schema.py

import logging
from datetime import datetime

from django.db.backends.ddl_references import (
    Columns, ForeignKeyName, IndexName, Statement, Table,
)
from django.db.backends.utils import names_digest, split_identifier
from django.db.models import Index
from django.db.transaction import TransactionManagementError, atomic
from django.utils import timezone

logger = logging.getLogger('django.db.backends.schema')


def _is_relevant_relation(relation, altered_field):
    """
    When altering the given field, must constraints on its model from the given
    relation be temporarily dropped?
    """
    field = relation.field
    if field.many_to_many:
        # M2M reverse field
        return False
    if altered_field.primary_key and field.to_fields == [None]:
        # Foreign key constraint on the primary key, which is being altered.
        return True
    # Is the constraint targeting the field being altered?
    return altered_field.name in field.to_fields


def _related_non_m2m_objects(old_field, new_field):
    # Filter out m2m objects from reverse relations.
    # Return (old_relation, new_relation) tuples.
    return zip(
        (obj for obj in old_field.model._meta.related_objects if _is_relevant_relation(obj, old_field)),
        (obj for obj in new_field.model._meta.related_objects if _is_relevant_relation(obj, new_field))
    )


class BaseDatabaseSchemaEditor:
    """
    This class and its subclasses are responsible for emitting schema-changing
    statements to the databases - model creation/removal/alteration, field
    renaming, index fiddling, and so on.
    """

    # Overrideable SQL templates
    sql_create_table = "CREATE TABLE %(table)s (%(definition)s)"
    sql_rename_table = "ALTER TABLE %(old_table)s RENAME TO %(new_table)s"
    sql_retablespace_table = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s SET TABLESPACE %(new_tablespace)s"
    sql_delete_table = "DROP TABLE %(table)s CASCADE"

    sql_create_column = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s ADD COLUMN %(column)s %(definition)s"
    sql_alter_column = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s %(changes)s"
    sql_alter_column_type = "ALTER COLUMN %(column)s TYPE %(type)s"
    sql_alter_column_null = "ALTER COLUMN %(column)s DROP NOT NULL"
    sql_alter_column_not_null = "ALTER COLUMN %(column)s SET NOT NULL"
    sql_alter_column_default = "ALTER COLUMN %(column)s SET DEFAULT %(default)s"
    sql_alter_column_no_default = "ALTER COLUMN %(column)s DROP DEFAULT"
    sql_delete_column = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s DROP COLUMN %(column)s CASCADE"
    sql_rename_column = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s RENAME COLUMN %(old_column)s TO %(new_column)s"
    sql_update_with_default = "UPDATE %(table)s SET %(column)s = %(default)s WHERE %(column)s IS NULL"

    sql_unique_constraint = "UNIQUE (%(columns)s)"
    sql_check_constraint = "CHECK (%(check)s)"
    sql_delete_constraint = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s DROP CONSTRAINT %(name)s"
    sql_constraint = "CONSTRAINT %(name)s %(constraint)s"

    sql_create_check = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s ADD CONSTRAINT %(name)s CHECK (%(check)s)"
    sql_delete_check = sql_delete_constraint

    sql_create_unique = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s ADD CONSTRAINT %(name)s UNIQUE (%(columns)s)"
    sql_delete_unique = sql_delete_constraint

    sql_create_fk = (
        "ALTER TABLE %(table)s ADD CONSTRAINT %(name)s FOREIGN KEY (%(column)s) "
        "REFERENCES %(to_table)s (%(to_column)s)%(deferrable)s"
    )
    sql_create_inline_fk = None
    sql_delete_fk = sql_delete_constraint

    sql_create_index = "CREATE INDEX %(name)s ON %(table)s (%(columns)s)%(extra)s%(condition)s"
    sql_create_unique_index = "CREATE UNIQUE INDEX %(name)s ON %(table)s (%(columns)s)%(condition)s"
    sql_delete_index = "DROP INDEX %(name)s"

    sql_create_pk = "ALTER TABLE %(table)s ADD CONSTRAINT %(name)s PRIMARY KEY (%(columns)s)"
    sql_delete_pk = sql_delete_constraint

    sql_delete_procedure = 'DROP PROCEDURE %(procedure)s'

    def __init__(self, connection, collect_sql=False, atomic=True):
        self.connection = connection
        self.collect_sql = collect_sql
        if self.collect_sql:
            self.collected_sql = []
        self.atomic_migration = self.connection.features.can_rollback_ddl and atomic

    # State-managing methods

    def __enter__(self):
        self.deferred_sql = []
        if self.atomic_migration:
            self.atomic = atomic(self.connection.alias)
            self.atomic.__enter__()
        return self

    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
        if exc_type is None:
            for sql in self.deferred_sql:
                self.execute(sql)
        if self.atomic_migration:
            self.atomic.__exit__(exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

    # Core utility functions

    def execute(self, sql, params=()):
        """Execute the given SQL statement, with optional parameters."""
        # Don't perform the transactional DDL check if SQL is being collected
        # as it's not going to be executed anyway.
        if not self.collect_sql and self.connection.in_atomic_block and not self.connection.features.can_rollback_ddl:
            raise TransactionManagementError(
                "Executing DDL statements while in a transaction on databases "
                "that can't perform a rollback is prohibited."
            )
        # Account for non-string statement objects.
        sql = str(sql)
        # Log the command we're running, then run it
        logger.debug("%s; (params %r)", sql, params, extra={'params': params, 'sql': sql})
        if self.collect_sql:
            ending = "" if sql.endswith(";") else ";"
            if params is not None:
                self.collected_sql.append((sql % tuple(map(self.quote_value, params))) + ending)
            else:
                self.collected_sql.append(sql + ending)
        else:
            with self.connection.cursor() as cursor:
                cursor.execute(sql, params)

    def quote_name(self, name):
        return self.connection.ops.quote_name(name)

