excel.py

"""
Module parse to/from Excel
"""

# ---------------------------------------------------------------------
# ExcelFile class
from datetime import datetime, date, time, MINYEAR

import os
import abc
import warnings
import numpy as np

from pandas.core.dtypes.common import (
    is_integer, is_float,
    is_bool, is_list_like)

from pandas.core.frame import DataFrame
from pandas.io.parsers import TextParser
from pandas.errors import EmptyDataError
from pandas.io.common import (_is_url, _urlopen, _validate_header_arg,
                              get_filepath_or_buffer, _NA_VALUES,
                              _stringify_path)
from pandas.core.indexes.period import Period
import pandas._libs.json as json
from pandas.compat import (map, zip, reduce, range, lrange, u, add_metaclass,
                           string_types, OrderedDict)
from pandas.core import config
from pandas.io.formats.printing import pprint_thing
import pandas.compat as compat
from warnings import warn
from distutils.version import LooseVersion
from pandas.util._decorators import Appender, deprecate_kwarg
from textwrap import fill

__all__ = ["read_excel", "ExcelWriter", "ExcelFile"]

_writer_extensions = ["xlsx", "xls", "xlsm"]
_writers = {}

_read_excel_doc = """
Read an Excel table into a pandas DataFrame

Parameters
----------
io : string, path object (pathlib.Path or py._path.local.LocalPath),
    file-like object, pandas ExcelFile, or xlrd workbook.
    The string could be a URL. Valid URL schemes include http, ftp, s3,
    and file. For file URLs, a host is expected. For instance, a local
    file could be file://localhost/path/to/workbook.xlsx
sheet_name : string, int, mixed list of strings/ints, or None, default 0

    Strings are used for sheet names, Integers are used in zero-indexed
    sheet positions.

    Lists of strings/integers are used to request multiple sheets.

    Specify None to get all sheets.

    str|int -> DataFrame is returned.
    list|None -> Dict of DataFrames is returned, with keys representing
    sheets.

    Available Cases

    * Defaults to 0 -> 1st sheet as a DataFrame
    * 1 -> 2nd sheet as a DataFrame
    * "Sheet1" -> 1st sheet as a DataFrame
    * [0,1,"Sheet5"] -> 1st, 2nd & 5th sheet as a dictionary of DataFrames
    * None -> All sheets as a dictionary of DataFrames

sheetname : string, int, mixed list of strings/ints, or None, default 0

    .. deprecated:: 0.21.0
       Use `sheet_name` instead

header : int, list of ints, default 0
    Row (0-indexed) to use for the column labels of the parsed
    DataFrame. If a list of integers is passed those row positions will
    be combined into a ``MultiIndex``. Use None if there is no header.
names : array-like, default None
    List of column names to use. If file contains no header row,
    then you should explicitly pass header=None
index_col : int, list of ints, default None
    Column (0-indexed) to use as the row labels of the DataFrame.
    Pass None if there is no such column.  If a list is passed,
    those columns will be combined into a ``MultiIndex``.  If a
    subset of data is selected with ``usecols``, index_col
    is based on the subset.
parse_cols : int or list, default None

    .. deprecated:: 0.21.0
       Pass in `usecols` instead.

usecols : int or list, default None
    * If None then parse all columns,
    * If int then indicates last column to be parsed
    * If list of ints then indicates list of column numbers to be parsed
    * If string then indicates comma separated list of Excel column letters and
      column ranges (e.g. "A:E" or "A,C,E:F").  Ranges are inclusive of
      both sides.
squeeze : boolean, default False
    If the parsed data only contains one column then return a Series
dtype : Type name or dict of column -> type, default None
    Data type for data or columns. E.g. {'a': np.float64, 'b': np.int32}
    Use `object` to preserve data as stored in Excel and not interpret dtype.
    If converters are specified, they will be applied INSTEAD
    of dtype conversion.

    .. versionadded:: 0.20.0

engine: string, default None
    If io is not a buffer or path, this must be set to identify io.
    Acceptable values are None or xlrd
converters : dict, default None
    Dict of functions for converting values in certain columns. Keys can
    either be integers or column labels, values are functions that take one
    input argument, the Excel cell content, and return the transformed
    content.
true_values : list, default None
    Values to consider as True

    .. versionadded:: 0.19.0

false_values : list, default None
    Values to consider as False

    .. versionadded:: 0.19.0

skiprows : list-like
    Rows to skip at the beginning (0-indexed)
nrows : int, default None
    Number of rows to parse

    .. versionadded:: 0.22.0

na_values : scalar, str, list-like, or dict, default None
    Additional strings to recognize as NA/NaN. If dict passed, specific
    per-column NA values. By default the following values are interpreted
    as NaN: '""" + fill("', '".join(sorted(_NA_VALUES)), 70) + """'.
keep_default_na : bool, default True
    If na_values are specified and keep_default_na is False the default NaN
    values are overridden, otherwise they're appended to.
verbose : boolean, default False
    Indicate number of NA values placed in non-numeric columns
thousands : str, default None
    Thousands separator for parsing string columns to numeric.  Note that
    this parameter is only necessary for columns stored as TEXT in Excel,
    any numeric columns will automatically be parsed, regardless of display
    format.
skip_footer : int, default 0

    .. deprecated:: 0.22.0
       Pass in `skipfooter` instead.
skipfooter : int, default 0
    Rows at the end to skip (0-indexed)
convert_float : boolean, default True
    convert integral floats to int (i.e., 1.0 --> 1). If False, all numeric
    data will be read in as floats: Excel stores all numbers as floats
    internally

