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1960s Olympic Host Cities.html
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1960s Olympic Host Cities.html
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Olympic Host Cities of the 1960s Era: Forging New Identities through International Mega-Sporting Events</title>
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<tw-storydata name="Olympic Host Cities of the 1960s Era: Forging New Identities through International Mega-Sporting Events" startnode="20" creator="Twine" creator-version="2.3.5" ifid="CE627BCD-E8FB-4513-B6B0-1B840641DB20" zoom="1" format="Harlowe" format-version="3.1.0" options="" hidden><style role="stylesheet" id="twine-user-stylesheet" type="text/twine-css">tw-story {
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</style><script role="script" id="twine-user-script" type="text/twine-javascript"></script><tw-passagedata pid="1" name="The Olympic Rise of the 1960s" tags="" position="546,9" size="100,100"><b><p style="font-size:120%";>THE OLYMPIC RISE OF THE 1960s</b>
<i><b>Olympic Desires</i></b>
Global and societal changes that trended after World War II and with the 1960s, such as global nationalism, technological innovations, and economic growth made many countries seek to host international mega-sporting events, most especially the Olympics. Post-war desires and the rising changes of the 1960s enticed unlikely or non-traditional nations such as Japan, Mexico, and Germany to stake their claim into joining the perceived elevated status of countries who have hosted the Olympics. The 1960s era indicated one of the most dramatic shifts in Olympic hosting, based upon the changing factors mentioned, which stretched into the early 1970s, as the prosperity of the 1960s decade stalemated or capped off with troubled times; and some of these significant shifts in Olympic hosting demand were simultaneously due to changes within the Olympic system.
<i><b>Three Case Studies Under Three Categories</b></i>
The Olympic Games of [[1964 Tokyo|1964 Tokyo]], [[1968 Mexico City|1968 Mexico City]], and [[1972 Munich|1972 Munich]], illustrated how rising countries utilized the Olympics through aspects or strategies such as <i>stadium building</i>, <i>urban revitalization</i>, and <i>cultural campaigns or displays</i> to strengthen their national identities and demonstrate their progress and modernity as developed nations. Each city or country’s Olympic run was not equally distributed in each area, but these three categories provided a valuable measure of efforts that all three cities delved into.
<u><b>Strongest Category per Case Study</b></u>:
Tokyo - urban revitalization
Mexico City - cultural campaign/display
Munich - stadium building
<i><b>Modernity and Democracy: Olympic "GIGANTISM"</b></i>
After World War II and through the latter portion of the twentieth century, many countries wanted to create a new postwar image and to break from old reputations. With the World Wars and the twentieth century shift towards enhanced global nationalism, a growing desire to be considered a member among the developed nations of the world emerged. War-torn or underdeveloped nations wished to rebuild or establish their countries as developing contenders of the global community, and modernity increasingly became synonymous with democracy. Modern and democratic nations were those who exhibited socio-economic and political advancements, and with technological innovations and economic growth and prosperity of the 1960s, countries delved into these opportunities or mediums available for their cities to appear on what was considered the grand center stage for global visibility, marking a shift towards the road for what is often referred to as Olympic “gigantism.” These developments paired simultaneously with a shift in increased involvement of the International Olympic Committee into the governments of nations.
Discover the emerging [[well oiled machine| A New Olympic System]].</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="2" name=" A New Olympic System" tags="" position="566,199" size="100,100"><b><p style="font-size:120%";>A NEW OLYMPIC SYSTEM</b>
<i><b>20th Century Changes</b></i>
The International Olympic Committee and the governance of its so-called Olympic system claimed strong dominance over the status and fate of the Olympics, but most importantly, the way in which the Olympic system was governed or administered saw significant growth and enhancement since the latter part of the twentieth century.
<i><b>Expanding Networks</b></i>
The ruling bodies of the new Olympic system consisted of:
3 main actors - the established actors, the new actors, and the regulators
<i>AND</i>
5 main pillars - the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the Organizing Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs), the National Olympic Committees (NOCs), the International Sports Federations (IFs), and the National Sports Federations (NFs)
<img src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcRE03L1Sy6rdIhojqpJ4U1VjsYPkGj_3ry85dmbUw51mknWcX6p&usqp=CAU" alt="The Classic Olympic System">
<b>The Classic Olympic System</b>
(taking form in the 1960s)
<i><b>Well-Oiled Machine</b></i>
The most relevant portion to examine in the study of the Olympic hosting changes of the 1960s is the new public and private actors, which were the governments, sponsors, media, and sport leagues. In other words, during the late twentieth century, Olympic rule or authority experienced a multiplied enhancement; and perhaps what used to be predominantly one central body, the IOC, now webbed or branched into a complex hierarchy that stretched into national, regional, and local levels, both public and private. These increased roles were utilized in direct and indirect correlations with nations’ desires for development of land, economy, and society through the Olympic system.
The Olympic system was well on its way to becoming a well-oiled machine that operated through a deeply infiltrating chain or web. With Olympic influences essentially everywhere, the value and importance of the Olympics experienced magnanimous changes.
<img src="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Loup_Chappelet/publication/292529037/figure/fig2/AS:471174351200257@1489348127700/the-regulated-olympic-System_Q320.jpg" alt="The Classic Olympic System">
<b>The Regulated Olympic System</b>
(with 11 stakeholders, evolving into the late 20th century)
<img src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcTJYKB-Jc85rWeoy-xqGwVSqgw0jdyS7476bD8meOzjjSsw8Jss&usqp=CAU" alt="Stepping Stones">
The 1960s era changes were the dramatic stepping stones that led to the current Olympic System of the twenty-first century.
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<img src="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Loup_Chappelet/publication/292529037/figure/fig3/AS:471174351200258@1489348127726/the-total-olympic-System.png" alt="The Total Olympic System"></div>
<b>The Total Olympic System</b>
(with 24 stakeholders, in the 21st century)
<img src="https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/51ZOXw4rrsL._SX323_BO1,204,203,200_.jpg" alt="A New Olympic System">
On the 1960s era new Olympic system - “The Olympic system has become extremely complex: power, money, and image have inevitably brought far-reaching changes on what was once a gathering of athletes throughout the world” (Chappelet and Kübler-Mabbott, 2008).
Experience the 1960s era dramatic shift in the Olympic Games with its [[magnanimous and complex changes| Olympic Hosting Attractions and Gigantism]].</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="3" name=" Olympic Hosting Attractions and Gigantism" tags="" position="566,342" size="100,100"><b><p style="font-size:120%";>OLYMPIC HOSTING ATTRACTIONS AND GIGANTISM</b>
<i><b>The Lure of Olympic Hosting</b></i>
The lure of power, money, and image attracted countries after World War II and especially at the dawn of the 1960s. In this time period, “the years 1948 through 1968, marks the internationalization of the Games, which were held outside Europe and North America for the first time...An informal rotation between the continents then emerged,” and in addition, “New countries resulting from the end of colonization in Asia and Africa took part in the Games for the first time. The Cold War intensified the importance of the Olympic confrontations.” Similarly, “Since the 1960s and the independence of former European colonies, taking part in the Games has been seen as a sign of sovereignty as strong or perhaps even stronger than being admitted to the United Nations (UN).” “The opening and closing ceremonies of the Games are, in fact, a unique opportunity for the over 200 countries and territories who take part to draw international attention to their existence, and in a peaceful, positive manner."
<i><b>1960s Surge and "GIGANTISM"</b></i>
With the surge of the 1960s, the path towards “gigantism” of the Olympics became increasingly relevant. “As far as the modern Games are concerned, their size has increased constantly since the beginning of the twentieth century, and we can consider that major problems inherent to logistics have confronted the host cities since the 1960s. It was also around the same time that the Games ceased to be accessible to medium sized towns or ‘small’ countries.”
<i><b>Twentieth Century Rise and Decline Trend of Olympic Hosting Prospects</b></i>
Aligned with the mentioned case studies’ pattern, “After the Second World War, major cities of the world (such as Rome, Mexico City or Montreal) and countries undergoing reconstruction (Japan with Tokyo, Germany with Munich, Korea with Seoul) became interested in the Games and presented their candidature to host them, often on repeated occasions. After the financial disaster of the Montreal Games (whereby the city fell into major debt) and the political failure of the Moscow Games (which were widely boycotted), the flow of candidatures dwindled.”
(Citations by Chappelet and Kübler-Mabbott, 2008)
"Gigantism" went hand in hand with 1960s [[technological innovations and advancements| 1960s Olympics Technology Shift]].</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="4" name=" 1960s Olympics Technology Shift" tags="" position="579,468" size="100,100"><b><p style="font-size:120%";>1960s OLYMPICS TECHNOLOGY SHIFT</p></b>
<i><b>First TV Coverage</b></i>
With technological innovations and advancements on the rise, the 1960s were the start for television coverage of the Olympics. This aspect of progress and modernity also entailed a growing role of commercialism and commodification within the Olympics (Collins, 2011). “Since 1960, the broadcasting rights have been paid by the television channels and networks for the exclusive transmission of the Summer and Winter Games,” and “the IOC...began taking part in negotiating the contracts” from the 1972 Games. In general, “Relationships between the broadcasters and the Olympic system date back to the 1960s, when the first broadcasting rights were negotiated,” and with time, this grew and expanded through the 1970s and 1980s.(Chappelet and Kübler-Mabbott, 2008)
<img src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7swVHEdTFBs/UAGvZZOhK0I/AAAAAAAAAmQ/KZBBUyID8so/s320/poster1960.jpg" alt="Offical Rome Olympics Poster">
<i><b>Why 1960s?</b></i>
A detailed study of contemporary Olympic hosting begins best from 1960 because this was when “the paradigm of the Olympics as a catalyst of urban development was born.” Paired with this, the 1960s was when “technology began to play an important role in architectural design,” which was then tied to cultural heritage. The foundation or starting point for the combination of <i>stadium building</i>, <i>urban revitalization</i>, and <i>cultural display</i>, as an equation for progress and modernity, took birth at the 20th Olympic Games in Rome in 1960. (Kiuri and Reiter, 2013)
<img src="https://stillimg.olympic.org/games/280x280/1960_1.png" alt="Rome Games">
<img src="https://storage.googleapis.com/hippostcard/p/d6a6936ff28800521eaac8fb9bbacc9f-800.jpg" alt="Rome Stadium">
<img src="https://imgc.allpostersimages.com/img/print/u-g-Q1310MJ0.jpg?w=550&h=550&p=0" alt="Rome Track and Field">
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<img src="https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Photos/1960/01/01/AAAPJ048.jpg" alt="1960 Rome Games">
From 1960 and onward, the Olympic model for hosting was adapted to the urban and progress goals of the city, and before this, it was the other way around (Kiuri and Reiter, 2013). Post-war Olympic hosting in the latter half of the twentieth century became sociopolitical platforms or instruments to create a national identity and image, and to display it to the world.
<img src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcQCdN0DV1n7oI3HGOq8WlCqzOVNhbdGWhRjyFmwsZ5eV8DJkEXd&usqp=CAU" alt="1960 Rome Book">
The 1960 Rome Games began a defined shift in sports facilities or complexes and their architecture being paired with cultural symbols and rituals to represent a desired image (Modrey, 2008).
<i><b>Rome 1960 Opening Ceremony</b></i>
<iframe width="660" height="415" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wtz6abQ7g9k" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
<i><b>Case Studies on a Shelf</b></i>
<img src="https://www.decorist.com/static/cache-thumbnail/1f/e1/1fe138348da0a5835053a4770cb01dbc.png" alt="Case Studies on a Shelf">
If the designated time period and 1960s era case studies of Olympic hosting could be compartmentalized on a shelf, the starting bookend would be: 1960 Rome; with 1964 Tokyo, 1968 Mexico City, 1972 Munich, in the middle; and 1976 Montreal as the finishing bookend on the opposite side, as a stopping point or shift.
<img src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcRb099wWnpNoneLaKJxz16U9J3mpljflSp4KvmLbijZavXHj87f&usqp=CAU" alt="Grab A Book">
Grab a case study from the shelf, and journey through the sociopolitical and cultural global shift of the 1960s era Olympics: [[1964 Tokyo|1964 Tokyo]], [[1968 Mexico City|1968 Mexico City]], [[1972 Munich|1972 Munich]], or [[Global Downturn and Olympic Hosting Decline|Global Downturn and Olympic Hosting Decline]].</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="5" name="1964 Tokyo" tags="" position="161,609" size="100,100"><h1><b>1964 TOKYO</b></h1>
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<img src="https://i.pinimg.com/originals/f1/fd/48/f1fd4864fb7304f4422b3911ccc823a1.jpg" alt="Tokyo Poster">
Tokyo’s hosting of the 1964 Olympics in the aftermath of World War II set the tone for Japanese desires to strengthen their national identity and development, and along with postwar reconstruction, Japan wanted to enhance the economic and technological growth it was posited for. Tokyo would be the first Asian city to host the Olympics, which held great significance for the region, and it showed that by being more geographically global, the Olympics were becoming more universal. East Asian hosting opportunities such as these were a type of “coming out party,” in a way that it was not for most Western host nations.
<i><b>The 1964 Olympics Was Pivotal to Postwar Tokyo</b></i>
<iframe width="660" height="415" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/mGgh4Ii-7Zg" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
As have subsequent East Asian Olympic host cities since Tokyo, the Japanese depicted a theme of harmony, one that characterized their joining into the international community. Although in all three case studies, Tokyo, Mexico City, and Munich sought a stronger national identity and global presence, under the shadow and stereotypes of the West, they had to create a non-threatening balance of nationalistic strength. The Tokyo Games exhibited a “peaceful rising” of Japan, so that regional and global fears of Japanese imperialism would not be exacerbated. For example, Japan’s militarized history was virtually erased from the Tokyo Games. Modern sports complexes and urbanization were paired with traditional cultural displays, which combined, equaled a more gentle demonstration of dominance, one of soft power.