    # Field <-> database mapping functions

    def column_sql(self, model, field, include_default=False):
        """
        Take a field and return its column definition.
        The field must already have had set_attributes_from_name() called.
        """
        # Get the column's type and use that as the basis of the SQL
        db_params = field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
        sql = db_params['type']
        params = []
        # Check for fields that aren't actually columns (e.g. M2M)
        if sql is None:
            return None, None
        # Work out nullability
        null = field.null
        # If we were told to include a default value, do so
        include_default = include_default and not self.skip_default(field)
        if include_default:
            default_value = self.effective_default(field)
            if default_value is not None:
                if self.connection.features.requires_literal_defaults:
                    # Some databases can't take defaults as a parameter (oracle)
                    # If this is the case, the individual schema backend should
                    # implement prepare_default
                    sql += " DEFAULT %s" % self.prepare_default(default_value)
                else:
                    sql += " DEFAULT %s"
                    params += [default_value]
        # Oracle treats the empty string ('') as null, so coerce the null
        # option whenever '' is a possible value.
        if (field.empty_strings_allowed and not field.primary_key and
                self.connection.features.interprets_empty_strings_as_nulls):
            null = True
        if null and not self.connection.features.implied_column_null:
            sql += " NULL"
        elif not null:
            sql += " NOT NULL"
        # Primary key/unique outputs
        if field.primary_key:
            sql += " PRIMARY KEY"
        elif field.unique:
            sql += " UNIQUE"
        # Optionally add the tablespace if it's an implicitly indexed column
        tablespace = field.db_tablespace or model._meta.db_tablespace
        if tablespace and self.connection.features.supports_tablespaces and field.unique:
            sql += " %s" % self.connection.ops.tablespace_sql(tablespace, inline=True)
        # Return the sql
        return sql, params

    def skip_default(self, field):
        """
        Some backends don't accept default values for certain columns types
        (i.e. MySQL longtext and longblob).
        """
        return False

    def prepare_default(self, value):
        """
        Only used for backends which have requires_literal_defaults feature
        """
        raise NotImplementedError(
            'subclasses of BaseDatabaseSchemaEditor for backends which have '
            'requires_literal_defaults must provide a prepare_default() method'
        )

    @staticmethod
    def _effective_default(field):
        # This method allows testing its logic without a connection.
        if field.has_default():
            default = field.get_default()
        elif not field.null and field.blank and field.empty_strings_allowed:
            if field.get_internal_type() == "BinaryField":
                default = bytes()
            else:
                default = str()
        elif getattr(field, 'auto_now', False) or getattr(field, 'auto_now_add', False):
            default = datetime.now()
            internal_type = field.get_internal_type()
            if internal_type == 'DateField':
                default = default.date()
            elif internal_type == 'TimeField':
                default = default.time()
            elif internal_type == 'DateTimeField':
                default = timezone.now()
        else:
            default = None
        return default

    def effective_default(self, field):
        """Return a field's effective database default value."""
        return field.get_db_prep_save(self._effective_default(field), self.connection)

    def quote_value(self, value):
        """
        Return a quoted version of the value so it's safe to use in an SQL
        string. This is not safe against injection from user code; it is
        intended only for use in making SQL scripts or preparing default values
        for particularly tricky backends (defaults are not user-defined, though,
        so this is safe).
        """
        raise NotImplementedError()

    # Actions

    def create_model(self, model):
        """
        Create a table and any accompanying indexes or unique constraints for
        the given `model`.
        """
        # Create column SQL, add FK deferreds if needed
        column_sqls = []
        params = []
        for field in model._meta.local_fields:
            # SQL
            definition, extra_params = self.column_sql(model, field)
            if definition is None:
                continue
            # Check constraints can go on the column SQL here
            db_params = field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
            if db_params['check']:
                definition += " " + self.sql_check_constraint % db_params
            # Autoincrement SQL (for backends with inline variant)
            col_type_suffix = field.db_type_suffix(connection=self.connection)
            if col_type_suffix:
                definition += " %s" % col_type_suffix
            params.extend(extra_params)
            # FK
            if field.remote_field and field.db_constraint:
                to_table = field.remote_field.model._meta.db_table
                to_column = field.remote_field.model._meta.get_field(field.remote_field.field_name).column
                if self.sql_create_inline_fk:
                    definition += " " + self.sql_create_inline_fk % {
                        "to_table": self.quote_name(to_table),
                        "to_column": self.quote_name(to_column),
                    }
                elif self.connection.features.supports_foreign_keys:
                    self.deferred_sql.append(self._create_fk_sql(model, field, "_fk_%(to_table)s_%(to_column)s"))
            # Add the SQL to our big list
            column_sqls.append("%s %s" % (
                self.quote_name(field.column),
                definition,
            ))
            # Autoincrement SQL (for backends with post table definition variant)
            if field.get_internal_type() in ("AutoField", "BigAutoField"):
                autoinc_sql = self.connection.ops.autoinc_sql(model._meta.db_table, field.column)
                if autoinc_sql:
                    self.deferred_sql.extend(autoinc_sql)

