ML-ZOOMCAMP_SESSION_2.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "id": "0ffcd13b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import pandas as pd\n",
    "import numpy as np"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "id": "17b3d84f",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data = 'https://www.kaggle.com/CooperUnion/cardataset/download'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "id": "f24a68ef",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import wget"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "id": "f644eb34",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#wget.download(data, 'car_data.csv')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 231,
   "id": "1d3ef961",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df = pd.read_csv('car_data.csv')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "id": "97a1768c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>Make</th>\n",
       "      <th>Model</th>\n",
       "      <th>Year</th>\n",
       "      <th>Engine Fuel Type</th>\n",
       "      <th>Engine HP</th>\n",
       "      <th>Engine Cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>Transmission Type</th>\n",
       "      <th>Driven_Wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>Number of Doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>Market Category</th>\n",
       "      <th>Vehicle Size</th>\n",
       "      <th>Vehicle Style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway MPG</th>\n",
       "      <th>city mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>Popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>MSRP</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series M</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>335.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Factory Tuner,Luxury,High-Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury,Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury,High-Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury,Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>34500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  Make       Model  Year             Engine Fuel Type  Engine HP  \\\n",
       "0  BMW  1 Series M  2011  premium unleaded (required)      335.0   \n",
       "1  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      300.0   \n",
       "2  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      300.0   \n",
       "3  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      230.0   \n",
       "4  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      230.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "   Engine Cylinders Transmission Type     Driven_Wheels  Number of Doors  \\\n",
       "0               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "1               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "2               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "3               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "4               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                         Market Category Vehicle Size Vehicle Style  \\\n",
       "0  Factory Tuner,Luxury,High-Performance      Compact         Coupe   \n",
       "1                     Luxury,Performance      Compact   Convertible   \n",
       "2                Luxury,High-Performance      Compact         Coupe   \n",
       "3                     Luxury,Performance      Compact         Coupe   \n",
       "4                                 Luxury      Compact   Convertible   \n",
       "\n",
       "   highway MPG  city mpg  Popularity   MSRP  \n",
       "0           26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1           28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2           28        20        3916  36350  \n",
       "3           28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "4           28        18        3916  34500  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 6,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.head()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 232,
   "id": "220e2d6d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df.columns = df.columns.str.lower().str.replace(' ', '_')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "id": "d13e026d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series M</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>335.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Factory Tuner,Luxury,High-Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury,Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury,High-Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury,Performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>BMW</td>\n",
       "      <td>1 Series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium unleaded (required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>MANUAL</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear wheel drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>Luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>Compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>Convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>34500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
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      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  make       model  year             engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0  BMW  1 Series M  2011  premium unleaded (required)      335.0   \n",
       "1  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      300.0   \n",
       "2  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      300.0   \n",
       "3  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      230.0   \n",
       "4  BMW    1 Series  2011  premium unleaded (required)      230.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "   engine_cylinders transmission_type     driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "1               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "2               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "3               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "4               6.0            MANUAL  rear wheel drive              2.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                         market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0  Factory Tuner,Luxury,High-Performance      Compact         Coupe   \n",
       "1                     Luxury,Performance      Compact   Convertible   \n",
       "2                Luxury,High-Performance      Compact         Coupe   \n",
       "3                     Luxury,Performance      Compact         Coupe   \n",
       "4                                 Luxury      Compact   Convertible   \n",
       "\n",
       "   highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0           26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1           28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2           28        20        3916  36350  \n",
       "3           28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "4           28        18        3916  34500  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.head()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 233,
   "id": "945d7dbe",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "make                  object\n",
       "model                 object\n",
       "year                   int64\n",
       "engine_fuel_type      object\n",
       "engine_hp            float64\n",
       "engine_cylinders     float64\n",
       "transmission_type     object\n",
       "driven_wheels         object\n",
       "number_of_doors      float64\n",
       "market_category       object\n",
       "vehicle_size          object\n",
       "vehicle_style         object\n",
       "highway_mpg            int64\n",
       "city_mpg               int64\n",
       "popularity             int64\n",
       "msrp                   int64\n",
       "dtype: object"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 233,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.dtypes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "id": "ec4384a2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "make                 object\n",
       "model                object\n",
       "engine_fuel_type     object\n",
       "transmission_type    object\n",
       "driven_wheels        object\n",
       "market_category      object\n",
       "vehicle_size         object\n",
       "vehicle_style        object\n",
       "dtype: object"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.dtypes[df.dtypes == 'object']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "id": "eb8b590e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "strings = list(df.dtypes[df.dtypes == 'object'].index)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "id": "99f62c0d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['make',\n",
       " 'model',\n",
       " 'engine_fuel_type',\n",
       " 'transmission_type',\n",
       " 'driven_wheels',\n",
       " 'market_category',\n",
       " 'vehicle_size',\n",
       " 'vehicle_style']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 12,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "strings"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 234,
   "id": "1319757b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "for col in strings:\n",
    "    df[col] = df[col].str.lower().str.replace(' ', '_')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "id": "6a2e31ac",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0                coupe\n",
       "1          convertible\n",
       "2                coupe\n",
       "3                coupe\n",
       "4          convertible\n",
       "             ...      \n",
       "11909    4dr_hatchback\n",
       "11910    4dr_hatchback\n",
       "11911    4dr_hatchback\n",
       "11912    4dr_hatchback\n",
       "11913            sedan\n",
       "Name: vehicle_style, Length: 11914, dtype: object"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 14,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df[col]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 235,
   "id": "2f4da627",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
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       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series_m</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>335.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>34500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11909</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>46120</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11910</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>56670</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11911</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50620</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11912</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50920</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11913</th>\n",
       "      <td>lincoln</td>\n",
       "      <td>zephyr</td>\n",
       "      <td>2006</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>221.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>61</td>\n",
       "      <td>28995</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>11914 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "          make       model  year                engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0          bmw  1_series_m  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "1          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "3          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "4          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "...        ...         ...   ...                             ...        ...   \n",
       "11909    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11910    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11911    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11912    acura         zdx  2013  premium_unleaded_(recommended)      300.0   \n",
       "11913  lincoln      zephyr  2006                regular_unleaded      221.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "       engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "1                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "2                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "3                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "4                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "...                 ...               ...                ...              ...   \n",
       "11909               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11910               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11911               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11912               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11913               6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                             market_category vehicle_size  vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0      factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "1                         luxury,performance      compact    convertible   \n",
       "2                    luxury,high-performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "3                         luxury,performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "4                                     luxury      compact    convertible   \n",
       "...                                      ...          ...            ...   \n",
       "11909             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11910             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11911             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11912             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11913                                 luxury      midsize          sedan   \n",
       "\n",
       "       highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0               26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1               28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2               28        20        3916  36350  \n",
       "3               28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "4               28        18        3916  34500  \n",
       "...            ...       ...         ...    ...  \n",
       "11909           23        16         204  46120  \n",
       "11910           23        16         204  56670  \n",
       "11911           23        16         204  50620  \n",
       "11912           23        16         204  50920  \n",
       "11913           26        17          61  28995  \n",
       "\n",
       "[11914 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 235,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "raw",
   "id": "5b231a99",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# EDA"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "id": "8992ea90",
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "make\n",
      "['bmw' 'audi' 'fiat' 'mercedes-benz' 'chrysler']\n",
      "48\n",
      "\n",
      "model\n",
      "['1_series_m' '1_series' '100' '124_spider' '190-class']\n",
      "914\n",
      "\n",
      "year\n",
      "[2011 2012 2013 1992 1993]\n",
      "28\n",
      "\n",
      "engine_fuel_type\n",
      "['premium_unleaded_(required)' 'regular_unleaded'\n",
      " 'premium_unleaded_(recommended)' 'flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)' 'diesel']\n",
      "10\n",
      "\n",
      "engine_hp\n",
      "[335. 300. 230. 320. 172.]\n",
      "356\n",
      "\n",
      "engine_cylinders\n",
      "[ 6.  4.  5.  8. 12.]\n",
      "9\n",
      "\n",
      "transmission_type\n",
      "['manual' 'automatic' 'automated_manual' 'direct_drive' 'unknown']\n",
      "5\n",
      "\n",
      "driven_wheels\n",
      "['rear_wheel_drive' 'front_wheel_drive' 'all_wheel_drive'\n",
      " 'four_wheel_drive']\n",
      "4\n",
      "\n",
      "number_of_doors\n",
      "[ 2.  4.  3. nan]\n",
      "3\n",
      "\n",
      "market_category\n",
      "['factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance' 'luxury,performance'\n",
      " 'luxury,high-performance' 'luxury' 'performance']\n",
      "71\n",
      "\n",
      "vehicle_size\n",
      "['compact' 'midsize' 'large']\n",
      "3\n",
      "\n",
      "vehicle_style\n",
      "['coupe' 'convertible' 'sedan' 'wagon' '4dr_hatchback']\n",
      "16\n",
      "\n",
      "highway_mpg\n",
      "[26 28 27 25 24]\n",
      "59\n",
      "\n",
      "city_mpg\n",
      "[19 20 18 17 16]\n",
      "69\n",
      "\n",
      "popularity\n",
      "[3916 3105  819  617 1013]\n",
      "48\n",
      "\n",
      "msrp\n",
      "[46135 40650 36350 29450 34500]\n",
      "6049\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for col in df.columns:\n",
    "    print(col)\n",
    "    print(df[col].unique()[:5])\n",
    "    print(df[col].nunique())\n",
    "    print()\n",
    "    "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 236,
   "id": "d4847eb3",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series_m</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>335.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>34500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11909</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>46120</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11910</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>56670</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11911</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50620</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11912</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50920</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11913</th>\n",
       "      <td>lincoln</td>\n",
       "      <td>zephyr</td>\n",
       "      <td>2006</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>221.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>61</td>\n",
       "      <td>28995</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>11914 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "          make       model  year                engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0          bmw  1_series_m  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "1          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "3          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "4          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "...        ...         ...   ...                             ...        ...   \n",
       "11909    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11910    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11911    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11912    acura         zdx  2013  premium_unleaded_(recommended)      300.0   \n",
       "11913  lincoln      zephyr  2006                regular_unleaded      221.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "       engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "1                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "2                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "3                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "4                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "...                 ...               ...                ...              ...   \n",
       "11909               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11910               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11911               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11912               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11913               6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                             market_category vehicle_size  vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0      factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "1                         luxury,performance      compact    convertible   \n",
       "2                    luxury,high-performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "3                         luxury,performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "4                                     luxury      compact    convertible   \n",
       "...                                      ...          ...            ...   \n",
