:mod:`!contextlib` --- Utilities for :keyword:`!with`-statement contexts
.. module:: contextlib :synopsis: Utilities for with-statement contexts.
Source code: :source:`Lib/contextlib.py`
This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the :keyword:`with` statement. For more information see also :ref:`typecontextmanager` and :ref:`context-managers`.
Functions and classes provided:
An :term:`abstract base class` for classes that implement
:meth:`object.__enter__` and :meth:`object.__exit__`. A default
implementation for :meth:`object.__enter__` is provided which returns
self while :meth:`object.__exit__` is an abstract method which by default
returns None. See also the definition of :ref:`typecontextmanager`.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
An :term:`abstract base class` for classes that implement
:meth:`object.__aenter__` and :meth:`object.__aexit__`. A default
implementation for :meth:`object.__aenter__` is provided which returns
self while :meth:`object.__aexit__` is an abstract method which by default
returns None. See also the definition of
:ref:`async-context-managers`.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. decorator:: contextmanager
This function is a :term:`decorator` that can be used to define a factory
function for :keyword:`with` statement context managers, without needing to
create a class or separate :meth:`~object.__enter__` and :meth:`~object.__exit__` methods.
While many objects natively support use in with statements, sometimes a
resource needs to be managed that isn't a context manager in its own right,
and doesn't implement a ``close()`` method for use with ``contextlib.closing``
An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct resource
management::
from contextlib import contextmanager
@contextmanager
def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
# Code to acquire resource, e.g.:
resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
try:
yield resource
finally:
# Code to release resource, e.g.:
release_resource(resource)
The function can then be used like this::
>>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
... # Resource is released at the end of this block,
... # even if code in the block raises an exception
The function being decorated must return a :term:`generator`-iterator when
called. This iterator must yield exactly one value, which will be bound to
the targets in the :keyword:`with` statement's :keyword:`!as` clause, if any.
At the point where the generator yields, the block nested in the :keyword:`with`
statement is executed. The generator is then resumed after the block is exited.
If an unhandled exception occurs in the block, it is reraised inside the
generator at the point where the yield occurred. Thus, you can use a
:keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except`...\ :keyword:`finally` statement to trap
the error (if any), or ensure that some cleanup takes place. If an exception is
trapped merely in order to log it or to perform some action (rather than to
suppress it entirely), the generator must reraise that exception. Otherwise the
generator context manager will indicate to the :keyword:`!with` statement that
the exception has been handled, and execution will resume with the statement
immediately following the :keyword:`!with` statement.
:func:`contextmanager` uses :class:`ContextDecorator` so the context managers
it creates can be used as decorators as well as in :keyword:`with` statements.
When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on
each function call (this allows the otherwise "one-shot" context managers
created by :func:`contextmanager` to meet the requirement that context
managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators).
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
Use of :class:`ContextDecorator`.
.. decorator:: asynccontextmanager
Similar to :func:`~contextlib.contextmanager`, but creates an
:ref:`asynchronous context manager <async-context-managers>`.
This function is a :term:`decorator` that can be used to define a factory
function for :keyword:`async with` statement asynchronous context managers,
without needing to create a class or separate :meth:`__aenter__` and
:meth:`__aexit__` methods. It must be applied to an :term:`asynchronous
generator` function.
A simple example::
from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
@asynccontextmanager
async def get_connection():
conn = await acquire_db_connection()
try:
yield conn
finally:
await release_db_connection(conn)
async def get_all_users():
async with get_connection() as conn:
return conn.query('SELECT ...')
.. versionadded:: 3.7
Context managers defined with :func:`asynccontextmanager` can be used
either as decorators or with :keyword:`async with` statements::
import time
from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
@asynccontextmanager
async def timeit():
now = time.monotonic()
try:
yield
finally:
print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run')
@timeit()
async def main():
# ... async code ...
When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on
each function call. This allows the otherwise "one-shot" context managers
created by :func:`asynccontextmanager` to meet the requirement that context
managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Async context managers created with :func:`asynccontextmanager` can
be used as decorators.
