store.go

/*
Copyright 2016 The Kubernetes Authors.

Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
You may obtain a copy of the License at

    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0

Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
limitations under the License.
*/

package etcd3

import (
	"bytes"
	"encoding/base64"
	"encoding/json"
	"errors"
	"fmt"
	"path"
	"reflect"
	"strconv"
	"strings"
	"time"

	"github.com/coreos/etcd/clientv3"
	"github.com/golang/glog"
	"golang.org/x/net/context"

	apierrors "k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/api/errors"
	"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/api/meta"
	"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/conversion"
	"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/runtime"
	utilruntime "k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/util/runtime"
	"k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/watch"
	"k8s.io/apiserver/pkg/storage"
	"k8s.io/apiserver/pkg/storage/etcd"
	"k8s.io/apiserver/pkg/storage/value"
	utiltrace "k8s.io/apiserver/pkg/util/trace"
)

// authenticatedDataString satisfies the value.Context interface. It uses the key to
// authenticate the stored data. This does not defend against reuse of previously
// encrypted values under the same key, but will prevent an attacker from using an
// encrypted value from a different key. A stronger authenticated data segment would
// include the etcd3 Version field (which is incremented on each write to a key and
// reset when the key is deleted), but an attacker with write access to etcd can
// force deletion and recreation of keys to weaken that angle.
type authenticatedDataString string

// AuthenticatedData implements the value.Context interface.
func (d authenticatedDataString) AuthenticatedData() []byte {
	return []byte(string(d))
}

var _ value.Context = authenticatedDataString("")

type store struct {
	client *clientv3.Client
	// getOpts contains additional options that should be passed
	// to all Get() calls.
	getOps        []clientv3.OpOption
	codec         runtime.Codec
	versioner     storage.Versioner
	transformer   value.Transformer
	pathPrefix    string
	watcher       *watcher
	pagingEnabled bool
}

type elemForDecode struct {
	data []byte
	rev  uint64
}

type objState struct {
	obj   runtime.Object
	meta  *storage.ResponseMeta
	rev   int64
	data  []byte
	stale bool
}

// New returns an etcd3 implementation of storage.Interface.
func New(c *clientv3.Client, codec runtime.Codec, prefix string, transformer value.Transformer, pagingEnabled bool) storage.Interface {
	return newStore(c, true, pagingEnabled, codec, prefix, transformer)
}

// NewWithNoQuorumRead returns etcd3 implementation of storage.Interface
// where Get operations don't require quorum read.
func NewWithNoQuorumRead(c *clientv3.Client, codec runtime.Codec, prefix string, transformer value.Transformer, pagingEnabled bool) storage.Interface {
	return newStore(c, false, pagingEnabled, codec, prefix, transformer)
}

func newStore(c *clientv3.Client, quorumRead, pagingEnabled bool, codec runtime.Codec, prefix string, transformer value.Transformer) *store {
	versioner := etcd.APIObjectVersioner{}
	result := &store{
		client:        c,
		codec:         codec,
		versioner:     versioner,
		transformer:   transformer,
		pagingEnabled: pagingEnabled,
		// for compatibility with etcd2 impl.
		// no-op for default prefix of '/registry'.
		// keeps compatibility with etcd2 impl for custom prefixes that don't start with '/'
		pathPrefix: path.Join("/", prefix),
		watcher:    newWatcher(c, codec, versioner, transformer),
	}
	if !quorumRead {
		// In case of non-quorum reads, we can set WithSerializable()
		// options for all Get operations.
		result.getOps = append(result.getOps, clientv3.WithSerializable())
	}
	return result
}

// Versioner implements storage.Interface.Versioner.
func (s *store) Versioner() storage.Versioner {
	return s.versioner
}