<i><b>Tokyo 1964 Opening Ceremony</b></i>
<iframe width="660" height="415" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bLnUB-1x5Wc" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
<b>Visit Related Stories:</b>
<a href="https://www.japan-experience.com/to-know/the-history-of-japan/tokyo-1964-olympic-games" target="_blank">"The 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games: The Rebirth of an Entire Country"</a>
<a href="https://medium.com/@shotarohondamoore/how-the-1964-tokyo-olympic-games-changed-the-global-identity-of-japan-274db4734df8" target="_blank">"How the 1964 Tokyo Olympics Games Changed the Global Identity of Japan"</a>
(Citations by Collins, 2011)
[[Tokyo Stadium Building|Tokyo Stadium Building]]
[[Tokyo Urban Revitalization|Tokyo Urban Revitalization]]
[[Tokyo Cultural Display|Tokyo Cultural Display]]
[[1968 Mexico City|1968 Mexico City]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="6" name="1968 Mexico City" tags="" position="436,669" size="100,100"><h1><b>1968 MEXICO CITY</b></h1>
<img src="https://img.washingtonpost.com/wp-apps/imrs.php?src=http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/national/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2018/05/1968mexico-e1527092478118.png&w=780">
<i><b>Breaking Barriers and Stereotypes</b></i>
Mexico City’s 1968 Olympic Games were like a journey or test of Mexico’s worthiness to meet Western values. Mexico endured many challenges in their preparation for the Games, particularly due to foreign assumptions and judgments about Mexican altitude and readiness for hosting the global event. There was a question of whether or not Mexico could financially afford to host the Olympics. Mexico used Olympic hosting to prove to the world its break from the past and that it is no longer an underdeveloped nation. Since the Mexico City Olympics could not afford extensive financial expenses, following in the shadow of Tokyo’s lavish spending, Mexico turned its energy towards a cultural campaign that was launched a year prior to the event.
<img src="https://static.dezeen.com/uploads/2008/03/1968-mexico-e338-2006.jpg" alt="1968 Mexico City Poster">
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<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mexico_68_Closing_Ceremony.jpg/800px-Mexico_68_Closing_Ceremony.jpg" alt="Mexico City 1968 Stadium View">
<img src="https://www.insidethegames.biz/images/2014/04/The_only_other_Olympics_to_be_held_in_Latin_America_so_far_was_in_Mexico_City_in_1968.jpg" alt="Mexico City Logo and Crowd">
In comparison, “The requirements of the Olympics...were ‘adopted to the city and not the other way around.’ In the end, the country’s $176 million investment amounted to a fraction of that expended by Japan on the 1964 Games.” Technology and color television had many innovative advancements that made these Olympics unique also. (Zolov, 2004)
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<img class="wp-image-3470 size-full" src="https://globalsportmatters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Color-TV.jpg" alt="An ABC newscaster records athletes entering the stadium at the 1968 Olympics " width="1000" height="575" srcset="https://globalsportmatters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Color-TV.jpg 1200w, https://globalsportmatters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Color-TV-300x169.jpg 300w, https://globalsportmatters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Color-TV-768x432.jpg 768w, https://globalsportmatters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Color-TV-1024x576.jpg 1024w" sizes="(max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px">
<i><b>Media Portrayal</b></i>
The September 30, 1968 <i>Sports Illustrated</i> issue regarding the Mexico City Olympics was titled, “The Problem Olympics,” with a featured article called, “Games in Trouble.”
<img src="https://vault.si.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cfl_progressive%2Ch_2000%2Cq_auto:good%2Cw_800/MTY5MDk0MTQwMTk4OTg3NTAz/43021---cover-image.jpg" alt="Mexico City SI Problem Olympics Cover">
This article compared Tokyo to Mexico City, pointing out that both cities were a significant first, one of the “Orient,” or Asia, and one of Latin America. Mexico had much to prove, and it wanted to display its economic and political stability, along with its technological abilities (Cleaning the Cage: Mexico City's Preparations," 2009). Despite the risk of financial hardships or the potential for commercial or commodity gains, according to global sociopolitical norms and standards, hosting and staging successful Games offered “immeasurable tangible benefits to a country’s international reputation.” Mexican politicians and diplomats gained an “opportunity to ‘re-brand’ not only the capital, but an entire nation that they felt had not received due recognition for its achievements.” ("The Rank Outsider: Mexico City's Bid," 2009)
<i><b>Mexico City 1968 Opening Ceremony</b></i>
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<b>Visit Related Stories:</b>
<a href="https://globalsportmatters.com/mexico/2018/10/29/from-slow-motion-to-live-tv-68-olympics-impacted-how-we-watch-today/" target="_blank">"From Slow-Motion to Live TV: '68 Olympics Impacted How We Watch Today"</a>
<a href="https://www.olympic.org/news/mexico-68-the-look-that-captivates-crowds-to-this-day" target="_blank">"Mexico '68: The Look That Captivates Crowds to This Day"</a>
[[Mexico City Stadium Building|Mexico City Stadium Building]]
[[Mexico City Urban Revitalization|Mexico City Urban Revitalization]]
[[Mexico City Cultural Display|Mexico City Cultural Display]]
[[1972 Munich|1972 Munich]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="7" name="1972 Munich" tags="" position="742,672" size="100,100"><h1><b>1972 MUNICH</b></h1>
<img src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-T7Z1QBU0ee4/T8uc1bcCBKI/AAAAAAAAMQE/5NopzCfUdbY/s1600/Munich+72+Olympics+Poster.png" alt="Munich 1972 Poster">
<i><b>Munich and "The Long 1960s"</b></i>
Due to economic, social, cultural, and political conditions that stretch beyond the exact ten year periodization of a decade, historians often say that the 1960s began in the late 1950s and ended in the early 1970s. This extension of waxing and waning of times from the 1950s into the 1970s is known as "the long 1960s." 1972 Munich could be seen as the last event of its kind, and the finish of the 1960s era of Olympic hosting. As “the long 1960s” period was coming to an end, Germany followed Japan and Mexico as the next Olympic host country, and similar to its predecessors’ Olympics, 1972 Munich entailed a desire to transform the identity of the German city, both domestically and abroad. The Olympics were used to develop the city in social, cultural, political, and economic ways, setting Germany on track for a modern, democratic future.
<i><b>Case Study Comparisons</b></i>
Mexico City and Munich had some similarity in that they both were overshadowed by dramatic or tragic events that occurred during their hosting run: Mexico City by the student massacres and the black power display; and Munich by the terrorist attacks on Israeli athletes Schiller and Young, 2010). On the other hand, as mentioned earlier, despite similarities to Tokyo and Mexico City, in wanting to forge new identities of progress and modernity, Munich’s situation did have a significant difference from Tokyo and Mexico City.
<i><b>Shedding Its Nazi Past</b></i>
Munich intentionally downplayed the nationalistic and political feel of the event due to past images of Germany and German Olympics, especially the 1936 Berlin Games, along with wanting to be a counter-example of communist East Germany. West Germany was in a predicament, as the West Germans wished to not only advertise their national identity internationally, but also to develop national pride and enthusiasm domestically. Paradoxically, in order to show their national distinctiveness, they had to tone down their national and political glorification throughout all aspects of their Olympic hosting, out of fear of being associated with Germany’s Nazi past. “If Munich’s organizers ever forgot this responsibility, East German critics dubbing ’72 two times 36’ would doubtless have reminded them of Germany’s burdens of history.” As a reaction to building upon this foundation or paranoia, the Munich Olympics and especially its stadium, Olympiapark ended up conceptually as perhaps the most modern, open, and democratic space among the examined case studies.
<i><b>Munich 1972 - Lighting the Olympic Cauldron</b></i>
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<b>Visit Related Stories:</b>
<a href="https://www.world-of-plexiglas.com/en/olympic-stadium-munich-plexiglas-tent-roof/" target="_blank">"Floating and Transparent: The Roof of the Olympic Stadium"</a>
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqAAj4hLoJQ/" target="_blank">"Travel Channel Video: Olympiapark - Munich, Germany"</a>
(Citations by Tagsold)
[[Munich Stadium Building and Cultural Display|Munich Stadium Building and Cultural Display]]
[[Munich Urban Revitalization|Munich Urban Revitalization]]
[[Global Downturn and the Olympic Hosting Decline|Global Downturn and Olympic Hosting Decline]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="8" name="Global Downturn and Olympic Hosting Decline" tags="" position="953,619" size="100,100"><b>GLOBAL DOWNTURN AND OLYMPIC HOSTING DECLINE</b>
<i><b>Munich 1972 Closing Ceremony</b></i>
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After the Munich Games, global socio-economic and political downturns and changes in the Olympic system slowed the twentieth century and 1960s rise in Olympic hosting promise (Schiller and Young, 2010). As mentioned earlier with many examples and aspects, after Olympic gigantism had been sparked with the 1960s swift incline in hosting grandeur, the 1976 Montreal Olympic hosting was deemed a financial disaster due to the city falling into major debt, and the 1980 Moscow Games were considered a political failure because of the wide-scale boycotting of the event. Munich 1972 was considered a sort of turning point for the professionalization of the Olympic Games event, and since then, the impacts upon its hosting cities have seen a significant increase. The heightened influence and pressure of the Olympic system also bears liability in the decline of prosperity and promise for host cities. “This is partly related to the increasing organizational requirements of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the international federations (IFs) and the international media. These multiple organizational requirements induce the municipal authorities in charge to plan these urban projects.” Furthermore, as Summer Olympic costs have experienced a dramatic increase, “this international sporting event reaches the level of an extremely complex and expensive urban project for hosting cities.” (Roult and Lefevbre, 2010)
<b>Visit Related Stories:</b>
<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/jul/06/40-year-hangover-1976-olympic-games-broke-montreal-canada" target="_blank">"The 40-year Hangover: How the 1976 Olympics Nearly Broke Montreal"</a>
<a href="https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/qk7d7m/the-disastrous-1976-montreal-olympics-should-have-taught-host-cities-a-valuable-lesson" target="_blank">"The Disastrous Montreal Olympics Should Have Taught Olympic Host Cities a Lesson"</a>
<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/columnist/brennan/2020/04/08/olympic-boycott-40-years-later-us-athletes/2964840001/" target="_blank"> "Opinion: For 1980 Athletes, Olympic Postponement Brings Bittersweet Memories of Boycott"</a>
<a href="https://www.nationalcoldwarexhibition.org/schools-colleges/national-curriculum/social-economic-issues/olympic-boycotts.aspx" target="_blank">"Olympic Boycotts"</a>
[[Conclusion|Conclusion]]</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="9" name="Tokyo Stadium Building" tags="" position="7,884" size="100,100"><b>TOKYO STADIUM BUILDING</b>
<i><b>Strategic Planning: Layered Modernity of Old and New</b></i>
In the stadium or sporting complex realm, Japanese development in this area was strategically planned. “The majority of the most visible and important Olympic facilities…were set up in Shibuya and Shinjuku.” These were two of Tokyo’s twenty-three inner-city wards in the western portion of the city, which was near the Imperial Palace. “The sports facilities were newly built whereas the Olympic Village made use of already existing structures.” This whole area was dominated by a singular landmark, the Meiji Shrine, which was dedicated to Japanese Emperor Meiji, leader of Japan during the second half of the nineteenth century. He was an iconic symbol or figure in Japanese history because during his rule, he led Japan into modernity after a two hundred year period of strict and controlling isolationist policies and practices under Shogun rule. Japan entered a stage of modernization and industrialization during Emperor Meiji’s time, leading into the 1920s. Centering the Olympic events and sports facilities around this area aligned with Japan’s desire to show modernity and progress. It also demonstrated how stadiums and sports complexes were tied to culture and history to achieve sociopolitical goals. “Looking at the grounds occupied by the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, one can see that the Games both replaced history and were themselves placed in a historical context by their closeness to the Meiji Shrine. There were many layers of history, though, with different meanings, which make this geographical palimpsest interesting.” A complex combination of old and new was created, and “The Games were not simply about denying or forgetting the past; they were as much about finding the right track to fulfilling the promises of modernity which had been lost from sight during the ultra-nationalist era.”
<i><b>Yoyogi National Gymnasium by Kenzo Tange, Tokyo 1964</b></i>
<img src="https://austinsmithjp.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/yoyogi.png">
<i><b><text style="font-size:60%;letter-spacing:.5px;">Japanese architect Kenzo Tange's Yoyogi National Gymnasium for Tokyo's 1964 games received critical acclaim for its ambitiously engineered roof structure. Its two halves meet along a central spine, which is strung between towers at either end and held in tension with two large steel cables.</b></i>
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<i><b>Western Stereotypes and Miscalculations</b></i>
Despite Tokyo’s deliberate intentions and planning for their stadium complex, Westerners largely failed to understand the depth and intricacy of Japanese meaning for the sporting complex. Western journalists struggled to decipher the heavily laden meanings that were interlaced and layered into the sporting complex areas, and they defaulted to describing Tokyo in general terms as a mixture of tradition and modernity. “But within Japan, these layers were legible and telling. These symbolic meanings escape a wider audience, most especially for non-Western hosts of the Olympics, since knowledge about the non-Western cities tends to be superficial. Tokyo, Mexico City and Seoul have been dealt with infrequently and the impact of the Games for the notion of history and modernity is only touched on the surface,” except for 2008 Beijing, due to the highly politicized sense.
<i><b>Crucial Event Comparisons</b></i>
Tokyo’s approach was more innovative and progressive than the foundational games of the decade, in 1960 Rome. “The marathon route in Tokyo shows a basic difference in the approach which had been taken in Rome regarding the use of space and history to represent the cities.” In comparison, “Where the Tokyo Games found their Japanese character in the modernity of the venues, the Roman Games seemed to express their Roman identity only by using ancient imagery.” Subsequently, “Munich, the third city staging Olympic Games in countries formerly belonging to the so-called ‘Axis powers’ took an approach similar to Tokyo in using modern elements as background for the sporting events.” On the other hand, “Both Rome and Tokyo were finally hosting Olympics that had been promised to them decades earlier, and were thereby fulfilling a modern dream. But Munich had to be constantly cautious about possible critical historical interpretations,” with Germany’s burdens of history, and especially under the negative shadow of the 1936 Berlin Games. “Italy and Japan had no such Olympic experience to remind them of what was at stake,” and 1972 Munich therefore ended up being by far, the most modern, open and democratic Olympic complex, which will be discussed in greater detail in later sections on the German Olympics in 1972. Of course, despite any broader similarities between the three Axis Powers, “the entanglement of history and modernity, however, was more complicated in all three cases.” In the case study comparison between Tokyo, Mexico City, and Munich, the Olympic Stadium in Tokyo was not the most significant landmark of modernity at the 1964 Games, as “The stadium was conventional, generating little comment among the architectural community, though of course it generated little critique either.”
(Citations by Tagsold, 2010)
[[Tokyo Urban Revitalization|Tokyo Urban Revitalization]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="10" name="Tokyo Urban Revitalization" tags="" position="143,949" size="100,100"><b>TOKYO URBAN REVITALIZATION</b>
<i><b>Major Urban Transformation</b></i>
Tokyo’s strongest effort or evidence of modernity and progress was in the category of urban revitalization. The city went through a major urban transformation in preparation for the 1964 Games. The city of Tokyo’s transportation infrastructure was dramatically improved and expanded. The Tokyo Olympics of 1964 were regarded as an agent for urban renewal. “One of the key features of Tokyo Olympic urbanisation was to minimise the cost of the Olympic-specific constructions while maximising both the urban infrastructural/technological effects and business/tourist benefits of the Games" (Yiu and Liu). As most of the sporting complexes and facilities relied predominantly upon existing buildings, $2.7 Billion US dollars were spent by the organizers and the government for other, wider urban developments.
<i><b>Transportation Advancements</i></b>
Some major examples were the building of highways, the Bullet-Train, Shinkansen, and a monorail that connected the inner city with the airport. There were twenty-two highways constructed and two new underground railway lines, which totaled 21.9 kilometers.
<img src="https://austinsmithjp.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/edobashi.png">
<img src="https://jto.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/p23-jtgb-a-20141005.jpg">
<img src="https://cdn.asme.org/wwwasmeorg/media/ASMEMedia/About%20ASME/WhoWeAre/History/Landmarks/211-tokaido-shinkansen_1.png">
The Tokaido Shinkansen, or Bullet Train was the fastest train in the world at that time, and nine days before the Games began, the Bullet Train transferred passengers 515.4 kilometers, in about four hours. It connected the three major metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka, and Haneda International Airport and the Port of Tokyo were expanded. “The YS-11, a commercial turboprop airplane developed in Japan, was used to transport the Olympic flame within Japan." A superior transportation system was built, which was integrated as a whole, and this allowed Tokyo the ability to meet short-term demands of the Olympics and long-term needs of growing population and traffic. This laid the foundation for Tokyo’s current prosperity. The Tokyo Olympics of 1964 were “a typical example of how mega-events serve as a ‘trigger for large-scale urban improvements’ since the 1960 Games Rome...Urban planners used the Games to improve the infrastructure of Tokyo, something badly needed due to the hasty reconstruction after 1945 and the enormous growth of the city during the rapid industrialization of the 1950s and 1960s” (Tagsold). Many Olympic cities have been analyzed recently by critics on their efforts to bring their infrastructure up to date, but “the reworking of the urban fabric in the context of mega-events in the last 50 years was nowhere as intense as in Tokyo.” Outside of standard or traditional patterns and norms, critics omit or overlook the symbolism that was involved in Tokyo’s improvements. For example, renewing of canalization may have had a more general meaning, but “the drastic improvement of hygiene standards and the revitalization of Tokyo’s main river Sumida – which had emitted quite a strong odour before – was also an important ritual of self-purification.”
(Citations by Yu and Liu, 2011 & Tagsold, 2010)
[[Tokyo Cultural Display|Tokyo Cultural Display]]</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="11" name="Tokyo Cultural Display" tags="" position="276,886" size="100,100"><b>TOKYO CULTURAL DISPLAY</b>
<i><b>Setting a New Global Standard</b></i>
Despite the architectural aspects of the Tokyo stadium being more conventional than other Olympic stadiums, when paired with Tokyo’s cultural display and incorporation of technological innovations, Tokyo’s Games were a formidable event for the time period. Communication technologies were rapidly advancing in the 1960s, and in the 1964 Games, the relationship between television and the Olympics was forever changed. Japanese technological advancements enabled the broadcast of the Olympic sports and events to be viewed live via global satellite distribution. Despite IOC strict policies and attempts to keep commercialism out of the Opening Ceremonies, Japan managed “to symbolically broadcast its post-war national identity as a peaceful and technological nation to the world, and to remind national citizens of the role of a strong, central state planned economy in guaranteeing the continued economic prosperity and social stability of the nation” (Collins, 2011). An American television host said during the Opening Ceremony’s media coverage that the Japanese team and their country is a “happy nation” who has worked “very, very hard” to get ready for the games ("Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games," 2013).
<i><b>Media Portrayal</b></i>
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<img src="https://vault.si.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cfl_progressive%2Ch_2000%2Cq_auto:good%2Cw_800/MTY5MDk1MDk2OTAzMDE4MjIz/42803---cover-image.jpg" alt="Tokyo 1964 Olympic Open <i>SI</i> Cover">
The <i>Sports Illustrated</i> issue of October 19, 1964 complemented the tireless efforts of the Japanese people, from the Emperor to the common workers. It described a scene of ten-thousand balloons and eight hundred white doves, along with colorful firecrackers released into the blue sky during the Tokyo Opening Ceremonies. Japanese technology also allowed the Olympics sports to be timed down to the hundredth second for the first time. Sounds from high-pitched electronic music set to play with throbbing gongs from sacred Japanese temples was described as “the symbols of the soul of Japanese people being transmitted to the world” (Olsen, 1964). The Japanese wanted to invite Japanese, Asians, and all world spectators to experience and “consume an understated Japanese culture of a peaceful Japan." Tokyo organizers sought to display powerful cultural symbols to define their identity, and they “strove to ‘endeavor to create a Japanese atmosphere’ that used all the senses in the Opening Ceremony.” Yoshinori Sakai, also known as “atom boy” because he was born in Hiroshima on the day in 1945, when the United States dropped the atomic bomb there, was chosen to light the Olympic cauldron. This marked or symbolized Japan’s role as the first atomic bomb victim, but the greater goal was “to garner a shared sense of humanity with the world.” To complement this, Tokyo Olympic organizers added a new intriguing touch, “a new dimension to the ceremony: fragrance.” The organizers declared, “‘From the time the Olympic Torch entered the Stadium for the Opening Ceremony to the lighting moment at the Torch Stand, chrysanthemum perfume was released over the spectator stands.’” (Collins, 2011)
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<img src="https://vault.si.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cfl_progressive%2Ch_2000%2Cq_auto:good%2Cw_800/MTY5MDk1MjYyNTI5MTM2NTIy/43198---cover-image.jpg" alt="Tokyo Olympics <i>SI</i> Cover">
The <i>Sports Illustrated</i> issue of October 5, 1964 reported that Tokyo’s stadium renovation and rebuild cost more than it would to build a new one, and that the Tokyo Games’ cost exceeded the cost of all nine previous Olympics. The bar had been set high for the Olympic host to follow. Tokyo left a precedent for [[Mexico City’s Olympic run|1968 Mexico City]].</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="12" name="Mexico City Stadium Building" tags="" position="404,976" size="100,100"><b>MEXICO CITY STADIUM BUILDING</b>
<i><b>Estadio Olímpico Universitario by Augusto Perez, Raul Salinas and Jorge Bravo Moro, Mexico City 1968</b></i>
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<img src="https://static.dezeen.com/uploads/2016/08/estadi-olimpico-universitario-augusto-perez-raul-salinas-jorge-bravo-moro-mexico-city-olympics-1968_dezeen_sq-852x852.jpg" alt="Mexico City Olympic Stadium Large Image">
<i><b><text style="font-size:60%;letter-spacing:.5px;">The stadium in Mexico City was completed in 1952, and first hosted the 1955 Pan American Games. Named "the most important building in the modern America" by architect Frank Lloyd Wright, the venue features sloping pebble-dashed external walls and was originally surrounded by patterned flooring. It was expanded for the Olympics to accommodate 83,700 spectators without altering much of the original structure.</b></i>
Mexico City’s stadium development for hosting the Olympic Games showcased much symbolism and meaning. Mexico City’s stadium complex was integrated and adapted into the urban fabric and functionality of its city, and its significance stretched into sociopolitical and cultural dimensions. In the case of Mexico City, discussing stadium building is almost one and the same as urban revitalization, along with cultural display, as the fusion of these three aspects or categories was uniquely interlaced in Mexico City.
<img src="https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DWmRPiTVMAAyCBG.jpg" alt="Aerial View Mexico City Stadium">
Mexico’s cultural display was its strongest area of effort or focus, which will be illustrated in later passages. Beginning with stadium development and urban revitalization as a combined process, a utilitarian ethos with a highly functionalist nature was imposed for the construction plans by the planning committee. In essence, “Rather than concentrate all the sports facilities in one area of the city, the committee specifically determined that they should be spread around the capital, being inserted into existing urban conurbations wherever possible.” The goal was to have the sporting structures to be integrated into urban settings, and used well beyond the advent of the Olympics, hence enhancing urban growth and progress. Furthermore, “Emphasizing the broader social value of such projects, almost all new construction and renovation projects were conducted by the Secretaría de Obras Públicas, a federal government ministry dedicated to public construction projects.” Similarly, Olympic villages that were built to house the event athletes were not developed with a short-term, one purpose plan. The housing was part of “a broader plan to extend the city’s urban development.”
(Citations from "Cleaning the Cage: Mexico City's Preparations," 2009)
[[Mexico City Urban Revitalization|Mexico City Urban Revitalization]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="13" name="Mexico City Urban Revitalization" tags="" position="550,1007" size="100,100"><b>MEXICO CITY URBAN REVITALIZATION</b>
<img src="https://99percentinvisible.org/app/uploads/2017/06/RD_Mex68Aug27night.jpg" alt="Mexico City Urban Center">
Urban revitalization in preparation for hosting the Olympics was implemented much in advance to the Games, and since Mexico was already mindful of its desires to achieve modernity and progress, urban transformation in anticipation of hosting events or exhibiting Mexican advancements was well on its way prior to the Baden Baden decision for Mexico City to be the 1968 host.
<img src="https://globalsportmatters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/mexico-city-olympic-village.jpg" alt="Mexico City Olympic Development">
According to <i>The International Journal of the History of Sport</i>, “Prestigious landmark constructions across the city bore witness to the degree of confidence shared by the business sector.” For example, “In the early 1950s, the Auditorio Nacional on the edge of Chapultepec Park was inaugurated as an exhibition, concert, and conference centre. When it was opened in 1956, the Torre Latinoamericano in Mexico City’s business quarter became the latest succession of skyscrapers in the city, and for a time it was the tallest building in Latin America. Ramírez Vásquez, the Chairman of the Mexican Organizing Committee (MOC), felt that there was no better place to display Mexico’s progress and advancement than in the host city of Mexico City itself. Elaborating upon the earlier mention of stadium building connections to urban revitalization, “frenetic construction took place in an area designated the Ciudad Universitaria (University City) on the southern outskirts of the city. Forming the nucleus of the National University, the site included many innovative designs, and a sporting arena that, in the 1960s, would be remodeled to form the centerpiece of the Olympic Games.” Designed by Ramírez Vásquez, the Estadio Azteca (Aztec Stadium) was inaugurated in May 1966, and “Conceived in 1960, this privately-financed project aimed to give Mexico City the most prestigious football stadium in the Americas. With a capacity of 100,000, it not only became a source of national pride, but also an intrinsic part of Mexico’s successful bid to win the competition to host the 1970 football World Cup. Outside of the stadium realm, another major project in Mexico City by Ramírez Vásquez was the National Anthropology Museum, which was “opened in 1964 to house artefacts from the nation’s rich pre-Columbian heritage. It, like the majority of the projects described above, was built in the south of the city among the more exclusive neighbourhoods.” These projects and developments with a regional hub of economic activity were a reflection of the growing confidence that the business sector had for Mexico City.
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<img src="https://www.artic.edu/iiif/2/761b3a80-c0d5-d5bb-790f-a8575a037e38/full/1200,/0/default.jpg?w=1200&h=800&fit=crop" alt="Mexico City Transportation Infrastructure">
Paired with this urban growth, a supporting expansion of Mexico City’s transportation infrastructure evolved. With the city’s population on the rise, the construction of new communication links was inevitable. Periférico Sur became a ring road that skirted the southern zone of the city, where most of the developments mentioned above were located. This road project was not only a “tacit recognition of the city’s growing congestion problems, but also of the city authorities’ determination to match economic developments with improvements in the infrastructure.” As another major transportation project, Mexico City’s metro system began to be developed and expanded in the early 1960s. The metro system’s routes “were designed to link districts on the limits of the city, with business centres and provincial transport points, the scheme also contributed to the economic needs of the city.” The socioeconomic progress and development created a fast rising middle class, which sparked a demand for suitable housing. Following suit for progress and modernity, an ambitious new housing project was built, “Borrowing heavily from European designs for density, modern domestic complexes, the Nonoalco-Tlatelolco housing development of the early 1960s was geared to cater for the white collar sector.”
(Citations from "Cleaning the Cage: Mexico City's Preparation," 2009)
[[Mexico City Cultural Display|Mexico City Cultural Display]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="14" name="Mexico City Cultural Display" tags="" position="689,931" size="100,100"><b>MEXICO CITY CULTURAL DISPLAY</b>
<img src="https://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/8LsAAOSwLNVazkyc/s-l400.jpg" alt="Mexico Poster">
<img src="https://www.metropolismag.com/content/uploads/2020/02/03-Pintura-plaza-_-escultura-Calder.jpg" alt="Mexico Cultural Olympiad Display">
<i><b>Cultural Olympiad</b></i>
Mexico City’s strongest area of concentration or effort could be measured in its usage of cultural display for its Olympic message. The Mexican Organizing Committee (MOC), under Ramírez Vásquez launched a cultural program that was an innovative feat for an Olympic host city. This “ambitious, broad-based cultural and visual arts program came to be known as the Cultural Olympiad.” Vásquez’s goal with the yearlong cultural campaign was to garner greater domestic support and involvement for the Olympic effort, along with a mission to alleviate negative stereotypes and doubts from abroad. The effort that for the cultural venture was so in-depth and multi-faceted that it gained a reputation as being another Olympics of its own, called the “‘parallel Olympics.’”
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<img src="https://ep01.epimg.net/especiales/2018/santuarios-olimpiadas/assets/img/mobile/teatro_der.jpg" alt="Mexico City Color">
<i><b>Western Stereotypes and The Land of Manaña</b></i>
Mexico’s task as a host was in some ways more challenging than Japan and Germany, as Mexico typically existed under a negative or derogatory foreign stereotype as an underdeveloped, “‘disorganized South’” Global South nation. Japan and Germany had both shown and been global powers, regardless of negative postwar legacies and other racist or cultural stereotypes. Mexicans and their functionality was predominantly looked upon abroad as the “‘land of manaña’” one that was lazy, unmotivated, procrastinating, and bogged down or stuck in its past. Mexico had a reputation for being an underdeveloped and “backward” country who could not emerge or rise above its socioeconomic and political problems of the past. Much of these negative attitudes were ethno-racially charged by Western superiority, and therefore, it was important for Mexicans to showcase and prove their cultural worth and virtues.
<i><b>Cultural Innovation and the Five Components of Peace</b></i>
The Olympic Charter does mention or highlight the importance of a cultural component for the Olympic Games, but “Mexico was in fact the first host country to turn an emphasis on culture into an integral aspect of the Games themselves.” “The Cultural Olympiad program involved twenty separate spheres of activities (mirroring the twenty athletic contests) and ranged from exhibitions of modern scientific advances, to a graphic arts program, film, dance, poetry, and theatre productions. There was also a ‘youth camp’ and an international sculpture competition.” Peace was a dominant goal or message for the cultural display, and five discursive components were entailed in the Cultural Olympiad. The first component entailed the usage of a peace dove as a symbolic icon, along with the depiction of Mexico as a “peacemaker” throughout the world.
<img src="https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/collections.lacma.org-images/remote_images/ma-202680-WEB.jpg?T13.JxDdU7XgxC69l57OhqujaJ51UFLK" alt="Mexico Dove Poster">
<img src="https://blogs.walkerart.org/design/files/2014/03/Wyman_Mexico_Olympics_Peace_Dove_banners_b1.jpg" alt="Peace Dove and Colors">
The second one involved “the elaboration and dissemination of an official logo that conveyed a cosmopolitan, ‘forward-looking’ sensibility via an Op-Art aesthetic.” The third component reached even further with a progressive cultural image of women, “which highlighted the presence of women in central aspects of Olympic promotion, thus reflecting both the ‘pretty face’ of Mexico but also its ‘modern’ values (i.e. emphasizing women’s upward social mobility).
<img src="https://99percentinvisible.org/app/uploads/2017/06/mexico-montage.jpg" alt="Mexico Art and Culture">
<img src="https://i.pinimg.com/736x/a9/52/9c/a9529c986ea85c9e5e53c80cc5fc28f2--mexico--mexico-city.jpg" alt="Mexico City Modern Women">
<img src="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/two-hostesses-wearing-the-mexico-1968-olympic-games-uniform-walk-in-picture-id1039849082" alt="Mexico City Olympic Dresses">
As part of this component, a Mexican “modern woman” was selected to light the Olympic cauldron during the Opening Ceremony. For Vásquez, the question of who would carry the torch into the stadium and light the cauldron was one of the most pressing matters for Mexico City’s Olympics. He was highly cognizant of following the grandeur and symbolism of the Japanese torchbearer who was born the same day as the atomic bomb dropping in Hiroshima. “‘As the first woman to light the Olympic flame, the young farmer’s daughter presented a beautiful, non-commercial image that spoke well to the political times, as well as the heritage of the host country and its quest for modernity.’”
<i><b>First Woman to Light Olympic Flame</b></i>
<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Norma_Enriqueta_Basilio_Sotelo_%281968%29.jpg/640px-Norma_Enriqueta_Basilio_Sotelo_%281968%29.jpg" alt="First Woman to Light Olympic Flame">
The fourth area of the Cultural Olympiad was elaborately staged folkloric performances, which culminated with “the arrival of the Olympic flame at the pre-Hispanic site of Teotihuacan.” This advertised a diversity and inclusiveness, which highlighted “Mexico’s cultural ‘authenticity’ while underscoring the nation’s unique commitment to racial and ethnic harmony.” The final element of the Olympiad incorporated “the liberal use of bright colors in general, thus reinforcing a popular association with Mexico as a ‘festive and exotic land.’” These five components of Mexico’s Cultural Olympiad were the doubted host’s most outward exhibition of progress and modernity for the world stage.
<img src="https://i.pinimg.com/originals/74/0f/84/740f84920d1d4717afeb7fea2d1837d3.jpg" alt="Mexico City Color Booth">
In summary, “Together they comprised a vision of Mexico in which the nation was perceived as a land where, on the one hand, international traditions demonstrated profound tolerance of political difference while, on the other, indigenous cultural traditions were framed by and interfaced seamlessly with a forward-looking embrace of modern values.” Like Tokyo, Mexico City provided a strategic and calculated balance between the old and the new, or between cultural heritage and modernity, which sought an improved domestic national identity and an enhanced international or global recognition.
(Citations by Zolov, 2004)
[[1972 Munich|1972 Munich]]</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="15" name="Munich Stadium Building and Cultural Display" tags="" position="848,896" size="100,100"><b>MUNICH STADIUM BUILDING AND CULTURAL DISPLAY</b>
In context to the Munich stadium as an architectural symbol, because of Germany’s unique challenge and looming shadow of its historical past, Munich’s strongest area of concentration or effort to show progress and modernity became stadium building.
<i><b>Olympiastadion München by Frei Otto, Munich 1972</b></i>
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<i><b><text style="font-size:60%;letter-spacing:.5px;">One of the most celebrated projects by Frei Otto – who was posthumously awarded the Pritzker Prize in 2015 – is his Olympics park in Munich. The venues demonstrate his pioneering use of tensile and membrane architecture, which he used to form lightweight canopies across large areas of the complex.</b></i>
<i><b>Recent View Inside the Munich Stadium</b></i>
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<i><b>Symbol of Democracy</b></i>
During this time period, the Olympic Games served a political function, and Olympic sports complexes in the latter part of the twentieth century especially represented postwar political instruments. Italy and Germany both had fractured national identities because of their fascist and dictatorship pasts from World War II. Munich built a new stadium that was charged with its self-conceptualized meaning of identifying as a democratic state. “The Olympic stadium in Munich became a symbol for the German democratic state after the Second World War at the time of the Games.” Leading politicians played an important role in the Olympic Organizing Committee of Munich, and they specifically “designed the Munich Games as a contrast to the Olympic Games of 1936.” This committee “wanted to set a positive, West German counter-example to the communist regime in East Germany...The intention to present to the world a democratic, cosmopolitan and amicable Germany ran through the whole concept of the Olympic Games in Munich.”
<i><b>Colorful and Refreshing Changes</b></i>
Similar to the combined or fused nature of stadium building, urban revitalization, and cultural display aspects in the analysis of Mexico City’s Olympics, Munich’s stadium discussion is interlaced with the category of cultural display and image, along with urban revitalization. The stadium decor, style, and Opening Ceremony presentation was all mindful of emulating an open and democratic feel to the event. For example, the designer Otl Aicher created “a blaze of colours and pastels of the rainbow. The seats in the stadium, the clothes of the employees and the flag group in the upper meadow field were fashioned in this new colour design. The blue, green and yellow flags were perceived to be ‘refreshing’ instead of ‘sentimental’ or ‘nationalistic.’ In addition, the pacifist character was stressed by the fact that the military was not in attendance at the opening ceremony.” Similarly, stewards and policemen did not carry any obvious weapons and were in colorful clothing, instead of police uniforms. The Organizing Committee wanted to avoid any reference or association to the “old Germany” and hoped to “produce the picture of a peaceful Federal Republic.” (Modrey, 2008)
<i><b>Distancing from the Past</b></i>
As far as the actual construction and architecture of Munich’s stadium complex, as mentioned above with the cultural display, the main goal or purpose of the structure was to be set as far opposite as possible from 1936 Berlin. Munich did not have any facilities to accommodate a mega-sporting event such as the Olympics. A new sporting complex was built specifically for the 1972 Games, four kilometers outside the center of Munich. The organizers wanted to avoid a monumental structure like that of Berlin, which gave the impression of a colossal and oversized complex and seated more spectators that imagined. The sporting complex had many adjoining or clustered buildings that lied on an impressive grandiose, green corridor. The three main arenas were united under a tent-like, transparent roof, and “This unity also matched the original idea of understatement and was intended to inspire a cheerful atmosphere in its visitors" (Modrey, 2008). The roof connections resembled Gothic lines that characterized German architecture. In addition, “A lawn stretched around the sports buildings and a newly built lake was designed to contribute to the peaceful and friendly atmosphere intended by the organisers.” Daniel Brenner described in his September 1972, <i>America</i> article, “The remarkable designs for the Olympic landscape and buildings—from the cascading tiers of the competitor’s garden apartments to the bright yellow bubble-topped portable lavatories to the color-coded seats in the floodlit-for-TV oval stadium—turn the Olympiazentrum into science fiction.” Key phrases were carved into in the roof construction of the Munich Stadium, saying, “self-confident behavior,” and “attitude of abstinence” (Modrey, 2008). The top structure was considered revolutionary for its time, and it became an iconic symbol of the Munich Olympics. “Steel cables, which were used for the first time on such a large scale, stabilized the large, sweeping canopies of acrylic glass. The construction was supposed to create an open and transparent atmosphere, which contrasted with the nation’s striving for power in the 1936 Games.” (Brenner, 1972)
<i><b>Olympiapark München | Frei Otto</b></i>
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<a href="https://www.archdaily.com/615700/video-olympiapark-munchen-frei-otto"> More Munich Stadium Information</a>
<i><b>Olympic Contradictions: Lighter and Gigantic</b></i>
Although the roof was intended to be airy and to symbolize the opposite of power or dominance, “The Munich roof has to be understood as the self-confident statement of a modern Germany.” In detail, “The 74,000 square metres of the roof construction were a sign for the mastery of modern technology and economic effectiveness. The foundation stone of the Olympic Stadium...set new worldwide benchmarks: 123 base plates had to be made; pylons, each 81 metres tall, carried the stadium roof’s 3400 tons; the cables had to withstand a pressure of 4000 tons; and the length of the whole cable span was equal to that of several apartment buildings.” Therefore, the materials that built the roof were not light and airy, as was its intended image or symbolism, but they were “assembled in amazing static construction, which emphasised the contrast between the key attributes, ‘lightness’ and ‘lightheartedness.’” In essence, “Besides the interpretation of a new, democratic and optimistic Germany, the Munich architecture was supposed to symbolize a modern and powerful Federal Republic.” On the downside, the “light” roof and less monumental stadium complex also became a symbol of Olympic “gigantism,” and the cost was no less magnanimous. “The costs of the construction of the whole Olympic area were recalculated at a Figure 400-500% higher than the initial estimate. In the end, the Olympic construction costs totaled DM 1.35 billion,” which was largely due to “the difficult and expensive construction of the roof.” (Modrey, 2008)
[[Munich Urban Revitalization|Munich Urban Revitalization]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="16" name="Munich Urban Revitalization" tags="" position="1016,873" size="100,100"><b>MUNICH URBAN REVITALIZATION</b>
Urban revitalization for the 1972 Games created much improvement and enhancement for Munich, and in turn for West Germany. Some of the major examples of developments included “fabulous new sports facilities and parkland, six thousand apartments, 1,800 student flats, three schools with 7,650 places, and a large exhibition hall.” As in Tokyo and Mexico City, in order to support or link the new sites and developments, Munich’s transportation infrastructure was dramatically improved between 1965 and 1972. “Based on the German Federal Railway’s existing grid, a star-shaped suburban rail system (S-Bahn) was completed with twelve separate lines and 134 stops, stretching thirty-five kilometers from the historic center into the region.”
<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/S-Bahn_Muenchen_Type_420.jpg/340px-S-Bahn_Muenchen_Type_420.jpg" alt="Munich S-Bahn">
A pedestrian zone was created due to tunnel lines east and west of the river being connected and the old part of the city to the new, with 4.2 kilometers of underground track. In addition, “The city’s first two subway lines (U-Bahn) were also added, the first complementing S-Bahn with a twelve-kilometer north-south axis, the second providing a speedy link between Marienplatz and the Olympic venues four kilometers away.” Many roads were built in order to alleviate traffic congestion and to meet the simultaneous “sharp rise in car ownership.” These developments would have occurred eventually over time, but the advent of hosting of the Olympic Games “brought financial support and a sense of urgency.” Munich gained what the cities of “Frankfurt and Stuttgart took decades and much greater sums to achieve. Individual car use was reduced by 40 percent, and the banning of traffic from the city center...restored the city’s historic luster.” Of course, as with most major expansions and developments, several drawbacks and urban imbalances existed, but in broader or collective terms, overall, “Munich became a more attractive city in which to live.”
(Citations by Schiller and Young)
[[Global Downturn and Olympic Hosting Decline|Global Downturn and Olympic Hosting Decline]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="17" name="Conclusion" tags="" position="1154,472" size="100,100"><b>CONCLUSION</b>
<img src="https://akm-img-a-in.tosshub.com/indiatoday/images/story/201208/closing-flame_660_081312030139.jpg" alt="Closing Ceremony">
The promise of Olympic hosting may have been at its last cusp during the rise of the 1960s decade. A recent <i>Forbes</i> article claimed that Olympic expenses have exceeded budget expectations since 1960. <i>Forbes</i> quoted a 2016 study by the Saïd Business School at the University of Oxford, “‘For a city and nation to decide to stage the Olympic Games is to decide to take on one of the most costly and financially most risky type of mega-project that exists, something that many cities and nations have learned to their peril.’” As examined through the case study comparisons, the Olympic Games of [[1964 Tokyo|1964 Tokyo]], [[1968 Mexico City|1968 Mexico City]], and [[1972 Munich|1972 Munich]], demonstrated how nations were able to utilize Olympic hosting for their own progress and modernity. Unfortunately, the 1960s were perhaps a timely boom or prospect where the benefits could still be legitimized over the drawbacks. (Kelly, 2017)
<i><b>Farewell Song at 1980 Moscow Summer Olympic Games (We Shall Meet Again)</b></i>
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<i><b>Olympic Flame Will Go Out Until Next Time</b></i>
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[[Sources|Sources]]
<b>Take the Twine Journey Again:</b>
[[Start|Start]]
[[Title Page|Title Page]]
[[The Olympic Rise of the 1960s|The Olympic Rise of the 1960s]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="18" name="Sources" tags="" position="1158,609" size="100,100"><b>SOURCES</b>
“Acclimatization Required for Olympic Athletes in 1968 Mexico City Games.” <i>The Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)</i> 190, no. 11 (1964): 31-32.