.. function:: closing(thing)
Return a context manager that closes *thing* upon completion of the block. This
is basically equivalent to::
from contextlib import contextmanager
@contextmanager
def closing(thing):
try:
yield thing
finally:
thing.close()
And lets you write code like this::
from contextlib import closing
from urllib.request import urlopen
with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page:
for line in page:
print(line)
without needing to explicitly close ``page``. Even if an error occurs,
``page.close()`` will be called when the :keyword:`with` block is exited.
.. function:: aclosing(thing)
Return an async context manager that calls the ``aclose()`` method of *thing*
upon completion of the block. This is basically equivalent to::
from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
@asynccontextmanager
async def aclosing(thing):
try:
yield thing
finally:
await thing.aclose()
Significantly, ``aclosing()`` supports deterministic cleanup of async
generators when they happen to exit early by :keyword:`break` or an
exception. For example::
from contextlib import aclosing
async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values:
async for value in values:
if value == 42:
break
This pattern ensures that the generator's async exit code is executed in
the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions and context
variables work as expected, and the exit code isn't run after the
lifetime of some task it depends on).
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. function:: nullcontext(enter_result=None)
Return a context manager that returns *enter_result* from ``__enter__``, but
otherwise does nothing. It is intended to be used as a stand-in for an
optional context manager, for example::
def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
if ignore_exceptions:
# Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.
cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
else:
# Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.
cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
with cm:
# Do something
An example using *enter_result*::
def process_file(file_or_path):
if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
# If string, open file
cm = open(file_or_path)
else:
# Caller is responsible for closing file
cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)
with cm as file:
# Perform processing on the file
It can also be used as a stand-in for
:ref:`asynchronous context managers <async-context-managers>`::
async def send_http(session=None):
if not session:
# If no http session, create it with aiohttp
cm = aiohttp.ClientSession()
else:
# Caller is responsible for closing the session
cm = nullcontext(session)
async with cm as session:
# Send http requests with session
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
:term:`asynchronous context manager` support was added.
.. function:: suppress(*exceptions)
Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified exceptions
if they occur in the body of a :keyword:`!with` statement and then
resumes execution with the first statement following the end of the
:keyword:`!with` statement.
As with any other mechanism that completely suppresses exceptions, this
context manager should be used only to cover very specific errors where
silently continuing with program execution is known to be the right
thing to do.
For example::
from contextlib import suppress
with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
os.remove('somefile.tmp')
with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
This code is equivalent to::
try:
os.remove('somefile.tmp')
except FileNotFoundError:
pass
try:
os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
except FileNotFoundError:
pass
This context manager is :ref:`reentrant <reentrant-cms>`.
If the code within the :keyword:`!with` block raises a
:exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`, suppressed exceptions are removed from the
group. If any exceptions in the group are not suppressed, a group containing them is re-raised.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
``suppress`` now supports suppressing exceptions raised as
part of an :exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`.
.. function:: redirect_stdout(new_target)
Context manager for temporarily redirecting :data:`sys.stdout` to
another file or file-like object.
This tool adds flexibility to existing functions or classes whose output
is hardwired to stdout.
For example, the output of :func:`help` normally is sent to *sys.stdout*.
You can capture that output in a string by redirecting the output to an
:class:`io.StringIO` object. The replacement stream is returned from the
``__enter__`` method and so is available as the target of the
:keyword:`with` statement::
with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
help(pow)
s = f.getvalue()
To send the output of :func:`help` to a file on disk, redirect the output
to a regular file::
with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
with redirect_stdout(f):
help(pow)
To send the output of :func:`help` to *sys.stderr*::
with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
help(pow)
Note that the global side effect on :data:`sys.stdout` means that this
context manager is not suitable for use in library code and most threaded
applications. It also has no effect on the output of subprocesses.
However, it is still a useful approach for many utility scripts.
This context manager is :ref:`reentrant <reentrant-cms>`.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. function:: redirect_stderr(new_target) Similar to :func:`~contextlib.redirect_stdout` but redirecting :data:`sys.stderr` to another file or file-like object. This context manager is :ref:`reentrant <reentrant-cms>`. .. versionadded:: 3.5
.. function:: chdir(path) Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working directory. As this changes a global state, the working directory, it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts. It is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished -- unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context manager is active. This is a simple wrapper around :func:`~os.chdir`, it changes the current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on exit. This context manager is :ref:`reentrant <reentrant-cms>`. .. versionadded:: 3.11
A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a decorator.