// Get implements storage.Interface.Get.
func (s *store) Get(ctx context.Context, key string, resourceVersion string, out runtime.Object, ignoreNotFound bool) error {
	key = path.Join(s.pathPrefix, key)
	getResp, err := s.client.KV.Get(ctx, key, s.getOps...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}

	if len(getResp.Kvs) == 0 {
		if ignoreNotFound {
			return runtime.SetZeroValue(out)
		}
		return storage.NewKeyNotFoundError(key, 0)
	}
	kv := getResp.Kvs[0]

	data, _, err := s.transformer.TransformFromStorage(kv.Value, authenticatedDataString(key))
	if err != nil {
		return storage.NewInternalError(err.Error())
	}

	return decode(s.codec, s.versioner, data, out, kv.ModRevision)
}

// Create implements storage.Interface.Create.
func (s *store) Create(ctx context.Context, key string, obj, out runtime.Object, ttl uint64) error {
	if version, err := s.versioner.ObjectResourceVersion(obj); err == nil && version != 0 {
		return errors.New("resourceVersion should not be set on objects to be created")
	}
	if err := s.versioner.PrepareObjectForStorage(obj); err != nil {
		return fmt.Errorf("PrepareObjectForStorage failed: %v", err)
	}
	data, err := runtime.Encode(s.codec, obj)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	key = path.Join(s.pathPrefix, key)

	opts, err := s.ttlOpts(ctx, int64(ttl))
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}

	newData, err := s.transformer.TransformToStorage(data, authenticatedDataString(key))
	if err != nil {
		return storage.NewInternalError(err.Error())
	}

	txnResp, err := s.client.KV.Txn(ctx).If(
		notFound(key),
	).Then(
		clientv3.OpPut(key, string(newData), opts...),
	).Commit()
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	if !txnResp.Succeeded {
		return storage.NewKeyExistsError(key, 0)
	}

	if out != nil {
		putResp := txnResp.Responses[0].GetResponsePut()
		return decode(s.codec, s.versioner, data, out, putResp.Header.Revision)
	}
	return nil
}

// Delete implements storage.Interface.Delete.
func (s *store) Delete(ctx context.Context, key string, out runtime.Object, preconditions *storage.Preconditions) error {
	v, err := conversion.EnforcePtr(out)
	if err != nil {
		panic("unable to convert output object to pointer")
	}
	key = path.Join(s.pathPrefix, key)
	if preconditions == nil {
		return s.unconditionalDelete(ctx, key, out)
	}
	return s.conditionalDelete(ctx, key, out, v, preconditions)
}

func (s *store) unconditionalDelete(ctx context.Context, key string, out runtime.Object) error {
	// We need to do get and delete in single transaction in order to
	// know the value and revision before deleting it.
	txnResp, err := s.client.KV.Txn(ctx).If().Then(
		clientv3.OpGet(key),
		clientv3.OpDelete(key),
	).Commit()
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	getResp := txnResp.Responses[0].GetResponseRange()
	if len(getResp.Kvs) == 0 {
		return storage.NewKeyNotFoundError(key, 0)
	}

	kv := getResp.Kvs[0]
	data, _, err := s.transformer.TransformFromStorage(kv.Value, authenticatedDataString(key))
	if err != nil {
		return storage.NewInternalError(err.Error())
	}
	return decode(s.codec, s.versioner, data, out, kv.ModRevision)
}

func (s *store) conditionalDelete(ctx context.Context, key string, out runtime.Object, v reflect.Value, preconditions *storage.Preconditions) error {
	getResp, err := s.client.KV.Get(ctx, key)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	for {
		origState, err := s.getState(getResp, key, v, false)
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		if err := checkPreconditions(key, preconditions, origState.obj); err != nil {
			return err
		}
		txnResp, err := s.client.KV.Txn(ctx).If(
			clientv3.Compare(clientv3.ModRevision(key), "=", origState.rev),
		).Then(
			clientv3.OpDelete(key),
		).Else(
			clientv3.OpGet(key),
		).Commit()
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		if !txnResp.Succeeded {
			getResp = (*clientv3.GetResponse)(txnResp.Responses[0].GetResponseRange())
			glog.V(4).Infof("deletion of %s failed because of a conflict, going to retry", key)
			continue
		}
		return decode(s.codec, s.versioner, origState.data, out, origState.rev)
	}
}