Returns
-------
parsed : DataFrame or Dict of DataFrames
    DataFrame from the passed in Excel file.  See notes in sheet_name
    argument for more information on when a Dict of Dataframes is returned.
"""


def register_writer(klass):
    """Adds engine to the excel writer registry. You must use this method to
    integrate with ``to_excel``. Also adds config options for any new
    ``supported_extensions`` defined on the writer."""
    if not compat.callable(klass):
        raise ValueError("Can only register callables as engines")
    engine_name = klass.engine
    _writers[engine_name] = klass
    for ext in klass.supported_extensions:
        if ext.startswith('.'):
            ext = ext[1:]
        if ext not in _writer_extensions:
            config.register_option("io.excel.{ext}.writer".format(ext=ext),
                                   engine_name, validator=str)
            _writer_extensions.append(ext)


def _get_default_writer(ext):
    _default_writers = {'xlsx': 'openpyxl', 'xlsm': 'openpyxl', 'xls': 'xlwt'}
    try:
        import xlsxwriter  # noqa
        _default_writers['xlsx'] = 'xlsxwriter'
    except ImportError:
        pass
    return _default_writers[ext]


def get_writer(engine_name):
    try:
        return _writers[engine_name]
    except KeyError:
        raise ValueError("No Excel writer '{engine}'"
                         .format(engine=engine_name))


@Appender(_read_excel_doc)
@deprecate_kwarg("parse_cols", "usecols")
@deprecate_kwarg("skip_footer", "skipfooter")
def read_excel(io,
               sheet_name=0,
               header=0,
               names=None,
               index_col=None,
               usecols=None,
               squeeze=False,
               dtype=None,
               engine=None,
               converters=None,
               true_values=None,
               false_values=None,
               skiprows=None,
               nrows=None,
               na_values=None,
               parse_dates=False,
               date_parser=None,
               thousands=None,
               skipfooter=0,
               convert_float=True,
               **kwds):

    # Can't use _deprecate_kwarg since sheetname=None has a special meaning
    if is_integer(sheet_name) and sheet_name == 0 and 'sheetname' in kwds:
        warnings.warn("The `sheetname` keyword is deprecated, use "
                      "`sheet_name` instead", FutureWarning, stacklevel=2)
        sheet_name = kwds.pop("sheetname")
    elif 'sheetname' in kwds:
        raise TypeError("Cannot specify both `sheet_name` and `sheetname`. "
                        "Use just `sheet_name`")

    if not isinstance(io, ExcelFile):
        io = ExcelFile(io, engine=engine)

    return io._parse_excel(
        sheetname=sheet_name,
        header=header,
        names=names,
        index_col=index_col,
        usecols=usecols,
        squeeze=squeeze,
        dtype=dtype,
        converters=converters,
        true_values=true_values,
        false_values=false_values,
        skiprows=skiprows,
        nrows=nrows,
        na_values=na_values,
        parse_dates=parse_dates,
        date_parser=date_parser,
        thousands=thousands,
        skipfooter=skipfooter,
        convert_float=convert_float,
        **kwds)


class ExcelFile(object):
    """
    Class for parsing tabular excel sheets into DataFrame objects.
    Uses xlrd. See read_excel for more documentation

    Parameters
    ----------
    io : string, path object (pathlib.Path or py._path.local.LocalPath),
        file-like object or xlrd workbook
        If a string or path object, expected to be a path to xls or xlsx file
    engine: string, default None
        If io is not a buffer or path, this must be set to identify io.
        Acceptable values are None or xlrd
    """

    def __init__(self, io, **kwds):

        err_msg = "Install xlrd >= 0.9.0 for Excel support"

        try:
            import xlrd
        except ImportError:
            raise ImportError(err_msg)
        else:
            ver = tuple(map(int, xlrd.__VERSION__.split(".")[:2]))
            if ver < (0, 9):  # pragma: no cover
                raise ImportError(err_msg +
                                  ". Current version " + xlrd.__VERSION__)

        # could be a str, ExcelFile, Book, etc.
        self.io = io
        # Always a string
        self._io = _stringify_path(io)

        engine = kwds.pop('engine', None)

        if engine is not None and engine != 'xlrd':
            raise ValueError("Unknown engine: {engine}".format(engine=engine))

        # If io is a url, want to keep the data as bytes so can't pass
        # to get_filepath_or_buffer()
        if _is_url(self._io):
            io = _urlopen(self._io)
        elif not isinstance(self.io, (ExcelFile, xlrd.Book)):
            io, _, _ = get_filepath_or_buffer(self._io)

        if engine == 'xlrd' and isinstance(io, xlrd.Book):
            self.book = io
        elif not isinstance(io, xlrd.Book) and hasattr(io, "read"):
            # N.B. xlrd.Book has a read attribute too
            data = io.read()
            self.book = xlrd.open_workbook(file_contents=data)
        elif isinstance(self._io, compat.string_types):
            self.book = xlrd.open_workbook(self._io)
        else:
            raise ValueError('Must explicitly set engine if not passing in'
                             ' buffer or path for io.')

    def __fspath__(self):
        return self._io

    def parse(self,
              sheet_name=0,
              header=0,
              names=None,
              index_col=None,
              usecols=None,
              squeeze=False,
              converters=None,
              true_values=None,
              false_values=None,
              skiprows=None,
              nrows=None,
              na_values=None,
              parse_dates=False,
              date_parser=None,
              thousands=None,
              skipfooter=0,
              convert_float=True,
              **kwds):
        """
        Parse specified sheet(s) into a DataFrame

        Equivalent to read_excel(ExcelFile, ...)  See the read_excel
        docstring for more info on accepted parameters
        """

        return self._parse_excel(sheetname=sheet_name,
                                 header=header,
                                 names=names,
                                 index_col=index_col,
                                 usecols=usecols,
                                 squeeze=squeeze,
                                 converters=converters,
                                 true_values=true_values,
                                 false_values=false_values,
                                 skiprows=skiprows,
                                 nrows=nrows,
                                 na_values=na_values,
                                 parse_dates=parse_dates,
                                 date_parser=date_parser,
                                 thousands=thousands,
                                 skipfooter=skipfooter,
                                 convert_float=convert_float,
                                 **kwds)

    def _should_parse(self, i, usecols):

        def _range2cols(areas):
            """
            Convert comma separated list of column names and column ranges to a
            list of 0-based column indexes.

