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title document date audience author toc toc-depth
Pattern Matching
P1371R1
2019-06-17
Evolution
name email
Sergei Murzin
<smurzin@bloomberg.net>
name email
Michael Park
<mcypark@gmail.com>
name email
David Sankel
<dsankel@bloomberg.net>
name email
Dan Sarginson
<dsarginson@bloomberg.net>
true
4

\pagebreak

Revision History

  • R1
    • Modified [Wildcard Pattern] to use __ (double underscore).
    • Added new patterns [Case Pattern] and [Binding Pattern].
    • Removed ^ from [Expression Pattern].
    • Modified [Dereference Pattern] to *! and *?.
    • Added [Structured Binding Pattern] usage in variable declaration.
  • R0 --- Merged [@P1260R0] and [@P1308R0]

Introduction

As algebraic data types gain better support in C++ with facilities such as tuple and variant, the importance of mechanisms to interact with them have increased. While mechanisms such as apply and visit have been added, their usage is quite complex and limited even for simple cases. Pattern matching is a widely adopted mechanism across many programming languages to interact with algebraic data types that can help greatly simplify C++. Examples of programming languages include text-based languages such as SNOBOL back in the 1960s, functional languages such as Haskell and OCaml, and "mainstream" languages such as Scala, Swift, and Rust.

This paper is a result of collaboration between the authors of [@P1260R0] and [@P1308R0]. A joint presentation by the authors of the two proposals was given in EWGI at the San Diego 2018 meeting, with the closing poll: "Should we commit additional committee time to pattern matching?" --- SF: 14, WF: 0, N: 1, WA: 0, SA: 0

Motivation and Scope

Virtually every program involves branching on some predicates applied to a value and conditionally binding names to some of its components for use in subsequent logic. Today, C++ provides two types of selection statements: the if statement and the switch statement.

Since switch statements can only operate on a single integral value and if statements operate on an arbitrarily complex boolean expression, there is a significant gap between the two constructs even in inspection of the "vocabulary types" provided by the standard library.

In C++17, structured binding declarations [@P0144R2] introduced the ability to concisely bind names to components of tuple-like values. The proposed direction of this paper aims to naturally extend this notion by performing structured inspection with inspect statements and expressions. The goal of inspect is to bridge the gap between switch and if statements with a declarative, structured, cohesive, and composable mechanism.

\pagebreak

Before/After Comparisons

Matching Integrals

::: tonytable

Before

switch (x) {
  case 0: std::cout << "got zero"; break;
  case 1: std::cout << "got one"; break;
  default: std::cout << "don't care";
}

After

inspect (x) {
  0: std::cout << "got zero";
  1: std::cout << "got one";
  __: std::cout << "don't care";
}

:::

Matching Strings

::: tonytable

Before

if (s == "foo") {
  std::cout << "got foo";
} else if (s == "bar") {
  std::cout << "got bar";
} else {
  std::cout << "don't care";
}

After

inspect (s) {
  "foo": std::cout << "got foo";
  "bar": std::cout << "got bar";
  __: std::cout << "don't care";
}

:::

Matching Tuples

::: tonytable

Before

auto&& [x, y] = p;
if (x == 0 && y == 0) {
  std::cout << "on origin";
} else if (x == 0) {
  std::cout << "on y-axis";
} else if (y == 0) {
  std::cout << "on x-axis";
} else {
  std::cout << x << ',' << y;
}

After

inspect (p) {
  [0, 0]: std::cout << "on origin";
  [0, y]: std::cout << "on y-axis";
  [x, 0]: std::cout << "on x-axis";
  [x, y]: std::cout << x << ',' << y;
}

:::

\pagebreak

Matching Variants

::: tonytable

Before

struct visitor {
  void operator()(int i) const {
    os << "got int: " << i;
  }
  void operator()(float f) const {
    os << "got float: " << f;
  }
  std::ostream& os;
};
std::visit(visitor{strm}, v);

After

inspect (v) {
  <int> i: strm << "got int: " << i;
  <float> f: strm << "got float: " << f;
}

:::

Matching Polymorphic Types

struct Shape { virtual ~Shape() = default; };
struct Circle : Shape { int radius; };
struct Rectangle : Shape { int width, height; };

::: tonytable

Before

virtual int Shape::get_area() const = 0;

int Circle::get_area() const override {
  return 3.14 * radius * radius;
}
int Rectangle::get_area() const override {
  return width * height;
}

After

int get_area(const Shape& shape) {
  return inspect (shape) {
    <Circle>    [r]    => 3.14 * r * r,
    <Rectangle> [w, h] => w * h
  }
}

:::

\pagebreak

Evaluating Expression Trees

struct Expr;

struct Neg {
  std::shared_ptr<Expr> expr;
};

struct Add {
  std::shared_ptr<Expr> lhs, rhs;
};

struct Mul {
  std::shared_ptr<Expr> lhs, rhs;
};

struct Expr : std::variant<int, Neg, Add, Mul> {
  using variant::variant;
};

namespace std {
  template <>
  struct variant_size<Expr> : variant_size<Expr::variant> {};

  template <std::size_t I>
  struct variant_alternative<I, Expr> : variant_alternative<I, Expr::variant> {};
}