// GuaranteedUpdate implements storage.Interface.GuaranteedUpdate.
func (s *store) GuaranteedUpdate(
	ctx context.Context, key string, out runtime.Object, ignoreNotFound bool,
	preconditions *storage.Preconditions, tryUpdate storage.UpdateFunc, suggestion ...runtime.Object) error {
	trace := utiltrace.New(fmt.Sprintf("GuaranteedUpdate etcd3: %s", reflect.TypeOf(out).String()))
	defer trace.LogIfLong(500 * time.Millisecond)

	v, err := conversion.EnforcePtr(out)
	if err != nil {
		panic("unable to convert output object to pointer")
	}
	key = path.Join(s.pathPrefix, key)

	getCurrentState := func() (*objState, error) {
		getResp, err := s.client.KV.Get(ctx, key, s.getOps...)
		if err != nil {
			return nil, err
		}
		return s.getState(getResp, key, v, ignoreNotFound)
	}

	var origState *objState
	var mustCheckData bool
	if len(suggestion) == 1 && suggestion[0] != nil {
		origState, err = s.getStateFromObject(suggestion[0])
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		mustCheckData = true
	} else {
		origState, err = getCurrentState()
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
	}
	trace.Step("initial value restored")

	transformContext := authenticatedDataString(key)
	for {
		if err := checkPreconditions(key, preconditions, origState.obj); err != nil {
			return err
		}

		ret, ttl, err := s.updateState(origState, tryUpdate)
		if err != nil {
			// It's possible we were working with stale data
			if mustCheckData && apierrors.IsConflict(err) {
				// Actually fetch
				origState, err = getCurrentState()
				if err != nil {
					return err
				}
				mustCheckData = false
				// Retry
				continue
			}

			return err
		}

		data, err := runtime.Encode(s.codec, ret)
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		if !origState.stale && bytes.Equal(data, origState.data) {
			// if we skipped the original Get in this loop, we must refresh from
			// etcd in order to be sure the data in the store is equivalent to
			// our desired serialization
			if mustCheckData {
				origState, err = getCurrentState()
				if err != nil {
					return err
				}
				mustCheckData = false
				if !bytes.Equal(data, origState.data) {
					// original data changed, restart loop
					continue
				}
			}
			// recheck that the data from etcd is not stale before short-circuiting a write
			if !origState.stale {
				return decode(s.codec, s.versioner, origState.data, out, origState.rev)
			}
		}

		newData, err := s.transformer.TransformToStorage(data, transformContext)
		if err != nil {
			return storage.NewInternalError(err.Error())
		}

		opts, err := s.ttlOpts(ctx, int64(ttl))
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		trace.Step("Transaction prepared")

		txnResp, err := s.client.KV.Txn(ctx).If(
			clientv3.Compare(clientv3.ModRevision(key), "=", origState.rev),
		).Then(
			clientv3.OpPut(key, string(newData), opts...),
		).Else(
			clientv3.OpGet(key),
		).Commit()
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		trace.Step("Transaction committed")
		if !txnResp.Succeeded {
			getResp := (*clientv3.GetResponse)(txnResp.Responses[0].GetResponseRange())
			glog.V(4).Infof("GuaranteedUpdate of %s failed because of a conflict, going to retry", key)
			origState, err = s.getState(getResp, key, v, ignoreNotFound)
			if err != nil {
				return err
			}
			trace.Step("Retry value restored")
			mustCheckData = false
			continue
		}
		putResp := txnResp.Responses[0].GetResponsePut()

		return decode(s.codec, s.versioner, data, out, putResp.Header.Revision)
	}
}

// GetToList implements storage.Interface.GetToList.
func (s *store) GetToList(ctx context.Context, key string, resourceVersion string, pred storage.SelectionPredicate, listObj runtime.Object) error {
	listPtr, err := meta.GetItemsPtr(listObj)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	key = path.Join(s.pathPrefix, key)

	getResp, err := s.client.KV.Get(ctx, key, s.getOps...)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	if len(getResp.Kvs) == 0 {
		return nil
	}
	data, _, err := s.transformer.TransformFromStorage(getResp.Kvs[0].Value, authenticatedDataString(key))
	if err != nil {
		return storage.NewInternalError(err.Error())
	}
	v, err := conversion.EnforcePtr(listPtr)
	if err != nil || v.Kind() != reflect.Slice {
		panic("need ptr to slice")
	}
	if err := appendListItem(v, data, uint64(getResp.Kvs[0].ModRevision), storage.SimpleFilter(pred), s.codec, s.versioner); err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// update version with cluster level revision
	return s.versioner.UpdateList(listObj, uint64(getResp.Header.Revision), "")
}