            >>> _range2cols('A:E')
            [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
            >>> _range2cols('A,C,Z:AB')
            [0, 2, 25, 26, 27]
            """
            def _excel2num(x):
                "Convert Excel column name like 'AB' to 0-based column index"
                return reduce(lambda s, a: s * 26 + ord(a) - ord('A') + 1,
                              x.upper().strip(), 0) - 1

            cols = []
            for rng in areas.split(','):
                if ':' in rng:
                    rng = rng.split(':')
                    cols += lrange(_excel2num(rng[0]), _excel2num(rng[1]) + 1)
                else:
                    cols.append(_excel2num(rng))
            return cols

        if isinstance(usecols, int):
            return i <= usecols
        elif isinstance(usecols, compat.string_types):
            return i in _range2cols(usecols)
        else:
            return i in usecols

    def _parse_excel(self,
                     sheetname=0,
                     header=0,
                     names=None,
                     index_col=None,
                     usecols=None,
                     squeeze=False,
                     dtype=None,
                     true_values=None,
                     false_values=None,
                     skiprows=None,
                     nrows=None,
                     na_values=None,
                     verbose=False,
                     parse_dates=False,
                     date_parser=None,
                     thousands=None,
                     skipfooter=0,
                     convert_float=True,
                     **kwds):

        _validate_header_arg(header)

        if 'chunksize' in kwds:
            raise NotImplementedError("chunksize keyword of read_excel "
                                      "is not implemented")

        if parse_dates is True and index_col is None:
            warn("The 'parse_dates=True' keyword of read_excel was provided"
                 " without an 'index_col' keyword value.")

        import xlrd
        from xlrd import (xldate, XL_CELL_DATE,
                          XL_CELL_ERROR, XL_CELL_BOOLEAN,
                          XL_CELL_NUMBER)

        epoch1904 = self.book.datemode

        def _parse_cell(cell_contents, cell_typ):
            """converts the contents of the cell into a pandas
               appropriate object"""

            if cell_typ == XL_CELL_DATE:

                if xlrd_0_9_3:
                    # Use the newer xlrd datetime handling.
                    try:
                        cell_contents = \
                            xldate.xldate_as_datetime(cell_contents,
                                                      epoch1904)
                    except OverflowError:
                        return cell_contents
                    # Excel doesn't distinguish between dates and time,
                    # so we treat dates on the epoch as times only.
                    # Also, Excel supports 1900 and 1904 epochs.
                    year = (cell_contents.timetuple())[0:3]
                    if ((not epoch1904 and year == (1899, 12, 31)) or
                            (epoch1904 and year == (1904, 1, 1))):
                        cell_contents = time(cell_contents.hour,
                                             cell_contents.minute,
                                             cell_contents.second,
                                             cell_contents.microsecond)
                else:
                    # Use the xlrd <= 0.9.2 date handling.
                    try:
                        dt = xldate.xldate_as_tuple(cell_contents, epoch1904)

                    except xldate.XLDateTooLarge:
                        return cell_contents

                    if dt[0] < MINYEAR:
                        cell_contents = time(*dt[3:])
                    else:
                        cell_contents = datetime(*dt)

            elif cell_typ == XL_CELL_ERROR:
                cell_contents = np.nan
            elif cell_typ == XL_CELL_BOOLEAN:
                cell_contents = bool(cell_contents)
            elif convert_float and cell_typ == XL_CELL_NUMBER:
                # GH5394 - Excel 'numbers' are always floats
                # it's a minimal perf hit and less suprising
                val = int(cell_contents)
                if val == cell_contents:
                    cell_contents = val
            return cell_contents

        # xlrd >= 0.9.3 can return datetime objects directly.
        if LooseVersion(xlrd.__VERSION__) >= LooseVersion("0.9.3"):
            xlrd_0_9_3 = True
        else:
            xlrd_0_9_3 = False

        ret_dict = False

        # Keep sheetname to maintain backwards compatibility.
        if isinstance(sheetname, list):
            sheets = sheetname
            ret_dict = True
        elif sheetname is None:
            sheets = self.sheet_names
            ret_dict = True
        else:
            sheets = [sheetname]

        # handle same-type duplicates.
        sheets = list(OrderedDict.fromkeys(sheets).keys())

        output = OrderedDict()

        for asheetname in sheets:
            if verbose:
                print("Reading sheet {sheet}".format(sheet=asheetname))

            if isinstance(asheetname, compat.string_types):
                sheet = self.book.sheet_by_name(asheetname)
            else:  # assume an integer if not a string
                sheet = self.book.sheet_by_index(asheetname)

            data = []
            should_parse = {}

            for i in range(sheet.nrows):
                row = []
                for j, (value, typ) in enumerate(zip(sheet.row_values(i),
                                                     sheet.row_types(i))):
                    if usecols is not None and j not in should_parse:
                        should_parse[j] = self._should_parse(j, usecols)

                    if usecols is None or should_parse[j]:
                        row.append(_parse_cell(value, typ))
                data.append(row)

            if sheet.nrows == 0:
                output[asheetname] = DataFrame()
                continue

            if is_list_like(header) and len(header) == 1:
                header = header[0]

            # forward fill and pull out names for MultiIndex column
            header_names = None
            if header is not None:
                if is_list_like(header):
                    header_names = []
                    control_row = [True for x in data[0]]
                    for row in header:
                        if is_integer(skiprows):
                            row += skiprows

                        data[row], control_row = _fill_mi_header(
                            data[row], control_row)
                        header_name, data[row] = _pop_header_name(
                            data[row], index_col)
                        header_names.append(header_name)
                else:
                    data[header] = _trim_excel_header(data[header])

            if is_list_like(index_col):
                # forward fill values for MultiIndex index
                if not is_list_like(header):
                    offset = 1 + header
                else:
                    offset = 1 + max(header)

                for col in index_col:
                    last = data[offset][col]
                    for row in range(offset + 1, len(data)):
                        if data[row][col] == '' or data[row][col] is None:
                            data[row][col] = last
                        else:
                            last = data[row][col]

            has_index_names = is_list_like(header) and len(header) > 1

            # GH 12292 : error when read one empty column from excel file
            try:
                parser = TextParser(data,
                                    header=header,
                                    index_col=index_col,
                                    has_index_names=has_index_names,
                                    squeeze=squeeze,
                                    dtype=dtype,
                                    true_values=true_values,
                                    false_values=false_values,
                                    skiprows=skiprows,
                                    nrows=nrows,
                                    na_values=na_values,
                                    parse_dates=parse_dates,
                                    date_parser=date_parser,
                                    thousands=thousands,
                                    skipfooter=skipfooter,
                                    **kwds)

                output[asheetname] = parser.read(nrows=nrows)
                if names is not None:
                    output[asheetname].columns = names
                if not squeeze or isinstance(output[asheetname], DataFrame):
                    output[asheetname].columns = output[
                        asheetname].columns.set_names(header_names)
            except EmptyDataError:
                # No Data, return an empty DataFrame
                output[asheetname] = DataFrame()

        if ret_dict:
            return output
        else:
            return output[asheetname]