::: tonytable

Before / After

int eval(const Expr& expr) {
  struct visitor {
    int operator()(int i) const {
      return i;
    }
    int operator()(const Neg& n) const {
      return -eval(*n.expr);
    }
    int operator()(const Add& a) const {
      return eval(*a.lhs) + eval(*a.rhs);
    }
    int operator()(const Mul& m) const {
      // Optimize multiplication by 0.
      if (int* i = std::get_if<int>(m.lhs.get()); i && *i == 0) {
        return 0;
      }
      if (int* i = std::get_if<int>(m.rhs.get()); i && *i == 0) {
        return 0;
      }
      return eval(*m.lhs) * eval(*m.rhs);
    }
  };
  return std::visit(visitor{}, expr);
}
int eval(const Expr& expr) {
  return inspect (expr) {
    <int> i => i,
    <Neg> [*? e] => -eval(e),
    <Add> [*? l, *? r] => eval(l) + eval(r),
    // Optimize multiplication by 0.
    <Mul> [*? (<int> 0), __] => 0,
    <Mul> [__, *? (<int> 0)] => 0,
    <Mul> [*? l, *? r] => eval(l) * eval(r)
  };
}

:::

\pagebreak

Patterns In Declarations

::: tonytable

Before / After

auto const& [topLeft, unused] = getBoundaryRectangle();
auto const& [topBoundary, leftBoundary] = topLeft;
auto const& [[topBoundary, leftBoundary], __] = getBoundaryRectangle();

:::

\pagebreak

Design Overview

Basic Syntax

There are two forms of inspect: the statement form and the expression form.

| inspect constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) { | pattern guardopt : statement | pattern guardopt : statement | ... | }

| inspect constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) trailing-return-typeopt { | pattern guardopt => expression , | pattern guardopt => expression , | ... | }

| guard: | if ( expression )

::: note The expression form is roughly equivalent to:

| std::invoke([&]() trailing-return-typeopt { | inspect constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) { | pattern guardopt : return expression ; | pattern guardopt : return expression ; | ... | } | }) :::

Basic Model

Within the parentheses, the inspect statement is equivalent to switch and if statements except that no conversion nor promotion takes place in evaluating the value of its condition.

When the inspect statement is executed, its condition is evaluated and matched in order (first match semantics) against each pattern. If a pattern successfully matches the value of the condition and the boolean expression in the guard evaluates to true (or if there is no guard at all), control is passed to the statement following the matched pattern label. If the guard expression evaluates to false, control flows to the subsequent pattern.

If no pattern matches, none of the statements are executed for the statement form and std::no_match exception is thrown for the expression form.

\pagebreak

Types of Patterns

Primary Patterns

Wildcard Pattern

The wildcard pattern has the form:

| __

and matches any value v.

int v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
    __: std::cout << "ignored";
//  ^^ wildcard pattern
}

This paper adopts the wildcard identifier __, preferred as an example spelling in [@P1110R0]. The authors of this paper attempted to reserve _ for wildcard purposes in [@P1469R0] but consensus in EWG was firmly against this option.

Identifier Pattern

The identifier pattern has the form:

| identifier

and matches any value v. The identifier behaves as an lvalue referring to v, and is in scope from its point of declaration until the end of the statement following the pattern label.

int v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
    x: std::cout << x;
//  ^ identifier pattern
}

[If the identifier pattern is used at the top-level, it has the same syntax as a goto label.]{.note}

Expression Pattern

The expression pattern has the form:

| constant-expression

and matches value v if a call to member e.match(v) or else a non-member ADL-only match(e, v) is contextually convertible to bool and evaluates to true where e is constant-expression.

The default behavior of match(x, y) is x == y.

int v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
    0: std::cout << "got zero";
    1: std::cout << "got one";
//  ^ expression pattern
}
enum class Color { Red, Green, Blue };
Color color = /* ... */;

inspect (color) {
    Color::Red:   // ...
    Color::Green: // ...
    Color::Blue:  // ...
//  ^^^^^^^^^^^ expression pattern
}

[By default, an identifier is an [Identifier Pattern]. See [Case Pattern] and [Binding Pattern].]{.note}

static constexpr int zero = 0, one = 1;
int v = 42;

inspect (v) {
    zero: std::cout << zero;
//  ^^^^ identifier pattern
}

// prints: 42

Compound Patterns

Structured Binding Pattern

The structured binding pattern has the following two forms:

| [ _pattern_0 , _pattern_1 , ... , _pattern_N ] | [ _designator_0 : _pattern_0 , _designator_1 : _pattern_1 , ... , _designator_N : _pattern_N ]

The first form matches value v if each patterni matches the i^th^ component of v. The components of v are given by the structured binding declaration: auto&& [__e0, __e1, ..., __eN] = v; where each __ei are unique exposition-only identifiers.

std::pair<int, int> p = /* ... */;

inspect (p) {
    [0, 0]: std::cout << "on origin";
    [0, y]: std::cout << "on y-axis";
//      ^ identifier pattern
    [x, 0]: std::cout << "on x-axis";
//      ^ expression pattern
    [x, y]: std::cout << x << ',' << y;
//  ^^^^^^ structured binding pattern
}

\pagebreak

The second form matches value v if each patterni matches the direct non-static data member of v named identifier from each designatori. If an identifier from any designatori does not refer to a direct non-static data member of v, the program is ill-formed.