Context managers inheriting from ContextDecorator have to implement
__enter__ and __exit__ as normal. __exit__ retains its optional
exception handling even when used as a decorator.
ContextDecorator is used by :func:`contextmanager`, so you get this
functionality automatically.
Example of ContextDecorator:
from contextlib import ContextDecorator
class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
def __enter__(self):
print('Starting')
return self
def __exit__(self, *exc):
print('Finishing')
return False
The class can then be used like this:
>>> @mycontext()
... def function():
... print('The bit in the middle')
...
>>> function()
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing
>>> with mycontext():
... print('The bit in the middle')
...
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing
This change is just syntactic sugar for any construct of the following form:
def f():
with cm():
# Do stuff
ContextDecorator lets you instead write:
@cm()
def f():
# Do stuff
It makes it clear that the cm applies to the whole function, rather than
just a piece of it (and saving an indentation level is nice, too).
Existing context managers that already have a base class can be extended by
using ContextDecorator as a mixin class:
from contextlib import ContextDecorator
class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
def __enter__(self):
return self
def __exit__(self, *exc):
return False
Note
As the decorated function must be able to be called multiple times, the underlying context manager must support use in multiple :keyword:`with` statements. If this is not the case, then the original construct with the explicit :keyword:`!with` statement inside the function should be used.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
Similar to :class:`ContextDecorator` but only for asynchronous functions.
Example of AsyncContextDecorator:
from asyncio import run
from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator
class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator):
async def __aenter__(self):
print('Starting')
return self
async def __aexit__(self, *exc):
print('Finishing')
return False
The class can then be used like this:
>>> @mycontext()
... async def function():
... print('The bit in the middle')
...
>>> run(function())
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing
>>> async def function():
... async with mycontext():
... print('The bit in the middle')
...
>>> run(function())
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing
.. versionadded:: 3.10
A context manager that is designed to make it easy to programmatically combine other context managers and cleanup functions, especially those that are optional or otherwise driven by input data.
For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with statement as follows:
with ExitStack() as stack:
files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
# All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
# the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
# in the list raise an exception
The :meth:`~object.__enter__` method returns the :class:`ExitStack` instance, and performs no additional operations.
Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are called in reverse order when the instance is closed (either explicitly or implicitly at the end of a :keyword:`with` statement). Note that callbacks are not invoked implicitly when the context stack instance is garbage collected.
This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire their
resources in their __init__ method (such as file objects) can be
handled correctly.
Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested :keyword:`with` statements had been used with the registered set of callbacks. This even extends to exception handling - if an inner callback suppresses or replaces an exception, then outer callbacks will be passed arguments based on that updated state.
This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details of correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks. It provides a suitable foundation for higher level context managers that manipulate the exit stack in application specific ways.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. method:: enter_context(cm)
Enters a new context manager and adds its :meth:`~object.__exit__` method to
the callback stack. The return value is the result of the context
manager's own :meth:`~object.__enter__` method.
These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they normally
would if used directly as part of a :keyword:`with` statement.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Raises :exc:`TypeError` instead of :exc:`AttributeError` if *cm*
is not a context manager.
.. method:: push(exit) Adds a context manager's :meth:`~object.__exit__` method to the callback stack. As ``__enter__`` is *not* invoked, this method can be used to cover part of an :meth:`~object.__enter__` implementation with a context manager's own :meth:`~object.__exit__` method. If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method assumes it is a callback with the same signature as a context manager's :meth:`~object.__exit__` method and adds it directly to the callback stack. By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress exceptions the same way context manager :meth:`~object.__exit__` methods can. The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing this method to be used as a function decorator.
.. method:: callback(callback, /, *args, **kwds) Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds it to the callback stack. Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot suppress exceptions (as they are never passed the exception details). The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing this method to be used as a function decorator.
.. method:: pop_all()
Transfers the callback stack to a fresh :class:`ExitStack` instance
and returns it. No callbacks are invoked by this operation - instead,
they will now be invoked when the new stack is closed (either
explicitly or implicitly at the end of a :keyword:`with` statement).
For example, a group of files can be opened as an "all or nothing"
operation as follows::
with ExitStack() as stack:
files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
# Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet.
close_files = stack.pop_all().close
# If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be
# closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,
# they will remain open even after the with statement ends.
# close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.
.. method:: close() Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in the reverse order of registration. For any context managers and exit callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will indicate that no exception occurred.