Brenner, Daniel. “The Munich Games—Showplace of a New Germany.” <i>America</i> 127, no.5 (1972): 121-123.
“Cleaning the Cage: Mexico City’s Preparations for the Olympic Games.” <i>The International Journal of the History of Sport</i> 26, no. 6 (2009): 790-813.
Collins, Sandra. “East Asian Olympic Desires: Identity on the Global Stage in the 1964 Tokyo, 1988 Seoul and 2008 Beijing Games.” <i>The International Journal of the History of Sport</i> 28, no. 16 (2011): 2240-2260.
--------. “Mediated Modernities and Mythologies in the Opening Ceremonies of 1964 Tokyo, 1988 Seoul and 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.” <i>The International Journal of the History of Sport</i> 29, no. 16 (2012): 2244-2263.
Kelly, Luke. “The Cost Of The Tokyo Olympics Is Spiraling And Other Cities Are Taking Note.” Asia/#SportsMoney. <i>Forbes</i>, August 2, 2017. www.forbes.com.
Kiuri, Miranda and Jacques Teller. “Olympic Stadiums and Cultural Heritage: On the Nature and Status of Heritage Values in Large Sport Facilities.” <i>The International Journal of Sport</i> 32, no. 5 (2015): 684-707.
Kiuri, Miranda and Sigrid Reiter. “Olympic Stadium Design: Past Achievements and Future Challenges.” <i>The International Journal of Architectural Research</i> 7, no. 2 (2013): 102-117.
Modrey, Eva Maria. “Architecture as a mode of self-representation at the Olympic Games at Rome (1960) and Munich (1972).” <i>European Review of History</i> 15, no. 6 (2008): 691-706.
Olsen, Jack. “The Doves and Gongs of Tokyo.” <i>Sports Illustrated</i>, October 19, 1964: 34-41.
“The Rank Outsider: Mexico City’s Bid for the 1968 Olympics.” <i>The International Journal of the History of Sport</i> 26, no. 6 (2009): 748-763.
Roult, Romain and Sylvain Lefebvre. “Planning and Reconversion of Olympic Heritages: The Montreal Olympic Stadium.” <i>The International Journal of the History of Sport</i> 27, nos. 16-18 (2010): 2731-2747.
Schiller, Kay and Christopher Young. <i>The 1972 Olympics and the Making of Modern Germany</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.
Tagsold, Christian. “Modernity, space and national representation at the Tokyo Olympics 1964.” <i>Urban History</i> 37, no.2 (2010): 289-300.
“Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games - Olympic Flame and Opening Ceremony.” <i>The Olympic Channel</i>. YouTube, 3 Oct. 2013. Web.
Underwood, John. “Games in Trouble.” <i>Sports Illustrated</i>, September 30, 1968: 44-51.
--------. “The Tokyo Games.” <i>Sports Illustrated</i>, October 5, 1964: 34-42.
Yu, Ying and Jiangyong Liu. “A Comparative Analysis of the Olympic Impact in East Asia: From Japan, South Korea to China.” <i>The International Journal of the History of Sport</i> 28, no. 16 (2011): 2290-2308.
Zolov, Eric. “Showcasing the ‘Land of Tomorrow’: Mexico and the 1968 Olympics.” <i>The Americas</i> 61, no. 2 (2004): 159-188.
[[Start|Start]]
[[Title Page|Title Page]]
[[The Olympic Rise of the 1960s|The Olympic Rise of the 1960s]] </tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="19" name="Title Page" tags="" position="8,466" size="100,100"><b><h1 style="font-size:200%; letter-spacing:2px;">OLYMPIC HOST CITIES OF THE 1960s ERA: FORGING NEW IDENTITIES THROUGH INTERNATIONAL MEGA-SPORTING EVENTS</h1></b>
<p><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Olympic_rings_without_rims.svg#/media/File:Olympic_rings_without_rims.svg"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Olympic_rings_without_rims.svg/800px-Olympic_rings_without_rims.svg.png" alt="Olympic Rings"></a>
<b><p style="font-size:150%;">by
MEHNAZ AHMAD</p></b>
Enter and explore [[The Olympic Rise of the 1960s|The Olympic Rise of the 1960s]]</tw-passagedata><tw-passagedata pid="20" name="Start" tags="" position="10,600" size="100,100"><i>Welcome to my Twine story titled:</i>
<b><p style="font-size:120%;">"OLYMPIC HOST CITIES OF THE 1960s ERA: FORGING NEW IDENTITIES THROUGH GLOBAL MEGASPORTING EVENTS"</b>
<img src="https://i.pinimg.com/originals/3f/ce/6c/3fce6cb1c407ecd89886bae82801b962.jpg" alt="SI 1960 Cover">
<img src="https://i.pinimg.com/originals/b5/e4/3b/b5e43bf99a7b6a4fe519ff75f5e7e52c.jpg" alt="SI 1960 Rome Cover">
<b>ABOUT MY TWINE STORY ON 1960s OLYMPIC HOSTING TRENDS</b>
My name is <a href="mail to: mehnaz.ahmad@slu.edu">Mehnaz Ahmad</a>, and I am a first year PhD History student and Diversity Fellow at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, MO, USA.
<img src="https://blogs.umsl.edu/news/files/2018/01/ahmad-400.jpg" alt="Self-Portrait">
My research interests are in transnational and global topics mainly from the 20th century. Global sports is an area that I have studied in some depth, using sports as a lens to analyze perplexing and complex global themes such as nationalism, imperialism, racism, gender, and resistance. For my Digital Humanities class project at SLU, I decided to present some of my lengthy academic research on the Olympics during the 1960s in a digital format that adds a more content consolidated yet multimedia enhanced experience.
I have used Twine as a digital medium or platform to provide an audience the ability to navigate through my argument and evidence on why the 1960s era in Olympic hosting was a pivotal moment in history for nations and cities.
<b>Watch Some Short Videos on Olympic History Then Read the Twine Story Instructions Below:</b>
<i><b>Brief Olympic History</b></i>
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<i><b>Olympic Rings Significance and History</b></i>
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<i><b>Roadmap for Your Twine Journey:</b></i>
<img src= "https://cdn.cloudelicious.net/wp-content/uploads/feature_roadmap.jpg" alt="Roadmap">
<p><b><text style="font-size:80%;letter-spacing:.5px;">
• At the bottom of each Twine story page you will find one or more blue-colored text links that will send you to the planned next segment or piece in the journey. Occasionally you may find blue text links within the reading content, but this will only be in the early part and conclusion of the story, as an option to take you directly to the Olympic events.
• The story is set up with a title page first, then four consecutive pages that provide a foundational context for the 1960s time period and correlated shifts in the Olympic system. After this, you will find three case studies or Olympic events (Tokyo, Mexico City, and Munich) that are divided into and explained by three categories (stadium building, urban revitalization, and cultural display). After the three case studies, you will go to two end pages on global downturn and Olympic hosting decline, and a topic or story conclusion on the end of the 1960s era. The final end page has a list of primary and secondary sources that were used for this research.
• The bottom of each page will usually have at least one place to go, but some pages have more than one choice, in case you wanted to skip ahead or bypass the individual case study categories. The pages at the end of the story, give you options to return to the start and beginning pages.
• All Twine story pages have arrow buttons in the top left corner of the page to go back to the previous page, and if you go back, then another forward arrow called “redo” will appear, to let you go forward again.</b></p>
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[[Let the Games Begin!|Title Page]]</tw-passagedata></tw-storydata>
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i=this.eval(r.popAttr("js")||"");this.stackTop.evaluateOnly&&i&&(c.isPrototypeOf(i)||"function"==typeof i.TwineScript_Run)&&(i=d.create("syntax","I can't work out what this "+this.stackTop.evaluateOnly+" should evaluate to, because it contains a "+c.isPrototypeOf(i)?"changer":"command.","Please rewrite this without putting changers or commands here."));var a=void 0,s=void 0,u=e();for(s=r;c.isPrototypeOf(i);){var p=y(s);if(a=p.whitespace,s=p.nextElem,s[0]instanceof Text&&"+"===s[0].textContent.trim()){var m=void 0,v=s,b=y(v);if(m=b.whitespace,s=b.nextElem,s.is(n.expression)){var w=this.eval(s.popAttr("js"));if(d.containsError(w)){i=w;break}var x=o["+"](i,w);e(a).add(v).add(m).remove(),i=d.containsError(x)?d.create("operation","I can't combine "+S(i)+" with "+S(w)+".","function"==typeof w.TwineScript_Run?"If you want to attach this changer to "+S(w)+", remove the + between them.":"Changers can only be added to other changers."):x;continue}}if(s.is(n.expression)){var 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r=e("<p>");this.stack.unshift({desc:f.create({target:r,source:t,section:this}),tempVariables:this.stackTop.tempVariables,evaluateOnly:n}),this.execute();var i=void 0;return(i=r.find("tw-error")).length>0?i:r},renderInto:function(t,r,i){var o=this,a=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:null,s=f.create({target:r,source:t,section:this});if(i)if(c.isPrototypeOf(i)){var u=i.run(s);if(d.containsError(u))return u.render(r.attr("title")).replaceAll(r),!1}else Object.assign(s,i);if(r=s.target,this.stack.length>=50)return d.create("infinite","Printing this expression may have trapped me in an infinite loop.").render(r.attr("title")).replaceAll(r),!1;var l=function(t,i){var a=r instanceof e&&r.is(n.hook)&&r.parents("tw-collapsed").length>0;o.stack.unshift({desc:t,tempVariables:i,collapses:a,evaluateOnly:o.stackTop&&o.stackTop.evaluateOnly})};if(!a){a=Object.create(this.stack.length?this.stackTop.tempVariables:p);var h=r&&r.tag();a.TwineScript_VariableStoreName=h===n.hook?r.attr("name")?"?"+r.attr("name"):"an unnamed hook":h===n.expression?"a "+r.attr("type")+" expression":h===n.passage?"this passage":"an unknown scope"}return Object.keys(s.loopVars).length?function(){var e=Object.assign({},s.loopVars),t=Math.min.apply(Math,_toConsumableArray(Object.keys(e).map(function(t){return e[t].length})));if(t){for(var n=t-1;n>=0;n-=1)!function(t){l(s,Object.keys(e).reduce(function(n,r){return n[r]=e[r][t],n},Object.create(a)))}(n);for(var n=t-1;n>=0&&!o.stackTop.blocked;n-=1)o.execute()}}():(l(s,a),this.execute()),0===this.stack.length&&this.updateEnchantments(),s.enabled},execute:function(){var r=_slicedToArray(this.stack,1),i=r[0],o=i.desc,a=i.dom,s=i.collapses,c=i.evaluateOnly;o&&!a&&(a=o.render(),this.stackTop.dom=a,this.stackTop.desc=void 0);var u=this;a.findAndFilter(n.hook+","+n.expression).each(function(){var r=e(this);switch(r.tag()){case 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e=this.stackTop;return e||t.impossible("Section.blockedValue","stack is empty"),e.blockedValues&&e.blockedValues.length||t.impossible("Section.blockedValue","blockedValues is missing or empty"),e.blockedValues.shift()}},Object.preventExtensions(k)}),define("engine",["jquery","utils","utils/selectors","state","section","passages"],function(e,t,n,r,i,o){function a(){var t=e("<tw-passage><tw-sidebar>"),i=t.children(n.sidebar);h.permalink&&r.save&&i.append('<tw-icon tabindex=0 class="permalink" title="Permanent link to this passage"><a href="#'+r.save()+'">§');var o=e('<tw-icon tabindex=0 class="undo" title="Undo">↶</tw-icon>').click(function(){return d.goBack()}),a=e('<tw-icon tabindex=0 class="redo" title="Redo">↷</tw-icon>').click(function(){return d.goForward()});return r.pastLength<=0&&o.css("visibility","hidden"),r.futureLength<=0&&a.css("visibility","hidden"),i.append(o).append(a),t}function s(e,t){return"<tw-include type="+e+" 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O=i.create(k),j=d.get("source");j=o.getTagged("header").map(s.bind(0,"header")).join("")+(h.debug?o.getTagged("debug-header").map(s.bind(0,"debug-header")).join(""):"")+j+o.getTagged("footer").map(s.bind(0,"footer")).join("")+(h.debug?o.getTagged("debug-footer").map(s.bind(0,"debug-footer")).join(""):""),r.pastLength<=0&&(h.debug&&(j=o.getTagged("debug-startup").map(s.bind(0,"debug-startup")).join("")+j),j=o.getTagged("startup").map(s.bind(0,"startup")).join("")+j),O.renderInto(j,k,{transition:b,transitionTime:w}),y.append(g.parents().length?g.parents().last():g),scroll(0,m?k.offset().top-.05*e(window).height():g.offset().top)}var u=t.escape,l=t.impossible,f=t.passageSelector,p=t.transitionOut,d=void 0,h=Object.create(null);return d={goBack:function(e){r.rewind()&&c(r.passage,e)},goForward:function(e){r.fastForward()&&c(r.passage,e)},goToPassage:function(e,t){r.play(e),c(e,t)},showPassage:c,options:h},Object.freeze(d)}),define("debugmode",["jquery","utils","state","internaltypes/varref","internaltypes/twineerror","utils/operationutils","engine","passages"],function(e,t,n,r,i,o,a,s){var c=o.objectName,u=(o.typeName,o.is),l=o.isObject;return function(){function o(){var e=y.children();d.find(".tab-variables").text(e.length+" Variable"+(1!