struct Player { std::string name; int hitpoints; int coins; };

void get_hint(const Player& p) {
    inspect (p) {
        [.hitpoints: 1]: std::cout << "You're almost destroyed. Give up!\n";
        [.hitpoints: 10, .coins: 10]: std::cout << "I need the hints from you!\n";
        [.coins: 10]: std::cout << "Get more hitpoints!\n";
        [.hitpoints: 10]: std::cout << "Get more ammo!\n";
        [.name: n]: {
            if (n != "The Bruce Dickenson") {
                std::cout << "Get more hitpoints and ammo!\n";
            } else {
                std::cout << "More cowbell!\n";
            }
        }
    }
}

[Unlike designated initializers, the order of the designators need not be the same as the declaration order of the members of the class.]{.note}

Alternative Pattern

The alternative pattern has the following forms:

| < auto > pattern | < concept > pattern | < type > pattern | < constant-expression > pattern

Let v be the value being matched and V be std::remove_cvref_t<decltype(v)>.\newline Let Alt be the entity inside the angle brackets.

Case 1: std::variant-like

If std::variant_size_v<V> is well-formed and evaluates to an integral, the alternative pattern matches v if Alt is compatible with the current index of v and pattern matches the active alternative of v.

Let I be the current index of v given by a member v.index() or else a non-member ADL-only index(v). The active alternative of v is given by std::variant_alternative_t<I, V>& initialized by a member v.get<I>() or else a non-member ADL-only get<I>(v).

Alt is compatible with I if one of the following four cases is true:

  • Alt is auto
  • Alt is a concept and std::variant_alternative_t<I, V> satisfies the concept.
  • Alt is a type and std::is_same_v<Alt, std::variant_alternative_t<I, V>> is true
  • Alt is a constant-expression that can be used in a switch and is the same value as I.

::: tonytable

Before {width=.53}

std::visit([&](auto&& x) {
  strm << "got auto: " << x;
}, v);

After {width=.47}

inspect (v) {
  <auto> x: strm << "got auto: " << x;
}
std::visit([&](auto&& x) {
  using X = std::remove_cvref_t<decltype(x)>;
  if constexpr (C1<X>()) {
    strm << "got C1: " << x;
  } else if constexpr (C2<X>()) {
    strm << "got C2: " << x;
  }
}, v);
inspect (v) {
  <C1> c1: strm << "got C1: " << c1;
  <C2> c2: strm << "got C2: " << c2;
}
std::visit([&](auto&& x) {
  using X = std::remove_cvref_t<decltype(x)>;
  if constexpr (std::is_same_v<int, X>) {
    strm << "got int: " << x;
  } else if constexpr (
      std::is_same_v<float, X>) {
    strm << "got float: " << x;
  }
}, v);
inspect (v) {
  <int> i: strm << "got int: " << i;
  <float> f: strm << "got float: " << f;
}
std::variant<int, int> v = /* ... */;

std::visit([&](int x) {
  strm << "got int: " << x;
}, v);
std::variant<int, int> v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
  <int> x: strm << "got int: " << x;
}
std::variant<int, int> v = /* ... */;

std::visit([&](auto&& x) {
  switch (v.index()) {
    case 0: {
      strm << "got first: " << x; break;
    }
    case 1: {
      strm << "got second: " << x; break;
    }
  }
}, v);
std::variant<int, int> v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
  <0> x: strm << "got first: " << x;
  <1> x: strm << "got second: " << x;
}

:::

\pagebreak

Case 2: std::any-like

| < type > pattern

If Alt is a type and there exists a valid non-member ADL-only any_cast<Alt>(&v), let p be its result. The alternative pattern matches if p contextually converted to bool evaluates to true, and pattern matches *p.

::: tonytable

Before {width=.52}

std::any a = 42;

if (int* i = any_cast<int>(&a)) {
  std::cout << "got int: " << *i;
} else if (float* f = any_cast<float>(&a)) {
  std::cout << "got float: " << *f;
}

After {width=.53}

std::any a = 42;

inspect (a) {
  <int> i: std::cout << "got int: " << i;
  <float> f: std::cout << "got float: " << f;
}

:::

Case 3: Polymorphic Types

| < type > pattern

If Alt is a type and std::is_polymorphic_v<V> is true, let p be dynamic_cast<Alt'*>(&v) where Alt' has the same cv-qualifications as decltype(&v). The alternative pattern matches if p contextually converted to bool evaluates to true, and pattern matches *p.

While the semantics of the pattern is specified in terms of dynamic_cast, [@N3449] describes techniques involving vtable pointer caching and hash conflict minimization that are implemented in the [@Mach7] library, as well as mentions of further opportunities available for a compiler intrinsic.

Given the following definition of a Shape class hierarchy:

struct Shape { virtual ~Shape() = default; };

struct Circle : Shape { int radius; };
struct Rectangle : Shape { int width, height; };

::: tonytable

Before

virtual int Shape::get_area() const = 0;

int Circle::get_area() const override {
  return 3.14 * radius * radius;
}

int Rectangle::get_area() const override {
  return width * height;
}

After

int get_area(const Shape& shape) {
  inspect (shape) {
    <Circle> [r]: return 3.14 * r * r;
    <Rectangle> [w, h]: return w * h;
  }
}

:::

\pagebreak

Parenthesized Pattern

The parenthesized pattern has the form:

| ( pattern )

and matches value v if pattern matches v.

std::variant<Point, /* ... */> v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
    <Point> ([x, y]): // ...
//          ^^^^^^^^ parenthesized pattern
}

Case Pattern

The case pattern has the form:

| case pattern

and matches value v if pattern matches v with [Identifier Pattern] recursively interpreted as id-expression.