An :ref:`asynchronous context manager <async-context-managers>`, similar to :class:`ExitStack`, that supports combining both synchronous and asynchronous context managers, as well as having coroutines for cleanup logic.
The :meth:`close` method is not implemented, :meth:`aclose` must be used instead.
.. coroutinemethod:: enter_async_context(cm)
Similar to :meth:`enter_context` but expects an asynchronous context
manager.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Raises :exc:`TypeError` instead of :exc:`AttributeError` if *cm*
is not an asynchronous context manager.
.. method:: push_async_exit(exit) Similar to :meth:`push` but expects either an asynchronous context manager or a coroutine function.
.. method:: push_async_callback(callback, /, *args, **kwds) Similar to :meth:`callback` but expects a coroutine function.
.. coroutinemethod:: aclose() Similar to :meth:`close` but properly handles awaitables.
Continuing the example for :func:`asynccontextmanager`:
async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
for i in range(5)]
# All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of
# the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection
# later in the list raise an exception.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective use of the tools provided by :mod:`contextlib`.
The primary use case for :class:`ExitStack` is the one given in the class documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers and other cleanup operations in a single :keyword:`with` statement. The variability may come from the number of context managers needed being driven by user input (such as opening a user specified collection of files), or from some of the context managers being optional:
with ExitStack() as stack:
for resource in resources:
stack.enter_context(resource)
if need_special_resource():
special = acquire_special_resource()
stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
# Perform operations that use the acquired resources
As shown, :class:`ExitStack` also makes it quite easy to use :keyword:`with` statements to manage arbitrary resources that don't natively support the context management protocol.
It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an __enter__
method implementation, without inadvertently catching exceptions from
the :keyword:`with` statement body or the context manager's __exit__
method. By using :class:`ExitStack` the steps in the context management
protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this:
stack = ExitStack()
try:
x = stack.enter_context(cm)
except Exception:
# handle __enter__ exception
else:
with stack:
# Handle normal case
Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying API should be providing a direct resource management interface for use with :keyword:`try`/:keyword:`except`/:keyword:`finally` statements, but not all APIs are well designed in that regard. When a context manager is the only resource management API provided, then :class:`ExitStack` can make it easier to handle various situations that can't be handled directly in a :keyword:`with` statement.
As noted in the documentation of :meth:`ExitStack.push`, this method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if later steps in the :meth:`~object.__enter__` implementation fail.
Here's an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts resource acquisition and release functions, along with an optional validation function, and maps them to the context management protocol:
from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack
class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):
def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
self.release_resource = release_resource
if check_resource_ok is None:
def check_resource_ok(resource):
return True
self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok
@contextmanager
def _cleanup_on_error(self):
with ExitStack() as stack:
stack.push(self)
yield
# The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception
# Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it
# back to our caller
stack.pop_all()
def __enter__(self):
resource = self.acquire_resource()
with self._cleanup_on_error():
if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
return resource
def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
# We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic
self.release_resource()
A pattern you will sometimes see is a try-finally statement with a flag
variable to indicate whether or not the body of the finally clause should
be executed. In its simplest form (that can't already be handled just by
using an except clause instead), it looks something like this:
cleanup_needed = True
try:
result = perform_operation()
if result:
cleanup_needed = False
finally:
if cleanup_needed:
cleanup_resources()
As with any try statement based code, this can cause problems for
development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can end
up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code.
:class:`ExitStack` makes it possible to instead register a callback for
execution at the end of a with statement, and then later decide to skip
executing that callback:
from contextlib import ExitStack
with ExitStack() as stack:
stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
result = perform_operation()
if result:
stack.pop_all()
This allows the intended cleanup up behaviour to be made explicit up front, rather than requiring a separate flag variable.
If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be simplified even further by means of a small helper class:
from contextlib import ExitStack
class Callback(ExitStack):
def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds):
super().__init__()
self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)
def cancel(self):
self.pop_all()
with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
result = perform_operation()
if result:
cb.cancel()
If the resource cleanup isn't already neatly bundled into a standalone function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of :meth:`ExitStack.callback` to declare the resource cleanup in advance:
from contextlib import ExitStack
with ExitStack() as stack:
@stack.callback
def cleanup_resources():
...
result = perform_operation()
if result:
stack.pop_all()
Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function declared this way cannot take any parameters. Instead, any resources to be released must be accessed as closure variables.