    @property
    def sheet_names(self):
        return self.book.sheet_names()

    def close(self):
        """close io if necessary"""
        if hasattr(self.io, 'close'):
            self.io.close()

    def __enter__(self):
        return self

    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
        self.close()


def _validate_freeze_panes(freeze_panes):
    if freeze_panes is not None:
        if (
            len(freeze_panes) == 2 and
            all(isinstance(item, int) for item in freeze_panes)
        ):
            return True

        raise ValueError("freeze_panes must be of form (row, column)"
                         " where row and column are integers")

    # freeze_panes wasn't specified, return False so it won't be applied
    # to output sheet
    return False


def _trim_excel_header(row):
    # trim header row so auto-index inference works
    # xlrd uses '' , openpyxl None
    while len(row) > 0 and (row[0] == '' or row[0] is None):
        row = row[1:]
    return row


def _fill_mi_header(row, control_row):
    """Forward fills blank entries in row, but only inside the same parent index

    Used for creating headers in Multiindex.
    Parameters
    ----------
    row : list
        List of items in a single row.
    control_row : list of boolean
        Helps to determine if particular column is in same parent index as the
        previous value. Used to stop propagation of empty cells between
        different indexes.

    Returns
    ----------
    Returns changed row and control_row
    """
    last = row[0]
    for i in range(1, len(row)):
        if not control_row[i]:
            last = row[i]

        if row[i] == '' or row[i] is None:
            row[i] = last
        else:
            control_row[i] = False
            last = row[i]

    return row, control_row

# fill blank if index_col not None


def _pop_header_name(row, index_col):
    """ (header, new_data) for header rows in MultiIndex parsing"""
    none_fill = lambda x: None if x == '' else x

    if index_col is None:
        # no index col specified, trim data for inference path
        return none_fill(row[0]), row[1:]
    else:
        # pop out header name and fill w/ blank
        i = index_col if not is_list_like(index_col) else max(index_col)
        return none_fill(row[i]), row[:i] + [''] + row[i + 1:]


def _conv_value(val):
    # Convert numpy types to Python types for the Excel writers.
    if is_integer(val):
        val = int(val)
    elif is_float(val):
        val = float(val)
    elif is_bool(val):
        val = bool(val)
    elif isinstance(val, Period):
        val = "{val}".format(val=val)
    elif is_list_like(val):
        val = str(val)

    return val


@add_metaclass(abc.ABCMeta)
class ExcelWriter(object):
    """
    Class for writing DataFrame objects into excel sheets, default is to use
    xlwt for xls, openpyxl for xlsx.  See DataFrame.to_excel for typical usage.

    Parameters
    ----------
    path : string
        Path to xls or xlsx file.
    engine : string (optional)
        Engine to use for writing. If None, defaults to
        ``io.excel.<extension>.writer``.  NOTE: can only be passed as a keyword
        argument.
    date_format : string, default None
        Format string for dates written into Excel files (e.g. 'YYYY-MM-DD')
    datetime_format : string, default None
        Format string for datetime objects written into Excel files
        (e.g. 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS')

    Notes
    -----
    For compatibility with CSV writers, ExcelWriter serializes lists
    and dicts to strings before writing.
    """
    # Defining an ExcelWriter implementation (see abstract methods for more...)

    # - Mandatory
    #   - ``write_cells(self, cells, sheet_name=None, startrow=0, startcol=0)``
    #     --> called to write additional DataFrames to disk
    #   - ``supported_extensions`` (tuple of supported extensions), used to
    #      check that engine supports the given extension.
    #   - ``engine`` - string that gives the engine name. Necessary to
    #     instantiate class directly and bypass ``ExcelWriterMeta`` engine
    #     lookup.
    #   - ``save(self)`` --> called to save file to disk
    # - Mostly mandatory (i.e. should at least exist)
    #   - book, cur_sheet, path

    # - Optional:
    #   - ``__init__(self, path, engine=None, **kwargs)`` --> always called
    #     with path as first argument.

    # You also need to register the class with ``register_writer()``.
    # Technically, ExcelWriter implementations don't need to subclass
    # ExcelWriter.
    def __new__(cls, path, engine=None, **kwargs):
        # only switch class if generic(ExcelWriter)

        if issubclass(cls, ExcelWriter):
            if engine is None or (isinstance(engine, string_types) and
                                  engine == 'auto'):
                if isinstance(path, string_types):
                    ext = os.path.splitext(path)[-1][1:]
                else:
                    ext = 'xlsx'

                try:
                    engine = config.get_option('io.excel.{ext}.writer'
                                               .format(ext=ext))
                    if engine == 'auto':
                        engine = _get_default_writer(ext)
                except KeyError:
                    error = ValueError("No engine for filetype: '{ext}'"
                                       .format(ext=ext))
                    raise error
            cls = get_writer(engine)

        return object.__new__(cls)

    # declare external properties you can count on
    book = None
    curr_sheet = None
    path = None

    @abc.abstractproperty
    def supported_extensions(self):
        "extensions that writer engine supports"
        pass

    @abc.abstractproperty
    def engine(self):
        "name of engine"
        pass

    @abc.abstractmethod
    def write_cells(self, cells, sheet_name=None, startrow=0, startcol=0,
                    freeze_panes=None):
        """
        Write given formated cells into Excel an excel sheet