// continueToken is a simple structured object for encoding the state of a continue token.
// TODO: if we change the version of the encoded from, we can't start encoding the new version
// until all other servers are upgraded (i.e. we need to support rolling schema)
// This is a public API struct and cannot change.
type continueToken struct {
	APIVersion      string `json:"v"`
	ResourceVersion int64  `json:"rv"`
	StartKey        string `json:"start"`
}

// parseFrom transforms an encoded predicate from into a versioned struct.
// TODO: return a typed error that instructs clients that they must relist
func decodeContinue(continueValue, keyPrefix string) (fromKey string, rv int64, err error) {
	data, err := base64.RawURLEncoding.DecodeString(continueValue)
	if err != nil {
		return "", 0, fmt.Errorf("continue key is not valid: %v", err)
	}
	var c continueToken
	if err := json.Unmarshal(data, &c); err != nil {
		return "", 0, fmt.Errorf("continue key is not valid: %v", err)
	}
	switch c.APIVersion {
	case "meta.k8s.io/v1":
		if c.ResourceVersion == 0 {
			return "", 0, fmt.Errorf("continue key is not valid: incorrect encoded start resourceVersion (version meta.k8s.io/v1)")
		}
		if len(c.StartKey) == 0 {
			return "", 0, fmt.Errorf("continue key is not valid: encoded start key empty (version meta.k8s.io/v1)")
		}
		// defend against path traversal attacks by clients - path.Clean will ensure that startKey cannot
		// be at a higher level of the hierarchy, and so when we append the key prefix we will end up with
		// continue start key that is fully qualified and cannot range over anything less specific than
		// keyPrefix.
		key := c.StartKey
		if !strings.HasPrefix(key, "/") {
			key = "/" + key
		}
		cleaned := path.Clean(key)
		if cleaned != key {
			return "", 0, fmt.Errorf("continue key is not valid: %s", c.StartKey)
		}
		return keyPrefix + cleaned[1:], c.ResourceVersion, nil
	default:
		return "", 0, fmt.Errorf("continue key is not valid: server does not recognize this encoded version %q", c.APIVersion)
	}
}

// encodeContinue returns a string representing the encoded continuation of the current query.
func encodeContinue(key, keyPrefix string, resourceVersion int64) (string, error) {
	nextKey := strings.TrimPrefix(key, keyPrefix)
	if nextKey == key {
		return "", fmt.Errorf("unable to encode next field: the key and key prefix do not match")
	}
	out, err := json.Marshal(&continueToken{APIVersion: "meta.k8s.io/v1", ResourceVersion: resourceVersion, StartKey: nextKey})
	if err != nil {
		return "", err
	}
	return base64.RawURLEncoding.EncodeToString(out), nil
}

// List implements storage.Interface.List.
func (s *store) List(ctx context.Context, key, resourceVersion string, pred storage.SelectionPredicate, listObj runtime.Object) error {
	listPtr, err := meta.GetItemsPtr(listObj)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	v, err := conversion.EnforcePtr(listPtr)
	if err != nil || v.Kind() != reflect.Slice {
		panic("need ptr to slice")
	}

	if s.pathPrefix != "" {
		key = path.Join(s.pathPrefix, key)
	}
	// We need to make sure the key ended with "/" so that we only get children "directories".
	// e.g. if we have key "/a", "/a/b", "/ab", getting keys with prefix "/a" will return all three,
	// while with prefix "/a/" will return only "/a/b" which is the correct answer.
	if !strings.HasSuffix(key, "/") {
		key += "/"
	}
	keyPrefix := key

	filter := storage.SimpleFilter(pred)

	// set the appropriate clientv3 options to filter the returned data set
	var paging bool
	options := make([]clientv3.OpOption, 0, 4)
	if s.pagingEnabled && pred.Limit > 0 {
		paging = true
		options = append(options, clientv3.WithLimit(pred.Limit))
	}

	var returnedRV int64
	switch {
	case s.pagingEnabled && len(pred.Continue) > 0:
		continueKey, continueRV, err := decodeContinue(pred.Continue, keyPrefix)
		if err != nil {
			return apierrors.NewBadRequest(fmt.Sprintf("invalid continue token: %v", err))
		}

