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pyAPDUFuzzer

A fuzzer for APDU-based smartcard interfaces

Prerequisites

If you want to install pyAPDUFuzzer, you will need the following dependencies:

  • GCC
  • Python 3
  • Python 3 devel
  • pip3
  • SWIG
  • PCSC lite
  • PCSC lite devel
  • American fuzzy lop

You will also need a modified version of python-afl:

pip3 install --user git+https://github.com/ph4r05/python-afl

Installation script

If you are using Fedora, Ubuntu, Arch Linux, or macOS, you can use our script to install all required dependencies. Just run following line in your terminal:

curl -fsSL https://github.com/petrs/pyAPDUFuzzer/raw/master/install-dependencies.sh | sh

Installation

You can install the latest version of pyAPDUFuzzer from GitHub (recommended):

pip3 install --user git+https://github.com/petrs/pyAPDUFuzzer

Or use version from PyPI:

pip3 install --user apdu-fuzzer

Local development

For local development, clone this repository to your current working directory:

git clone https://github.com/petrs/pyAPDUFuzzer.git

Then install pyAPDUFuzzer in editable mode:

cd pyAPDUFuzzer && pip3 install --user -e . && cd ..

PC/SC Smart Card Daemon

Before you can start using pyAPDUFuzzer, you need to start pcscd. If you are using systemd, you can run the following command:

systemctl start pcscd.service

Usage

pyAPDUFuzzer is divided into three parts — prefix fuzzing, AFL fuzzing, and grammar synthesis.

Prefix fuzzing

The main aim of prefix fuzzer is to discover available methods on the card and supported lengths of valid payload. This method tries all combinations of APDU headers using brute-force (also, some optimizations are used to speed up the process).

You can run prefix fuzzer as follows:

apdu-prefix-fuzz

You can also pass --start_ins and --end_ins parameters to specify which instructions should be tested:

# test instructions between 0x0a and 0x28
apdu-prefix-fuzz --start_ins 10 --end_ins 40

Prefix fuzzer often produces huge amounts of data; Therefore, we provide a script that reduces the count of lines and makes files more readable.

cat results.json | apdu-prefix-reduce > reduced_results.json

AFL fuzzing

AFL fuzzing is used to discover inputs that trigger new, interesting behavior. AFL fuzzer is divided into two parts — client and server.

Server

In order to use AFL fuzzing, you must start a server:

apdu-fuzz --server

If you have multiple card readers connected to your computer, you can specify which one you want to use by passing --card_reader ID to the server. ID starts from zero.

If you want to run multiple instances of pyAPDUFuzzer simultaneously, you need to specify a port for the server and its corresponding client by passing --port PORT parameter to both of them.

Client

Before you can start fuzzing, you need to create a directory with seed input:

mkdir inputs
echo -n '000000000000' > inputs/seed1

To start the AFL fuzzer, run the following command:

PYTHON_AFL_PERSISTENT=1 py-afl-fuzz -m 500 -t 5000 -o result/ -i inputs/ -- \
    apdu-fuzz --afl --mask 00000000 --tpl 0be00100 --payload-len-b 12 --payload-len-s 31
  • To make AFL work without additional configuration of your system, it may also be necessary to set these environment variables: AFL_I_DONT_CARE_ABOUT_MISSING_CRASHES=1 and AFL_SKIP_CPUFREQ=1.
  • The above command uses fixed APDU prefix 0be00100 as the mask is zero on those bytes.
  • AFL generates a payload of lengths between 0x0c and 0x1f.

Grammar synthesis using GLADE

GLADE is a tool that is able to synthesize input grammar of smartcard commands. It only needs some seed inputs (examples of valid inputs).

In order to use GLADE, you will need to install it from here: https://github.com/kuhy/glade

Before you can start fuzzing, you need to start the server (apdu-fuzz --server).

Then create a directory with seed inputs:

mkdir inputs
echo '0002380000007f33cbca3637' | xxd -r -p > inputs/seed1

Finally, start the GLADE:

glade learn --alphabet BYTE --length 12-31 --input inputs \
    'apdu-afl-fuzz --glade --mask 00000000 --tpl 0be00100 --payload-len-b 12 --payload-len-s 31 --response_status 6982'
  • Fixed APDU prefix 0be00100 is used as the mask is zero on those bytes.
  • GLADE generates a payload of lengths between 0x0c and 0x1f.
  • We are generating grammar of inputs which triggers SECURITY_STATUS_NOT_SATISFIED (6982).
  • When seed input (0002380000007f33cbca3637) is sended to the card, it also returns 6982.

Architecture

AFL <-> Client <-> Server <-> Card

+----------------------------------+
|  AFL                             |
|  | |                             |                                   +-------------------+
|  | |          +----------------+ |         +------------------+      |                   |
|  | |   stdin  |                | |  socket |                  |      | +---+             |
|  | +----------|     Client     |------------      Server      -------- |-|-|    Card     |
|  |            |                | |         |                  |      | +---+             |
|  | +------+   +--------|-------+ |         +------------------+      |                   |
|  +-| SHM  |------------+         |                                   +-------------------+
|    +------+                      |
|                                  |
+----------------------------------+

(ascii by https://textik.com/)

Notes:

  • Server is started first, connects to the card and listens on the socket for raw data to send to the card. Does not process input data in any way.
  • Server stores raw responses from the card to the data files.
  • Server is able to reconnect to the card if something goes wrong.
  • Client is started by AFL. AFL sends input data via STDIN, forking the client with each new fuzz input. PCSC does not like forking with AFL this server/client architecture was required.
  • Client is forked by the AFL after python is initialized. Socket can be opened either before fork or after the fork. After fork is safer as each fuzz input has a new connection but a bit slower. Opening socket before fork also works but special care needs to be done on broken pipe exception - reconnect logic is needed. This is not implemented now.
  • Client post-processes input data generated by the AFL, e.g., generates length fields, can do TLV, etc.

Communication between server/client:

  • Client sends [0, buffer]. Buffer is raw data structure to be sent to the card. 0 is the type / status
  • Server responds with: status 1B | SW1 1B | SW2 1B | timing 2B | data 0-NB
+----+----+----+--------+------------------------+
|    |    |    |        |                        |
| 0  | SW | SW | timing |     response data      |
|    |  1 |  2 |        |                        |
+----+----+----+--------+------------------------+

Client then takes response from the socket, and uses modified [python-afl-ph4] to add trace to the shared memory segment that is later analyzed by AFL to determine whether this fuzz input lead to different execution trace than the previous one.

Currently the trace bitmap is done in the following way:

afl.trace_offset(hashxx(bytes([sw1, sw2])))
afl.trace_offset(hashxx(timing))
afl.trace_offset(hashxx(bytes(data)))

Fowler-Noll-Vo (FNV) hash function used in afl.trace_buff is not very good with respect to the zero buffers. The timing was usually not affecting the bitmap so we switched to very fast hash function hashxx for the offset computation.

FNV collisions

FNV is inappropriate for this use case as it returns the same hash for all buffers of the following format: p | 0 | x where p is a fixed prefix, x is random suffix.

afl.hash32(bytes([0,1]))
afl.hash32(bytes([0,2]))
afl.hash32(bytes([0,255]))
afl.hash32(bytes([0,255,255,255]))
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