        Parameters
        ----------
        cells : generator
            cell of formated data to save to Excel sheet
        sheet_name : string, default None
            Name of Excel sheet, if None, then use self.cur_sheet
        startrow: upper left cell row to dump data frame
        startcol: upper left cell column to dump data frame
        freeze_panes: integer tuple of length 2
            contains the bottom-most row and right-most column to freeze
        """
        pass

    @abc.abstractmethod
    def save(self):
        """
        Save workbook to disk.
        """
        pass

    def __init__(self, path, engine=None,
                 date_format=None, datetime_format=None, **engine_kwargs):
        # validate that this engine can handle the extension
        if isinstance(path, string_types):
            ext = os.path.splitext(path)[-1]
        else:
            ext = 'xls' if engine == 'xlwt' else 'xlsx'

        self.check_extension(ext)

        self.path = path
        self.sheets = {}
        self.cur_sheet = None

        if date_format is None:
            self.date_format = 'YYYY-MM-DD'
        else:
            self.date_format = date_format
        if datetime_format is None:
            self.datetime_format = 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS'
        else:
            self.datetime_format = datetime_format

    def __fspath__(self):
        return _stringify_path(self.path)

    def _get_sheet_name(self, sheet_name):
        if sheet_name is None:
            sheet_name = self.cur_sheet
        if sheet_name is None:  # pragma: no cover
            raise ValueError('Must pass explicit sheet_name or set '
                             'cur_sheet property')
        return sheet_name

    @classmethod
    def check_extension(cls, ext):
        """checks that path's extension against the Writer's supported
        extensions.  If it isn't supported, raises UnsupportedFiletypeError."""
        if ext.startswith('.'):
            ext = ext[1:]
        if not any(ext in extension for extension in cls.supported_extensions):
            msg = (u("Invalid extension for engine '{engine}': '{ext}'")
                   .format(engine=pprint_thing(cls.engine),
                           ext=pprint_thing(ext)))
            raise ValueError(msg)
        else:
            return True

    # Allow use as a contextmanager
    def __enter__(self):
        return self

    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
        self.close()

    def close(self):
        """synonym for save, to make it more file-like"""
        return self.save()


class _OpenpyxlWriter(ExcelWriter):
    engine = 'openpyxl'
    supported_extensions = ('.xlsx', '.xlsm')

    def __init__(self, path, engine=None, **engine_kwargs):
        # Use the openpyxl module as the Excel writer.
        from openpyxl.workbook import Workbook

        super(_OpenpyxlWriter, self).__init__(path, **engine_kwargs)

        # Create workbook object with default optimized_write=True.
        self.book = Workbook()

        # Openpyxl 1.6.1 adds a dummy sheet. We remove it.
        if self.book.worksheets:
            try:
                self.book.remove(self.book.worksheets[0])
            except AttributeError:

                # compat
                self.book.remove_sheet(self.book.worksheets[0])

    def save(self):
        """
        Save workbook to disk.
        """
        return self.book.save(self.path)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_style(cls, style_dict):
        """
        converts a style_dict to an openpyxl style object
        Parameters
        ----------
        style_dict: style dictionary to convert
        """

        from openpyxl.style import Style
        xls_style = Style()
        for key, value in style_dict.items():
            for nk, nv in value.items():
                if key == "borders":
                    (xls_style.borders.__getattribute__(nk)
                     .__setattr__('border_style', nv))
                else:
                    xls_style.__getattribute__(key).__setattr__(nk, nv)

        return xls_style

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_style_kwargs(cls, style_dict):
        """
        Convert a style_dict to a set of kwargs suitable for initializing
        or updating-on-copy an openpyxl v2 style object
        Parameters
        ----------
        style_dict : dict
            A dict with zero or more of the following keys (or their synonyms).
                'font'
                'fill'
                'border' ('borders')
                'alignment'
                'number_format'
                'protection'
        Returns
        -------
        style_kwargs : dict
            A dict with the same, normalized keys as ``style_dict`` but each
            value has been replaced with a native openpyxl style object of the
            appropriate class.
        """

        _style_key_map = {
            'borders': 'border',
        }

        style_kwargs = {}
        for k, v in style_dict.items():
            if k in _style_key_map:
                k = _style_key_map[k]
            _conv_to_x = getattr(cls, '_convert_to_{k}'.format(k=k),
                                 lambda x: None)
            new_v = _conv_to_x(v)
            if new_v:
                style_kwargs[k] = new_v

        return style_kwargs

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_color(cls, color_spec):
        """
        Convert ``color_spec`` to an openpyxl v2 Color object
        Parameters
        ----------
        color_spec : str, dict
            A 32-bit ARGB hex string, or a dict with zero or more of the
            following keys.
                'rgb'
                'indexed'
                'auto'
                'theme'
                'tint'
                'index'
                'type'
        Returns
        -------
        color : openpyxl.styles.Color
        """

        from openpyxl.styles import Color

        if isinstance(color_spec, str):
            return Color(color_spec)
        else:
            return Color(**color_spec)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_font(cls, font_dict):
        """
        Convert ``font_dict`` to an openpyxl v2 Font object
        Parameters
        ----------
        font_dict : dict
            A dict with zero or more of the following keys (or their synonyms).
                'name'
                'size' ('sz')
                'bold' ('b')
                'italic' ('i')
                'underline' ('u')
                'strikethrough' ('strike')
                'color'
                'vertAlign' ('vertalign')
                'charset'
                'scheme'
                'family'
                'outline'
                'shadow'
                'condense'
        Returns
        -------
        font : openpyxl.styles.Font
        """

        from openpyxl.styles import Font

        _font_key_map = {
            'sz': 'size',
            'b': 'bold',
            'i': 'italic',
            'u': 'underline',
            'strike': 'strikethrough',
            'vertalign': 'vertAlign',
        }

        font_kwargs = {}
        for k, v in font_dict.items():
            if k in _font_key_map:
                k = _font_key_map[k]
            if k == 'color':
                v = cls._convert_to_color(v)
            font_kwargs[k] = v

        return Font(**font_kwargs)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_stop(cls, stop_seq):
        """
        Convert ``stop_seq`` to a list of openpyxl v2 Color objects,
        suitable for initializing the ``GradientFill`` ``stop`` parameter.
        Parameters
        ----------
        stop_seq : iterable
            An iterable that yields objects suitable for consumption by
            ``_convert_to_color``.
        Returns
        -------
        stop : list of openpyxl.styles.Color
        """

        return map(cls._convert_to_color, stop_seq)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_fill(cls, fill_dict):
        """
        Convert ``fill_dict`` to an openpyxl v2 Fill object
        Parameters
        ----------
        fill_dict : dict
            A dict with one or more of the following keys (or their synonyms),
                'fill_type' ('patternType', 'patterntype')
                'start_color' ('fgColor', 'fgcolor')
                'end_color' ('bgColor', 'bgcolor')
            or one or more of the following keys (or their synonyms).
                'type' ('fill_type')
                'degree'
                'left'
                'right'
                'top'
                'bottom'
                'stop'
        Returns
        -------
        fill : openpyxl.styles.Fill
        """

        from openpyxl.styles import PatternFill, GradientFill

        _pattern_fill_key_map = {
            'patternType': 'fill_type',
            'patterntype': 'fill_type',
            'fgColor': 'start_color',
            'fgcolor': 'start_color',
            'bgColor': 'end_color',
            'bgcolor': 'end_color',
        }

        _gradient_fill_key_map = {
            'fill_type': 'type',
        }

        pfill_kwargs = {}
        gfill_kwargs = {}
        for k, v in fill_dict.items():
            pk = gk = None
            if k in _pattern_fill_key_map:
                pk = _pattern_fill_key_map[k]
            if k in _gradient_fill_key_map:
                gk = _gradient_fill_key_map[k]
            if pk in ['start_color', 'end_color']:
                v = cls._convert_to_color(v)
            if gk == 'stop':
                v = cls._convert_to_stop(v)
            if pk:
                pfill_kwargs[pk] = v
            elif gk:
                gfill_kwargs[gk] = v
            else:
                pfill_kwargs[k] = v
                gfill_kwargs[k] = v

        try:
            return PatternFill(**pfill_kwargs)
        except TypeError:
            return GradientFill(**gfill_kwargs)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_side(cls, side_spec):
        """
        Convert ``side_spec`` to an openpyxl v2 Side object
        Parameters
        ----------
        side_spec : str, dict
            A string specifying the border style, or a dict with zero or more
            of the following keys (or their synonyms).
                'style' ('border_style')
                'color'
        Returns
        -------
        side : openpyxl.styles.Side
        """

        from openpyxl.styles import Side

        _side_key_map = {
            'border_style': 'style',
        }

        if isinstance(side_spec, str):
            return Side(style=side_spec)

        side_kwargs = {}
        for k, v in side_spec.items():
            if k in _side_key_map:
                k = _side_key_map[k]
            if k == 'color':
                v = cls._convert_to_color(v)
            side_kwargs[k] = v

        return Side(**side_kwargs)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_border(cls, border_dict):
        """
        Convert ``border_dict`` to an openpyxl v2 Border object
        Parameters
        ----------
        border_dict : dict
            A dict with zero or more of the following keys (or their synonyms).
                'left'
                'right'
                'top'
                'bottom'
                'diagonal'
                'diagonal_direction'
                'vertical'
                'horizontal'
                'diagonalUp' ('diagonalup')
                'diagonalDown' ('diagonaldown')
                'outline'
        Returns
        -------
        border : openpyxl.styles.Border
        """

        from openpyxl.styles import Border

        _border_key_map = {
            'diagonalup': 'diagonalUp',
            'diagonaldown': 'diagonalDown',
        }

        border_kwargs = {}
        for k, v in border_dict.items():
            if k in _border_key_map:
                k = _border_key_map[k]
            if k == 'color':
                v = cls._convert_to_color(v)
            if k in ['left', 'right', 'top', 'bottom', 'diagonal']:
                v = cls._convert_to_side(v)
            border_kwargs[k] = v

        return Border(**border_kwargs)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_alignment(cls, alignment_dict):
        """
        Convert ``alignment_dict`` to an openpyxl v2 Alignment object
        Parameters
        ----------
        alignment_dict : dict
            A dict with zero or more of the following keys (or their synonyms).
                'horizontal'
                'vertical'
                'text_rotation'
                'wrap_text'
                'shrink_to_fit'
                'indent'
        Returns
        -------
        alignment : openpyxl.styles.Alignment
        """

        from openpyxl.styles import Alignment

        return Alignment(**alignment_dict)

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_number_format(cls, number_format_dict):
        """
        Convert ``number_format_dict`` to an openpyxl v2.1.0 number format
        initializer.
        Parameters
        ----------
        number_format_dict : dict
            A dict with zero or more of the following keys.
                'format_code' : str
        Returns
        -------
        number_format : str
        """
        return number_format_dict['format_code']

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_protection(cls, protection_dict):
        """
        Convert ``protection_dict`` to an openpyxl v2 Protection object.
        Parameters
        ----------
        protection_dict : dict
            A dict with zero or more of the following keys.
                'locked'
                'hidden'
        Returns
        -------
        """

        from openpyxl.styles import Protection

        return Protection(**protection_dict)

    def write_cells(self, cells, sheet_name=None, startrow=0, startcol=0,
                    freeze_panes=None):
        # Write the frame cells using openpyxl.
        sheet_name = self._get_sheet_name(sheet_name)

        _style_cache = {}

        if sheet_name in self.sheets:
            wks = self.sheets[sheet_name]
        else:
            wks = self.book.create_sheet()
            wks.title = sheet_name
            self.sheets[sheet_name] = wks

        if _validate_freeze_panes(freeze_panes):
            wks.freeze_panes = wks.cell(row=freeze_panes[0] + 1,
                                        column=freeze_panes[1] + 1)

        for cell in cells:
            xcell = wks.cell(
                row=startrow + cell.row + 1,
                column=startcol + cell.col + 1
            )
            xcell.value = _conv_value(cell.val)

            style_kwargs = {}
            if cell.style:
                key = str(cell.style)
                style_kwargs = _style_cache.get(key)
                if style_kwargs is None:
                    style_kwargs = self._convert_to_style_kwargs(cell.style)
                    _style_cache[key] = style_kwargs

            if style_kwargs:
                for k, v in style_kwargs.items():
                    setattr(xcell, k, v)

            if cell.mergestart is not None and cell.mergeend is not None:

                wks.merge_cells(
                    start_row=startrow + cell.row + 1,
                    start_column=startcol + cell.col + 1,
                    end_column=startcol + cell.mergeend + 1,
                    end_row=startrow + cell.mergestart + 1
                )