       "11909             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11910             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11911             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11912             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11913                                 luxury      midsize          sedan   \n",
       "\n",
       "       highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0               26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1               28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2               28        20        3916  36350  \n",
       "3               28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "4               28        18        3916  34500  \n",
       "...            ...       ...         ...    ...  \n",
       "11909           23        16         204  46120  \n",
       "11910           23        16         204  56670  \n",
       "11911           23        16         204  50620  \n",
       "11912           23        16         204  50920  \n",
       "11913           26        17          61  28995  \n",
       "\n",
       "[11914 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 236,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "id": "73ad8fc5",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import matplotlib.pyplot as plt\n",
    "import seaborn as sns\n",
    "\n",
    "%matplotlib inline"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "id": "b839305b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<AxesSubplot:xlabel='msrp', ylabel='Count'>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 19,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "image/png": 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J6lq2YZFkU5L7kxxIcvkM65Pkqrb+a0neOIl+TtoI++mtSR5P8pX2+I+T6OckJflkkkeTfH2W9R5LjLSfPJaSU5LckWR/kr1J3j9Dm8kcT1W17B4MLpL/FfAq4Fjgq8DpU9qcD9zO4Dse5wB3Tbrfi3Q/vRX4k0n3dcL76S3AG4Gvz7J+2R9LI+4njyVYA7yxLb8M+MvF8n/Tcj2z+PvpQ6rqh8Cz04cM2wzcUANfBF6RZM1Cd3TCRtlPy15V/W/g/8zRxGOJkfbTsldVh6vq3rb8BLAfWDul2USOp+UaFmuBh4ZeH2L6P8gobY52o+6Dc5N8NcntSc5YmK4tKR5Lo/NYapKsB94A3DVl1USOpyXxPYsxGGX6kJGmGDnKjbIP7mUwl8wPkpwP/BGwYdwdW2I8lkbjsdQkeSnwh8AHqur7U1fPsMnYj6flemYxyvQhTjEywj6oqu9X1Q/a8m3Ai5KsWrguLgkeSyPwWBpI8iIGQXFTVX16hiYTOZ6Wa1iMMn3ILuCidufBOcDjVXV4oTs6Yd39lOSfJElbPpvBMfWdBe/p4uaxNAKPpcGdTsAngP1V9bFZmk3keFqWw1A1y/QhSd7b1l8L3MbgroMDwN8BvzKp/k7KiPvp7cAlSZ4G/i+wpdotG8tFkk8xuJNnVZJDwIeBF4HH0rAR9tOyP5aANwPvBu5L8pVW+y3gVJjs8eR0H5KkruU6DCVJeg4MC0lSl2EhSeoyLCRJXYaFJB0FehM1ztD+HUn2tQkL/1u3vXdDSdLSl+QtwA8YzBt1ZqftBmAn8LNV9d0kJ1XVo3Nt45mFtAgkWTHpPmhpm2mixiSvTvKZJPck+fMkr2urfhX4var6btt2zqAAw0J6wZKsT/KNJNcl+XqSm5L8XJIvJHkgydlJ/sXQ7zR8OcnL2u833NGGAO4bep8d7XcKbknykkn/fVrStgPvq6qzgH8HXN3qrwFe047RLybZ1HujZfkNbmkMfhy4ENjGYJqUfwP8NPALDL6BuwK4tKq+0CaJ+39tu7OBM6vqYJtl9LXAxa3dJ4FfBz66oH+JjgrtOHsT8AdtFhWA49rzSgaTNL6VwdxSf57kzKr63mzv55mFND8OVtV9VfUjYC+wu01VcR+wHvgC8LEklwGvqKqn23Z3V9XBofd5qKq+0JZvZBA40vNxDPC9qvrJocfr27pDwK1V9VQ7/u6nM8OvYSHNjyeHln809PpHwMqq+gjwHuB44ItDY8d/O+V9pt5x4h0oel7a1OYHk1wIf/9zrD/RVv8R8DOtvorBsNQ353o/w0JaAEle3c48/hOwB3jdLE1PTXJuW34n8BcL0kEteW2ixjuB1yY5lORi4JeBi5N8lcEZ77O/dPlZ4DtJ9gF3AB+qqjln+PWahbQwPpDkZ4BngH0MfkP53Bna7Qe2Jvl94AHgmoXropayqnrnLKumXbxuQ6QfbI+R+D0LaZFoF7j/pHePvDQJDkNJkro8s5AkdXlmIUnqMiwkSV2GhSSpy7CQJHUZFpKkrv8PGe2g6myHXSsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\n",
      "text/plain": [
       "<Figure size 432x288 with 1 Axes>"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {
      "needs_background": "light"
     },
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sns.histplot(df.msrp, bins = 50)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "id": "09801707",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<AxesSubplot:xlabel='msrp', ylabel='Count'>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 20,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "image/png": "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\n",
      "text/plain": [
       "<Figure size 432x288 with 1 Axes>"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {
      "needs_background": "light"
     },
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sns.histplot(df.msrp[df.msrp < 100000], bins = 50)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "id": "674a2c16",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 0.        ,  0.69314718,  2.39789527,  6.90875478, 11.51293546])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 21,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.log([0 + 1, 1 + 1, 10 + 1, 1000 + 1, 100000 + 1])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "id": "a833700e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 0.        ,  0.69314718,  2.39789527,  6.90875478, 11.51293546])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 22,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.log1p([0, 1, 10, 1000, 100000])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "id": "0ca0e874",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "price_logs = np.log1p(df.msrp)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "id": "c5fb3eff",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0        10.739349\n",
       "1        10.612779\n",
       "2        10.500977\n",
       "3        10.290483\n",
       "4        10.448744\n",
       "           ...    \n",
       "11909    10.739024\n",
       "11910    10.945018\n",
       "11911    10.832122\n",
       "11912    10.838031\n",
       "11913    10.274913\n",
       "Name: msrp, Length: 11914, dtype: float64"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 24,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "price_logs"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 25,
   "id": "f2374735",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<AxesSubplot:xlabel='msrp', ylabel='Count'>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 25,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "image/png": 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\n",
      "text/plain": [
       "<Figure size 432x288 with 1 Axes>"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {
      "needs_background": "light"
     },
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sns.histplot(price_logs, bins = 50)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "id": "737924b6",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series_m</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>335.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>34500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11909</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>46120</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11910</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>56670</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11911</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50620</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11912</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50920</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11913</th>\n",
       "      <td>lincoln</td>\n",
       "      <td>zephyr</td>\n",
       "      <td>2006</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>221.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>61</td>\n",
       "      <td>28995</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>11914 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "          make       model  year                engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0          bmw  1_series_m  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "1          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "3          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "4          bmw    1_series  2011     premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "...        ...         ...   ...                             ...        ...   \n",
       "11909    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11910    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11911    acura         zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11912    acura         zdx  2013  premium_unleaded_(recommended)      300.0   \n",
       "11913  lincoln      zephyr  2006                regular_unleaded      221.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "       engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "1                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "2                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "3                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "4                   6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "...                 ...               ...                ...              ...   \n",
       "11909               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11910               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11911               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11912               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11913               6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                             market_category vehicle_size  vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0      factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "1                         luxury,performance      compact    convertible   \n",
       "2                    luxury,high-performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "3                         luxury,performance      compact          coupe   \n",
       "4                                     luxury      compact    convertible   \n",
       "...                                      ...          ...            ...   \n",
       "11909             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11910             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11911             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11912             crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback   \n",
       "11913                                 luxury      midsize          sedan   \n",
       "\n",
       "       highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0               26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1               28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2               28        20        3916  36350  \n",
       "3               28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "4               28        18        3916  34500  \n",
       "...            ...       ...         ...    ...  \n",
       "11909           23        16         204  46120  \n",
       "11910           23        16         204  56670  \n",
       "11911           23        16         204  50620  \n",
       "11912           23        16         204  50920  \n",
       "11913           26        17          61  28995  \n",
       "\n",
       "[11914 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 26,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "id": "52e06e76",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
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       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
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       "    </tr>\n",
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       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
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       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
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       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11909</th>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11910</th>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11911</th>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11912</th>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11913</th>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "      <td>False</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>11914 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "        make  model   year  engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  engine_cylinders  \\\n",
       "0      False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "1      False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "2      False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "3      False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "4      False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "...      ...    ...    ...               ...        ...               ...   \n",
       "11909  False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "11910  False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "11911  False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "11912  False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "11913  False  False  False             False      False             False   \n",
       "\n",
       "       transmission_type  driven_wheels  number_of_doors  market_category  \\\n",
       "0                  False          False            False            False   \n",
       "1                  False          False            False            False   \n",
       "2                  False          False            False            False   \n",
       "3                  False          False            False            False   \n",
       "4                  False          False            False            False   \n",
       "...                  ...            ...              ...              ...   \n",
       "11909              False          False            False            False   \n",
       "11910              False          False            False            False   \n",
       "11911              False          False            False            False   \n",
       "11912              False          False            False            False   \n",
       "11913              False          False            False            False   \n",
       "\n",
       "       vehicle_size  vehicle_style  highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0             False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "1             False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "2             False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "3             False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "4             False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "...             ...            ...          ...       ...         ...    ...  \n",
       "11909         False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "11910         False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "11911         False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "11912         False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "11913         False          False        False     False       False  False  \n",
       "\n",
       "[11914 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.isnull()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "id": "4985c38a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "make                    0\n",
       "model                   0\n",
       "year                    0\n",
       "engine_fuel_type        3\n",
       "engine_hp              69\n",
       "engine_cylinders       30\n",
       "transmission_type       0\n",
       "driven_wheels           0\n",
       "number_of_doors         6\n",
       "market_category      3742\n",
       "vehicle_size            0\n",
       "vehicle_style           0\n",
       "highway_mpg             0\n",
       "city_mpg                0\n",
       "popularity              0\n",
       "msrp                    0\n",
       "dtype: int64"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 28,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.isnull().sum()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 29,
   "id": "7088543e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "n = len(df)\n",
    "\n",
    "n_val = int(len(df) * 0.2)\n",
    "n_test = int(len(df) * 0.2)\n",
    "n_train = int(len(df) * 0.6)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 30,
   "id": "8d7bc2c1",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(11914, 11912)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 30,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "n, n_val + n_test + n_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 31,
   "id": "a36306bd",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "n = len(df)\n",
    "\n",
    "n_val = int(len(df) * 0.2)\n",
    "n_test = int(len(df) * 0.2)\n",
    "n_train = n - n_val - n_test"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "id": "69d3f47d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(2382, 2382, 7150)"
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     "execution_count": 32,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
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   "execution_count": 33,
   "id": "ee301e6f",
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   "outputs": [
    {
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       "  <tbody>\n",
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       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series_m</td>\n",
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       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
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       "      <td>28</td>\n",
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       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
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      "text/plain": [
       "  make       model  year             engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0  bmw  1_series_m  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "1  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "   engine_cylinders transmission_type     driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "1               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "2               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                         market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0  factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "1                     luxury,performance      compact   convertible   \n",
       "2                luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "\n",
       "   highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0           26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1           28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2           28        20        3916  36350  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 33,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.iloc[[0, 1, 2]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 34,
   "id": "45b552b6",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
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       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <th>3</th>\n",
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       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
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       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>31200</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>6</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
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       "      <td>44100</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>39300</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>8</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36900</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
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       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>27</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>37200</td>\n",
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       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
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      "text/plain": [