[An inner [Binding Pattern] would recursively interpret [Identifier Pattern] as binding again]{.note}

enum Color { Red, Green, Blue };
Color color = /* ... */;

inspect (color) {
    case Red:   // ...
    case Green: // ...
//       ^^^^^ id-expression
    case Blue:  // ...
//  ^^^^^^^^^ case pattern
}
static constexpr int zero = 0;
int v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
    case zero: std::cout << "got zero";
//       ^^^^ id-expression
    case 1: std::cout << "got one";
//       ^ expression pattern
    case 2: std::cout << "got two";
//  ^^^^^^ case pattern
}

\pagebreak

static constexpr int zero = 0, one = 1;
std::pair<int, int> p = /* ... */

inspect (p) {
    case [zero, one]: {
//        ^^^^  ^^^ id-expression
      std::cout << zero << ' ' << one;
//    Note that    ^^^^ and       ^^^ are id-expressions
//    that refer to the `static constexpr` variables.
    }
}

Binding Pattern

The binding pattern has the following two forms:

| let pattern | let identifier = pattern

Both forms match value v if pattern matches v. For the second form, the identifier creates a binding to v.

The top-level pattern is implicitly the first form.

[[@P1371R0] had used @ for the syntax of the second form. EWG gave clear guidance that this would not be accepted. Other options considered are: %, $, :=, as and by.]{.note}

int v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
    /* let */ x: std::cout << x;
//            ^ identifier pattern
}
static constexpr int two = 2;
int v = 42;

inspect (v) {
    let 0: std::cout << "got zero";
//      ^ expression pattern
    let 1: std::cout << "got one";
//  ^^^^^ let pattern
    let two: std::cout << two;
//      ^^^ identifier pattern
}

// prints: 42

\pagebreak

static constexpr int zero = 0, one = 1;
std::pair<int, std::pair<int, int>> p = /* ... */

inspect (p) {
    case [zero, let [x, y]]: std::cout << "got zero" << ' ' << x << ' ' << y;
//                   ^  ^ identifier pattern
    case [one, let [x, y]]: std::cout << "got one" << ' ' << x << ' ' << y;
//             ^^^^^^^^^^  binding pattern
}
std::variant<Point, /* ... */> v = /* ... */;

inspect (v) {
    <Point> (let p = [x, y]): // ...
//           ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ binding pattern
}

Dereference Pattern

The dereference pattern has the following forms:

| * ! pattern | * ? pattern

The first form matches value v if pattern matches *v. The second form matches value v if v is contextually convertible to bool and evaluates to true, and pattern matches *v.

struct Node {
    int value;
    std::unique_ptr<Node> lhs, rhs;
};

void print_leftmost(const Node& node) {
    inspect (node) {
        [.value: v, .lhs: nullptr]: std::cout << v << '\n';
        [.lhs: *! l]: print_leftmost(l);
//             ^^^^ dereference pattern
    }
}

[Refer to [Red-black Tree Rebalancing] for a more complex example.]{.note}

\pagebreak

Extractor Pattern

The extractor pattern has the following two forms:

| ( constant-expression ! pattern ) | ( constant-expression ? pattern )

Let c be the constant-expression. The first form matches value v if pattern matches e where e is the result of a call to member c.extract(v) or else a non-member ADL-only extract(c, v).

template <typename T>
struct Is {
    template <typename Arg>
    Arg&& extract(Arg&& arg) const {
        static_assert(std::is_same_v<T, std::remove_cvref_t<Arg>>);
        return std::forward<Arg>(arg);
    }
};

template <typename T>
inline constexpr Is<T> is;

// P0480: `auto&& [std::string s, int i] = f();`
inspect (f()) {
    [(is<std::string>! s), (is<int>! i)]: // ...
//   ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^^^^^ extractor pattern
}

For second form, let e be the result of a call to member c.try_extract(v) or else a non-member ADL-only try_extract(c, v). It matches value v if e is contextually convertible to bool, evaluates to true, and pattern matches *e.

struct Email {
    std::optional<std::array<std::string_view, 2>>
    try_extract(std::string_view sv) const;
};

inline constexpr Email email;

struct PhoneNumber {
    std::optional<std::array<std::string_view, 3>>
    try_extract(std::string_view sv) const;
};

inline constexpr PhoneNumber phone_number;

inspect (s) {
    (email? [address, domain]): std::cout << "got an email";
    (phone_number? ["415", __, __]): std::cout << "got a San Francisco phone number";
//  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ extractor pattern
}

Pattern Guard

The pattern guard has the form:

| if ( expression )

Let e be the result of expression contextually converted to bool. If e is true, control is passed to the corresponding statement. Otherwise, control flows to the subsequent pattern.