                # When cells are merged only the top-left cell is preserved
                # The behaviour of the other cells in a merged range is
                # undefined
                if style_kwargs:
                    first_row = startrow + cell.row + 1
                    last_row = startrow + cell.mergestart + 1
                    first_col = startcol + cell.col + 1
                    last_col = startcol + cell.mergeend + 1

                    for row in range(first_row, last_row + 1):
                        for col in range(first_col, last_col + 1):
                            if row == first_row and col == first_col:
                                # Ignore first cell. It is already handled.
                                continue
                            xcell = wks.cell(column=col, row=row)
                            for k, v in style_kwargs.items():
                                setattr(xcell, k, v)


register_writer(_OpenpyxlWriter)


class _XlwtWriter(ExcelWriter):
    engine = 'xlwt'
    supported_extensions = ('.xls',)

    def __init__(self, path, engine=None, encoding=None, **engine_kwargs):
        # Use the xlwt module as the Excel writer.
        import xlwt
        engine_kwargs['engine'] = engine
        super(_XlwtWriter, self).__init__(path, **engine_kwargs)

        if encoding is None:
            encoding = 'ascii'
        self.book = xlwt.Workbook(encoding=encoding)
        self.fm_datetime = xlwt.easyxf(num_format_str=self.datetime_format)
        self.fm_date = xlwt.easyxf(num_format_str=self.date_format)

    def save(self):
        """
        Save workbook to disk.
        """
        return self.book.save(self.path)

    def write_cells(self, cells, sheet_name=None, startrow=0, startcol=0,
                    freeze_panes=None):
        # Write the frame cells using xlwt.

        sheet_name = self._get_sheet_name(sheet_name)

        if sheet_name in self.sheets:
            wks = self.sheets[sheet_name]
        else:
            wks = self.book.add_sheet(sheet_name)
            self.sheets[sheet_name] = wks

        if _validate_freeze_panes(freeze_panes):
            wks.set_panes_frozen(True)
            wks.set_horz_split_pos(freeze_panes[0])
            wks.set_vert_split_pos(freeze_panes[1])

        style_dict = {}

        for cell in cells:
            val = _conv_value(cell.val)

            num_format_str = None
            if isinstance(cell.val, datetime):
                num_format_str = self.datetime_format
            elif isinstance(cell.val, date):
                num_format_str = self.date_format

            stylekey = json.dumps(cell.style)
            if num_format_str:
                stylekey += num_format_str

            if stylekey in style_dict:
                style = style_dict[stylekey]
            else:
                style = self._convert_to_style(cell.style, num_format_str)
                style_dict[stylekey] = style

            if cell.mergestart is not None and cell.mergeend is not None:
                wks.write_merge(startrow + cell.row,
                                startrow + cell.mergestart,
                                startcol + cell.col,
                                startcol + cell.mergeend,
                                val, style)
            else:
                wks.write(startrow + cell.row,
                          startcol + cell.col,
                          val, style)

    @classmethod
    def _style_to_xlwt(cls, item, firstlevel=True, field_sep=',',
                       line_sep=';'):
        """helper which recursively generate an xlwt easy style string
        for example:

            hstyle = {"font": {"bold": True},
            "border": {"top": "thin",
                    "right": "thin",
                    "bottom": "thin",
                    "left": "thin"},
            "align": {"horiz": "center"}}
            will be converted to
            font: bold on; \
                    border: top thin, right thin, bottom thin, left thin; \
                    align: horiz center;
        """
        if hasattr(item, 'items'):
            if firstlevel:
                it = ["{key}: {val}"
                      .format(key=key, val=cls._style_to_xlwt(value, False))
                      for key, value in item.items()]
                out = "{sep} ".format(sep=(line_sep).join(it))
                return out
            else:
                it = ["{key} {val}"
                      .format(key=key, val=cls._style_to_xlwt(value, False))
                      for key, value in item.items()]
                out = "{sep} ".format(sep=(field_sep).join(it))
                return out
        else:
            item = "{item}".format(item=item)
            item = item.replace("True", "on")
            item = item.replace("False", "off")
            return item

    @classmethod
    def _convert_to_style(cls, style_dict, num_format_str=None):
        """
        converts a style_dict to an xlwt style object
        Parameters
        ----------
        style_dict: style dictionary to convert
        num_format_str: optional number format string
        """
        import xlwt

        if style_dict:
            xlwt_stylestr = cls._style_to_xlwt(style_dict)
            style = xlwt.easyxf(xlwt_stylestr, field_sep=',', line_sep=';')
        else:
            style = xlwt.XFStyle()
        if num_format_str is not None:
            style.num_format_str = num_format_str

        return style


register_writer(_XlwtWriter)