       "  make       model  year             engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0  bmw  1_series_m  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "1  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "3  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "4  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "5  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "6  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "7  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "8  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "9  bmw    1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "   engine_cylinders transmission_type     driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "1               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "2               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "3               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "4               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "5               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "6               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "7               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "8               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "9               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                         market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0  factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "1                     luxury,performance      compact   convertible   \n",
       "2                luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "3                     luxury,performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "4                                 luxury      compact   convertible   \n",
       "5                     luxury,performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "6                     luxury,performance      compact   convertible   \n",
       "7                luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "8                                 luxury      compact   convertible   \n",
       "9                                 luxury      compact   convertible   \n",
       "\n",
       "   highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0           26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1           28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2           28        20        3916  36350  \n",
       "3           28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "4           28        18        3916  34500  \n",
       "5           28        18        3916  31200  \n",
       "6           26        17        3916  44100  \n",
       "7           28        20        3916  39300  \n",
       "8           28        18        3916  36900  \n",
       "9           27        18        3916  37200  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 34,
     "metadata": {},
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    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.iloc[:10]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 35,
   "id": "dee5c748",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
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       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>10</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <th>11</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>31500</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>12</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
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       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>44400</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>13</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>37200</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>14</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>31500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>15</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>320.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>25</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>48250</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>16</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>320.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>43550</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>17</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1992</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>18</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1992</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>19</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1992</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>20</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1992</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>21</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1992</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>22</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1993</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>23</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1993</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>24</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1993</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>25</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1993</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>26</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1993</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>27</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1994</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>28</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1994</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>29</th>\n",
       "      <td>audi</td>\n",
       "      <td>100</td>\n",
       "      <td>1994</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>172.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3105</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "    make     model  year             engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "10   bmw  1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11   bmw  1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "12   bmw  1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "13   bmw  1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "14   bmw  1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "15   bmw  1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      320.0   \n",
       "16   bmw  1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      320.0   \n",
       "17  audi       100  1992             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "18  audi       100  1992             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "19  audi       100  1992             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "20  audi       100  1992             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "21  audi       100  1992             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "22  audi       100  1993             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "23  audi       100  1993             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "24  audi       100  1993             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "25  audi       100  1993             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "26  audi       100  1993             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "27  audi       100  1994             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "28  audi       100  1994             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "29  audi       100  1994             regular_unleaded      172.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "    engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "10               6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "11               6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "12               6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "13               6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "14               6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "15               6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "16               6.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "17               6.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "18               6.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "19               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "20               6.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "21               6.0            manual    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "22               6.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "23               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "24               6.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "25               6.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "26               6.0            manual    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "27               6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "28               6.0            manual    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "29               6.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "            market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  highway_mpg  city_mpg  \\\n",
       "10  luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe           28        20   \n",
       "11       luxury,performance      compact         coupe           28        19   \n",
       "12       luxury,performance      compact   convertible           28        19   \n",
       "13                   luxury      compact   convertible           28        19   \n",
       "14       luxury,performance      compact         coupe           28        19   \n",
       "15  luxury,high-performance      compact   convertible           25        18   \n",
       "16  luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe           28        20   \n",
       "17                   luxury      midsize         sedan           24        17   \n",
       "18                   luxury      midsize         sedan           24        17   \n",
       "19                   luxury      midsize         wagon           20        16   \n",
       "20                   luxury      midsize         sedan           24        17   \n",
       "21                   luxury      midsize         sedan           21        16   \n",
       "22                   luxury      midsize         sedan           24        17   \n",
       "23                   luxury      midsize         wagon           20        16   \n",
       "24                   luxury      midsize         sedan           24        17   \n",
       "25                   luxury      midsize         sedan           24        17   \n",
       "26                   luxury      midsize         sedan           21        16   \n",
       "27                   luxury      midsize         wagon           21        16   \n",
       "28                   luxury      midsize         sedan           22        16   \n",
       "29                   luxury      midsize         sedan           22        17   \n",
       "\n",
       "    popularity   msrp  \n",
       "10        3916  39600  \n",
       "11        3916  31500  \n",
       "12        3916  44400  \n",
       "13        3916  37200  \n",
       "14        3916  31500  \n",
       "15        3916  48250  \n",
       "16        3916  43550  \n",
       "17        3105   2000  \n",
       "18        3105   2000  \n",
       "19        3105   2000  \n",
       "20        3105   2000  \n",
       "21        3105   2000  \n",
       "22        3105   2000  \n",
       "23        3105   2000  \n",
       "24        3105   2000  \n",
       "25        3105   2000  \n",
       "26        3105   2000  \n",
       "27        3105   2000  \n",
       "28        3105   2000  \n",
       "29        3105   2000  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 35,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.iloc[10:30]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 36,
   "id": "07a4e52a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11910</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>56670</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11911</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50620</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11912</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50920</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11913</th>\n",
       "      <td>lincoln</td>\n",
       "      <td>zephyr</td>\n",
       "      <td>2006</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>221.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>61</td>\n",
       "      <td>28995</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "          make   model  year                engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "11910    acura     zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11911    acura     zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11912    acura     zdx  2013  premium_unleaded_(recommended)      300.0   \n",
       "11913  lincoln  zephyr  2006                regular_unleaded      221.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "       engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "11910               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11911               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11912               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11913               6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                  market_category vehicle_size  vehicle_style  highway_mpg  \\\n",
       "11910  crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback           23   \n",
       "11911  crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback           23   \n",
       "11912  crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback           23   \n",
       "11913                      luxury      midsize          sedan           26   \n",
       "\n",
       "       city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "11910        16         204  56670  \n",
       "11911        16         204  50620  \n",
       "11912        16         204  50920  \n",
       "11913        17          61  28995  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 36,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.iloc[11910:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 37,
   "id": "6b82fd32",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
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       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
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       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>10</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>39600</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series_m</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>335.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>5</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>31200</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "   make       model  year             engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "10  bmw    1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "0   bmw  1_series_m  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "3   bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "5   bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "    engine_cylinders transmission_type     driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "10               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "0                6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "3                6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "5                6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                          market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "10                luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "0   factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "3                      luxury,performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "5                      luxury,performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "\n",
       "    highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "10           28        20        3916  39600  \n",
       "0            26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "3            28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "5            28        18        3916  31200  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 37,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.iloc[[10, 0, 3, 5]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "id": "1a99363a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df_val = df.iloc[:n_val]\n",
    "df_test = df.iloc[n_val:n_val + n_test]\n",
    "df_train = df.iloc[n_val + n_test:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 241,
   "id": "379f7f6f",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df_train = df.iloc[n_val + n_test:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 242,
   "id": "3a9486e9",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
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       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4764</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
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       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>37800</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4765</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>365.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>15</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>43030</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4766</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
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       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
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       "      <td>crossover,performance</td>\n",
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       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
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       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>40180</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4767</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
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       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,performance</td>\n",
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       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>32730</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4768</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
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       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>38230</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11909</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>46120</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11910</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>56670</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11911</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50620</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11912</th>\n",
       "      <td>acura</td>\n",
       "      <td>zdx</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,hatchback,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>204</td>\n",
       "      <td>50920</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11913</th>\n",
       "      <td>lincoln</td>\n",
       "      <td>zephyr</td>\n",
       "      <td>2006</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>221.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>61</td>\n",
       "      <td>28995</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>7150 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "          make   model  year                engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "4764      ford    flex  2016                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "4765      ford    flex  2017  premium_unleaded_(recommended)      365.0   \n",
       "4766      ford    flex  2017                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "4767      ford    flex  2017                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "4768      ford    flex  2017                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "...        ...     ...   ...                             ...        ...   \n",
       "11909    acura     zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11910    acura     zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11911    acura     zdx  2012     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "11912    acura     zdx  2013  premium_unleaded_(recommended)      300.0   \n",