        # Add any unique_togethers (always deferred, as some fields might be
        # created afterwards, like geometry fields with some backends)
        for fields in model._meta.unique_together:
            columns = [model._meta.get_field(field).column for field in fields]
            self.deferred_sql.append(self._create_unique_sql(model, columns))
        constraints = [constraint.constraint_sql(model, self) for constraint in model._meta.constraints]
        # Make the table
        sql = self.sql_create_table % {
            "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
            "definition": ", ".join(constraint for constraint in (*column_sqls, *constraints) if constraint),
        }
        if model._meta.db_tablespace:
            tablespace_sql = self.connection.ops.tablespace_sql(model._meta.db_tablespace)
            if tablespace_sql:
                sql += ' ' + tablespace_sql
        # Prevent using [] as params, in the case a literal '%' is used in the definition
        self.execute(sql, params or None)

        # Add any field index and index_together's (deferred as SQLite _remake_table needs it)
        self.deferred_sql.extend(self._model_indexes_sql(model))

        # Make M2M tables
        for field in model._meta.local_many_to_many:
            if field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created:
                self.create_model(field.remote_field.through)

    def delete_model(self, model):
        """Delete a model from the database."""
        # Handle auto-created intermediary models
        for field in model._meta.local_many_to_many:
            if field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created:
                self.delete_model(field.remote_field.through)

        # Delete the table
        self.execute(self.sql_delete_table % {
            "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
        })
        # Remove all deferred statements referencing the deleted table.
        for sql in list(self.deferred_sql):
            if isinstance(sql, Statement) and sql.references_table(model._meta.db_table):
                self.deferred_sql.remove(sql)

    def add_index(self, model, index):
        """Add an index on a model."""
        self.execute(index.create_sql(model, self), params=None)

    def remove_index(self, model, index):
        """Remove an index from a model."""
        self.execute(index.remove_sql(model, self))

    def add_constraint(self, model, constraint):
        """Add a check constraint to a model."""
        sql = constraint.create_sql(model, self)
        if sql:
            self.execute(sql)

    def remove_constraint(self, model, constraint):
        """Remove a check constraint from a model."""
        sql = constraint.remove_sql(model, self)
        if sql:
            self.execute(sql)

    def alter_unique_together(self, model, old_unique_together, new_unique_together):
        """
        Deal with a model changing its unique_together. The input
        unique_togethers must be doubly-nested, not the single-nested
        ["foo", "bar"] format.
        """
        olds = {tuple(fields) for fields in old_unique_together}
        news = {tuple(fields) for fields in new_unique_together}
        # Deleted uniques
        for fields in olds.difference(news):
            self._delete_composed_index(model, fields, {'unique': True}, self.sql_delete_unique)
        # Created uniques
        for fields in news.difference(olds):
            columns = [model._meta.get_field(field).column for field in fields]
            self.execute(self._create_unique_sql(model, columns))

    def alter_index_together(self, model, old_index_together, new_index_together):
        """
        Deal with a model changing its index_together. The input
        index_togethers must be doubly-nested, not the single-nested
        ["foo", "bar"] format.
        """
        olds = {tuple(fields) for fields in old_index_together}
        news = {tuple(fields) for fields in new_index_together}
        # Deleted indexes
        for fields in olds.difference(news):
            self._delete_composed_index(model, fields, {'index': True}, self.sql_delete_index)
        # Created indexes
        for field_names in news.difference(olds):
            fields = [model._meta.get_field(field) for field in field_names]
            self.execute(self._create_index_sql(model, fields, suffix="_idx"))

    def _delete_composed_index(self, model, fields, constraint_kwargs, sql):
        meta_constraint_names = {constraint.name for constraint in model._meta.constraints}
        meta_index_names = {constraint.name for constraint in model._meta.indexes}
        columns = [model._meta.get_field(field).column for field in fields]
        constraint_names = self._constraint_names(
            model, columns, exclude=meta_constraint_names | meta_index_names,
            **constraint_kwargs
        )
        if len(constraint_names) != 1:
            raise ValueError("Found wrong number (%s) of constraints for %s(%s)" % (
                len(constraint_names),
                model._meta.db_table,
                ", ".join(columns),
            ))
        self.execute(self._delete_constraint_sql(sql, model, constraint_names[0]))

    def alter_db_table(self, model, old_db_table, new_db_table):
        """Rename the table a model points to."""
        if (old_db_table == new_db_table or
            (self.connection.features.ignores_table_name_case and
                old_db_table.lower() == new_db_table.lower())):
            return
        self.execute(self.sql_rename_table % {
            "old_table": self.quote_name(old_db_table),
            "new_table": self.quote_name(new_db_table),
        })
        # Rename all references to the old table name.
        for sql in self.deferred_sql:
            if isinstance(sql, Statement):
                sql.rename_table_references(old_db_table, new_db_table)

    def alter_db_tablespace(self, model, old_db_tablespace, new_db_tablespace):
        """Move a model's table between tablespaces."""
        self.execute(self.sql_retablespace_table % {
            "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
            "old_tablespace": self.quote_name(old_db_tablespace),
            "new_tablespace": self.quote_name(new_db_tablespace),
        })