class _XlsxStyler(object):
    # Map from openpyxl-oriented styles to flatter xlsxwriter representation
    # Ordering necessary for both determinism and because some are keyed by
    # prefixes of others.
    STYLE_MAPPING = {
        'font': [
            (('name',), 'font_name'),
            (('sz',), 'font_size'),
            (('size',), 'font_size'),
            (('color', 'rgb',), 'font_color'),
            (('color',), 'font_color'),
            (('b',), 'bold'),
            (('bold',), 'bold'),
            (('i',), 'italic'),
            (('italic',), 'italic'),
            (('u',), 'underline'),
            (('underline',), 'underline'),
            (('strike',), 'font_strikeout'),
            (('vertAlign',), 'font_script'),
            (('vertalign',), 'font_script'),
        ],
        'number_format': [
            (('format_code',), 'num_format'),
            ((), 'num_format',),
        ],
        'protection': [
            (('locked',), 'locked'),
            (('hidden',), 'hidden'),
        ],
        'alignment': [
            (('horizontal',), 'align'),
            (('vertical',), 'valign'),
            (('text_rotation',), 'rotation'),
            (('wrap_text',), 'text_wrap'),
            (('indent',), 'indent'),
            (('shrink_to_fit',), 'shrink'),
        ],
        'fill': [
            (('patternType',), 'pattern'),
            (('patterntype',), 'pattern'),
            (('fill_type',), 'pattern'),
            (('start_color', 'rgb',), 'fg_color'),
            (('fgColor', 'rgb',), 'fg_color'),
            (('fgcolor', 'rgb',), 'fg_color'),
            (('start_color',), 'fg_color'),
            (('fgColor',), 'fg_color'),
            (('fgcolor',), 'fg_color'),
            (('end_color', 'rgb',), 'bg_color'),
            (('bgColor', 'rgb',), 'bg_color'),
            (('bgcolor', 'rgb',), 'bg_color'),
            (('end_color',), 'bg_color'),
            (('bgColor',), 'bg_color'),
            (('bgcolor',), 'bg_color'),
        ],
        'border': [
            (('color', 'rgb',), 'border_color'),
            (('color',), 'border_color'),
            (('style',), 'border'),
            (('top', 'color', 'rgb',), 'top_color'),
            (('top', 'color',), 'top_color'),
            (('top', 'style',), 'top'),
            (('top',), 'top'),
            (('right', 'color', 'rgb',), 'right_color'),
            (('right', 'color',), 'right_color'),
            (('right', 'style',), 'right'),
            (('right',), 'right'),
            (('bottom', 'color', 'rgb',), 'bottom_color'),
            (('bottom', 'color',), 'bottom_color'),
            (('bottom', 'style',), 'bottom'),
            (('bottom',), 'bottom'),
            (('left', 'color', 'rgb',), 'left_color'),
            (('left', 'color',), 'left_color'),
            (('left', 'style',), 'left'),
            (('left',), 'left'),
        ],
    }

    @classmethod
    def convert(cls, style_dict, num_format_str=None):
        """
        converts a style_dict to an xlsxwriter format dict

        Parameters
        ----------
        style_dict: style dictionary to convert
        num_format_str: optional number format string
        """

        # Create a XlsxWriter format object.
        props = {}

        if num_format_str is not None:
            props['num_format'] = num_format_str

        if style_dict is None:
            return props

        if 'borders' in style_dict:
            style_dict = style_dict.copy()
            style_dict['border'] = style_dict.pop('borders')

        for style_group_key, style_group in style_dict.items():
            for src, dst in cls.STYLE_MAPPING.get(style_group_key, []):
                # src is a sequence of keys into a nested dict
                # dst is a flat key
                if dst in props:
                    continue
                v = style_group
                for k in src:
                    try:
                        v = v[k]
                    except (KeyError, TypeError):
                        break
                else:
                    props[dst] = v

        if isinstance(props.get('pattern'), string_types):
            # TODO: support other fill patterns
            props['pattern'] = 0 if props['pattern'] == 'none' else 1

        for k in ['border', 'top', 'right', 'bottom', 'left']:
            if isinstance(props.get(k), string_types):
                try:
                    props[k] = ['none', 'thin', 'medium', 'dashed', 'dotted',
                                'thick', 'double', 'hair', 'mediumDashed',
                                'dashDot', 'mediumDashDot', 'dashDotDot',
                                'mediumDashDotDot', 'slantDashDot'].\
                        index(props[k])
                except ValueError:
                    props[k] = 2

        if isinstance(props.get('font_script'), string_types):
            props['font_script'] = ['baseline', 'superscript', 'subscript'].\
                index(props['font_script'])

        if isinstance(props.get('underline'), string_types):
            props['underline'] = {'none': 0, 'single': 1, 'double': 2,
                                  'singleAccounting': 33,
                                  'doubleAccounting': 34}[props['underline']]

        return props


class _XlsxWriter(ExcelWriter):
    engine = 'xlsxwriter'
    supported_extensions = ('.xlsx',)

    def __init__(self, path, engine=None,
                 date_format=None, datetime_format=None, **engine_kwargs):
        # Use the xlsxwriter module as the Excel writer.
        import xlsxwriter

        super(_XlsxWriter, self).__init__(path, engine=engine,
                                          date_format=date_format,
                                          datetime_format=datetime_format,
                                          **engine_kwargs)

        self.book = xlsxwriter.Workbook(path, **engine_kwargs)

    def save(self):
        """
        Save workbook to disk.
        """

        return self.book.close()

    def write_cells(self, cells, sheet_name=None, startrow=0, startcol=0,
                    freeze_panes=None):
        # Write the frame cells using xlsxwriter.
        sheet_name = self._get_sheet_name(sheet_name)

        if sheet_name in self.sheets:
            wks = self.sheets[sheet_name]
        else:
            wks = self.book.add_worksheet(sheet_name)
            self.sheets[sheet_name] = wks

        style_dict = {'null': None}

        if _validate_freeze_panes(freeze_panes):
            wks.freeze_panes(*(freeze_panes))

        for cell in cells:
            val = _conv_value(cell.val)

            num_format_str = None
            if isinstance(cell.val, datetime):
                num_format_str = self.datetime_format
            elif isinstance(cell.val, date):
                num_format_str = self.date_format

            stylekey = json.dumps(cell.style)
            if num_format_str:
                stylekey += num_format_str

            if stylekey in style_dict:
                style = style_dict[stylekey]
            else:
                style = self.book.add_format(
                    _XlsxStyler.convert(cell.style, num_format_str))
                style_dict[stylekey] = style

            if cell.mergestart is not None and cell.mergeend is not None:
                wks.merge_range(startrow + cell.row,
                                startcol + cell.col,
                                startrow + cell.mergestart,
                                startcol + cell.mergeend,
                                cell.val, style)
            else:
                wks.write(startrow + cell.row,
                          startcol + cell.col,
                          val, style)


register_writer(_XlsxWriter)