       "11913  lincoln  zephyr  2006                regular_unleaded      221.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "       engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "4764                6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "4765                6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "4766                6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "4767                6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "4768                6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "...                 ...               ...                ...              ...   \n",
       "11909               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11910               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11911               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11912               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11913               6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                  market_category vehicle_size  vehicle_style  highway_mpg  \\\n",
       "4764        crossover,performance        large          wagon           23   \n",
       "4765                    crossover        large          wagon           21   \n",
       "4766        crossover,performance        large          wagon           22   \n",
       "4767        crossover,performance        large          wagon           23   \n",
       "4768        crossover,performance        large          wagon           23   \n",
       "...                           ...          ...            ...          ...   \n",
       "11909  crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback           23   \n",
       "11910  crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback           23   \n",
       "11911  crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback           23   \n",
       "11912  crossover,hatchback,luxury      midsize  4dr_hatchback           23   \n",
       "11913                      luxury      midsize          sedan           26   \n",
       "\n",
       "       city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "4764         16        5657  37800  \n",
       "4765         15        5657  43030  \n",
       "4766         16        5657  40180  \n",
       "4767         16        5657  32730  \n",
       "4768         16        5657  38230  \n",
       "...         ...         ...    ...  \n",
       "11909        16         204  46120  \n",
       "11910        16         204  56670  \n",
       "11911        16         204  50620  \n",
       "11912        16         204  50920  \n",
       "11913        17          61  28995  \n",
       "\n",
       "[7150 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 242,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 237,
   "id": "8b10deb1",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df_val = df.iloc[:n_val]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 238,
   "id": "143ece94",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
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       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>46135</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
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       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
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       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>19</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
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       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>34500</td>\n",
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       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2377</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>570.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>14</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>157300</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2378</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>diesel</td>\n",
       "      <td>240.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,diesel</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>29</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>62300</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2379</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>520.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>14</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>116500</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2380</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>59600</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2381</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>440.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>97200</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>2382 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "         make       model  year             engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0         bmw  1_series_m  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "1         bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2         bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "3         bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "4         bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "...       ...         ...   ...                          ...        ...   \n",
       "2377  porsche     cayenne  2016  premium_unleaded_(required)      570.0   \n",
       "2378  porsche     cayenne  2016                       diesel      240.0   \n",
       "2379  porsche     cayenne  2017  premium_unleaded_(required)      520.0   \n",
       "2380  porsche     cayenne  2017  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2381  porsche     cayenne  2017  premium_unleaded_(required)      440.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "      engine_cylinders transmission_type     driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0                  6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "1                  6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "2                  6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "3                  6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "4                  6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "...                ...               ...               ...              ...   \n",
       "2377               8.0         automatic   all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "2378               6.0         automatic   all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "2379               8.0         automatic   all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "2380               6.0         automatic   all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "2381               6.0         automatic   all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                            market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0     factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "1                        luxury,performance      compact   convertible   \n",
       "2                   luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "3                        luxury,performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "4                                    luxury      compact   convertible   \n",
       "...                                     ...          ...           ...   \n",
       "2377      crossover,luxury,high-performance      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "2378                crossover,luxury,diesel      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "2379           crossover,luxury,performance      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "2380                       crossover,luxury      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "2381      crossover,luxury,high-performance      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "\n",
       "      highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity    msrp  \n",
       "0              26        19        3916   46135  \n",
       "1              28        19        3916   40650  \n",
       "2              28        20        3916   36350  \n",
       "3              28        18        3916   29450  \n",
       "4              28        18        3916   34500  \n",
       "...           ...       ...         ...     ...  \n",
       "2377           21        14        1715  157300  \n",
       "2378           29        20        1715   62300  \n",
       "2379           21        14        1715  116500  \n",
       "2380           24        18        1715   59600  \n",
       "2381           23        16        1715   97200  \n",
       "\n",
       "[2382 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 238,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_val"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "id": "0268fdf7",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df_train = df.iloc[n_train:]\n",
    "df_val = df.iloc[n_train:n_train + n_val]\n",
    "df_test = df.iloc[n_train + n_val:]\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 41,
   "id": "b98b2283",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "idx = np.arange(n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 42,
   "id": "e89c1faa",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
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       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>40650</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
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       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
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       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36350</td>\n",
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       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>29450</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2011</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
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       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
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       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>34500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>5</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
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       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>31200</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>6</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>26</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>44100</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>39300</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>8</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>36900</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>1_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2013</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>230.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>27</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>37200</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  make       model  year             engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0  bmw  1_series_m  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      335.0   \n",
       "1  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "2  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "3  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "4  bmw    1_series  2011  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "5  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "6  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "7  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "8  bmw    1_series  2012  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "9  bmw    1_series  2013  premium_unleaded_(required)      230.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "   engine_cylinders transmission_type     driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "1               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "2               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "3               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "4               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "5               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "6               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "7               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "8               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "9               6.0            manual  rear_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                         market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0  factory_tuner,luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "1                     luxury,performance      compact   convertible   \n",
       "2                luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "3                     luxury,performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "4                                 luxury      compact   convertible   \n",
       "5                     luxury,performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "6                     luxury,performance      compact   convertible   \n",
       "7                luxury,high-performance      compact         coupe   \n",
       "8                                 luxury      compact   convertible   \n",
       "9                                 luxury      compact   convertible   \n",
       "\n",
       "   highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity   msrp  \n",
       "0           26        19        3916  46135  \n",
       "1           28        19        3916  40650  \n",
       "2           28        20        3916  36350  \n",
       "3           28        18        3916  29450  \n",
       "4           28        18        3916  34500  \n",
       "5           28        18        3916  31200  \n",
       "6           26        17        3916  44100  \n",
       "7           28        20        3916  39300  \n",
       "8           28        18        3916  36900  \n",
       "9           27        18        3916  37200  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 42,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.iloc[idx[:10]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "id": "2f861ae2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "np.random.seed(2)\n",
    "np.random.shuffle(idx)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "id": "d1b5e652",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([2735, 6720, 5878, ..., 6637, 2575, 7336])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 44,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "idx"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "id": "12eb7d91",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "df_train = df.iloc[idx[:n_train]]\n",
    "df_val = df.iloc[idx[n_train:n_train + n_val]]\n",
    "df_test = df.iloc[idx[n_train + n_val:]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "id": "c98cb3eb",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
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       "\n",
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       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2735</th>\n",
       "      <td>chevrolet</td>\n",
       "      <td>cobalt</td>\n",
       "      <td>2008</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>33</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>1385</td>\n",
       "      <td>14410</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>6720</th>\n",
       "      <td>toyota</td>\n",
       "      <td>matrix</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>132.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>32</td>\n",
       "      <td>25</td>\n",
       "      <td>2031</td>\n",
       "      <td>19685</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>5878</th>\n",
       "      <td>subaru</td>\n",
       "      <td>impreza</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>37</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>640</td>\n",
       "      <td>19795</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11190</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>vanagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>1991</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>90.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>3.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>passenger_minivan</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4554</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>f-150</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)</td>\n",
       "      <td>385.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>four_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex_fuel</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>crew_cab_pickup</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>15</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>56260</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>434</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>4_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>54900</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1902</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>beetle</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>210.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automated_manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>2dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>30</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>29215</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9334</th>\n",
       "      <td>gmc</td>\n",
       "      <td>sierra_1500</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)</td>\n",
       "      <td>285.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>four_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex_fuel</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>extended_cab_pickup</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>549</td>\n",
       "      <td>34675</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>5284</th>\n",
       "      <td>rolls-royce</td>\n",
       "      <td>ghost</td>\n",
       "      <td>2014</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>563.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>12.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>exotic,luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>13</td>\n",
       "      <td>86</td>\n",
       "      <td>303300</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2420</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>cc</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>200.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automated_manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>37820</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>7150 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "              make        model  year                engine_fuel_type  \\\n",
       "2735     chevrolet       cobalt  2008                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "6720        toyota       matrix  2012                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "5878        subaru      impreza  2016                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "11190   volkswagen      vanagon  1991                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "4554          ford        f-150  2017        flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)   \n",
       "...            ...          ...   ...                             ...   \n",
       "434            bmw     4_series  2015     premium_unleaded_(required)   \n",
       "1902    volkswagen       beetle  2015  premium_unleaded_(recommended)   \n",
       "9334           gmc  sierra_1500  2015        flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)   \n",
       "5284   rolls-royce        ghost  2014     premium_unleaded_(required)   \n",
       "2420    volkswagen           cc  2017  premium_unleaded_(recommended)   \n",
       "\n",
       "       engine_hp  engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  \\\n",
       "2735       148.0               4.0            manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "6720       132.0               4.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "5878       148.0               4.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive   \n",