:class:`ContextDecorator` makes it possible to use a context manager in
both an ordinary with statement and also as a function decorator.
For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit. Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, inheriting from :class:`ContextDecorator` provides both capabilities in a single definition:
from contextlib import ContextDecorator
import logging
logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)
class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def __enter__(self):
logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)
def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)
Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager:
with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
load_widget()
And also as a function decorator:
@track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
def activity():
print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
load_widget()
Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers
as function decorators: there's no way to access the return value of
:meth:`~object.__enter__`. If that value is needed, then it is still necessary to use
an explicit with statement.
.. seealso::
:pep:`343` - The "with" statement
The specification, background, and examples for the Python :keyword:`with`
statement.
Most context managers are written in a way that means they can only be used effectively in a :keyword:`with` statement once. These single use context managers must be created afresh each time they're used - attempting to use them a second time will trigger an exception or otherwise not work correctly.
This common limitation means that it is generally advisable to create context managers directly in the header of the :keyword:`with` statement where they are used (as shown in all of the usage examples above).
Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since the first :keyword:`with` statement will close the file, preventing any further IO operations using that file object.
Context managers created using :func:`contextmanager` are also single use context managers, and will complain about the underlying generator failing to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second time:
>>> from contextlib import contextmanager
>>> @contextmanager
... def singleuse():
... print("Before")
... yield
... print("After")
...
>>> cm = singleuse()
>>> with cm:
... pass
...
Before
After
>>> with cm:
... pass
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
RuntimeError: generator didn't yield
More sophisticated context managers may be "reentrant". These context managers can not only be used in multiple :keyword:`with` statements, but may also be used inside a :keyword:`!with` statement that is already using the same context manager.
:class:`threading.RLock` is an example of a reentrant context manager, as are :func:`suppress`, :func:`redirect_stdout`, and :func:`chdir`. Here's a very simple example of reentrant use:
>>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
>>> from io import StringIO
>>> stream = StringIO()
>>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
>>> with write_to_stream:
... print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
... with write_to_stream:
... print("This is also written to the stream")
...
>>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
This is written directly to stdout
>>> print(stream.getvalue())
This is written to the stream rather than stdout
This is also written to the stream
Real world examples of reentrancy are more likely to involve multiple functions calling each other and hence be far more complicated than this example.
Note also that being reentrant is not the same thing as being thread safe. :func:`redirect_stdout`, for example, is definitely not thread safe, as it makes a global modification to the system state by binding :data:`sys.stdout` to a different stream.
Distinct from both single use and reentrant context managers are "reusable" context managers (or, to be completely explicit, "reusable, but not reentrant" context managers, since reentrant context managers are also reusable). These context managers support being used multiple times, but will fail (or otherwise not work correctly) if the specific context manager instance has already been used in a containing with statement.
:class:`threading.Lock` is an example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager (for a reentrant lock, it is necessary to use :class:`threading.RLock` instead).
Another example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager is :class:`ExitStack`, as it invokes all currently registered callbacks when leaving any with statement, regardless of where those callbacks were added:
>>> from contextlib import ExitStack
>>> stack = ExitStack()
>>> with stack:
... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
... print("Leaving first context")
...
Leaving first context
Callback: from first context
>>> with stack:
... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
... print("Leaving second context")
...
Leaving second context
Callback: from second context
>>> with stack:
... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
... with stack:
... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
... print("Leaving inner context")
... print("Leaving outer context")
...
Leaving inner context
Callback: from inner context
Callback: from outer context
Leaving outer context
As the output from the example shows, reusing a single stack object across multiple with statements works correctly, but attempting to nest them will cause the stack to be cleared at the end of the innermost with statement, which is unlikely to be desirable behaviour.
Using separate :class:`ExitStack` instances instead of reusing a single instance avoids that problem:
>>> from contextlib import ExitStack
>>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
... outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
... with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
... inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
... print("Leaving inner context")
... print("Leaving outer context")
...
Leaving inner context
Callback: from inner context
Leaving outer context
Callback: from outer context