==e.length?"s":""))}function f(n,r,i,a){var s=y.children('[data-name="'+t.escape(n+"")+'"][data-path="'+t.escape(r+"")+'"]'),u=l(i)&&i.TwineScript_DebugName?i.TwineScript_DebugName():t.escape(c(i));s.length||(s=e('<div class="variable-row" data-name="'+t.escape(n+"")+'" data-path="'+t.escape(r+"")+'" data-value="'+u+'"></div>').appendTo(y));var p="";r.length&&(p=r.reduce(function(e,t){return e+t+"'s "},"")),s.empty().append("<span class='variable-name 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n.variables)r.startsWith("TwineScript")||t.includes(r)||f(r,[],n.variables[r]);d.find(".panel-source").text(s.get(n.passage).get("source"))}var d=e("<tw-debugger>\n\t\t<div class='panel panel-variables'></div>\n\t\t<div class='panel panel-errors' hidden><table></table></div>\n\t\t<div class='panel panel-source' hidden></div>\n\t\t<div class='tabs'>\n\t\t<button class='tab tab-variables enabled'>0 Variables</button> <button class='tab tab-errors'>0 Errors</button> <button class='tab tab-source'>Source</button>\n\t\t</div>\n\t\tTurns: <select class='turns' disabled></select><button class='show-invisibles'>Debug View</button></tw-debugger>"),h=d.find(".show-invisibles");h.click(function(){e(document.documentElement).toggleClass("debug-mode"),h.toggleClass("enabled")}),["variables","source","errors"].forEach(function(e){var t=d.find(".tab-"+e),n=d.find(".panel-"+e);t.click(function(){t.toggleClass("enabled"),d.find(".tab:not(.tab-"+e+")").removeClass("enabled"),d.find(".panel").attr("hidden",""),t.is(".enabled")&&n.removeAttr("hidden")})});var g=d.find(".turns");g.change(function(e){var t=e.target.value,r=t-n.pastLength;0!==r&&(n[r<0?"rewind":"fastForward"](Math.abs(r)),a.showPassage(n.passage))}),n.on("forward",function(t){var r=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]&&arguments[1],i=n.pastLength;i>1&&g.removeAttr("disabled"),r?(g.find("[selected]").removeAttr("selected"),g.val(i)):(g.children().each(function(t,n){t>=i&&e(n).remove()}),g.append("<option value="+i+">"+(i+1)+": "+t+"</option>").val(i))}).on("back",function(){n.pastLength<=1&&g.attr("disabled"),g.find("[selected]").removeAttr("selected"),g.val(n.pastLength)}).on("load",function(e){g.empty(),g[e.length<=1?"attr":"removeAttr"]("disabled"),e.forEach(function(e,t){return g.append("<option value="+t+">"+(t+1)+": "+e.passage+"</option>")})});var y=d.find(".panel-variables");n.on("forward",p).on("back",p),n.on("load",function(){return e(".panel-variables").empty()}),r.on("set",function(e,t,r){(e===n.variables||e.TwineScript_VariableStore)&&f(t,[],r,e===n.variables?"":e.TwineScript_VariableStoreName)}).on("delete",function(e,t){e===n.variables&&y.find('[data-name="'+t+'"]:not(.temporary)').remove()}),i.on("error",function(t,r){var i=e('<tr class="error-row"><td class="error-passage">'+n.passage+'</td><td class="error-message">'+t.message+"</td></tr>");i.find(".error-message").attr("title",r);var o=d.find(".panel-errors table"),a=o.children().length+1;a>500&&o.children(":first-child").remove(),o.append(i),d.find(".tab-errors").text(a+" Error"+(1!==a?"s":""))}),e(document.body).append(d)}}),define("utils/dialog",["jquery","renderer"],function(e,t){function n(n,r,i,o){var a=e(t.exec("<tw-backdrop><tw-dialog>\n"+(r||""===r?"=><=\n<input type=text></input>\n\n=><=\n":"")+"==>\n"+(o?"|||=\n<tw-link 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n.join("")},[g(e.TypeSignature.either(String,Number,Boolean,Array))])("substring",function(e,t,n,r){return l(t,n,r)},[String,parseInt,parseInt])("lowercase",function(e,t){return t.toLowerCase()},[String])("uppercase",function(e,t){return t.toUpperCase()},[String])("lowerfirst",function(e,t){return t.replace(new RegExp(u+"+"),function(e){return e=Array.from(e),e[0].toLowerCase()+e.slice(1).join("").toLowerCase()})},[String])("upperfirst",function(e,t){return t.replace(new RegExp(u+"+"),function(e){return e=Array.from(e),e[0].toUpperCase()+e.slice(1).join("").toLowerCase()})},[String])("words",function(e,t){return t.split(new RegExp(s+"+")).filter(Boolean)},[String])(["str-repeated","string-repeated"],function(e,t,n){return t<=0?o.create("macrocall","I can't repeat this string "+t+" times."):0===n.length?o.create("macrocall","I can't repeat an empty string."):n.repeat(t)},[parseInt,String])(["str-reversed","string-reversed"],function(e,t){return[].concat(_toConsumableArray(t)).reverse().join("")},[String])(["num","number"],function(e,t){return Number.isNaN(+t)?o.create("macrocall","I couldn't convert "+f(t)+" to a number."):+t},[String])(["rgb","rgba"],function(e){for(var t,n=0;n<3;n+=1)if((t=arguments.length<=n+1?void 0:arguments[n+1])<0||t>255)return o.create("macrocall","RGB values must be whole numbers between 0 and 255, not "+f(t)+".");return(arguments.length<=4?void 0:arguments[4])<0||(arguments.length<=4?void 0:arguments[4])>1?o.create("macrocall","Alpha values must be numbers between 0 and 1 inclusive, not "+f(arguments.length<=4?void 0:arguments[4])+"."):r.create({r:arguments.length<=1?void 0:arguments[1],g:arguments.length<=2?void 0:arguments[2],b:arguments.length<=3?void 0:arguments[3],a:arguments.length<=4?void 0:arguments[4]})},[parseInt,parseInt,parseInt,m(Number)])(["hsl","hsla"],function(e,t,n,i,a){var s=" values 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Date).toDateString()},null],min:[Math.min,h(Number)],max:[Math.max,h(Number)],abs:[Math.abs,Number],sign:[Math.sign,Number],sin:[Math.sin,Number],cos:[Math.cos,Number],tan:[Math.tan,Number],floor:[Math.floor,Number],round:[Math.round,Number],ceil:[Math.ceil,Number],pow:[a(Math.pow),[Number,Number]],exp:[Math.exp,Number],sqrt:[a(Math.sqrt),Number],log:[a(Math.log),Number],log10:[a(Math.log10),Number],log2:[a(Math.log2),Number],random:[function(e,t){var n=void 0,r=void 0;return t?(n=Math.min(e,t),r=Math.max(e,t)):(n=0,r=e),r+=1,~~(Math.random()*(r-n))+n},[parseInt,e.TypeSignature.optional(parseInt)]],either:[function(){var e;return e=~~(Math.random()*arguments.length),arguments.length<=e?void 0:arguments[e]},h(v)],nth:[function(e){var t;return e<=0?o.create("datatype","(nth:)'s first value should be a positive whole number, not "+e):(t=(e-1)%(arguments.length<=1?0:arguments.length-1)+1,arguments.length<=t?void 0:arguments[t])},[parseInt,h(v)]],"":function(){var t=this;Object.keys(this).forEach(function(n){if(n){var r=t[n][0],i=t[n][1];e.add(n,function(e){for(var t=arguments.length,n=Array(t>1?t-1:0),i=1;i<t;i++)n[i-1]=arguments[i];return r.apply(void 0,n)},i)}})}}[""]()}),function(e){!function(){if(!e.requestAnimationFrame){if(e.webkitRequestAnimationFrame)return e.requestAnimationFrame=e.webkitRequestAnimationFrame,void(e.cancelAnimationFrame=e.webkitCancelAnimationFrame||e.webkitCancelRequestAnimationFrame);var t=0;e.requestAnimationFrame=function(n){var r=(new Date).getTime(),i=Math.max(0,16-(r-t)),o=e.setTimeout(function(){n(r+i)},i);return t=r+i,o},e.cancelAnimationFrame=function(e){clearTimeout(e)}}}(),"function"==typeof define&&define("requestAnimationFrame",[],function(){return e.requestAnimationFrame})}(window),define("macrolib/commands",["jquery","requestAnimationFrame","macros","utils","utils/selectors","state","passages","renderer","engine","internaltypes/twineerror","datatypes/hookset","datatypes/varbind","utils/operationutils","utils/dialog"],function(e,t,n,r,i,o,a,s,c,u,l,f,p,d){function h(e){return"("+e+" "+c.options.ifid+") "}var g=p.printBuiltinValue,y=n.TypeSignature,m=y.Any,v=y.rest,b=y.either,w=y.optional,x=Object.assign;n.addCommand("display",function(e){if(!a.hasValid(e))return u.create("macrocall","I can't (display:) the passage '"+e+"' because it doesn't exist.")},function(e,t,n){return x(e,{source:r.unescape(a.get(n).get("source"))})},[String])("print",function(){},function(e,t,n){return x(e,{source:g(n)})},[m])("go-to",function(e){if(!a.hasValid(e))return u.create("macrocall","I can't (go-to:) the passage '"+e+"' because it doesn't exist.")},function(e,n,r){return t(function(){return c.goToPassage(r,{transitionOut:e.data.t8nDepart,transitionIn:e.data.t8nArrive})}),"blocked"},[String])("undo",function(){},function(e){return o.pastLength<1?u.create("macrocall","I can't (undo:) on the first turn."):(t(function(){return c.goBack({transitionOut:e.data.t8nDepart,transitionIn:e.data.t8nArrive})}),"blocked")},[])("cycling-link",function(){if(""===(arguments.length<=0?void 0:arguments[0]))return u.create("macrocall","The first string in a (cycling-link:) can't be empty.");if(arguments.length<=(f.isPrototypeOf(arguments.length<=0?void 0:arguments[0])?2:1)){var e;return u.create("macrocall","I need two or more strings to cycle through, not just '"+(e=arguments.length-1,arguments.length<=e?void 0:arguments[e])+"'.")}},function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];var o=void 0;f.isPrototypeOf(r[0])&&(o=r.shift());var a=0,s=_slicedToArray(t.stack,1),c=s[0].tempVariables;e.data.clickEvent=function(t){a=(a+1)%r.length;var 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sense."):(arguments.length<=1?0:arguments.length-1)<=1?u.create("macrocall","I need two or more strings to create a (dropdown:) menu, not just "+(arguments.length<=1?0:arguments.length-1)+"."):void 0},function(e,t,n){for(var r=arguments.length,i=Array(r>3?r-3:0),o=3;o<r;o++)i[o-3]=arguments[o];var a=Math.max.apply(Math,_toConsumableArray(i.map(function(e){return[].concat(_toConsumableArray(e)).length}))),s="<select>"+i.map(function(e,t){return"<option"+(0===t?" selected":"")+(""===e?" disabled":"")+">"+(e||"\u2500".repeat(a))+"</option>"}).join("\n")+"</select>";e.data.dropdownEvent=function(e){var t=e.val(),r=n.set(t);if(u.containsError(r))return void e.replaceWith(r.render(t))};var c=n.set(i[0]);return u.containsError(c)?c:x(e,{source:s,append:"replace"})},[f,String,v(String)])("show",function(){},function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];return r.forEach(function(n){return n.forEach(t,function(n){var r=n.data("hiddenSource");void 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The story tried to load saved data, but there was a problem.\n"+a.message+"\n\nThat data might have been saved from a different version of this story. Should I delete it?\n(Type 'delete' and choose OK to delete it.)\n\nEither way, the story will now continue without loading the data.","",function(){e.unblock()},function(){"delete"===s.find("input").last().val()&&localStorage.removeItem(h("Saved Game")+n),e.unblock()});return r.storyElement.append(s),"blocked"}t(c.showPassage.bind(c,o.passage,!1))},[String],!1)("alert",function(){},function(e,t){r.storyElement.append(d(t,!1,function(){return e.unblock()})),e.stackTop.blocked=!0},[String],!1)("open-url",function(){},function(e,t){window.open(t,"")},[String],!1)("reload",function(){},function(){if(o.pastLength<1)return u.create("infinite","I mustn't (reload:) the page in the starting passage.");o.hasSessionStorage&&sessionStorage.removeItem("Saved Session"),window.location.reload()},[],!1)("goto-url",function(){},function(e,t){window.location.assign(t)},[String],!1),n.add("save-game",function(e,t,n){if(n=n||"",!o.hasStorage)return!1;var r=o.serialise();if(u.containsError(r))return r;if(!1===r)return!1;try{return localStorage.setItem(h("Saved Game")+t,r),localStorage.setItem(h("Saved Game Filename")+t,n),!0}catch(e){return!1}},[String,w(String)])("prompt",function(e,t,n){var i=d(t,n,function(){e.unblock(n)},function(){e.unblock(i.find("input").last().val())});r.storyElement.append(i)},[String,String])("confirm",function(e,t){r.storyElement.append(d(t,!1,function(){return e.unblock(!1)},function(){return e.unblock(!0)}))},[String])("page-url",function(){return window.location.href},[]),s.options.blockerMacros.push("prompt","confirm")}),define("macrolib/datastructures",["jquery","utils/naturalsort","macros","utils/operationutils","state","engine","passages","datatypes/lambda","datatypes/assignmentrequest","internaltypes/twineerror","internaltypes/twinenotifier"],function(e,t,n,r,i,o,a,s,c,u,l){var f=r.objectName,p=(r.typeName,r.subset),d=r.collectionType,h=r.isValidDatamapName,g=r.is,y=r.unique,m=r.clone,v=r.range,b=n.TypeSignature,w=b.optional,x=b.rest,T=b.either,S=b.zeroOrMore,k=b.Any;n.add("set",function(e){for(var t="",n=0;n<(arguments.length<=1?0:arguments.length-1);n+=1){var r=arguments.length<=n+1?void 0:arguments[n+1];if("into"===r.operator)return u.create("macrocall","Please say 'to' when using the (set:) macro.");var i=void 0;if(r.src&&r.src.varref){var a=r.src.get(),s=void 0;if(s=u.containsError(a))return s;i=r.dest.set(a)}else i=r.dest.set(r.src);if(u.isPrototypeOf(i))return i;o.options.debug&&(t+=(t?"; ":"")+f(r.dest)+" is now "+f(r.src))}return{TwineScript_TypeName:"a (set:) operation",TwineScript_ObjectName:"a (set:) operation",TwineScript_Unstorable:!0,TwineScript_Print:function(){return t&&l.create(t).render()[0].outerHTML}}},[x(c)])("put",function(e){for(var t="",n=0;n<(arguments.length<=1?0:arguments.length-1);n+=1){var r=arguments.length<=n+1?void 0:arguments[n+1];if("into"!