    def add_field(self, model, field):
        """
        Create a field on a model. Usually involves adding a column, but may
        involve adding a table instead (for M2M fields).
        """
        # Special-case implicit M2M tables
        if field.many_to_many and field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created:
            return self.create_model(field.remote_field.through)
        # Get the column's definition
        definition, params = self.column_sql(model, field, include_default=True)
        # It might not actually have a column behind it
        if definition is None:
            return
        # Check constraints can go on the column SQL here
        db_params = field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
        if db_params['check']:
            definition += " " + self.sql_check_constraint % db_params
        # Build the SQL and run it
        sql = self.sql_create_column % {
            "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
            "column": self.quote_name(field.column),
            "definition": definition,
        }
        self.execute(sql, params)
        # Drop the default if we need to
        # (Django usually does not use in-database defaults)
        if not self.skip_default(field) and self.effective_default(field) is not None:
            changes_sql, params = self._alter_column_default_sql(model, None, field, drop=True)
            sql = self.sql_alter_column % {
                "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
                "changes": changes_sql,
            }
            self.execute(sql, params)
        # Add an index, if required
        self.deferred_sql.extend(self._field_indexes_sql(model, field))
        # Add any FK constraints later
        if field.remote_field and self.connection.features.supports_foreign_keys and field.db_constraint:
            self.deferred_sql.append(self._create_fk_sql(model, field, "_fk_%(to_table)s_%(to_column)s"))
        # Reset connection if required
        if self.connection.features.connection_persists_old_columns:
            self.connection.close()

    def remove_field(self, model, field):
        """
        Remove a field from a model. Usually involves deleting a column,
        but for M2Ms may involve deleting a table.
        """
        # Special-case implicit M2M tables
        if field.many_to_many and field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created:
            return self.delete_model(field.remote_field.through)
        # It might not actually have a column behind it
        if field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)['type'] is None:
            return
        # Drop any FK constraints, MySQL requires explicit deletion
        if field.remote_field:
            fk_names = self._constraint_names(model, [field.column], foreign_key=True)
            for fk_name in fk_names:
                self.execute(self._delete_fk_sql(model, fk_name))
        # Delete the column
        sql = self.sql_delete_column % {
            "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
            "column": self.quote_name(field.column),
        }
        self.execute(sql)
        # Reset connection if required
        if self.connection.features.connection_persists_old_columns:
            self.connection.close()
        # Remove all deferred statements referencing the deleted column.
        for sql in list(self.deferred_sql):
            if isinstance(sql, Statement) and sql.references_column(model._meta.db_table, field.column):
                self.deferred_sql.remove(sql)

    def alter_field(self, model, old_field, new_field, strict=False):
        """
        Allow a field's type, uniqueness, nullability, default, column,
        constraints, etc. to be modified.
        `old_field` is required to compute the necessary changes.
        If `strict` is True, raise errors if the old column does not match
        `old_field` precisely.
        """
        # Ensure this field is even column-based
        old_db_params = old_field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
        old_type = old_db_params['type']
        new_db_params = new_field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
        new_type = new_db_params['type']
        if ((old_type is None and old_field.remote_field is None) or
                (new_type is None and new_field.remote_field is None)):
            raise ValueError(
                "Cannot alter field %s into %s - they do not properly define "
                "db_type (are you using a badly-written custom field?)" %
                (old_field, new_field),
            )
        elif old_type is None and new_type is None and (
                old_field.remote_field.through and new_field.remote_field.through and
                old_field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created and
                new_field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created):
            return self._alter_many_to_many(model, old_field, new_field, strict)
        elif old_type is None and new_type is None and (
                old_field.remote_field.through and new_field.remote_field.through and
                not old_field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created and
                not new_field.remote_field.through._meta.auto_created):
            # Both sides have through models; this is a no-op.
            return
        elif old_type is None or new_type is None:
            raise ValueError(
                "Cannot alter field %s into %s - they are not compatible types "
                "(you cannot alter to or from M2M fields, or add or remove "
                "through= on M2M fields)" % (old_field, new_field)
            )

        self._alter_field(model, old_field, new_field, old_type, new_type,
                          old_db_params, new_db_params, strict)

    def _alter_field(self, model, old_field, new_field, old_type, new_type,
                     old_db_params, new_db_params, strict=False):
        """Perform a "physical" (non-ManyToMany) field update."""
        # Drop any FK constraints, we'll remake them later
        fks_dropped = set()
        if old_field.remote_field and old_field.db_constraint:
            fk_names = self._constraint_names(model, [old_field.column], foreign_key=True)
            if strict and len(fk_names) != 1:
                raise ValueError("Found wrong number (%s) of foreign key constraints for %s.%s" % (
                    len(fk_names),
                    model._meta.db_table,
                    old_field.column,
                ))
            for fk_name in fk_names:
                fks_dropped.add((old_field.column,))
                self.execute(self._delete_fk_sql(model, fk_name))
        # Has unique been removed?
        if old_field.unique and (not new_field.unique or self._field_became_primary_key(old_field, new_field)):
            # Find the unique constraint for this field
            meta_constraint_names = {constraint.name for constraint in model._meta.constraints}
            constraint_names = self._constraint_names(
                model, [old_field.column], unique=True, primary_key=False,
                exclude=meta_constraint_names,
            )
            if strict and len(constraint_names) != 1:
                raise ValueError("Found wrong number (%s) of unique constraints for %s.%s" % (
                    len(constraint_names),
                    model._meta.db_table,
                    old_field.column,
                ))
            for constraint_name in constraint_names:
                self.execute(self._delete_unique_sql(model, constraint_name))
        # Drop incoming FK constraints if the field is a primary key or unique,
        # which might be a to_field target, and things are going to change.
        drop_foreign_keys = (
            (
                (old_field.primary_key and new_field.primary_key) or
                (old_field.unique and new_field.unique)
            ) and old_type != new_type
        )
        if drop_foreign_keys:
            # '_meta.related_field' also contains M2M reverse fields, these
            # will be filtered out
            for _old_rel, new_rel in _related_non_m2m_objects(old_field, new_field):
                rel_fk_names = self._constraint_names(
                    new_rel.related_model, [new_rel.field.column], foreign_key=True
                )
                for fk_name in rel_fk_names:
                    self.execute(self._delete_fk_sql(new_rel.related_model, fk_name))
        # Removed an index? (no strict check, as multiple indexes are possible)
        # Remove indexes if db_index switched to False or a unique constraint
        # will now be used in lieu of an index. The following lines from the
        # truth table show all True cases; the rest are False:
        #
        # old_field.db_index | old_field.unique | new_field.db_index | new_field.unique
        # ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        # True               | False            | False              | False
        # True               | False            | False              | True
        # True               | False            | True               | True
        if old_field.db_index and not old_field.unique and (not new_field.db_index or new_field.unique):
            # Find the index for this field
            meta_index_names = {index.name for index in model._meta.indexes}
            # Retrieve only BTREE indexes since this is what's created with
            # db_index=True.
            index_names = self._constraint_names(
                model, [old_field.column], index=True, type_=Index.suffix,
                exclude=meta_index_names,
            )
            for index_name in index_names:
                # The only way to check if an index was created with
                # db_index=True or with Index(['field'], name='foo')
                # is to look at its name (refs #28053).
                self.execute(self._delete_index_sql(model, index_name))
        # Change check constraints?
        if old_db_params['check'] != new_db_params['check'] and old_db_params['check']:
            meta_constraint_names = {constraint.name for constraint in model._meta.constraints}
            constraint_names = self._constraint_names(
                model, [old_field.column], check=True,
                exclude=meta_constraint_names,
            )
            if strict and len(constraint_names) != 1:
                raise ValueError("Found wrong number (%s) of check constraints for %s.%s" % (
                    len(constraint_names),
                    model._meta.db_table,
                    old_field.column,
                ))
            for constraint_name in constraint_names:
                self.execute(self._delete_check_sql(model, constraint_name))
        # Have they renamed the column?
        if old_field.column != new_field.column:
            self.execute(self._rename_field_sql(model._meta.db_table, old_field, new_field, new_type))
            # Rename all references to the renamed column.
            for sql in self.deferred_sql:
                if isinstance(sql, Statement):
                    sql.rename_column_references(model._meta.db_table, old_field.column, new_field.column)
        # Next, start accumulating actions to do
        actions = []
        null_actions = []
        post_actions = []
        # Type change?
        if old_type != new_type:
            fragment, other_actions = self._alter_column_type_sql(model, old_field, new_field, new_type)
            actions.append(fragment)
            post_actions.extend(other_actions)
        # When changing a column NULL constraint to NOT NULL with a given
        # default value, we need to perform 4 steps:
        #  1. Add a default for new incoming writes
        #  2. Update existing NULL rows with new default
        #  3. Replace NULL constraint with NOT NULL
        #  4. Drop the default again.
        # Default change?
        old_default = self.effective_default(old_field)
        new_default = self.effective_default(new_field)
        needs_database_default = (
            old_field.null and
            not new_field.null and
            old_default != new_default and
            new_default is not None and
            not self.skip_default(new_field)
        )
        if needs_database_default:
            actions.append(self._alter_column_default_sql(model, old_field, new_field))
        # Nullability change?
        if old_field.null != new_field.null:
            fragment = self._alter_column_null_sql(model, old_field, new_field)
            if fragment:
                null_actions.append(fragment)
        # Only if we have a default and there is a change from NULL to NOT NULL
        four_way_default_alteration = (
            new_field.has_default() and
            (old_field.null and not new_field.null)
        )
        if actions or null_actions:
            if not four_way_default_alteration:
                # If we don't have to do a 4-way default alteration we can
                # directly run a (NOT) NULL alteration
                actions = actions + null_actions
            # Combine actions together if we can (e.g. postgres)
            if self.connection.features.supports_combined_alters and actions:
                sql, params = tuple(zip(*actions))
                actions = [(", ".join(sql), sum(params, []))]
            # Apply those actions
            for sql, params in actions:
                self.execute(
                    self.sql_alter_column % {
                        "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
                        "changes": sql,
                    },
                    params,
                )
            if four_way_default_alteration:
                # Update existing rows with default value
                self.execute(
                    self.sql_update_with_default % {
                        "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
                        "column": self.quote_name(new_field.column),
                        "default": "%s",
                    },
                    [new_default],
                )
                # Since we didn't run a NOT NULL change before we need to do it
                # now
                for sql, params in null_actions:
                    self.execute(
                        self.sql_alter_column % {
                            "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
                            "changes": sql,
                        },
                        params,
                    )
        if post_actions:
            for sql, params in post_actions:
                self.execute(sql, params)
        # If primary_key changed to False, delete the primary key constraint.
        if old_field.primary_key and not new_field.primary_key:
            self._delete_primary_key(model, strict)
        # Added a unique?
        if self._unique_should_be_added(old_field, new_field):
            self.execute(self._create_unique_sql(model, [new_field.column]))
        # Added an index? Add an index if db_index switched to True or a unique
        # constraint will no longer be used in lieu of an index. The following
        # lines from the truth table show all True cases; the rest are False:
        #
        # old_field.db_index | old_field.unique | new_field.db_index | new_field.unique
        # ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        # False              | False            | True               | False
        # False              | True             | True               | False
        # True               | True             | True               | False
        if (not old_field.db_index or old_field.unique) and new_field.db_index and not new_field.unique:
            self.execute(self._create_index_sql(model, [new_field]))
        # Type alteration on primary key? Then we need to alter the column
        # referring to us.
        rels_to_update = []
        if old_field.primary_key and new_field.primary_key and old_type != new_type:
            rels_to_update.extend(_related_non_m2m_objects(old_field, new_field))
        # Changed to become primary key?
        if self._field_became_primary_key(old_field, new_field):
            # Make the new one
            self.execute(self._create_primary_key_sql(model, new_field))
            # Update all referencing columns
            rels_to_update.extend(_related_non_m2m_objects(old_field, new_field))
        # Handle our type alters on the other end of rels from the PK stuff above
        for old_rel, new_rel in rels_to_update:
            rel_db_params = new_rel.field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
            rel_type = rel_db_params['type']
            fragment, other_actions = self._alter_column_type_sql(
                new_rel.related_model, old_rel.field, new_rel.field, rel_type
            )
            self.execute(
                self.sql_alter_column % {
                    "table": self.quote_name(new_rel.related_model._meta.db_table),
                    "changes": fragment[0],
                },
                fragment[1],
            )
            for sql, params in other_actions:
                self.execute(sql, params)
        # Does it have a foreign key?
        if (new_field.remote_field and
                (fks_dropped or not old_field.remote_field or not old_field.db_constraint) and
                new_field.db_constraint):
            self.execute(self._create_fk_sql(model, new_field, "_fk_%(to_table)s_%(to_column)s"))
        # Rebuild FKs that pointed to us if we previously had to drop them
        if drop_foreign_keys:
            for rel in new_field.model._meta.related_objects:
                if _is_relevant_relation(rel, new_field) and rel.field.db_constraint:
                    self.execute(self._create_fk_sql(rel.related_model, rel.field, "_fk"))
        # Does it have check constraints we need to add?
        if old_db_params['check'] != new_db_params['check'] and new_db_params['check']:
            constraint_name = self._create_index_name(model._meta.db_table, [new_field.column], suffix='_check')
            self.execute(self._create_check_sql(model, constraint_name, new_db_params['check']))
        # Drop the default if we need to
        # (Django usually does not use in-database defaults)
        if needs_database_default:
            changes_sql, params = self._alter_column_default_sql(model, old_field, new_field, drop=True)
            sql = self.sql_alter_column % {
                "table": self.quote_name(model._meta.db_table),
                "changes": changes_sql,
            }
            self.execute(sql, params)
        # Reset connection if required
        if self.connection.features.connection_persists_old_columns:
            self.connection.close()