The pattern guard allows to perform complex tests that cannot be performed within the pattern. For example, performing tests across multiple bindings:

inspect (p) {
    [x, y] if (test(x, y)): std::cout << x << ',' << y << " passed";
//         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ pattern guard
}

This also diminishes the desire for fall-through semantics within the statements, an unpopular feature even in switch statements.

inspect constexpr

Every pattern is able to determine whether it matches value v as a boolean expression in isolation. Let MATCHES be the condition for which a pattern matches a value v. Ignoring any potential optimization opportunities, we're able to perform the following transformation:

::: tonytable

inspect {width=.4}

inspect (v) {
  pattern1 if (cond1): stmt1
  pattern2: stmt2
  // ...
}

if {width=.6}

if (MATCHES(pattern1, v) && cond1) stmt1
else if (MATCHES(pattern2, v)) stmt2
// ...

:::

inspect constexpr is then formulated by applying constexpr to every if branch.

::: tonytable

inspect constexpr {width=.4}

inspect constexpr (v) {
  pattern1 if (cond1): stmt1
  pattern2: stmt2
  // ...
}

if constexpr {width=.6}

if constexpr (MATCHES(pattern1, v) && cond1) stmt1
else if constexpr (MATCHES(pattern2, v)) stmt2
// ...

:::

\pagebreak

Exhaustiveness and Usefulness

inspect can be declared [[strict]] for implementation-defined exhaustiveness and usefulness checking.

Exhaustiveness means that all values of the type of the value being matched is handled by at least one of the cases. For example, having a __: case makes any inspect statement exhaustive.

Usefulness means that every case handles at least one value of the type of the value being matched. For example, any case that comes after a __: case would be useless.

Warnings for pattern matching [@Warnings] discusses and outlines an algorithm for exhaustiveness and usefulness for OCaml, and is the algorithm used by Rust.

Refutability

Patterns that cannot fail to match are said to be irrefutable in contrast to refutable patterns which can fail to match. For example, the identifier pattern is irrefutable whereas the expression pattern is refutable.

The distinction is useful in reasoning about which patterns should be allowed in which contexts. For example, the structured bindings declaration is conceptually a restricted form of pattern matching. With the introduction of expression pattern in this paper, some may question whether structured bindings declaration should be extended for examples such as auto [0, x] = f();.

This is ultimately a question of whether structured bindings declaration supports refutable patterns or if it is restricted to irrefutable patterns.

\pagebreak

Proposed Wording

The following is the beginning of an attempt at a syntactic structure.

Add to §8.4 [stmt.select] of ...

\pnum{1}Selection statements choose one of several flows of control.

| selection-statement: | if constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) statement | if constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) statement else statement | switch ( init-statementopt condition ) statement | [inspect constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) trailing-return-typeopt { inspect-case-seq }]{.add}

::: add | inspect-case-seq: | inspect-statement-case-seq | inspect-expression-case-seq

| inspect-statement-case-seq: | inspect-statement-case | inspect-statement-case-seq inspect-statement-case

| inspect-expression-case-seq: | inspect-expression-case | inspect-expression-case-seq , inspect-expression-case

| inspect-statement-case: | inspect-pattern inspect-guardopt : statement

| inspect-expression-case: | inspect-pattern inspect-guardopt => assignment-expression

| inspect-pattern: | wildcard-pattern | identifier-pattern | expression-pattern | structured-binding-pattern | alternative-pattern | binding-pattern | dereference-pattern | extractor-pattern

| inspect-guard: | if ( expression ) :::

Change §9.1 [dcl.dcl]

| simple-declaration: | decl-specifier-seq init-declarator-listopt ; | attribute-specifier-seq decl-specifier-seq init-declarator-list ; | [attribute-specifier-seqopt decl-specifier-seq ref-qualifieropt [ identifier-list ] initializer ;]{.rm} | [attribute-specifier-seqopt decl-specifier-seq ref-qualifieropt structured-binding-pattern initializer ;]{.add}

\pagebreak

Design Decisions

Extending Structured Bindings Declaration

The design is intended to be consistent and to naturally extend the notions introduced by structured bindings. That is, The subobjects are referred to rather than being assigned into new variables.

We propose any irrefutable pattern to be allowed in structured binding declaration, as it does not introduce any new behaviour. A separate paper will explore possibility of allowing refutable patterns to be used in declarations.

inspect rather than switch

This proposal introduces a new inspect statement rather than trying to extend the switch statement. [@P0095R0] had proposed extending switch and received feedback to "leave switch alone" in Kona 2015.

The following are some of the reasons considered:

  • switch allows the case labels to appear anywhere, which hinders the goal of pattern matching in providing structured inspection.
  • The fall-through semantics of switch generally results in break being attached to every case, and is known to be error-prone.
  • switch is purposely restricted to integrals for guaranteed efficiency. The primary goal of pattern matching in this paper is expressiveness while being at least as efficient as the naively hand-written code.

First Match rather than Best Match

The proposed matching algorithm has first match semantics. The choice of first match is mainly due to complexity. Our overload resolution rules for function declarations are extremely complex and is often a mystery.

Best match via overload resolution for function declarations are absolutely necessary due to the non-local and unordered nature of declarations. That is, function declarations live in different files and get pulled in via mechanisms such as #include and using declarations, and there is no defined order of declarations like Haskell does, for example. If function dispatching depended on the order of #include and/or using declarations being pulled in from hundreds of files, it would be a complete disaster.