       "11190       90.0               4.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "4554       385.0               8.0         automatic   four_wheel_drive   \n",
       "...          ...               ...               ...                ...   \n",
       "434        300.0               6.0         automatic   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "1902       210.0               4.0  automated_manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "9334       285.0               6.0         automatic   four_wheel_drive   \n",
       "5284       563.0              12.0         automatic   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "2420       200.0               4.0  automated_manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "\n",
       "       number_of_doors            market_category vehicle_size  \\\n",
       "2735               2.0                        NaN      compact   \n",
       "6720               4.0                  hatchback      compact   \n",
       "5878               4.0                  hatchback      compact   \n",
       "11190              3.0                        NaN        large   \n",
       "4554               4.0                  flex_fuel        large   \n",
       "...                ...                        ...          ...   \n",
       "434                2.0         luxury,performance      midsize   \n",
       "1902               2.0      hatchback,performance      compact   \n",
       "9334               4.0                  flex_fuel        large   \n",
       "5284               4.0  exotic,luxury,performance        large   \n",
       "2420               4.0                performance      midsize   \n",
       "\n",
       "             vehicle_style  highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity    msrp  \n",
       "2735                 coupe           33        24        1385   14410  \n",
       "6720         4dr_hatchback           32        25        2031   19685  \n",
       "5878         4dr_hatchback           37        28         640   19795  \n",
       "11190    passenger_minivan           18        16         873    2000  \n",
       "4554       crew_cab_pickup           21        15        5657   56260  \n",
       "...                    ...          ...       ...         ...     ...  \n",
       "434            convertible           31        20        3916   54900  \n",
       "1902         2dr_hatchback           30        24         873   29215  \n",
       "9334   extended_cab_pickup           22        17         549   34675  \n",
       "5284                 sedan           21        13          86  303300  \n",
       "2420                 sedan           31        22         873   37820  \n",
       "\n",
       "[7150 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 46,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 47,
   "id": "3bc10f67",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
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       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2735</th>\n",
       "      <td>chevrolet</td>\n",
       "      <td>cobalt</td>\n",
       "      <td>2008</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>33</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>1385</td>\n",
       "      <td>14410</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>6720</th>\n",
       "      <td>toyota</td>\n",
       "      <td>matrix</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>132.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>32</td>\n",
       "      <td>25</td>\n",
       "      <td>2031</td>\n",
       "      <td>19685</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>5878</th>\n",
       "      <td>subaru</td>\n",
       "      <td>impreza</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>37</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>640</td>\n",
       "      <td>19795</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>11190</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>vanagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>1991</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>90.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>3.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>passenger_minivan</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4554</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>f-150</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)</td>\n",
       "      <td>385.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>four_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex_fuel</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>crew_cab_pickup</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>15</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>56260</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "             make    model  year          engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "2735    chevrolet   cobalt  2008          regular_unleaded      148.0   \n",
       "6720       toyota   matrix  2012          regular_unleaded      132.0   \n",
       "5878       subaru  impreza  2016          regular_unleaded      148.0   \n",
       "11190  volkswagen  vanagon  1991          regular_unleaded       90.0   \n",
       "4554         ford    f-150  2017  flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)      385.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "       engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "2735                4.0            manual  front_wheel_drive              2.0   \n",
       "6720                4.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "5878                4.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "11190               4.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive              3.0   \n",
       "4554                8.0         automatic   four_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "      market_category vehicle_size      vehicle_style  highway_mpg  city_mpg  \\\n",
       "2735              NaN      compact              coupe           33        24   \n",
       "6720        hatchback      compact      4dr_hatchback           32        25   \n",
       "5878        hatchback      compact      4dr_hatchback           37        28   \n",
       "11190             NaN        large  passenger_minivan           18        16   \n",
       "4554        flex_fuel        large    crew_cab_pickup           21        15   \n",
       "\n",
       "       popularity   msrp  \n",
       "2735         1385  14410  \n",
       "6720         2031  19685  \n",
       "5878          640  19795  \n",
       "11190         873   2000  \n",
       "4554         5657  56260  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 47,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train.head()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "id": "baaed73d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(7150, 2382, 2382)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(df_train), len(df_val), len(df_test)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "id": "5aa70de5",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df_train = df_train.reset_index(drop=True)\n",
    "df_val = df_val.reset_index(drop=True)\n",
    "df_test = df_test.reset_index(drop=True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "id": "bf203b7b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>chevrolet</td>\n",
       "      <td>cobalt</td>\n",
       "      <td>2008</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>33</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>1385</td>\n",
       "      <td>14410</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>toyota</td>\n",
       "      <td>matrix</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>132.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>32</td>\n",
       "      <td>25</td>\n",
       "      <td>2031</td>\n",
       "      <td>19685</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>subaru</td>\n",
       "      <td>impreza</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>37</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>640</td>\n",
       "      <td>19795</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>vanagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>1991</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>90.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>3.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>passenger_minivan</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>2000</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>f-150</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)</td>\n",
       "      <td>385.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>four_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex_fuel</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>crew_cab_pickup</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>15</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>56260</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7145</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>4_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>54900</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7146</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>beetle</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>210.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automated_manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>2dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>30</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>29215</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7147</th>\n",
       "      <td>gmc</td>\n",
       "      <td>sierra_1500</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)</td>\n",
       "      <td>285.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>four_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex_fuel</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>extended_cab_pickup</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>549</td>\n",
       "      <td>34675</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7148</th>\n",
       "      <td>rolls-royce</td>\n",
       "      <td>ghost</td>\n",
       "      <td>2014</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>563.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>12.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>exotic,luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>13</td>\n",
       "      <td>86</td>\n",
       "      <td>303300</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7149</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>cc</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>200.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automated_manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>37820</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>7150 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "             make        model  year                engine_fuel_type  \\\n",
       "0       chevrolet       cobalt  2008                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "1          toyota       matrix  2012                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "2          subaru      impreza  2016                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "3      volkswagen      vanagon  1991                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "4            ford        f-150  2017        flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)   \n",
       "...           ...          ...   ...                             ...   \n",
       "7145          bmw     4_series  2015     premium_unleaded_(required)   \n",
       "7146   volkswagen       beetle  2015  premium_unleaded_(recommended)   \n",
       "7147          gmc  sierra_1500  2015        flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)   \n",
       "7148  rolls-royce        ghost  2014     premium_unleaded_(required)   \n",
       "7149   volkswagen           cc  2017  premium_unleaded_(recommended)   \n",
       "\n",
       "      engine_hp  engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  \\\n",
       "0         148.0               4.0            manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "1         132.0               4.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "2         148.0               4.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive   \n",
       "3          90.0               4.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "4         385.0               8.0         automatic   four_wheel_drive   \n",
       "...         ...               ...               ...                ...   \n",
       "7145      300.0               6.0         automatic   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7146      210.0               4.0  automated_manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7147      285.0               6.0         automatic   four_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7148      563.0              12.0         automatic   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7149      200.0               4.0  automated_manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "\n",
       "      number_of_doors            market_category vehicle_size  \\\n",
       "0                 2.0                        NaN      compact   \n",
       "1                 4.0                  hatchback      compact   \n",
       "2                 4.0                  hatchback      compact   \n",
       "3                 3.0                        NaN        large   \n",
       "4                 4.0                  flex_fuel        large   \n",
       "...               ...                        ...          ...   \n",
       "7145              2.0         luxury,performance      midsize   \n",
       "7146              2.0      hatchback,performance      compact   \n",
       "7147              4.0                  flex_fuel        large   \n",
       "7148              4.0  exotic,luxury,performance        large   \n",
       "7149              4.0                performance      midsize   \n",
       "\n",
       "            vehicle_style  highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity    msrp  \n",
       "0                   coupe           33        24        1385   14410  \n",
       "1           4dr_hatchback           32        25        2031   19685  \n",
       "2           4dr_hatchback           37        28         640   19795  \n",
       "3       passenger_minivan           18        16         873    2000  \n",
       "4         crew_cab_pickup           21        15        5657   56260  \n",
       "...                   ...          ...       ...         ...     ...  \n",
       "7145          convertible           31        20        3916   54900  \n",
       "7146        2dr_hatchback           30        24         873   29215  \n",
       "7147  extended_cab_pickup           22        17         549   34675  \n",
       "7148                sedan           21        13          86  303300  \n",
       "7149                sedan           31        22         873   37820  \n",
       "\n",
       "[7150 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 50,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "id": "32a8b57d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "y_train = np.log1p(df_train.msrp.values)\n",
    "y_val = np.log1p(df_val.msrp.values)\n",
    "y_test = np.log1p(df_test.msrp.values)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 52,
   "id": "30ccdf02",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 9.57574708,  9.887663  ,  9.89323518, ..., 10.45380308,\n",
       "       12.62248099, 10.54061978])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 52,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "y_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 53,
   "id": "79b16dbf",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "del df_train['msrp']\n",
    "del df_val['msrp']\n",
    "del df_test['msrp']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 54,
   "id": "9d30e41a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "7150"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 54,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(y_train)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "057a4978",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Linear Regression"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 55,
   "id": "71406cf8",
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "make                                 rolls-royce\n",
       "model                     phantom_drophead_coupe\n",
       "year                                        2015\n",
       "engine_fuel_type     premium_unleaded_(required)\n",
       "engine_hp                                  453.0\n",
       "engine_cylinders                            12.0\n",
       "transmission_type                      automatic\n",
       "driven_wheels                   rear_wheel_drive\n",
       "number_of_doors                              2.0\n",
       "market_category        exotic,luxury,performance\n",
       "vehicle_size                               large\n",
       "vehicle_style                        convertible\n",
       "highway_mpg                                   19\n",
       "city_mpg                                      11\n",
       "popularity                                    86\n",
       "Name: 10, dtype: object"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 55,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train.iloc[10]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 56,
   "id": "46bd02f3",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "xi = [453, 11, 86]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 57,
   "id": "984ad375",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "w0 = 7.17\n",
    "w = [0.01, 0.04, 0.002]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 58,
   "id": "bc270775",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def linear_regression(xi):\n",
    "    n = len(xi)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    pred = w0\n",
    "    \n",
    "    for j in range(n):\n",
    "        pred = pred + w[j] * xi[j]\n",
    "        \n",
    "    return pred\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 59,
   "id": "6a25e47b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "12.312"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 59,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "linear_regression(xi)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 60,
   "id": "8dceb530",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "222347.2221101062"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 60,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.expm1(12.312)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "id": "7e56a143",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "12.312"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 61,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.log1p(222347.2221101062)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "id": "cd896884",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def g(xi):\n",
    "    # do something\n",
    "    return 10000"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 63,
   "id": "80900197",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[453, 11, 86]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 63,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "xi"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "10886f05",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Linear Regression: Vector Form"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 64,
   "id": "7076fa2c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def dot(xi, w):\n",
    "    n = len(xi)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    res = 0.0\n",
    "    \n",
    "    for j in range(n):\n",
    "        res = res + xi[j] * w[j]\n",
    "    \n",
    "    return res"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 65,
   "id": "6837acee",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def linear_regression(xi):\n",
    "    return w0 + dot(xi, w)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 66,