    def _alter_column_null_sql(self, model, old_field, new_field):
        """
        Hook to specialize column null alteration.

        Return a (sql, params) fragment to set a column to null or non-null
        as required by new_field, or None if no changes are required.
        """
        if (self.connection.features.interprets_empty_strings_as_nulls and
                new_field.get_internal_type() in ("CharField", "TextField")):
            # The field is nullable in the database anyway, leave it alone.
            return
        else:
            new_db_params = new_field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
            sql = self.sql_alter_column_null if new_field.null else self.sql_alter_column_not_null
            return (
                sql % {
                    'column': self.quote_name(new_field.column),
                    'type': new_db_params['type'],
                },
                [],
            )

    def _alter_column_default_sql(self, model, old_field, new_field, drop=False):
        """
        Hook to specialize column default alteration.

        Return a (sql, params) fragment to add or drop (depending on the drop
        argument) a default to new_field's column.
        """
        new_default = self.effective_default(new_field)
        default = '%s'
        params = [new_default]

        if drop:
            params = []
        elif self.connection.features.requires_literal_defaults:
            # Some databases (Oracle) can't take defaults as a parameter
            # If this is the case, the SchemaEditor for that database should
            # implement prepare_default().
            default = self.prepare_default(new_default)
            params = []

        new_db_params = new_field.db_parameters(connection=self.connection)
        sql = self.sql_alter_column_no_default if drop else self.sql_alter_column_default
        return (
            sql % {
                'column': self.quote_name(new_field.column),
                'type': new_db_params['type'],
                'default': default,
            },
            params,
        )

    def _alter_column_type_sql(self, model, old_field, new_field, new_type):
        """
        Hook to specialize column type alteration for different backends,
        for cases when a creation type is different to an alteration type
        (e.g. SERIAL in PostgreSQL, PostGIS fields).