Pattern matching on the other hand do not have this problem because the construct is local and ordered in nature. That is, all of the candidate patterns appear locally within inspect (x) { /* ... */ } which cannot span across multiple files, and appear in a specified order. This is consistent with try/catch for the same reasons: locality and order.

Consider also the amount of limitations we face in overload resolution due to the opacity of user-defined types. T* is related to unique_ptr<T> as it is to vector<T> as far as the type system is concerned. This limitation will likely be even bigger in a pattern matching context with the amount of customization points available for user-defined behavior.

Unrestricted Side Effects

We considered the possibility of restricting side-effects within patterns. Specifically whether modifying the value currently being matched in the middle of evaluation should have defined behavior.

The consideration was due to potential optimization opportunities.

bool f(int &);  // defined in a different translation unit.
int x = 1;

inspect (x) {
  0: std::cout << 0;
  1 if (f(x)): std::cout << 1;
  2: std::cout << 2;
}

If modifying the value currently being matched has undefined behavior, a compiler can assume that f (defined in a different translation unit) will not change the value of x. This means that the compiler can generate code that uses a jump table to determine which of the patterns match.

If on the other hand f may change the value of x, the compiler would be forced to generated code checks the patterns in sequence, since a subsequent pattern may match the updated value of x.

The following are illustrations of the two approaches written in C++:

::: tonytable

Not allowed to modify {width=.55}

bool f(int &);
int x = 1;

switch (x) {
  case 0: std::cout << 0; break;
  case 1: if (f(x)) { std::cout << 1; } break;
  case 2: std::cout << 2; break;
}

Allowed to modify {width=.48}

bool f(int &);
int x = 1;

if (x == 0) std::cout << 0;
else if (x == 1 && f(x)) std::cout << 1;
else if (x == 2) std::cout << 2;

:::

However, we consider this opportunity too niche. Suppose we have a slightly more complex case: struct S { int x; }; and bool operator==(const S&, const S&);. Even if modifying the value being matched has undefined behavior, if the operator== is defined in a different translation unit, a compiler cannot do much more than generate code that checks the patterns in sequence anyway.

Language rather than Library

There are three popular pattern matching libraries for C++ today: [@Mach7], [@Patterns], and [@SimpleMatch].

While the libraries have been useful for gaining experience with interfaces and implementation, the issue of introducing identifiers, syntactic overhead of the patterns, and the reduced optimization opportunities justify support as a language feature from a usability standpoint.

Matchers and Extractors

Many languages provide a wide array of patterns through various syntactic forms. While this is a potential direction for C++, it would mean that every new type of matching requires new syntax to be added to the language. This would result in a narrow set of types being supported through limited customization points.

Matchers and extractors are supported in order to minimize the number of patterns with special syntax. The following are example matchers and extractors that commonly have special syntax in other languages.

+----------------------------+---------------------+ | Matchers / Extractors | Other Languages | +============================+=====================+ | any_of{1, 2, 3} | 1 | 2 | 3 | +----------------------------+---------------------+ | within{1, 10} | 1..10 | +----------------------------+---------------------+ | (both! [[x, 0], [0, y]]) | [x, 0] & [0, y] | +----------------------------+---------------------+ | (at! [p, [x, y]]) | p @ [x, y] | +----------------------------+---------------------+

Each of the matchers and extractors can be found in the [Examples] section.

Expression vs Pattern Disambiguation

[@P1371R0] had proposed a unary ^ as an "expression introducer". The main motivation was to leave the design space open for patterns that look like expressions. For example, many languages spell the alternation pattern with |, resulting in a pattern such as 1 | 2 which means "match 1 or 2". However, to allow such a pattern a disambiguation mechanism would be required since 1 | 2 is already a valid expression today.

That paper also included what is called a dereference pattern with the syntax of * pattern. There was clear guidance from EWG to change the syntax of this pattern due to confusion with the existing dereference operator. As such, the design direction proposed in this paper is to allow expressions in patterns without an introducer, and to require that new patterns be syntactically unambiguous with an expression in general.

The following is a flow graph of decisions that need to be made:

Runtime Performance

The following are few of the optimizations that are worth noting.

Structured Binding Patterns

Structured binding patterns can be optimized by performing switch over the columns with the duplicates removed, rather than the naive approach of performing a comparison per element. This removes unnecessary duplicate comparisons that would be performed otherwise. This would likely require some wording around "comparison elision" in order to enable such optimizations.

Alternative Patterns

The sequence of alternative patterns can be executed in a switch.

Open Class Hierarchy

[@N3449] describes techniques involving vtable pointer caching and hash conflict minimization that are implemented in the [@Mach7] library, but also mentions further opportunities available for a compiler solution.

