type": "journal", "alternate_names":
      ["J Symb Log", "Journal of Symbolic Logic", "J Symb Log (JSL"], "issn": "0022-4812",
      "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-symbolic-logic",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.aslonline.org/journals-journal.html", "http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JSL",
      "https://www.jstor.org/journal/jsymboliclogic"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/092da8384571c8261858e91e3278e765eedde1d5",
      "title": "Practical forms of type theory", "abstract": "Russell''s theory of
      types, though probably not providing the soundest possible foundation for mathematics,
      follows closely the outlook of most mathematicians. The present paper is an
      attempt to present the theory of types in forms in which the types themselves
      only play a rather small part, as they do in ordinary mathematical argument.
      Two logical systems are described (called the \u201cnested-type\u201d and \u201cconcealed-type\u201d
      systems). It is hoped that the ideas involved in these systems may help mathematicians
      to observe type theory in proofs as well as in doctrine. It will not be necessary
      to adopt a formal logical notation to do so.", "venue": "Journal of Symbolic
      Logic (JSL)", "year": 1948, "referenceCount": 73, "citationCount": 211, "influentialCitationCount":
      20, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Philosophy",
      "Computer Science"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Philosophy", "source":
      "external"}, {"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"}, {"category":
      "Mathematics", "source": "s2-fos-model"}, {"category": "Philosophy", "source":
      "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle"], "publicationDate":
      "1948-06-01", "journal": {"volume": "13", "pages": "80 - 94", "name": "Journal
      of Symbolic Logic"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]},
      {"paperId": "65069064b19ec8244044311a2a90fbf2c9161675", "externalIds": {"DBLP":
      "journals/jsyml/NewmanT42", "MAG": "1988522427", "DOI": "10.2307/2267552", "CorpusId":
      17917182}, "corpusId": 17917182, "publicationVenue": {"id": "63b08ff1-8bea-4d94-af61-35bf9dbaeef6",
      "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "type": "journal", "alternate_names":
      ["J Symb Log", "Journal of Symbolic Logic", "J Symb Log (JSL"], "issn": "0022-4812",
      "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-symbolic-logic",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.aslonline.org/journals-journal.html", "http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JSL",
      "https://www.jstor.org/journal/jsymboliclogic"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/65069064b19ec8244044311a2a90fbf2c9161675",
      "title": "A formal theorem in Church''s theory of types", "abstract": "This
      note is concerned with the logical formalism with types recently introduced
      by Church [1] (and called (C) in this note) It was shewn in his paper (Theorem
      26\u03b1) that if Y\u03b1 stands for (a form of the \u201caxiom of infinity\u201d
      for the type \u03b1), Y\u03b1 can be proved formally, from Y\u03b9 and the axioms
      1 to 7, for all types \u03b1 of the forms \u03b9\u2032, \u03b9\u2033, \u2026.
      For other types the question was left open, but for the purposes of an intrinsic
      characterisation of the Church type-stratification given by one of us, it is
      desirable to have the remaining cases cleared up. A formal proof of Y\u03b1
      is now given for all types \u03b1 containing \u03b9, but the proof uses, in
      addition to Axioms 1 to 7 and Y\u03b9, also Axiom 9 (in connection with Def.
      4), and Axiom 10 (in Theorem 9).", "venue": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)",
      "year": 1942, "referenceCount": 64, "citationCount": 14, "influentialCitationCount":
      0, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science", "Mathematics"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science",
      "source": "external"}, {"category": "Mathematics", "source": "external"}, {"category":
      "Mathematics", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle"],
      "publicationDate": "1942-03-01", "journal": {"volume": "7", "pages": "28 - 33",
      "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "143697232",
      "name": "M. Newman"}, {"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId":
      "7aa8e40e1b94b5e9fe2e1703ffa7433378b484fe", "externalIds": {"DBLP": "journals/jsyml/Turing42",
      "MAG": "2065302580", "DOI": "10.2307/2268111", "CorpusId": 17112802}, "corpusId":
      17112802, "publicationVenue": {"id": "63b08ff1-8bea-4d94-af61-35bf9dbaeef6",
      "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "type": "journal", "alternate_names":
      ["J Symb Log", "Journal of Symbolic Logic", "J Symb Log (JSL"], "issn": "0022-4812",
      "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-symbolic-logic",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.aslonline.org/journals-journal.html", "http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JSL",
      "https://www.jstor.org/journal/jsymboliclogic"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7aa8e40e1b94b5e9fe2e1703ffa7433378b484fe",
      "title": "The use of dots as brackets in Church''s system", "abstract": "Any
      logical system, if its use is to be carried beyond a rather elementary stage,
      needs powerful conventions about abbreviations: in particular one usually wants
      to modify the bracketing so as to make the formulae more readable, and also
      possibly shorter. The present note has been written in the belief that Church''s
      formulation of the simple theory of types is particularly suitable as a basis
      for work on that theory, and that it is therefore worth while introducing special
      conventions which take into account the needs of this particular system. The
      conventions which I shall describe are ones which I have used a good deal myself,
      and have always found adequate. I intend to make use of them in forthcoming
      papers. They may be regarded as an extension of Curry''s conventions. I shall
      begin with a general discussion of punctuation by means of groups of dots. This
      general theory is applicable, with some modifications, to Russell''s, Quine''s,
      and Curry''s bracketing systems as well as to the present one.", "venue": "Journal
      of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "year": 1942, "referenceCount": 61, "citationCount":
      203, "influentialCitationCount": 5, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf":
      null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer Science", "Mathematics"], "s2FieldsOfStudy":
      [{"category": "Computer Science", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Mathematics",
      "source": "external"}, {"category": "Philosophy", "source": "s2-fos-model"}],
      "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle"], "publicationDate": "1942-12-01", "journal":
      {"volume": "7", "pages": "146 - 156", "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic"},
      "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "891151133781d3e78f19b882015746bafd9bc935",
      "externalIds": {"MAG": "2799201656", "DBLP": "journals/jsyml/Turing37a", "CorpusId":
      33223540}, "corpusId": 33223540, "publicationVenue": {"id": "63b08ff1-8bea-4d94-af61-35bf9dbaeef6",
      "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "type": "journal", "alternate_names":
      ["J Symb Log", "Journal of Symbolic Logic", "J Symb Log (JSL"], "issn": "0022-4812",
      "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-symbolic-logic",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.aslonline.org/journals-journal.html", "http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JSL",
      "https://www.jstor.org/journal/jsymboliclogic"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/891151133781d3e78f19b882015746bafd9bc935",
      "title": "The p-Function in \u03bb-K-Conversion", "abstract": "In the theory
      of conversion it is important to have a formally defined function which assigns
      to any positive integer n the least integer not less than n which has a given
      property. The definition of such a formula is somewhat involved:'' I propose
      to give the corresponding formula in X-K-conversion,'' which will (naturally)
      be much simpler. I shall in fact find a formula p such that if T be a formula
      for which T(n) is convertible3 to a formula representing a natural number, whenever
      n represents a natural number, then p(T, r) is convertible to the formula q
      representing the least natural number q, not less than r, for which T(q) conv
      0.2 The method depends on finding a formula e with the property that e conv
      Xu.u(e(u)), and consequently if M-<3(V) then M conv V(M). A formula with this
      property is,", "venue": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "year": 1937, "referenceCount":
      0, "citationCount": 12, "influentialCitationCount": 0, "isOpenAccess": false,
      "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Mathematics", "Computer Science"],
      "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Mathematics", "source": "external"}, {"category":
      "Computer Science", "source": "external"}, {"category": "Mathematics", "source":
      "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle"], "publicationDate":
      null, "journal": {"volume": "2", "pages": "164", "name": "J. Symb. Log."}, "authors":
      [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]}, {"paperId": "b300783b3f3bd283ab1cf86b7a51f63469db380f",
      "externalIds": {"MAG": "2798583139", "DOI": "10.2307/2268281", "CorpusId": 11473119},
      "corpusId": 11473119, "publicationVenue": {"id": "63b08ff1-8bea-4d94-af61-35bf9dbaeef6",
      "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "type": "journal", "alternate_names":
      ["J Symb Log", "Journal of Symbolic Logic", "J Symb Log (JSL"], "issn": "0022-4812",
      "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-symbolic-logic",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.aslonline.org/journals-journal.html", "http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JSL",
      "https://www.jstor.org/journal/jsymboliclogic"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b300783b3f3bd283ab1cf86b7a51f63469db380f",
      "title": "The \u00fe-function in \u03bb-K-conversion", "abstract": "In the theory
      of conversion it is important to have a formally defined function which assigns
      to any positive integer n the least integer not less than n which has a given
      property. The definition of such a formula is somewhat involved: I propose to
      give the corresponding formula in \u03bb-K-conversion, which will (naturally)
      be much simpler. I shall in fact find a formula \u00fe such that if T be a formula
      for which T(n) is convertible to a formula representing a natural number, whenever
      n represents a natural number, then \u00fe(T, r) is convertible to the formula
      q representing the least natural number q, not less than r, for which T(q) conv
      0.2 The method depends on finding a formula \u0398 with the property that \u0398
      conv \u03bbu\u00b7u(\u0398(u)), and consequently if M\u2192\u0398(V) then M
      conv V(M). A formula with this property is, The formula \u00fe will have the
      required property if \u00fe(T, r) conv r when T(r) conv 0, and \u00fe(T, r)
      conv \u00fe(T, S(r)) otherwise. These conditions will be satisfied if \u00fe(T,
      r) conv T(r, \u03bbx\u00b7\u00fe(T, S(r)), r), i.e. if \u00fe conv {\u03bbptr\u00b7t(r,
      \u03bbx\u00b7p(t, S(r)), r)}(\u00fe). We therefore put, This enables us to define
      also a formula, such that (T, n) is convertible to the formula representing
      the nth positive integer q for which T(q) conv 0.", "venue": "Journal of Symbolic
      Logic (JSL)", "year": 1937, "referenceCount": 62, "citationCount": 31, "influentialCitationCount":
      2, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Physics"],
      "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Physics", "source": "external"}, {"category":
      "Mathematics", "source": "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": null, "publicationDate":
      "1937-12-01", "journal": {"volume": "2", "pages": "164 - 164", "name": "Journal
      of Symbolic Logic"}, "authors": [{"authorId": "2262347", "name": "A. Turing"}]},
      {"paperId": "ee8c779e7823814a5f1746d883ca77b26671b617", "externalIds": {"DBLP":
      "journals/jsyml/Turing37", "MAG": "1485161910", "DOI": "10.2307/2268280", "CorpusId":
      2317046}, "corpusId": 2317046, "publicationVenue": {"id": "63b08ff1-8bea-4d94-af61-35bf9dbaeef6",
      "name": "Journal of Symbolic Logic (JSL)", "type": "journal", "alternate_names":
      ["J Symb Log", "Journal of Symbolic Logic", "J Symb Log (JSL"], "issn": "0022-4812",
      "url": "https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-symbolic-logic",
      "alternate_urls": ["http://www.aslonline.org/journals-journal.html", "http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=JSL",
      "https://www.jstor.org/journal/jsymboliclogic"]}, "url": "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ee8c779e7823814a5f1746d883ca77b26671b617",
      "title": "Computability and \u03bb-definability", "abstract": "Several definitions
      have been given to express an exact meaning corresponding to the intuitive idea
      of \u2018effective calculability\u2019 as applied for instance to functions
      of positive integers. The purpose of the present paper is to show that the computable
      functions introduced by the author are identical with the \u03bb-definable functions
      of Church and the general recursive functions due to Herbrand and G\u00f6del
      and developed by Kleene. It is shown that every \u03bb-definable function is
      computable and that every computable function is general recursive. There is
      a modified form of \u03bb-definability, known as \u03bb-K-definability, and
      it turns out to be natural to put the proof that every \u03bb-definable function
      is computable in the form of a proof that every \u03bb-K-definable function
      is computable; that every \u03bb-definable function is \u03bb-K-definable is
      trivial. If these results are taken in conjunction with an already available
      proof that every general recursive function is \u03bb-definable we shall have
      the required equivalence of computability with \u03bb-definability and incidentally
      a new proof of the equivalence of \u03bb-definability and \u03bb-K-definability.