   "id": "7b7fe21e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "5.142"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 66,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dot(xi, w)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 67,
   "id": "e99444bb",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "12.312000000000001"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 67,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "linear_regression(xi)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 68,
   "id": "0f499d2a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "w_new = [w0] + w"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 69,
   "id": "33436f58",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[7.17, 0.01, 0.04, 0.002]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 69,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "w_new"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 70,
   "id": "7ed3aaba",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def linear_regression(xi):\n",
    "    xi = [1] + xi\n",
    "    return dot(xi, w_new)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 71,
   "id": "1059891a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "12.312"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 71,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "linear_regression(xi)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 72,
   "id": "7a058635",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "xi = [453, 11, 86]\n",
    "w0 = 7.17\n",
    "w = [0.01, 0.04, 0.002]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 73,
   "id": "d31b7cbb",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[   1,  148,   24, 1385],\n",
       "       [   1,  132,   25, 2031],\n",
       "       [   1,  453,   11,   86]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 73,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x1 = [1, 148, 24, 1385]\n",
    "x2 = [1, 132, 25, 2031]\n",
    "x10 = [1, 453, 11, 86]\n",
    "\n",
    "X = [x1, x2, x10]\n",
    "X = np.array(X)\n",
    "X"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 74,
   "id": "e7f16d6b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([12.38 , 13.552, 12.312])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 74,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X.dot(w_new)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 75,
   "id": "4c79bb7b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def linear_regression(X):\n",
    "    return X.dot(w_new)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 76,
   "id": "c7adacd1",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([12.38 , 13.552, 12.312])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 76,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "linear_regression(X)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "10f1f7d9",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Training a Linear Regression Model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 77,
   "id": "d338cce9",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def train_linear_regression(X, y):\n",
    "    pass"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 78,
   "id": "a2d2e79b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[   1,  148,   24, 1385],\n",
       "       [   1,  132,   25, 2031],\n",
       "       [   1,  453,   11,   86]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 78,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 79,
   "id": "bcb76d78",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[ 148,   24, 1385],\n",
       "       [ 132,   25, 2031],\n",
       "       [ 453,   11,   86],\n",
       "       [ 158,   24,  185],\n",
       "       [ 172,   25,  201],\n",
       "       [ 413,   11,   86],\n",
       "       [  38,   54,  185],\n",
       "       [ 142,   25,  431],\n",
       "       [ 453,   31,   86]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 79,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "X = [\n",
    "    [148, 24, 1385],\n",
    "    [132, 25, 2031],\n",
    "    [453, 11, 86],   \n",
    "    [158, 24, 185],\n",
    "    [172, 25, 201],\n",
    "    [413, 11, 86], \n",
    "    [38, 54, 185],\n",
    "    [142, 25, 431],\n",
    "    [453, 31, 86] \n",
    "]\n",
    "X = np.array(X)\n",
    "X\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 80,
   "id": "74561317",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#ones = np.ones(X.shape[0])\n",
    "#ones"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 81,
   "id": "3f57b276",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "y = [10000, 20000, 15000, 20050, 10000, 20000, 15000, 25000, 12000]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 82,
   "id": "4bc444ef",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#X = np.column_stack([ones, X])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 83,
   "id": "9af4818e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#XTX = X.T.dot(X)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 84,
   "id": "a222c458",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#XTX_inv = np.linalg.inv(XTX)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 85,
   "id": "b041dc5f",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#XTX.dot(XTX_inv).round(1)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 86,
   "id": "b1b92923",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#w_full = XTX_inv.dot(X.T).dot(y)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 87,
   "id": "ff1f1eed",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#w0 = w_full[0]\n",
    "#w = w_full[1:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 88,
   "id": "fec23786",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#w0, "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 89,
   "id": "a5098cd8",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def train_linear_regression(X, y):\n",
    "    ones = np.ones(X.shape[0])\n",
    "    X = np.column_stack([ones, X])\n",
    "    XTX = X.T.dot(X)\n",
    "    XTX_inv = np.linalg.inv(XTX)\n",
    "    w_full = XTX_inv.dot(X.T).dot(y)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    return w_full[0], w_full[1:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 90,
   "id": "977b8134",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(25844.75405576679, array([ -16.08906468, -199.47254894,   -1.22802883]))"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 90,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "train_linear_regression(X, y)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "fa93f5b4",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## 2.8 Car price baseline model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 91,
   "id": "ee08b571",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "make                  object\n",
       "model                 object\n",
       "year                   int64\n",
       "engine_fuel_type      object\n",
       "engine_hp            float64\n",
       "engine_cylinders     float64\n",
       "transmission_type     object\n",
       "driven_wheels         object\n",
       "number_of_doors      float64\n",
       "market_category       object\n",
       "vehicle_size          object\n",
       "vehicle_style         object\n",
       "highway_mpg            int64\n",
       "city_mpg               int64\n",
       "popularity             int64\n",
       "dtype: object"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 91,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train.dtypes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 92,
   "id": "da609cd7",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "Index(['make', 'model', 'year', 'engine_fuel_type', 'engine_hp',\n",
       "       'engine_cylinders', 'transmission_type', 'driven_wheels',\n",
       "       'number_of_doors', 'market_category', 'vehicle_size', 'vehicle_style',\n",
       "       'highway_mpg', 'city_mpg', 'popularity'],\n",
       "      dtype='object')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 92,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train.columns"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 93,
   "id": "6d970abf",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>33</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>1385</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>132.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>32</td>\n",
       "      <td>25</td>\n",
       "      <td>2031</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>37</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>640</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>90.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>385.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>15</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7145</th>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7146</th>\n",
       "      <td>210.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>30</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7147</th>\n",
       "      <td>285.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>549</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7148</th>\n",
       "      <td>563.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>12.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>13</td>\n",
       "      <td>86</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7149</th>\n",
       "      <td>200.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>7150 rows × 5 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "      engine_hp  engine_cylinders  highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity\n",
       "0         148.0               4.0           33        24        1385\n",
       "1         132.0               4.0           32        25        2031\n",
       "2         148.0               4.0           37        28         640\n",
       "3          90.0               4.0           18        16         873\n",
       "4         385.0               8.0           21        15        5657\n",
       "...         ...               ...          ...       ...         ...\n",
       "7145      300.0               6.0           31        20        3916\n",
       "7146      210.0               4.0           30        24         873\n",
       "7147      285.0               6.0           22        17         549\n",
       "7148      563.0              12.0           21        13          86\n",
       "7149      200.0               4.0           31        22         873\n",
       "\n",
       "[7150 rows x 5 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 93,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "base = ['engine_hp', 'engine_cylinders', 'highway_mpg', 'city_mpg', 'popularity']\n",
    "\n",
    "df_train[base]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 94,
   "id": "cd70e96c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "X_train = df_train[base].values"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 95,
   "id": "d58acffa",
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "engine_hp           0\n",
       "engine_cylinders    0\n",
       "highway_mpg         0\n",
       "city_mpg            0\n",
       "popularity          0\n",
       "dtype: int64"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 95,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train[base].fillna(0).isnull().sum()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 96,
   "id": "229579a5",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "X_train = df_train[base].fillna(0).values"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 97,
   "id": "acd3b19a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 98,
   "id": "c6fd136c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "y_pred = w0 + X_train.dot(w)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 99,
   "id": "0f82ee25",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<AxesSubplot:ylabel='Count'>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 99,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "image/png": "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\n",
      "text/plain": [
       "<Figure size 432x288 with 1 Axes>"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {
      "needs_background": "light"
     },
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sns.histplot(y_pred, color = 'red', alpha = 0.5, bins = 50)\n",
    "sns.histplot(y_train, color = 'blue', alpha = 0.5, bins = 50)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "c2c472fa",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## RMSE"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 100,
   "id": "5bd42a5c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def rmse(y, y_pred):\n",
    "    error = y - y_pred\n",
    "    se = error ** 2\n",
    "    mse = se.mean()\n",
    "    return np.sqrt(mse)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 101,
   "id": "c9d3383e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.7554192603920132"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 101,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "rmse(y_train, y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "ecff6ff4",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Validating the model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 102,
   "id": "dc808e68",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "base = ['engine_hp', 'engine_cylinders', 'highway_mpg', \n",
    "        'city_mpg', 'popularity']\n",
    "\n",
    "X_train = df_train[base].fillna(0).values\n",
    "\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)\n",
    "\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_train.dot(w)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 103,
   "id": "621187e2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def prepare_X(df):\n",
    "    df_num = df[base]\n",
    "    df_num = df_num.fillna(0)\n",
    "    X = df_num.values\n",
    "    return X\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 104,
   "id": "a9d4ca9f",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.7616530991301601"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 104,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)\n",
    "\n",
    "X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "\n",
    "rmse(y_val, y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "a19094ac",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Simple feature engineering"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 105,
   "id": "afa0ed7b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0        9\n",
       "1        5\n",
       "2        1\n",
       "3       26\n",
       "4        0\n",
       "        ..\n",
       "7145     2\n",
       "7146     2\n",
       "7147     2\n",
       "7148     3\n",
       "7149     0\n",
       "Name: year, Length: 7150, dtype: int64"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 105,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "2017 - df_train.year"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 106,
   "id": "a8c22114",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def prepare_X(df):\n",
    "    df = df.copy()\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df['age'] = 2017 - df.year\n",
    "    features = base + ['age']\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df_num = df[features]\n",
    "    df_num = df_num.fillna(0)\n",
    "    X = df_num.values\n",
    "    return X\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 107,
   "id": "2bcb2c85",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 108,
   "id": "bbdc9c35",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[1.480e+02, 4.000e+00, 3.300e+01, 2.400e+01, 1.385e+03, 9.000e+00],\n",
       "       [1.320e+02, 4.000e+00, 3.200e+01, 2.500e+01, 2.031e+03, 5.000e+00],\n",
       "       [1.480e+02, 4.000e+00, 3.700e+01, 2.800e+01, 6.400e+02, 1.000e+00],\n",
       "       ...,\n",
       "       [2.850e+02, 6.000e+00, 2.200e+01, 1.700e+01, 5.490e+02, 2.000e+00],\n",
       "       [5.630e+02, 1.200e+01, 2.100e+01, 1.300e+01, 8.600e+01, 3.000e+00],\n",
       "       [2.000e+02, 4.000e+00, 3.100e+01, 2.200e+01, 8.730e+02, 0.000e+00]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 108,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 109,
   "id": "f99c1201",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "make                  object\n",
       "model                 object\n",
       "year                   int64\n",
       "engine_fuel_type      object\n",
       "engine_hp            float64\n",
       "engine_cylinders     float64\n",
       "transmission_type     object\n",
       "driven_wheels         object\n",
       "number_of_doors      float64\n",
       "market_category       object\n",
       "vehicle_size          object\n",
       "vehicle_style         object\n",
       "highway_mpg            int64\n",
       "city_mpg               int64\n",
       "popularity             int64\n",
       "dtype: object"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 109,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train.dtypes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 110,
   "id": "40e23204",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "##del df_train['age']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 111,
   "id": "c0641409",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "Index(['make', 'model', 'year', 'engine_fuel_type', 'engine_hp',\n",
       "       'engine_cylinders', 'transmission_type', 'driven_wheels',\n",
       "       'number_of_doors', 'market_category', 'vehicle_size', 'vehicle_style',\n",
       "       'highway_mpg', 'city_mpg', 'popularity'],\n",
       "      dtype='object')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 111,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train.columns"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 112,
   "id": "b9fd8072",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.5172055461058335"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 112,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)\n",
    "\n",
    "X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "\n",
    "rmse(y_val, y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 113,
   "id": "334678b2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<AxesSubplot:ylabel='Count'>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 113,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "image/png": "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\n",
      "text/plain": [
       "<Figure size 432x288 with 1 Axes>"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {
      "needs_background": "light"
     },
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sns.histplot(y_pred, color = 'red', alpha = 0.5, bins = 50)\n",
    "sns.histplot(y_val, color = 'blue', alpha = 0.5, bins = 50)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "d3012219",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Categorical variables"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 143,
   "id": "73769626",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "for v in [2, 3, 4]:\n",
    "    df_train['num_doors_%s' % v] = (df_train.number_of_doors == v).astype('int')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 144,
   "id": "4f38c465",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>num_doors_2</th>\n",
       "      <th>num_doors_3</th>\n",
       "      <th>num_doors_4</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>chevrolet</td>\n",
       "      <td>cobalt</td>\n",
       "      <td>2008</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>coupe</td>\n",
       "      <td>33</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>1385</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>toyota</td>\n",
       "      <td>matrix</td>\n",
       "      <td>2012</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>132.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>32</td>\n",
       "      <td>25</td>\n",
       "      <td>2031</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>subaru</td>\n",
       "      <td>impreza</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>148.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>37</td>\n",
       "      <td>28</td>\n",
       "      <td>640</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>vanagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>1991</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>90.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>3.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>passenger_minivan</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>f-150</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)</td>\n",