Examples

Predicate-based Discriminator

Short-string optimization using a predicate as a discriminator rather than an explicitly stored value. Adapted from Bjarne Stroustrup's pattern matching presentation at Urbana-Champaign 2014 [@PatMatPres].

struct String {
  enum Storage { Local, Remote };

  int size;
  union {
    char local[32];
    struct { char *ptr; int unused_allocated_space; } remote;
  };

  // Predicate-based discriminator derived from `size`.
  Storage index() const { return size > sizeof(local) ? Remote : Local; }

  // Opt into Variant-Like protocol.
  template <Storage S>
  auto &&get() {
    if constexpr (S == Local) return local;
    else if constexpr (S == Remote) return remote;
  }

  char *data();
};

namespace std {
  // Opt into Variant-Like protocol.

  template <>
  struct variant_size<String> : std::integral_constant<std::size_t, 2> {};

  template <>
  struct variant_alternative<String::Local, String> {
    using type = decltype(String::local);
  };

  template <>
  struct variant_alternative<String::Remote, String> {
    using type = decltype(String::remote);
  };
}

char* String::data() {
  inspect (*this) {
    <Local> l: return l;
    <Remote> r: return r.ptr;
  }
  // switch (index()) {
  //   case Local: {
  //     std::variant_alternative_t<Local, String>& l = get<Local>();
  //     return l;
  //   }
  //   case Remote: {
  //     std::variant_alternative_t<Remote, String>& r = get<Remote>();
  //     return r.ptr;
  //   }
  // }
}

"Closed" Class Hierarchy

A class hierarchy can effectively be closed with an enum that maintains the list of its members, and provide efficient dispatching by opting into the Variant-Like protocol.

A generalized mechanism of pattern is used extensively in LLVM; llvm/Support/YAMLParser.h [@YAMLParser] is an example.

struct Shape { enum Kind { Circle, Rectangle } kind; };

struct Circle : Shape {
  Circle(int radius) : Shape{Shape::Kind::Circle}, radius(radius) {}

  int radius;
};

struct Rectangle : Shape {
  Rectangle(int width, int height)
    : Shape{Shape::Kind::Rectangle}, width(width), height(height) {}

  int width, height;
};

namespace std {
  template <>
  struct variant_size<Shape> : std::integral_constant<std::size_t, 2> {};

  template <>
  struct variant_alternative<Shape::Circle, Shape> { using type = Circle; };

  template <>
  struct variant_alternative<Shape::Rectangle, Shape> { using type = Rectangle; };
}

Shape::Kind index(const Shape& shape) { return shape.kind; }

template <Kind K>
auto&& get(const Shape& shape) {
  return static_cast<const std::variant_alternative_t<K, Shape>&>(shape);
}

int get_area(const Shape& shape) {
  inspect (shape) {
    <Circle> c: return 3.14 * c.radius * c.radius;
    <Rectangle> r: return r.width * r.height;
  }
  // switch (index(shape)) {
  //   case Shape::Circle: {
  //     const std::variant_alternative_t<Shape::Circle, Shape>& c =
  //         get<Shape::Circle>(shape);
  //     return 3.14 * c.radius * c.radius;
  //   }
  //   case Shape::Rectangle: {
  //     const std::variant_alternative_t<Shape::Rectangle, Shape>& r =
  //         get<Shape::Rectangle>(shape);
  //     return r.width * r.height;
  //   }
  // }
}

\pagebreak

Matcher: any_of

The logical-or pattern in other languages is typically spelled _pattern_0 | _pattern_1 | ... | _pattern_N, and matches value v if any patterni matches v.

This provides a restricted form (constant-only) of the logical-or pattern.

template <typename... Ts>
struct any_of : std::tuple<Ts...> {
  using tuple::tuple;

  template <typename U>
  bool match(const U& u) const {
    return std::apply([&](const auto&... xs) { return (... || xs == u); }, *this);
  }
};
int fib(int n) {
  inspect (n) {
    x if (x < 0): return 0;
    any_of{1, 2}: return n;  // 1 | 2
    x: return fib(x - 1) + fib(x - 2);
  }
}

Matcher: within

The range pattern in other languages is typically spelled first..last, and matches v if v $\in$ [first, last].

struct within {
  int first, last;

  bool match(int n) const { return first <= n && n <= last; }
};
inspect (n) {
  within{1, 10}: {  // 1..10
    std::cout << n << " is in [1, 10].";
  }
  __: {
    std::cout << n << " is not in [1, 10].";
  }
}

\pagebreak

Extractor: both

The logical-and pattern in other languages is typically spelled _pattern_0 & _pattern_1 & ... & _pattern_N, and matches v if all of _pattern_i matches v.

This extractor emulates binary logical-and with a std::pair where both elements are references to value v.

struct Both {
  template <typename U>
  std::pair<U&&, U&&> extract(U&& u) const {
    return {std::forward<U>(u), std::forward<U>(u)};
  }
};

inline constexpr Both both;
inspect (v) {
  (both! [[x, 0], [0, y]]): // ...
}

Extractor: at

The binding pattern in other languages is typically spelled identifier @ pattern, binds identifier to v and matches if pattern matches v. This is a special case of the logical-and pattern (_pattern_0 & _pattern_1) where _pattern_0 is an identifier. That is, identifier & pattern has the same semantics as identifier @ pattern, which means we get at for free from both above.

inline constexpr at = both;
inspect (v) {
  <Point> (at! [p, [x, y]]): // ...
  // ...
}

Red-black Tree Rebalancing

Dereference patterns frequently come into play with complex patterns using recursive variant types. An example of such a problem is the rebalance operation for red-black trees. Using pattern matching this can be expressed succinctly and in a way that is easily verified visually as having the correct algorithm.