      A definition of what is meant by a computable function cannot be given satisfactorily
      in a short space. I therefore refer the reader to Computable pp. 230\u2013235
      and p. 254. The proof that computability implies recursiveness requires no more
      knowledge of computable functions than the ideas underlying the definition:
      the technical details are recalled in \u00a75.", "venue": "Journal of Symbolic
      Logic (JSL)", "year": 1937, "referenceCount": 6, "citationCount": 385, "influentialCitationCount":
      32, "isOpenAccess": false, "openAccessPdf": null, "fieldsOfStudy": ["Computer
      Science", "Mathematics"], "s2FieldsOfStudy": [{"category": "Computer Science",
      "source": "external"}, {"category": "Mathematics", "source": "external"}, {"category":
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      "s2-fos-model"}], "publicationTypes": ["JournalArticle"], "publicationDate":
      "1937-12-01", "journal": {"volume": "2", "pages": "153 - 163", "name": "Journal
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      "title": "Watching the Daisies Grow: from Biology to Biomathematics and Bioinformatics
      \u2014 Alan Turing Centenary Special Issue", "abstract": "Preface We can only
      see a short distance ahead, but we can see plenty there that needs to be done.
      Year 2012 is both the centenary of Alan Turing''s birth and the 60th anniversary
      of the famous paper The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis, in which he established
      foundations of the mathematical theory of biological and chemical pattern formation.
      The story started much earlier, in spring 1923, as documented by his mother
      in a caricature entitled Hockey or Watching the Daisies Grow. Crucial motif
      in the drawing is that, while most players are engaged by the game, Alan is
      investigating a flower emerging just off the field. Always fascinated by the
      relationship between matter and spirit, especially in the processes of thinking
      , Turing started from the assumption that the operation of human brain is completely
      physical. This led him to invention of an abstract computing machine named after
      him, which laid the foundations of modern computer science. In recognition of
      his enormous contribution to the growth of the field, the most prestigious award
      in computer science, called \" Nobel Prize of computing \" , is named after
      Turing. Success has many fathers, but it was Alan Turing to whom we owe the
      final breaking of the Enigma code. He extended the idea of so-called \" Cryptology
      bombs \" , i.e., machines aimed at breaking codes, constructed before World
      War II by Polish mathematicians: Rejewski, R\u00f3\u02d9 zycki and Zygalski.
      His solution ensured the information advantage of the Allies during the Battle
      of the Atlantic, which had a direct bearing on the success of operations in
      Normandy and the defeat of Nazi Germany. After the war, Turing took up marathon
      running to relieve the stress, studied why spots on the leop-ard''s body are
      in the shape of a rosette or ring, and proposed a test to measure the machine''s
      ability to exhibit intelligent behavior. For this last reason, Turing is regarded
      as a founder of artificial intelligence. He left this world prematurely in the
      age of 42, but managed to finish the race with the highest score, in fact more
      than one race.. . In this special issue, we present a selection of papers commemorating
      Alan Turing and arguing that he should be also considered the co-founder of
      biomathematics and bioinformatics. His late works were", "venue": "", "year":
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      "title": "Computing Machinery and Intelligence 1. the Imitation Game", "abstract":
      "I propose to consider the question, \"Can machines think?\" This should begin
      with definitions of the meaning of the terms \"machine\" and \"think.\" The
      definitions might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use
      of the words, but this attitude is dangerous. If the meaning of the words \"machine\"
      and \"think\" are to be found by examining how they are commonly used it is
      difficult to escape the conclusion that the meaning and the answer to the question,
      \"Can machines think?\" is to be sought in a statistical survey such as a Gallup
      poll. But this is absurd. Instead of attempting such a definition I shall replace
      the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in
      relatively unambiguous words. The new form of the problem can be described in
      terms of a game which we call the \"imitation game.\" It is played with three
      people, a man (A), a woman (B), and an interrogator (C) who may be of either
      sex. The interrogator stays in a room apart'' from the other two. The object
      of the game for the interrogator is to determine which of the other two is the
      man and which is the woman. He knows them by labels X and Y, and at the end
      of the game he says either \"X is A and Y is B\" or \"X is Band Y is A.\" The
      interrogator is allowed to put questions to A and B thus: C: Will X please tell
      me the length of his or her hair? Now suppose X is actually A, then A must answer.
      It is A''s object in the game to try and cause C to make the wrong identification.
      His answer might therefore be: \"My hair is shingled, and the longest strands
      are about nine inches long. \" 11", "venue": "", "year": null, "referenceCount":
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