==r.operator)return u.create("macrocall","Please say 'into' when using the (put:) macro.");var i=r.dest.set(r.src);if(u.isPrototypeOf(i))return i;o.options.debug&&(t+=(t?"; ":"")+f(r.dest)+" is now "+f(r.src))}return{TwineScript_TypeName:"a (put:) operation",TwineScript_ObjectName:"a (put:) operation",TwineScript_Unstorable:!0,TwineScript_Print:function(){return t&&l.create(t).render()[0].outerHTML}}},[x(c)])("move",function(e){for(var t="",n=0;n<(arguments.length<=1?0:arguments.length-1);n+=1){var r=arguments.length<=n+1?void 0:arguments[n+1];if("into"!==r.operator)return u.create("macrocall","Please say 'into' when using the (move:) macro.");var i=void 0,a=void 0;if(r.src&&r.src.varref){var s=r.src.get();if(a=u.containsError(s))return a;if(i=r.dest.set(s),a=u.containsError(i))return a;r.src.delete()}else if(i=r.dest.set(r.src),a=u.containsError(i))return a;o.options.debug&&(t+=(t?"; ":"")+f(r.dest)+" is now "+f(r.src))}return{TwineScript_TypeName:"a (move:) 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n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];return t*=-1,0===t?u.create("macrocall","I can't rotate these values by 0 positions."):Math.abs(t)>=r.length?u.create("macrocall","I can't rotate these "+r.length+" values by "+t+" positions."):r.slice(t).concat(r.slice(0,t)).map(m)},[parseInt,k,x(k)])("repeated",function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];if(t<=0)return u.create("macrocall","I can't repeat these values "+t+" times.");for(var o=[];t-- >0;)o.push.apply(o,r);return o.map(m)},[parseInt,x(k)])("interlaced",function(e){for(var t=arguments.length,n=Array(t>1?t-1:0),r=1;r<t;r++)n[r-1]=arguments[r];for(var i=Math.min.apply(Math,_toConsumableArray(n.map(function(e){return e.length}))),o=[],a=0;a<i;a+=1)for(var s=0;s<n.length;s+=1)o.push(m(n[s][a]));return o},[Array,x(Array)]),n.add("altered",function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];return r.map(function(n){return t.apply(e,{loop:n})})},[s.TypeSignature("via"),S(k)])("find",function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];return t.filter(e,r)},[s.TypeSignature("where"),S(k)])("all-pass",function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];var o=t.filter(e,r);return u.containsError(o)||o.length===r.length},[s.TypeSignature("where"),S(k)])("some-pass",function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];var o=t.filter(e,r);return u.containsError(o)||o.length>0},[s.TypeSignature("where"),S(k)])("none-pass",function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];var o=t.filter(e,r);return u.containsError(o)||0===o.length},[s.TypeSignature("where"),S(k)])("folded",function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];return"where"in t&&(r=t.filter(e,r)),u.containsError(r)||r.reduce(function(n,r){return t.apply(e,{making:n,loop:r})})},[T(s.TypeSignature("where via making"),s.TypeSignature("via making")),x(k)]),n.add("datanames",function(e,n){return Array.from(n.keys()).sort(t("en"))},[Map])("datavalues",function(e,n){return Array.from(n.entries()).sort(t("en",function(e){return String(e[0])})).map(function(e){return m(e[1])})},[Map])("dataentries",function(e,n){return Array.from(n.entries()).sort(function(e,n){return[e[0],n[0]].sort(t("en"))[0]===e[0]?-1:1}).map(function(e){return new Map([["name",e[0]],["value",m(e[1])]])})},[Map])("history",function(e,t){if(!t)return i.pastPassageNames();var n=t.filter(e,i.pastPassageNames().map(function(e){return a.get(e)}));return u.containsError(n)?n:n.map(function(e){return e.get("name")})},[w(s.TypeSignature("where"))])("passage",function(e,t){return u.containsError(t)?t:m(a.get(t||i.passage))||u.create("macrocall","There's no passage named '"+t+"' in this 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u.containsError(a)?a:void 0!==i?u.create("macrocall","This datamap has a data name without a value."):o},S(k))(["dataset","ds"],function(e){for(var t=arguments.length,n=Array(t>1?t-1:0),r=1;r<t;r++)n[r-1]=arguments[r];return new Set(n.filter(y).map(m))},S(k))("count",function e(t,n){for(var r=arguments.length,i=Array(r>2?r-2:0),o=2;o<r;o++)i[o-2]=arguments[o];if(i.length>1){var a=void 0,s=i.map(function(r){return e(t,n,r)});return(a=u.containsError(s))?a:s.reduce(function(e,t){return e+t},0)}var c=i[0];switch(d(n)){case"dataset":case"datamap":return u.create("macrocall","(count:) shouldn't be given a datamap or dataset.","You should use the 'contains' operator instead. For instance, write: $variable contains 'value'.");case"string":return"string"!=typeof c?u.create("macrocall",f(n)+" can't contain "+f(c)+" because it isn't a string."):c?n.split(c).length-1:0;case"array":return n.reduce(function(e,t){return e+g(t,c)},0);default:return u.create("macrocall",f(n)+" can't contain values, let alone "+f(c)+".")}},[k,x(k)])}),define("macrolib/stylechangers",["jquery","macros","utils","utils/selectors","datatypes/colour","datatypes/gradient","datatypes/changercommand","datatypes/lambda","internaltypes/changedescriptor","internaltypes/twineerror"],function(e,t,n,r,i,o,a,s,c,u){var l=t.TypeSignature,f=l.either,p=l.wrapped,d=l.optional,h=l.Any,g=l.zeroOrMore,y=[p(Boolean,'If you gave a number, you may instead want to check that the number is not 0. 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a.create("hook",[t])},function(e,t){return e.attr.push({name:t})},[String])(["for","loop"],function(e,t){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>2?n-2:0),i=2;i<n;i++)r[i-2]=arguments[i];return t.loop?a.create("for",[t,r]):u.create("datatype","The lambda provided to (for:) must refer to a temp variable, not just 'it'.")},function(e,t,n){var r=t.filter(e.section,n),i=void 0;if(i=u.containsError(r))return i;e.loopVars[t.loop]=r||[]},[s.TypeSignature("where"),g(h)])(["transition","t8n"],function(e,t){return t=n.insensitiveName(t),-1===m.indexOf(t)?u.create("datatype","'"+t+"' is not a valid (transition:)",v):a.create("transition",[t])},function(e,t){return e.transition=t,e},[String])(["transition-time","t8n-time"],function(e,t){return t<=0?u.create("datatype","(transition-time:) should be a positive number of (milli)seconds, not "+t):a.create("transition-time",[t])},function(e,t){return e.transitionTime=t,e.data.t8nTime=t,e},[Number])(["transition-depart","t8n-depart"],function(e,t){return t=n.insensitiveName(t),-1===m.indexOf(t)?u.create("datatype","'"+t+"' is not a valid transition",v):a.create("transition-depart",[t])},function(e,t){return e.data.t8nDepart=t,e},[String])(["transition-arrive","t8n-arrive"],function(e,t){return t=n.insensitiveName(t),-1===m.indexOf(t)?u.create("datatype","'"+t+"' is not a valid transition",v):a.create("transition-arrive",[t])},function(e,t){return e.data.t8nArrive=t,e},[String])("font",function(e,t){return a.create("font",[t])},function(e,t){return e.styles.push({"font-family":t}),e},[String])("align",function(e,t){var n=void 0,r=t.indexOf("><");if(!/^(==+>|<=+|=+><=+|<==+>)$/.test(t))return u.create("macrocall",'The (align:) macro requires an alignment arrow ("==>", "<==", "==><=" etc.) be provided, not "'+t+'"');if(~r){var i=Math.round(r/(t.length-2)*50);n=Object.assign({"text-align":"center","max-width":"50%"},25===i?{"margin-left":"auto","margin-right":"auto"}:{"margin-left":i+"%"})}else n="<"===t[0]&&">"===t.slice(-1)?{"text-align":"justify","max-width":"50%"}:t.includes(">")?{"text-align":"right"}:{"text-align":"left"};return n.display="block",a.create("align",[n])},function(e,t){e.styles.push(t)},[String])(["text-colour","text-color","color","colour"],function(e,t){return i.isPrototypeOf(t)&&(t=t.toRGBAString(t)),a.create("text-colour",[t])},function(e,t){return e.styles.push({color:t}),e},[f(String,i)])("text-rotate",function(e,t){return a.create("text-rotate",[t])},function(t,n){return t.styles.push({display:"inline-block",transform:function(){var t=e(this).css("transform")||"";return"none"===t&&(t=""),t+" rotate("+n+"deg)"}}),t},[Number])("background",function(e,t){return i.isPrototypeOf(t)?t=t.toRGBAString(t):o.isPrototypeOf(t)&&(t=t.toLinearGradientString(t)),a.create("background",[t])},function(t,r){var o=void 0;return o=i.isHexString(r)||i.isCSS3Function(r)?{"background-color":r}:r.startsWith("linear-gradient(")?{"background-image":r}:{"background-size":"cover","background-image":"url("+r+")"},t.styles.push(o,{display:function(){return n.childrenProbablyInline(e(this))?"initial":"block"}}),t},[f(String,i,o)]).apply(void 0,_toConsumableArray(function(){var t={color:function(){return"transparent"}},r=Object.assign(Object.create(null),{none:{},bold:{"font-weight":"bold"},italic:{"font-style":"italic"},underline:{"text-decoration":"underline"},strike:{"text-decoration":"line-through"},superscript:{"vertical-align":"super","font-size":".83em"},subscript:{"vertical-align":"sub","font-size":".83em"},blink:{animation:"fade-in-out 1s steps(1,end) infinite alternate"},shudder:{animation:"shudder linear 0.1s 0s infinite",display:"inline-block"},mark:{"background-color":"hsla(60, 100%, 50%, 0.6)"},condense:{"letter-spacing":"-0.08em"},expand:{"letter-spacing":"0.1em"},outline:[{"text-shadow":function(){var t=e(this).css("color");return"-1px -1px 0 "+t+", 1px -1px 0 "+t+",-1px 1px 0 "+t+", 1px 1px 0 "+t}},{color:function(){for(var t=e(this);t.length&&t[0]!==document;t=t.parent()){var n=t.css("background-color");if("transparent"!==n&&!n.match(/^\w+a\(.+?,\s*0\s*\)$/))return n}return"#fff"}}],shadow:{"text-shadow":function(){return"0.08em 0.08em 0.08em "+e(this).css("color")}},emboss:{"text-shadow":function(){return"0.08em 0.08em 0em "+e(this).css("color")}},smear:[{"text-shadow":function(){var t=e(this).css("color");return"0em 0em 0.02em "+t+",-0.2em 0em 0.5em "+t+", 0.2em 0em 0.5em "+t}},t],blur:[{"text-shadow":function(){return"0em 0em 0.08em "+e(this).css("color")}},t],blurrier:[{"text-shadow":function(){return"0em 0em 0.2em "+e(this).css("color")},"user-select":"none"},t],mirror:{display:"inline-block",transform:"scaleX(-1)"},upsidedown:{display:"inline-block",transform:"scaleY(-1)"},fadeinout:{animation:"fade-in-out 2s ease-in-out infinite alternate"},rumble:{animation:"rumble linear 0.1s 0s infinite",display:"inline-block"}});return["text-style",function(e,t){return t=n.insensitiveName(t),t in r?a.create("text-style",[t]):u.create("datatype","'"+t+"' is not a valid (text-style:)","Only the following names are recognised (capitalisation and hyphens ignored): "+Object.keys(r).join(", "))},function(e,t){return n.assertMustHave(r,[t]),e.styles="none"===t?[]:e.styles.concat(r[t]),e}]}()).concat([[String]]))("hover-style",function(e,t){var n=c.create(),r=(t.run(n),n.summary());return r+""=="styles"||r.every(function(e){return"styles"===e||"attr"===e})&&n.attr.every(function(e){return Object.keys(e)+""=="style"})?a.create("hover-style",[t]):u.create("datatype","The changer given to (hover-style:) must only change the hook's style.")