Given the following red-black tree definition:

enum Color { Red, Black };

template <typename T>
struct Node {
  void balance();

  Color color;
  std::shared_ptr<Node> lhs;
  T value;
  std::shared_ptr<Node> rhs;
};

\pagebreak

The following is what we can write with pattern matching:

template <typename T>
void Node<T>::balance() {
  *this = inspect (*this) {
    // left-left case
    //
    //        (Black) z              (Red) y
    //         /     \               /      \
    //     (Red) y    d        (Black) x  (Black) z
    //     /      \       ->     /   \      /   \
    //  (Red) x    c            a     b    c     d
    //   /    \
    //  a      b
    [case Black, *? [case Red, *? [case Red, a, x, b], y, c], z, d]
      => Node{Red, std::make_shared<Node>(Black, a, x, b),
                   y,
                   std::make_shared<Node>(Black, c, z, d)},
    [case Black, *? [case Red, a, x, *? [case Red, b, y, c]], z, d]  // left-right case
      => Node{Red, std::make_shared<Node>(Black, a, x, b),
                   y,
                   std::make_shared<Node>(Black, c, z, d)},
    [case Black, a, x, *? [case Red, *? [case Red, b, y, c], z, d]]  // right-left case
      => Node{Red, std::make_shared<Node>(Black, a, x, b),
                   y,
                   std::make_shared<Node>(Black, c, z, d)},
    [case Black, a, x, *? [case Red, b, y, *? [case Red, c, z, d]]]  // right-right case
      => Node{Red, std::make_shared<Node>(Black, a, x, b),
                   y,
                   std::make_shared<Node>(Black, c, z, d)},
    self => self  // do nothing
  };
}

\pagebreak

The following is what we currently need to write:

template <typename T>
void Node<T>::balance() {
  if (color != Black) return;
  if (lhs && lhs->color == Red) {
    if (const auto& lhs_lhs = lhs->lhs; lhs_lhs && lhs_lhs->color == Red) {
      // left-left case
      //
      //        (Black) z              (Red) y
      //         /     \               /      \
      //     (Red) y    d        (Black) x  (Black) z
      //     /      \       ->     /   \      /   \
      //  (Red) x    c            a     b    c     d
      //   /    \
      //  a      b
      *this = Node{
          Red,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, lhs_lhs->lhs, lhs_lhs->value, lhs_lhs->rhs),
          lhs->value,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, lhs->rhs, value, rhs)};
      return;
    }
    if (const auto& lhs_rhs = lhs->rhs; lhs_rhs && lhs_rhs->color == Red) {
      *this = Node{  // left-right case
          Red,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, lhs->lhs, lhs->value, lhs_rhs->lhs),
          lhs_rhs->value,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, lhs_rhs->rhs, value, rhs)};
      return;
    }
  }
  if (rhs && rhs->color == Red) {
    if (const auto& rhs_lhs = rhs->lhs; rhs_lhs && rhs_lhs->color == Red) {
      *this = Node{  // right-left case
          Red,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, lhs, value, rhs_lhs->lhs),
          rhs_lhs->value,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, rhs_lhs->rhs, rhs->value, rhs->rhs)};
      return;
    }
    if (const auto& rhs_rhs = rhs->rhs; rhs_rhs && rhs_rhs->color == Red) {
      *this = Node{  // right-right case
          Red,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, lhs, value, rhs->lhs),
          rhs->value,
          std::make_shared<Node>(Black, rhs_rhs->lhs, rhs_rhs->value, rhs_rhs->rhs)};
      return;
    }
  }
}

Future Work

Language Support for Variant

The design of this proposal also accounts for a potential language support for variant. It achieves this by keeping the alternative pattern flexible for new extensions via < new_entity > pattern.

Consider an extension to union that allows it to be tagged by an integral, and has proper lifetime management such that the active alternative need not be destroyed manually.

// `: type` specifies the type of the underlying tag value.
union U : int { char small[32]; std::vector<char> big; };

We could then allow < qualified-id > that refers to a union alternative to support pattern matching.

U u = /* ... */;

inspect (u) {
  <U::small> s: std::cout << s;
  <U::big> b: std::cout << b;
}

The main point is that whatever entity is introduced as the discriminator, the presented form of alternative pattern should be extendable to support it.

Note on Ranges

The benefit of pattern matching for ranges is unclear. While it's possible to come up with a ranges pattern, e.g., {x, y, z} to match against a fixed-size range, it's not clear whether there is a worthwhile benefit.

The typical pattern found in functional languages of matching a range on head and tail doesn't seem to be all that common or useful in C++ since ranges are generally handled via loops rather than recursion.

Ranges likely will be best served by the range adaptors / algorithms, but further investigation is needed.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to all of the following:

  • Yuriy Solodkyy, Gabriel Dos Reis, Bjarne Stroustrup for their prior work on [@N3449], Open Pattern Matching for C++ [@OpenPM], and the [@Mach7] library.
  • Pattern matching presentation by Bjarne Stroustrup at Urbana-Champaign 2014. [@PatMatPres]
  • Jeffrey Yasskin/JF Bastien for their work on [@P1110R0].
  • (In alphabetical order by last name) Dave Abrahams, John Bandela, Agustín Bergé, Ori Bernstein, Matt Calabrese, Alexander Chow, Louis Dionne, Michał Dominiak, Vicente Botet Escribá, Eric Fiselier, Bengt Gustafsson, Zach Laine, Jason Lucas, John Skaller, Bjarne Stroustrup, Tony Van Eerd, and everyone else who contributed to the discussions.

\pagebreak

references: