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Kind

package free
import monad._
import cats._
import org.scalatest._

class `4-1-Kind` extends AsyncFlatSpec with Matchers {

Kinds are types for types. Like a function for parameters of type and return a type. e.g. List[_] is a Kind, it has a hole represented as _ in it, which is like parameter in function. If you fill the hole with a type String, then you will get a type List[String].

Recall our Printable[_] kind defined in 3.1.Functor, we’vecreatede implement of typeclass Contravariant over kind Printable, which means no matter what type you fill into the hole of Printable[_], it should fulfill constrain of typeclass Contravariant.

You can also define a function over Kind F[_] -> G[_], which is called FunctionK , just like function over type.

FunctionK

to define a FuntionK in cats, we can simply use fish arrow ~>

e.g. a FuntionK from List to Option

import cats.~>
val first = new (List ~> Option) {
  def apply[A](l:List[A]): Option[A] = l.headOption
}

Kind Projector

you’ll notice that we’ve include a compiler plugin kind-projector=[fn:1] in =build.sbt

it provides us pretty syntactic suger for such case

val first = Lambda[List ~> Option](_.headOption)

which will be expanded to exactly the same code as what we defined before.

behavior of "FunctionK"
it should "create a FunctionK from Box[_] to Sphere[_]" in {
  Printable.format(Sphere("hill")) shouldBe "\"hill\""
}

Rank N Type

But why this is useful than function, the fnk in spherePrintable can be easily replace with a simple function and it should behave still the same.

let’s create another function that use Sphere ~> Box, to make tuple of sphere (Sphere[String], Sphere[Int]) printable

implicit def tuplePrintable[A, B, C](
      implicit p: Printable[Box[String]],
      fn: Sphere[C] => Box[C])): Printable[(Sphere[A], Sphere[B])] = {
    val tupleOfSphereToBox = (tupleOfSphere: (Sphere[A], Sphere[B])) => {
      val box1 = fn(tupleOfSphere._1)
      val box2 = fn(tupleOfSphere._2)
      Box(s"(${box1.value}, ${box2.value})")
    }
    Contravariant[Printable].contramap(p)(tupleOfSphereToBox)
  }

you will get some compile error as such

[error] /Users/jichao.ouyang/Develop/scala-dojo/src/main/scala/Free.scala:21:35: type mismatch;
[error]  found   : free.Sphere[A]
[error]  required: free.Sphere[C]
[error]       val box1 = fn(tupleOfSphere._1)
[error]                                   ^
[error] /Users/jichao.ouyang/Develop/scala-dojo/src/main/scala/Free.scala:22:35: type mismatch;
[error]  found   : free.Sphere[B]
[error]  required: free.Sphere[C]
[error]       val box2 = fn(tupleOfSphere._2)
[error]                                   ^

Apparently when your fn is sticked to a C type, it’s not convertible to neither A nor B type, even if you stick it to A type, then the tupleOfSphere._2 can’t convert to A either.

This is Rank 1 Type, because all types A, B, C are fixed in the same rank of tuplePrintable’s polymorphism.

To make such code compile, you’ll need to make fn as Rank 2 Type, which means fn will not be fixed in the first rank of tuplePrintable polymorphism, it’s type polymorphism will be in another rank totally independent from the tuplePrintable

behavior of "Rank N Type"
it should "able to print a tuple of Sphere" in {
  Printable.format((Sphere("hill"), Sphere(1))) shouldBe "\"(hill, 1)\""
}

Natural Transformation

If your kinds are happened to be a Functor, then this functionK becomes Natural Transformation

There’s nothing different except that Natural Transformation will provide you a property:

applying FunctionK before or after a Functor map makes no difference

hence fnk(fa.map(f)) is exactly the same as fnk(fa).map(f)

"Natural Transformation" should "satisfy law" in {
  implicit val functorBox: Functor[Box] = new Functor[Box] {
    def map[A, B](fa: Box[A])(f: A => B) =
      Box(f(fa.value))
  }
  import cats.syntax.functor._
  Sphere.sphereToBox(Sphere(100).map(_ + 1)) shouldBe Sphere.sphereToBox(Sphere(100)).map(_ + 1)
}
}

Footnotes

[fn:1] https://github.com/non/kind-projector