        Return a two-tuple of: an SQL fragment of (sql, params) to insert into
        an ALTER TABLE statement and a list of extra (sql, params) tuples to
        run once the field is altered.
        """
        return (
            (
                self.sql_alter_column_type % {
                    "column": self.quote_name(new_field.column),
                    "type": new_type,
                },
                [],
            ),
            [],
        )

    def _alter_many_to_many(self, model, old_field, new_field, strict):
        """Alter M2Ms to repoint their to= endpoints."""
        # Rename the through table
        if old_field.remote_field.through._meta.db_table != new_field.remote_field.through._meta.db_table:
            self.alter_db_table(old_field.remote_field.through, old_field.remote_field.through._meta.db_table,
                                new_field.remote_field.through._meta.db_table)
        # Repoint the FK to the other side
        self.alter_field(
            new_field.remote_field.through,
            # We need the field that points to the target model, so we can tell alter_field to change it -
            # this is m2m_reverse_field_name() (as opposed to m2m_field_name, which points to our model)
            old_field.remote_field.through._meta.get_field(old_field.m2m_reverse_field_name()),
            new_field.remote_field.through._meta.get_field(new_field.m2m_reverse_field_name()),
        )
        self.alter_field(
            new_field.remote_field.through,
            # for self-referential models we need to alter field from the other end too
            old_field.remote_field.through._meta.get_field(old_field.m2m_field_name()),
            new_field.remote_field.through._meta.get_field(new_field.m2m_field_name()),
        )

    def _create_index_name(self, table_name, column_names, suffix=""):
        """
        Generate a unique name for an index/unique constraint.

        The name is divided into 3 parts: the table name, the column names,
        and a unique digest and suffix.
        """
        _, table_name = split_identifier(table_name)
        hash_suffix_part = '%s%s' % (names_digest(table_name, *column_names, length=8), suffix)
        max_length = self.connection.ops.max_name_length() or 200
        # If everything fits into max_length, use that name.
        index_name = '%s_%s_%s' % (table_name, '_'.join(column_names), hash_suffix_part)
        if len(index_name) <= max_length:
            return index_name
        # Shorten a long suffix.
        if len(hash_suffix_part) > max_length / 3:
            hash_suffix_part = hash_suffix_part[:max_length // 3]
        other_length = (max_length - len(hash_suffix_part)) // 2 - 1
        index_name = '%s_%s_%s' % (
            table_name[:other_length],
            '_'.join(column_names)[:other_length],
            hash_suffix_part,
        )
        # Prepend D if needed to prevent the name from starting with an
        # underscore or a number (not permitted on Oracle).
        if index_name[0] == "_" or index_name[0].isdigit():
            index_name = "D%s" % index_name[:-1]
        return index_name

    def _get_index_tablespace_sql(self, model, fields, db_tablespace=None):
        if db_tablespace is None:
            if len(fields) == 1 and fields[0].db_tablespace:
                db_tablespace = fields[0].db_tablespace
            elif model._meta.db_tablespace:
                db_tablespace = model._meta.db_tablespace
        if db_tablespace is not None:
            return ' ' + self.connection.ops.tablespace_sql(db_tablespace)
        return ''

    def _create_index_sql(self, model, fields, *, name=None, suffix='', using='',
                          db_tablespace=None, col_suffixes=(), sql=None, opclasses=(),
                          condition=None):
        """
        Return the SQL statement to create the index for one or several fields.
        `sql` can be specified if the syntax differs from the standard (GIS
        indexes, ...).
        """
        tablespace_sql = self._get_index_tablespace_sql(model, fields, db_tablespace=db_tablespace)
        columns = [field.column for field in fields]
        sql_create_index = sql or self.sql_create_index
        table = model._meta.db_table

        def create_index_name(*args, **kwargs):
            nonlocal name
            if name is None:
                name = self._create_index_name(*args, **kwargs)
            return self.quote_name(name)

        return Statement(
            sql_create_index,
            table=Table(table, self.quote_name),
            name=IndexName(table, columns, suffix, create_index_name),
            using=using,
            columns=self._index_columns(table, columns, col_suffixes, opclasses),
            extra=tablespace_sql,
            condition=(' WHERE ' + condition) if condition else '',
        )

    def _delete_index_sql(self, model, name):
        return Statement(
            self.sql_delete_index,
            table=Table(model._meta.db_table, self.quote_name),
            name=self.quote_name(name),
        )

    def _index_columns(self, table, columns, col_suffixes, opclasses):
        return Columns(table, columns, self.quote_name, col_suffixes=col_suffixes)

    def _model_indexes_sql(self, model):
        """
        Return a list of all index SQL statements (field indexes,
        index_together, Meta.indexes) for the specified model.
        """
        if not model._meta.managed or model._meta.proxy or model._meta.swapped:
            return []
        output = []
        for field in model._meta.local_fields:
            output.extend(self._field_indexes_sql(model, field))

        for field_names in model._meta.index_together:
            fields = [model._meta.get_field(field) for field in field_names]
            output.append(self._create_index_sql(model, fields, suffix="_idx"))

        for index in model._meta.indexes:
            output.append(index.create_sql(model, self))
        return output

    def _field_indexes_sql(self, model, field):
        """
        Return a list of all index SQL statements for the specified field.
        """
        output = []
        if self._field_should_be_indexed(model, field):
            output.append(self._create_index_sql(model, [field]))
        return output

    def _field_should_be_indexed(self, model, field):
        return field.db_index and not field.unique

    def _field_became_primary_key(self, old_field, new_field):
        return not old_field.primary_key and new_field.primary_key

    def _unique_should_be_added(self, old_field, new_field):
        return (not old_field.unique and new_field.unique) or (
            old_field.primary_key and not new_field.primary_key and new_field.unique
        )

    def _rename_field_sql(self, table, old_field, new_field, new_type):
        return self.sql_rename_column % {
            "table": self.quote_name(table),
            "old_column": self.quote_name(old_field.column),
            "new_column": self.quote_name(new_field.column),
            "type": new_type,
        }