       "      <td>385.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>four_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex_fuel</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>crew_cab_pickup</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>15</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7145</th>\n",
       "      <td>bmw</td>\n",
       "      <td>4_series</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>convertible</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>3916</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7146</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>beetle</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>210.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automated_manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>2.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>hatchback,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>compact</td>\n",
       "      <td>2dr_hatchback</td>\n",
       "      <td>30</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7147</th>\n",
       "      <td>gmc</td>\n",
       "      <td>sierra_1500</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)</td>\n",
       "      <td>285.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>four_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex_fuel</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>extended_cab_pickup</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>17</td>\n",
       "      <td>549</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7148</th>\n",
       "      <td>rolls-royce</td>\n",
       "      <td>ghost</td>\n",
       "      <td>2014</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>563.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>12.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>rear_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>exotic,luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>13</td>\n",
       "      <td>86</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>7149</th>\n",
       "      <td>volkswagen</td>\n",
       "      <td>cc</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>200.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automated_manual</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>sedan</td>\n",
       "      <td>31</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>873</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>0</td>\n",
       "      <td>1</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>7150 rows × 18 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "             make        model  year                engine_fuel_type  \\\n",
       "0       chevrolet       cobalt  2008                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "1          toyota       matrix  2012                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "2          subaru      impreza  2016                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "3      volkswagen      vanagon  1991                regular_unleaded   \n",
       "4            ford        f-150  2017        flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)   \n",
       "...           ...          ...   ...                             ...   \n",
       "7145          bmw     4_series  2015     premium_unleaded_(required)   \n",
       "7146   volkswagen       beetle  2015  premium_unleaded_(recommended)   \n",
       "7147          gmc  sierra_1500  2015        flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)   \n",
       "7148  rolls-royce        ghost  2014     premium_unleaded_(required)   \n",
       "7149   volkswagen           cc  2017  premium_unleaded_(recommended)   \n",
       "\n",
       "      engine_hp  engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  \\\n",
       "0         148.0               4.0            manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "1         132.0               4.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "2         148.0               4.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive   \n",
       "3          90.0               4.0            manual   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "4         385.0               8.0         automatic   four_wheel_drive   \n",
       "...         ...               ...               ...                ...   \n",
       "7145      300.0               6.0         automatic   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7146      210.0               4.0  automated_manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7147      285.0               6.0         automatic   four_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7148      563.0              12.0         automatic   rear_wheel_drive   \n",
       "7149      200.0               4.0  automated_manual  front_wheel_drive   \n",
       "\n",
       "      number_of_doors            market_category vehicle_size  \\\n",
       "0                 2.0                        NaN      compact   \n",
       "1                 4.0                  hatchback      compact   \n",
       "2                 4.0                  hatchback      compact   \n",
       "3                 3.0                        NaN        large   \n",
       "4                 4.0                  flex_fuel        large   \n",
       "...               ...                        ...          ...   \n",
       "7145              2.0         luxury,performance      midsize   \n",
       "7146              2.0      hatchback,performance      compact   \n",
       "7147              4.0                  flex_fuel        large   \n",
       "7148              4.0  exotic,luxury,performance        large   \n",
       "7149              4.0                performance      midsize   \n",
       "\n",
       "            vehicle_style  highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity  num_doors_2  \\\n",
       "0                   coupe           33        24        1385            1   \n",
       "1           4dr_hatchback           32        25        2031            0   \n",
       "2           4dr_hatchback           37        28         640            0   \n",
       "3       passenger_minivan           18        16         873            0   \n",
       "4         crew_cab_pickup           21        15        5657            0   \n",
       "...                   ...          ...       ...         ...          ...   \n",
       "7145          convertible           31        20        3916            1   \n",
       "7146        2dr_hatchback           30        24         873            1   \n",
       "7147  extended_cab_pickup           22        17         549            0   \n",
       "7148                sedan           21        13          86            0   \n",
       "7149                sedan           31        22         873            0   \n",
       "\n",
       "      num_doors_3  num_doors_4  \n",
       "0               0            0  \n",
       "1               0            1  \n",
       "2               0            1  \n",
       "3               1            0  \n",
       "4               0            1  \n",
       "...           ...          ...  \n",
       "7145            0            0  \n",
       "7146            0            0  \n",
       "7147            0            1  \n",
       "7148            0            1  \n",
       "7149            0            1  \n",
       "\n",
       "[7150 rows x 18 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 144,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 116,
   "id": "3c943f8b",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'num_of_doors_4'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 116,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'num_of_doors_%s' % 4"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 117,
   "id": "bfda6005",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#del df_train['num_doors_4']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 145,
   "id": "8c2fe85d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def prepare_X(df):\n",
    "    df = df.copy()\n",
    "    features = base.copy()\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df['age'] = 2017 - df.year\n",
    "    features.append('age')\n",
    "    \n",
    "    for v in [2, 3, 4]:\n",
    "        df['num_doors_%s' % v] = (df.number_of_doors == v).astype('int')\n",
    "        features.append('num_doors_%s' % v)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df_num = df[features]\n",
    "    df_num = df_num.fillna(0)\n",
    "    X = df_num.values\n",
    "    return X"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 119,
   "id": "2742af92",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[148.,   4.,  33., ...,   1.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [132.,   4.,  32., ...,   0.,   0.,   1.],\n",
       "       [148.,   4.,  37., ...,   0.,   0.,   1.],\n",
       "       ...,\n",
       "       [285.,   6.,  22., ...,   0.,   0.,   1.],\n",
       "       [563.,  12.,  21., ...,   0.,   0.,   1.],\n",
       "       [200.,   4.,  31., ...,   0.,   0.,   1.]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 119,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "prepare_X(df_train)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 146,
   "id": "9d6921ab",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.5157995641502352"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 146,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)\n",
    "\n",
    "X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "\n",
    "rmse(y_val, y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "2c80d841",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "0.5172055461058335"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 121,
   "id": "4889468b",
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "48"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 121,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df.make.nunique()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 122,
   "id": "22d34940",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['chevrolet', 'ford', 'volkswagen', 'toyota', 'dodge']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 122,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "makes = list(df.make.value_counts().head().index)\n",
    "makes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 147,
   "id": "00604621",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def prepare_X(df):\n",
    "    df = df.copy()\n",
    "    features = base.copy()\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df['age'] = 2017 - df.year\n",
    "    features.append('age')\n",
    "    \n",
    "    for v in [2, 3, 4]:\n",
    "        df['num_doors_%s' % v] = (df.number_of_doors == v).astype('int')\n",
    "        features.append('num_doors_%s' % v)\n",
    "        \n",
    "    for v in makes:\n",
    "        df['make_%s' % v] = (df.make == v).astype('int')\n",
    "        features.append('make_%s' % v)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df_num = df[features]\n",
    "    df_num = df_num.fillna(0)\n",
    "    X = df_num.values\n",
    "    return X\n",
    "\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 148,
   "id": "156c18f7",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[200.,   4.,  25., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [241.,   4.,  29., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [160.,   4.,  36., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       ...,\n",
       "       [332.,   8.,  23., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [148.,   4.,  34., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [290.,   6.,  25., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 148,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "prepare_X(df_val)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 149,
   "id": "83af7b62",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.5076038849557034"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 149,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)\n",
    "\n",
    "X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "\n",
    "rmse(y_val, y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "b4452038",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "0.5157995641502352"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 150,
   "id": "5d3f3279",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "make                  object\n",
       "model                 object\n",
       "year                   int64\n",
       "engine_fuel_type      object\n",
       "engine_hp            float64\n",
       "engine_cylinders     float64\n",
       "transmission_type     object\n",
       "driven_wheels         object\n",
       "number_of_doors      float64\n",
       "market_category       object\n",
       "vehicle_size          object\n",
       "vehicle_style         object\n",
       "highway_mpg            int64\n",
       "city_mpg               int64\n",
       "popularity             int64\n",
       "num_doors_2            int64\n",
       "num_doors_3            int64\n",
       "num_doors_4            int64\n",
       "dtype: object"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 150,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_train.dtypes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 151,
   "id": "503ea252",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "categorical_variables = [\n",
    "    'make', 'engine_fuel_type', 'transmission_type', 'driven_wheels', \n",
    "              'market_category', 'vehicle_size', 'vehicle_style'\n",
    "]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 169,
   "id": "30cc2c98",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "categories = {}\n",
    "\n",
    "for c in categorical_variables:\n",
    "    categories[c] = list(df[c].value_counts().head().index)\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 170,
   "id": "57b560f9",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'make': ['chevrolet', 'ford', 'volkswagen', 'toyota', 'dodge'],\n",
       " 'engine_fuel_type': ['regular_unleaded',\n",
       "  'premium_unleaded_(required)',\n",
       "  'premium_unleaded_(recommended)',\n",
       "  'flex-fuel_(unleaded/e85)',\n",
       "  'diesel'],\n",
       " 'transmission_type': ['automatic',\n",
       "  'manual',\n",
       "  'automated_manual',\n",
       "  'direct_drive',\n",
       "  'unknown'],\n",
       " 'driven_wheels': ['front_wheel_drive',\n",
       "  'rear_wheel_drive',\n",
       "  'all_wheel_drive',\n",
       "  'four_wheel_drive'],\n",
       " 'market_category': ['crossover',\n",
       "  'flex_fuel',\n",
       "  'luxury',\n",
       "  'luxury,performance',\n",
       "  'hatchback'],\n",
       " 'vehicle_size': ['compact', 'midsize', 'large'],\n",
       " 'vehicle_style': ['sedan',\n",
       "  '4dr_suv',\n",
       "  'coupe',\n",
       "  'convertible',\n",
       "  '4dr_hatchback']}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 170,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "categories"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 171,
   "id": "f1b1dbdc",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def prepare_X(df):\n",
    "    df = df.copy()\n",
    "    features = base.copy()\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df['age'] = 2017 - df.year\n",
    "    features.append('age')\n",
    "    \n",
    "    for v in [2, 3, 4]:\n",
    "        df['num_doors_%s' % v] = (df.number_of_doors == v).astype('int')\n",
    "        features.append('num_doors_%s' % v)\n",
    "        \n",
    "    for c, values in categories.items():      \n",
    "        for v in values:\n",
    "            df['%s_%s' % (c, v)] = (df[c] == v).astype('int')\n",
    "            features.append('%s_%s' % (c, v))\n",
    "    \n",
    "    df_num = df[features]\n",
    "    df_num = df_num.fillna(0)\n",
    "    X = df_num.values\n",
    "    return X\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 160,
   "id": "22d886f9",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[148.,   4.,  33., ...,   1.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [132.,   4.,  32., ...,   0.,   0.,   1.],\n",
       "       [148.,   4.,  37., ...,   0.,   0.,   1.],\n",
       "       ...,\n",
       "       [285.,   6.,  22., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [563.,  12.,  21., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [200.,   4.,  31., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 160,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "prepare_X(df_train)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 166,
   "id": "d1478a9c",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(-101792817801658.9,\n",
       " array([ 1.87249368e-02, -3.35927551e+00, -4.98109666e-01, -8.24230861e-01,\n",
       "         1.64871601e-04,  1.58184261e-01, -8.31397150e+02, -8.28381519e+02,\n",
       "        -8.21938872e+02,  5.31143449e-01,  1.38806872e+00, -1.76783615e+00,\n",
       "         2.57383817e+00, -9.68173813e-01, -2.87877604e+01, -2.15441338e+01,\n",
       "        -2.73246691e+01, -2.35698174e+01, -4.39131575e+00, -1.58567947e+15,\n",
       "        -1.58567947e+15, -1.58567947e+15, -1.58567947e+15, -1.58567947e+15,\n",
       "         1.68747228e+15,  1.68747228e+15,  1.68747228e+15,  1.68747228e+15,\n",
       "         1.89394191e+00, -1.43179076e+00,  9.78495212e-01,  8.19352667e+00,\n",
       "         9.77703255e-01,  2.62020892e+01,  2.49141500e+01,  2.56365749e+01,\n",
       "        -4.85492239e-02,  5.44797374e-02,  1.78241160e-01,  3.41906701e-01,\n",
       "        -1.64412078e-01]))"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 166,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 172,
   "id": "5b9d977a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "23.370682839235876"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 172,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression(X_train, y_train)\n",
    "\n",
    "X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "\n",
    "rmse(y_val, y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 173,
   "id": "0c120362",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "8076722330785280.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 173,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "w0"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 168,
   "id": "b0f3d687",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 1.87249368e-02, -3.35927551e+00, -4.98109666e-01, -8.24230861e-01,\n",
       "        1.64871601e-04,  1.58184261e-01, -8.31397150e+02, -8.28381519e+02,\n",
       "       -8.21938872e+02,  5.31143449e-01,  1.38806872e+00, -1.76783615e+00,\n",
       "        2.57383817e+00, -9.68173813e-01, -2.87877604e+01, -2.15441338e+01,\n",
       "       -2.73246691e+01, -2.35698174e+01, -4.39131575e+00, -1.58567947e+15,\n",
       "       -1.58567947e+15, -1.58567947e+15, -1.58567947e+15, -1.58567947e+15,\n",
       "        1.68747228e+15,  1.68747228e+15,  1.68747228e+15,  1.68747228e+15,\n",
       "        1.89394191e+00, -1.43179076e+00,  9.78495212e-01,  8.19352667e+00,\n",
       "        9.77703255e-01,  2.62020892e+01,  2.49141500e+01,  2.56365749e+01,\n",
       "       -4.85492239e-02,  5.44797374e-02,  1.78241160e-01,  3.41906701e-01,\n",
       "       -1.64412078e-01])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 168,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "w"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "026e5123",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Regularization"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 181,
   "id": "f09647f0",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[4.        , 4.        , 4.        ],\n",
       "       [3.        , 5.        , 5.        ],\n",
       "       [5.        , 1.        , 1.        ],\n",
       "       [5.        , 4.        , 4.        ],\n",
       "       [7.        , 5.        , 5.        ],\n",
       "       [4.        , 5.        , 5.00000001]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 181,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X = [\n",
    "    [4, 4, 4],\n",
    "    [3, 5, 5],\n",
    "    [5, 1, 1],\n",
    "    [5, 4, 4],\n",
    "    [7, 5, 5],\n",
    "    [4, 5, 5.00000001],\n",
    "]\n",
    "\n",
    "X = np.array(X)\n",