},function(e,t){return e.data.hoverChanger=t,e.attr.push({hover:!1}),e},[a])("css",function(e,t){return t.trim().endsWith(";")||(t+=";"),a.create("css",[t])},function(t,n){return t.attr.push({style:function(){return(e(this).attr("style")||"")+n}}),t},[String])}),define("internaltypes/enchantment",["jquery","utils","internaltypes/changedescriptor"],function(e,t,n){var r={create:function(n){return t.assertOnlyHas(n,["scope","section","attr","data","changer","functions"]),Object.assign(Object.create(this),{enchantments:e()},n)},enchantScope:function(){var r=this,i=this.attr,o=this.data,a=this.functions,s=this.section,c=this.changer,u=this.scope;u instanceof e&&(u=Array.prototype.map.call(u,function(t){return e(t)})),this.enchantments=e(),u.forEach(s,function(e){var u=e.wrapAll("<tw-enchantment>").parent();if(i&&u.attr(i),o&&u.data(o),a&&a.forEach(function(e){return e(u)}),c){var l=n.create({section:s,target:u});if(c.run(l),l.update(),e.is(t.storyElement)){var f=Object.keys(Object.assign.apply(Object,[{}].concat(_toConsumableArray(l.styles))));e.css(f.reduce(function(e,t){return e[t]="inherit",e},{})),u.data({enchantedProperties:f})}}e.is(t.storyElement)&&u.css({width:"100%",height:"100%"}),r.enchantments=r.enchantments.add(u)})},disenchant:function(){this.enchantments.each(function(){var n=e(this).contents();n.unwrap();var r=e(this).data("enchantedProperties");r&&n.has(t.storyElement)&&t.storyElement.css(r.reduce(function(e,t){return e[t]="",e},{}))})}};return Object.freeze(r)}),define("macrolib/enchantments",["jquery","utils","utils/selectors","utils/operationutils","engine","passages","macros","datatypes/hookset","datatypes/changercommand","internaltypes/enchantment","internaltypes/twineerror"],function(e,t,n,r,i,o,a,s,c,u,l){function f(n,r){return t.onStartup(function(){t.storyElement.on(n.event+".enchantment","."+n.classList.replace(/ /g,"."),function(){var t=e(this),n=t.data("enchantmentEvent");n&&n(t)})}),[function(e,t){return t?c.create(r,[s.from(t)]):l.create("datatype","A string given to this ("+r+":) macro was empty.")},function(e,t){e.enabled=!1,e.transitionDeferred=!0,n.rerender&&(e.newTargets=(e.newTargets||[]).concat({target:t,append:n.rerender}));var r=_slicedToArray(e.section.stack,1),o=r[0].tempVariables,a=u.create({functions:[function(e){e.attr("class",e.children().is("tw-story, tw-sidebar, tw-passage")?n.blockClassList:n.classList)}],attr:(n.classList+"").match(/\b(?:link|enchantment-clickblock)\b/)?{tabIndex:"0"}:{},data:{enchantmentEvent:function(){if(!e.section.stackTop||!e.section.stackTop.blocked){if(n.once){var t=e.section.enchantments.indexOf(a);e.section.enchantments.splice(t,1),a.disenchant()}if(n.goto)return void i.goToPassage(n.goto,{transitionOut:n.transitionOut,transitionIn:n.transitionIn});e.section.renderInto(e.source,null,Object.assign({},e,{enabled:!0,transitionDeferred:!1}),o)}}},scope:t,section:e.section});return e.section.enchantments.push(a),a.enchantScope(),e},h(s,String)]}var p=r.is,d=a.TypeSignature,h=d.either,g=d.rest;a.addCommand("enchant",function(e,t){var n=t.summary();if(n.includes("newTargets")||n.includes("target"))return l.create("macrocall","The changer given to (enchant:) can't include a revision command like (replace:) or (append:).")},function(e,t,n){var r=u.create({scope:s.from(t),changer:n,section:e});return e.enchantments.push(r),r.enchantScope(),""},[h(s,String),c],!1);var y=["replace","append","prepend"];y.forEach(function(t){a.addChanger(t,function(e){for(var n=arguments.length,r=Array(n>1?n-1:0),i=1;i<n;i++)r[i-1]=arguments[i];return r.every(Boolean)?c.create(t,r.map(s.from)):l.create("datatype","A string given to this ("+t+":) macro was empty.")},function(n){for(var r,i=arguments.length,o=Array(i>1?i-1:0),a=1;a<i;a++)o[a-1]=arguments[a];return e(n.target).parents().filter("tw-collapsed").length>0||(n.attr=[].concat(_toConsumableArray(n.attr),[{collapsing:!1}])),n.newTargets=n.newTargets||[],(r=n.newTargets).push.apply(r,_toConsumableArray(o.filter(function(e){return!n.newTargets.some(function(n){var r=n.target,i=n.append;return p(e,r)&&t===i})}).map(function(e){return{target:e,append:t,before:!0}}))),n},g(h(s,String)))}),t.onStartup(function(){t.storyElement.on("click.enchantment",function(){Array.from(e(this).parents(".enchantment-clickblock")).sort(function(e,t){return 8&e.compareDocumentPosition(t)?1:-1}).forEach(function(t){var n=e(t).data("enchantmentEvent");n&&n()})})});var m=[{name:"click",enchantDesc:{event:"click",once:!0,rerender:"",classList:"link enchantment-link",blockClassList:"enchantment-clickblock"}},{name:"mouseover",enchantDesc:{event:"mouseenter",once:!0,rerender:"",classList:"enchantment-mouseover"}},{name:"mouseout",enchantDesc:{event:"mouseleave",once:!0,rerender:"",classList:"enchantment-mouseout"}}];m.forEach(function(e){return a.addChanger.apply(a,[e.name].concat(_toConsumableArray(f(e.enchantDesc,e.name))))}),y.forEach(function(e){m.forEach(function(t){var n=Object.assign({},t.enchantDesc,{rerender:e}),r=t.name+"-"+e;a.addChanger.apply(a,[r].concat(_toConsumableArray(f(n,r))))})}),m.forEach(function(e){var t=e.name+"-goto";a.addCommand(t,function(e,n){return e&&n?o.hasValid(n)?void 0:l.create("macrocall","I can't ("+t+":) the passage '"+n+"' because it doesn't exist."):l.create("datatype","A string given to this ("+t+":) macro was empty.")},function(n,r,i,o){var a=f(Object.assign({},e.enchantDesc,{goto:o,transitionOut:n.data.t8nDepart,transitionIn:n.data.t8nArrive}),t);return(0,_slicedToArray(a,2)[1])({section:r},s.from(i)),Object.assign(n,{source:""})},[h(s,String),String])})}),define("macrolib/links",["jquery","macros","utils","utils/selectors","state","passages","engine","datatypes/changercommand","datatypes/hookset","internaltypes/twineerror"],function(e,t,n,r,i,o,a,s,c,u){function l(e,t,r){r=r||t;var i=o.hasValid(t)&&t===r,a=e.evaluateTwineMarkup(n.unescape(r),"a link's passage name"),s=void 0;if(i){var c=a.children().length>0?"`".repeat((r.match(/`+/)||[]).reduce(function(e,t){return Math.max(e,t.length+1)},1)):"";t=c+"\0".repeat(!!c)+t+"\0".repeat(!!c)+c}else a.findAndFilter("tw-error").length&&(s=a.findAndFilter("tw-error").data("TwineError")),r=a.text();return{text:t,passage:r,error:s}}var f=t.TypeSignature,p=f.optional,d=f.rest,h=["Links can't have empty strings for their displayed text.","In the link syntax, a link's displayed text is inside the [[ and ]], and on the non-pointy side of the -> or <- arrow if it's there."],g=Object.assign;n.onStartup(function(){return e(n.storyElement).on("click.passage-link",r.internalLink,function(){var t=e(this),n=t.closest("tw-expression"),r=t.closest("tw-expression, tw-hook"),i=r.data("clickEvent"),o=r.data("section");if(!(o&&o.stackTop&&o.stackTop.blocked)){if(i){if(t.find("tw-error").length>0)return;return void i(t)}var s=n.data("linkPassageName"),c=n.data("t8nDepart"),u=n.data("t8nArrive"),l=n.data("t8nTime");return n.find("tw-enchantment").each(function(t,n){c=e(n).data("t8nDepart")||c,u=e(n).data("t8nArrive")||u,l=void 0!==e(n).data("t8nTime")?e(n).data("t8nTime"):l}),s?void a.goToPassage(s,{transitionOut:c,transitionIn:u,transitionTime:l}):t.is("[undo]")?void a.goBack({transitionOut:c,transitionIn:u,transitionTime:l}):void 0}})}),[["link","link-replace"],["link-reveal"],["link-repeat"]].forEach(function(e){return t.addChanger(e,function(t,n){return n?s.create(e[0],[n]):u.create("macrocall",h[0])},function(t,n){t.innerSource||(t.innerSource=t.source),t.source="<tw-link tabindex=0>"+n+"</tw-link>",t.append="link"===e[0]?"replace":"append",t.transitionDeferred=!0;var r=_slicedToArray(t.section.stack,1),i=r[0].tempVariables
;t.data.section=t.section,t.data.clickEvent=function(n){"link-reveal"===e[0]&&n.contents().unwrap(),t.source=t.innerSource+"",t.transitionDeferred=!1,t.section.renderInto("",null,t,i)}},[String])}),t.addCommand(["link-goto"],function(e){if(!e)return u.create.apply(u,["macrocall"].concat(h))},function(e,t,r,a){var s=void 0,c=l(t,r,a);if(r=c.text,a=c.passage,s=c.error)return s;var u=void 0;return o.hasValid(a)||(u='<tw-broken-link passage-name="'+n.escape(a)+'">'+r+"</tw-broken-link>"),u=u||"<tw-link tabindex=0 "+(i.passageNameVisited(a)>0?'class="visited" ':"")+">"+r+"</tw-link>",e.data.linkPassageName=a,e.data.section=t,g(e,{source:u,transitionDeferred:!0})},[String,p(String)])("link-undo",function(e){if(!e)return u.create("macrocall",h[0])},function(e,t,n){return i.pastLength<1?u.create("macrocall","I can't use (link-undo:) on the first turn."):(e.data.section=t,g(e,{source:"<tw-link tabindex=0 undo>"+n+"</tw-link>",transitionDeferred:!0}))},[String])("link-show",function(e){if(!e)return u.create("macrocall",h[0])},function(e,t,n){for(var r=arguments.length,i=Array(r>3?r-3:0),o=3;o<r;o++)i[o-3]=arguments[o];var a=_slicedToArray(t.stack,1),s=a[0].tempVariables;return e.data.section=t,e.data.clickEvent=function(n){n.contents().unwrap(),i.forEach(function(n){return n.forEach(t,function(n){var r=n.data("hiddenSource");void 0!==r&&t.renderInto("",null,g({},e,{source:r,target:n,transitionDeferred:!1}),s)})})},g(e,{source:"<tw-link tabindex=0>"+n+"</tw-link>",transitionDeferred:!0})},[String,d(c)]),t.addChanger(["link-reveal-goto"],function(e,t,n){if(!t)return u.create.apply(u,["macrocall"].concat(h));var r=l(e,t,n);return t=r.text,n=r.passage,r.error||s.create("link-reveal-goto",[t,n])},function(e,t,r){if(!o.hasValid(r))return void(e.source='<tw-broken-link passage-name="'+n.escape(r)+'">'+t+"</tw-broken-link>");e.innerSource||(e.innerSource=e.source);var s=i.passageNameVisited(r);e.source="<tw-link tabindex=0 "+(s>0?'class="visited" ':"")+">"+t+"</tw-link>",e.append="append",e.transitionDeferred=!0;var c=_slicedToArray(e.section.stack,1),u=c[0].tempVariables;e.data.section=e.section,e.data.clickEvent=function(t){e.source=e.innerSource,t.contents().unwrap(),e.transitionDeferred=!1,e.section.renderInto(e.innerSource+"",null,e,u),e.section.whenUnblocked(function(){return a.goToPassage(r,{transitionOut:e.data.t8nDepart,transitionIn:e.data.t8nArrive})})}},[String,p(String)])}),define("repl",["utils","engine","markup","twinescript/compiler","twinescript/environ"],function(e,t,n,r,i){e.onStartup(function(){return setTimeout(function(){t.options.debug&&(window.REPL=function(e){var t=r(n.lex("(print:"+e+")"));console.log(t);var o=i({}).eval(t);return o.TwineScript_Print?o.TwineScript_Print():o},window.LEX=function(e){var t=n.lex(e);return 1===t.length?t[0]:t})})})}),require.config({paths:{jquery:"../node_modules/jquery/dist/jquery",almond:"../node_modules/almond/almond","es6-shim":"../node_modules/es6-shim/es6-shim",requestAnimationFrame:"../node_modules/requestanimationframe/app/requestAnimationFrame",jqueryplugins:"utils/jqueryplugins",markup:"./markup/markup",lexer:"./markup/lexer",patterns:"./markup/patterns"},deps:["jquery","es6-shim","jqueryplugins"]}),require(["jquery","debugmode","renderer","state","engine","passages","utils","utils/selectors","utils/dialog","macros","macrolib/values","macrolib/commands","macrolib/datastructures","macrolib/stylechangers","macrolib/enchantments","macrolib/links","repl"],function($,DebugMode,Renderer,State,Engine,Passages,Utils,Selectors,Dialog){function __HarloweEval(text){return eval(text+"")}function printJSError(e){var t=e.name+": "+e.message;if(e.stack){var n=e.stack.split("\n"),r=n.findIndex(function(e){return e.includes("__HarloweEval")});t+="\n"+n.slice(0,r).join("\n").replace(/\([^\)]+\)/g,"")}return"<div style='font-family:monospace;overflow-y:scroll;max-height:30vh'>```"+t+"```</div>"}var _installHandlers=function(){$(document.documentElement).on("keydown",function(e){13===e.which&&"0"===e.target.getAttribute("tabindex")&&$(e.target).trigger("click")}),Engine.options.debug&&DebugMode(),_installHandlers=null};!function(e){window.onerror=function(t,n,r,i,o){window.onerror=e,Utils.storyElement.parent().append(Dialog("Sorry to interrupt, but this page's code has got itself in a mess.\n\n"+printJSError(o)+"\n(This is probably due to a bug in the Harlowe game engine.)",void 0,function(){})),"function"==typeof e&&e.apply(void 0,arguments)}}(window.onerror),Utils.onStartup(function(){var e=$(Selectors.storyData);if(0!==e.length){var t=e.attr("options");t&&t.split(/\s/).forEach(function(e){Renderer.options[e]=Engine.options[e]=!0});var n=e.attr("startnode");Renderer.options.ifid=Engine.options.ifid=e.attr("ifid"),n||(n=[].reduce.call($(Selectors.passageData),function(e,t){var n=t.getAttribute("pid");return n<e?n:e},1/0)),n=$(Selectors.passageData+"[pid="+n+"]").attr("name"),_installHandlers();var r=!1;$(Selectors.script).each(function(e){try{__HarloweEval($(this).html())}catch(t){r||(r=!0,Utils.storyElement.parent().append(Dialog("There is a problem with this story's "+Utils.nth(e+1)+" script:\n\n"+printJSError(t),void 0,function(){})))}}),$(Selectors.stylesheet).each(function(e){$(document.head).append('<style data-title="Story stylesheet '+(e+1)+'">'+$(this).html())});var i=!Engine.options.debug&&State.hasSessionStorage&&sessionStorage.getItem("Saved Session");if(i&&!0===State.deserialise(i))return void Engine.showPassage(State.passage,!1);Engine.goToPassage(n)}})}),define("harlowe",function(){}),require(["harlowe"])}();
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