    def _create_fk_sql(self, model, field, suffix):
        def create_fk_name(*args, **kwargs):
            return self.quote_name(self._create_index_name(*args, **kwargs))

        table = Table(model._meta.db_table, self.quote_name)
        name = ForeignKeyName(
            model._meta.db_table,
            [field.column],
            split_identifier(field.target_field.model._meta.db_table)[1],
            [field.target_field.column],
            suffix,
            create_fk_name,
        )
        column = Columns(model._meta.db_table, [field.column], self.quote_name)
        to_table = Table(field.target_field.model._meta.db_table, self.quote_name)
        to_column = Columns(field.target_field.model._meta.db_table, [field.target_field.column], self.quote_name)
        deferrable = self.connection.ops.deferrable_sql()
        return Statement(
            self.sql_create_fk,
            table=table,
            name=name,
            column=column,
            to_table=to_table,
            to_column=to_column,
            deferrable=deferrable,
        )

    def _delete_fk_sql(self, model, name):
        return self._delete_constraint_sql(self.sql_delete_fk, model, name)

    def _unique_sql(self, model, fields, name, condition=None):
        if condition:
            # Databases support conditional unique constraints via a unique
            # index.
            sql = self._create_unique_sql(model, fields, name=name, condition=condition)
            if sql:
                self.deferred_sql.append(sql)
            return None
        constraint = self.sql_unique_constraint % {
            'columns': ', '.join(map(self.quote_name, fields)),
        }
        return self.sql_constraint % {
            'name': self.quote_name(name),
            'constraint': constraint,
        }

    def _create_unique_sql(self, model, columns, name=None, condition=None):
        def create_unique_name(*args, **kwargs):
            return self.quote_name(self._create_index_name(*args, **kwargs))

        table = Table(model._meta.db_table, self.quote_name)
        if name is None:
            name = IndexName(model._meta.db_table, columns, '_uniq', create_unique_name)
        else:
            name = self.quote_name(name)
        columns = Columns(table, columns, self.quote_name)
        if condition:
            return Statement(
                self.sql_create_unique_index,
                table=table,
                name=name,
                columns=columns,
                condition=' WHERE ' + condition,
            ) if self.connection.features.supports_partial_indexes else None
        else:
            return Statement(
                self.sql_create_unique,
                table=table,
                name=name,
                columns=columns,
            )

    def _delete_unique_sql(self, model, name, condition=None):
        if condition:
            return (
                self._delete_constraint_sql(self.sql_delete_index, model, name)
                if self.connection.features.supports_partial_indexes else None
            )
        return self._delete_constraint_sql(self.sql_delete_unique, model, name)

    def _check_sql(self, name, check):
        return self.sql_constraint % {
            'name': self.quote_name(name),
            'constraint': self.sql_check_constraint % {'check': check},
        }

    def _create_check_sql(self, model, name, check):
        return Statement(
            self.sql_create_check,
            table=Table(model._meta.db_table, self.quote_name),
            name=self.quote_name(name),
            check=check,
        )

    def _delete_check_sql(self, model, name):
        return self._delete_constraint_sql(self.sql_delete_check, model, name)

    def _delete_constraint_sql(self, template, model, name):
        return Statement(
            template,
            table=Table(model._meta.db_table, self.quote_name),
            name=self.quote_name(name),
        )

    def _constraint_names(self, model, column_names=None, unique=None,
                          primary_key=None, index=None, foreign_key=None,
                          check=None, type_=None, exclude=None):
        """Return all constraint names matching the columns and conditions."""
        if column_names is not None:
            column_names = [
                self.connection.introspection.identifier_converter(name)
                for name in column_names
            ]
        with self.connection.cursor() as cursor:
            constraints = self.connection.introspection.get_constraints(cursor, model._meta.db_table)
        result = []
        for name, infodict in constraints.items():
            if column_names is None or column_names == infodict['columns']:
                if unique is not None and infodict['unique'] != unique:
                    continue
                if primary_key is not None and infodict['primary_key'] != primary_key:
                    continue
                if index is not None and infodict['index'] != index:
                    continue
                if check is not None and infodict['check'] != check:
                    continue
                if foreign_key is not None and not infodict['foreign_key']:
                    continue
                if type_ is not None and infodict['type'] != type_:
                    continue
                if not exclude or name not in exclude:
                    result.append(name)
        return result

    def _delete_primary_key(self, model, strict=False):
        constraint_names = self._constraint_names(model, primary_key=True)
        if strict and len(constraint_names) != 1:
            raise ValueError('Found wrong number (%s) of PK constraints for %s' % (
                len(constraint_names),
                model._meta.db_table,
            ))
        for constraint_name in constraint_names:
            self.execute(self._delete_primary_key_sql(model, constraint_name))

    def _create_primary_key_sql(self, model, field):
        return Statement(
            self.sql_create_pk,
            table=Table(model._meta.db_table, self.quote_name),
            name=self.quote_name(
                self._create_index_name(model._meta.db_table, [field.column], suffix="_pk")
            ),
            columns=Columns(model._meta.db_table, [field.column], self.quote_name),
        )

    def _delete_primary_key_sql(self, model, name):
        return self._delete_constraint_sql(self.sql_delete_pk, model, name)

    def remove_procedure(self, procedure_name, param_types=()):
        sql = self.sql_delete_procedure % {
            'procedure': self.quote_name(procedure_name),
            'param_types': ','.join(param_types),
        }
        self.execute(sql)