    "X"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 184,
   "id": "fe50a1bd",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "y = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 185,
   "id": "235cc24e",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[140.        , 111.        , 111.00000004],\n",
       "       [111.        , 108.        , 108.00000005],\n",
       "       [111.00000004, 108.00000005, 108.0000001 ]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 185,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "XTX = X.T.dot(X)\n",
    "XTX"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 190,
   "id": "4ac30115",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "XTX_inv = np.linalg.inv(XTX)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 191,
   "id": "03334d86",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([-1.93908875e-01, -3.61854375e+06,  3.61854643e+06])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 191,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "XTX_inv.dot(X.T).dot(y)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 202,
   "id": "d4209ad0",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "XTX = [\n",
    "    [1, 2, 2],\n",
    "    [2, 1, 1.0000001],\n",
    "    [2, 1.0000001, 1]\n",
    "]\n",
    "\n",
    "XTX = np.array(XTX)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 203,
   "id": "663d1a85",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[-3.33333356e-01,  3.33333339e-01,  3.33333339e-01],\n",
       "       [ 3.33333339e-01, -5.00000008e+06,  4.99999991e+06],\n",
       "       [ 3.33333339e-01,  4.99999991e+06, -5.00000008e+06]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 203,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.linalg.inv(XTX)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 212,
   "id": "e8a6a574",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "XTX = XTX + 0.01 * np.eye(3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 213,
   "id": "32004fdc",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[-2.25173252,  1.44341823,  1.44341823],\n",
       "       [ 1.44341823, -0.31858305, -1.21144028],\n",
       "       [ 1.44341823, -1.21144028, -0.31858305]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 213,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.linalg.inv(XTX)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 222,
   "id": "78ba9d19",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def train_linear_regression_reg(X, y, r=0.001):\n",
    "    ones = np.ones(X.shape[0])\n",
    "    X = np.column_stack([ones, X])\n",
    "    \n",
    "    XTX = X.T.dot(X)\n",
    "    XTX = XTX + r * np.eye(XTX.shape[0])\n",
    "    \n",
    "    XTX_inv = np.linalg.inv(XTX)\n",
    "    w_full = XTX_inv.dot(X.T).dot(y)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    return w_full[0], w_full[1:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 223,
   "id": "ff4fb003",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.45652199013026107"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 223,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression_reg(X_train, y_train, r=0.01)\n",
    "\n",
    "X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "\n",
    "rmse(y_val, y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "34918965",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "0.5172055461058335"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "59a756f2",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Tuning the model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 224,
   "id": "98d28099",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0.0 8076722330785280.0 23.370682839235876\n",
      "1e-05 8.796876877765598 0.4565170168175915\n",
      "0.0001 6.33106628120822 0.4565170633148812\n",
      "0.001 6.285517742466579 0.4565175086998797\n",
      "0.01 6.276603763430729 0.45652199013026107\n",
      "1 5.634896667867927 0.45722043179962046\n",
      "10 4.283980108970553 0.470145693209949\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for r in [0.0, 0.00001, 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 1, 10]:\n",
    "\n",
    "    X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "    w0, w = train_linear_regression_reg(X_train, y_train, r=r)\n",
    "\n",
    "    X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "    y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "    score = rmse(y_val, y_pred)\n",
    "    \n",
    "    print(r, w0, score)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 225,
   "id": "6b8e4852",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "0.4565175086998797"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 225,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r = 0.001\n",
    "X_train = prepare_X(df_train)\n",
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression_reg(X_train, y_train, r=r)\n",
    "\n",
    "X_val = prepare_X(df_val)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_val.dot(w)\n",
    "score = rmse(y_val, y_pred)\n",
    "score"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "id": "44ef0aad",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Using the model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 243,
   "id": "c61ec8d5",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df_full_train = pd.concat([df_train, df_val])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 245,
   "id": "73ac5c20",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df_full_train = df_full_train.reset_index(drop=True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 246,
   "id": "8596e014",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "      <th>msrp</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>287.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>37800</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>1</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(recommended)</td>\n",
       "      <td>365.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>15</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>43030</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>2</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>287.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>22</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>40180</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>3</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>287.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>32730</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>4</th>\n",
       "      <td>ford</td>\n",
       "      <td>flex</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>287.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>wagon</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>5657</td>\n",
       "      <td>38230</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>...</th>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "      <td>...</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9527</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>570.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>14</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>157300</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9528</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2016</td>\n",
       "      <td>diesel</td>\n",
       "      <td>240.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,diesel</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>29</td>\n",
       "      <td>20</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>62300</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9529</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>520.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>8.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>21</td>\n",
       "      <td>14</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>116500</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9530</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>300.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>24</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>59600</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>9531</th>\n",
       "      <td>porsche</td>\n",
       "      <td>cayenne</td>\n",
       "      <td>2017</td>\n",
       "      <td>premium_unleaded_(required)</td>\n",
       "      <td>440.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>all_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>crossover,luxury,high-performance</td>\n",
       "      <td>midsize</td>\n",
       "      <td>4dr_suv</td>\n",
       "      <td>23</td>\n",
       "      <td>16</td>\n",
       "      <td>1715</td>\n",
       "      <td>97200</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "<p>9532 rows × 16 columns</p>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "         make    model  year                engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  \\\n",
       "0        ford     flex  2016                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "1        ford     flex  2017  premium_unleaded_(recommended)      365.0   \n",
       "2        ford     flex  2017                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "3        ford     flex  2017                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "4        ford     flex  2017                regular_unleaded      287.0   \n",
       "...       ...      ...   ...                             ...        ...   \n",
       "9527  porsche  cayenne  2016     premium_unleaded_(required)      570.0   \n",
       "9528  porsche  cayenne  2016                          diesel      240.0   \n",
       "9529  porsche  cayenne  2017     premium_unleaded_(required)      520.0   \n",
       "9530  porsche  cayenne  2017     premium_unleaded_(required)      300.0   \n",
       "9531  porsche  cayenne  2017     premium_unleaded_(required)      440.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "      engine_cylinders transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  \\\n",
       "0                  6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "1                  6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "2                  6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "3                  6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "4                  6.0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "...                ...               ...                ...              ...   \n",
       "9527               8.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "9528               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "9529               8.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "9530               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "9531               6.0         automatic    all_wheel_drive              4.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "                        market_category vehicle_size vehicle_style  \\\n",
       "0                 crossover,performance        large         wagon   \n",
       "1                             crossover        large         wagon   \n",
       "2                 crossover,performance        large         wagon   \n",
       "3                 crossover,performance        large         wagon   \n",
       "4                 crossover,performance        large         wagon   \n",
       "...                                 ...          ...           ...   \n",
       "9527  crossover,luxury,high-performance      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "9528            crossover,luxury,diesel      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "9529       crossover,luxury,performance      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "9530                   crossover,luxury      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "9531  crossover,luxury,high-performance      midsize       4dr_suv   \n",
       "\n",
       "      highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity    msrp  \n",
       "0              23        16        5657   37800  \n",
       "1              21        15        5657   43030  \n",
       "2              22        16        5657   40180  \n",
       "3              23        16        5657   32730  \n",
       "4              23        16        5657   38230  \n",
       "...           ...       ...         ...     ...  \n",
       "9527           21        14        1715  157300  \n",
       "9528           29        20        1715   62300  \n",
       "9529           21        14        1715  116500  \n",
       "9530           24        18        1715   59600  \n",
       "9531           23        16        1715   97200  \n",
       "\n",
       "[9532 rows x 16 columns]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 246,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_full_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 247,
   "id": "cde04a70",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "X_full_train = prepare_X(df_full_train)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 248,
   "id": "d22e64e1",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([[287.,   6.,  23., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [365.,   6.,  21., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [287.,   6.,  22., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       ...,\n",
       "       [520.,   8.,  21., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [300.,   6.,  24., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.],\n",
       "       [440.,   6.,  23., ...,   0.,   0.,   0.]])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 248,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_full_train"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 250,
   "id": "2a658055",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "y_full_train = np.concatenate([y_train, y_val])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 251,
   "id": "b8280a0d",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "w0, w = train_linear_regression_reg(X_full_train, y_full_train, r=0.001)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 253,
   "id": "ea0a40a9",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "array([ 5.09597249e-05,  3.99156425e-03,  2.81667254e-04, -3.19759239e-04,\n",
       "       -3.59122173e-06,  2.62906430e-03, -2.06796934e-01, -2.62421753e-01,\n",
       "       -1.70730234e-01,  3.20431354e-02,  6.43359240e-02, -1.34556042e-02,\n",
       "       -3.38929761e-02,  3.43147802e-02, -1.82567800e-01, -2.00690218e-01,\n",
       "       -2.15579460e-01, -1.87355692e-01, -1.18832020e-01,  1.22306384e+00,\n",
       "        1.25048037e+00,  1.24011363e+00,  1.19289922e+00,  9.28100310e-01,\n",
       "        1.49719341e+00,  1.46971928e+00,  1.44577898e+00,  1.42146749e+00,\n",
       "       -3.03122649e-02, -1.09351314e-01,  2.14424413e-02, -2.89599470e-03,\n",
       "        1.70918152e-01,  1.92287235e+00,  1.98041407e+00,  1.93087266e+00,\n",
       "       -9.70911500e-02, -5.68588879e-02, -1.21178986e-01, -1.58448454e-02,\n",
       "       -1.06098072e-01])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 253,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "w"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 254,
   "id": "d2b53db2",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.12764389877263"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 254,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "X_test = prepare_X(df_test)\n",
    "y_pred = w0 + X_test.dot(w)\n",
    "score = rmse(y_test, y_pred)\n",
    "score"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 257,
   "id": "aa5313c4",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'make': 'toyota',\n",
       " 'model': 'sienna',\n",
       " 'year': 2015,\n",
       " 'engine_fuel_type': 'regular_unleaded',\n",
       " 'engine_hp': 266.0,\n",
       " 'engine_cylinders': 6.0,\n",
       " 'transmission_type': 'automatic',\n",
       " 'driven_wheels': 'front_wheel_drive',\n",
       " 'number_of_doors': 4.0,\n",
       " 'market_category': nan,\n",
       " 'vehicle_size': 'large',\n",
       " 'vehicle_style': 'passenger_minivan',\n",
       " 'highway_mpg': 25,\n",
       " 'city_mpg': 18,\n",
       " 'popularity': 2031}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 257,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "car = df_test.iloc[20].to_dict()\n",
    "car"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 258,
   "id": "53c34a2a",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<div>\n",
       "<style scoped>\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th:only-of-type {\n",
       "        vertical-align: middle;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe tbody tr th {\n",
       "        vertical-align: top;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "\n",
       "    .dataframe thead th {\n",
       "        text-align: right;\n",
       "    }\n",
       "</style>\n",
       "<table border=\"1\" class=\"dataframe\">\n",
       "  <thead>\n",
       "    <tr style=\"text-align: right;\">\n",
       "      <th></th>\n",
       "      <th>make</th>\n",
       "      <th>model</th>\n",
       "      <th>year</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_fuel_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_hp</th>\n",
       "      <th>engine_cylinders</th>\n",
       "      <th>transmission_type</th>\n",
       "      <th>driven_wheels</th>\n",
       "      <th>number_of_doors</th>\n",
       "      <th>market_category</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_size</th>\n",
       "      <th>vehicle_style</th>\n",
       "      <th>highway_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>city_mpg</th>\n",
       "      <th>popularity</th>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </thead>\n",
       "  <tbody>\n",
       "    <tr>\n",
       "      <th>0</th>\n",
       "      <td>toyota</td>\n",
       "      <td>sienna</td>\n",
       "      <td>2015</td>\n",
       "      <td>regular_unleaded</td>\n",
       "      <td>266.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>6.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>automatic</td>\n",
       "      <td>front_wheel_drive</td>\n",
       "      <td>4.0</td>\n",
       "      <td>NaN</td>\n",
       "      <td>large</td>\n",
       "      <td>passenger_minivan</td>\n",
       "      <td>25</td>\n",
       "      <td>18</td>\n",
       "      <td>2031</td>\n",
       "    </tr>\n",
       "  </tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n",
       "</div>"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "     make   model  year  engine_fuel_type  engine_hp  engine_cylinders  \\\n",
       "0  toyota  sienna  2015  regular_unleaded      266.0               6.0   \n",
       "\n",
       "  transmission_type      driven_wheels  number_of_doors  market_category  \\\n",
       "0         automatic  front_wheel_drive              4.0              NaN   \n",
       "\n",
       "  vehicle_size      vehicle_style  highway_mpg  city_mpg  popularity  \n",
       "0        large  passenger_minivan           25        18        2031  "
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 258,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df_small = pd.DataFrame([car])\n",
    "df_small"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 260,
   "id": "cf162139",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "X_small = prepare_X(df_small)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 262,
   "id": "734e8886",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "10.134753780558272"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 262,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "y_pred = w0 + X_small.dot(w)\n",
    "y_pred = y_pred[0]\n",
    "y_pred"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 263,
   "id": "c80e6692",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "25202.893878688814"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 263,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.expm1(y_pred)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 265,
   "id": "e026c945",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "35000.00000000001"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 265,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "np.expm1(y_test[20])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "id": "560e0efc",
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  }
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