		if len(resourceVersion) > 0 && resourceVersion != "0" {
			return apierrors.NewBadRequest("specifying resource version is not allowed when using continue")
		}

		rangeEnd := clientv3.GetPrefixRangeEnd(keyPrefix)
		options = append(options, clientv3.WithRange(rangeEnd))
		key = continueKey

		options = append(options, clientv3.WithRev(continueRV))
		returnedRV = continueRV

	case s.pagingEnabled && pred.Limit > 0:
		if len(resourceVersion) > 0 {
			fromRV, err := strconv.ParseInt(resourceVersion, 10, 64)
			if err != nil {
				return apierrors.NewBadRequest(fmt.Sprintf("invalid resource version: %v", err))
			}
			if fromRV > 0 {
				options = append(options, clientv3.WithRev(fromRV))
			}
			returnedRV = fromRV
		}

		rangeEnd := clientv3.GetPrefixRangeEnd(keyPrefix)
		options = append(options, clientv3.WithRange(rangeEnd))

	default:
		if len(resourceVersion) > 0 {
			fromRV, err := strconv.ParseInt(resourceVersion, 10, 64)
			if err != nil {
				return apierrors.NewBadRequest(fmt.Sprintf("invalid resource version: %v", err))
			}
			if fromRV > 0 {
				options = append(options, clientv3.WithRev(fromRV))
			}
			returnedRV = fromRV
		}

		options = append(options, clientv3.WithPrefix())
	}

	// loop until we have filled the requested limit from etcd or there are no more results
	var lastKey []byte
	var hasMore bool
	for {
		getResp, err := s.client.KV.Get(ctx, key, options...)
		if err != nil {
			return interpretListError(err, len(pred.Continue) > 0)
		}
		hasMore = getResp.More

		if len(getResp.Kvs) == 0 && getResp.More {
			return fmt.Errorf("no results were found, but etcd indicated there were more values remaining")
		}

		// avoid small allocations for the result slice, since this can be called in many
		// different contexts and we don't know how significantly the result will be filtered
		if pred.Empty() {
			growSlice(v, len(getResp.Kvs))
		} else {
			growSlice(v, 2048, len(getResp.Kvs))
		}

		// take items from the response until the bucket is full, filtering as we go
		for _, kv := range getResp.Kvs {
			if paging && int64(v.Len()) >= pred.Limit {
				hasMore = true
				break
			}
			lastKey = kv.Key

			data, _, err := s.transformer.TransformFromStorage(kv.Value, authenticatedDataString(kv.Key))
			if err != nil {
				utilruntime.HandleError(fmt.Errorf("unable to transform key %q: %v", kv.Key, err))
				continue
			}

			if err := appendListItem(v, data, uint64(kv.ModRevision), filter, s.codec, s.versioner); err != nil {
				return err
			}
		}

		// indicate to the client which resource version was returned
		if returnedRV == 0 {
			returnedRV = getResp.Header.Revision
		}

		// no more results remain or we didn't request paging
		if !hasMore || !paging {
			break
		}
		// we're paging but we have filled our bucket
		if int64(v.Len()) >= pred.Limit {
			break
		}
		key = string(lastKey) + "\x00"
	}

	// instruct the client to begin querying from immediately after the last key we returned
	// we never return a key that the client wouldn't be allowed to see
	if hasMore {
		// we want to start immediately after the last key
		next, err := encodeContinue(string(lastKey)+"\x00", keyPrefix, returnedRV)
		if err != nil {
			return err
		}
		return s.versioner.UpdateList(listObj, uint64(returnedRV), next)
	}

	// no continuation
	return s.versioner.UpdateList(listObj, uint64(returnedRV), "")
}

// growSlice takes a slice value and grows its capacity up
// to the maximum of the passed sizes or maxCapacity, whichever
// is smaller. Above maxCapacity decisions about allocation are left
// to the Go runtime on append. This allows a caller to make an
// educated guess about the potential size of the total list while
// still avoiding overly aggressive initial allocation. If sizes
// is empty maxCapacity will be used as the size to grow.
func growSlice(v reflect.Value, maxCapacity int, sizes ...int) {
	cap := v.Cap()
	max := cap
	for _, size := range sizes {
		if size > max {
			max = size
		}
	}
	if len(sizes) == 0 || max > maxCapacity {
		max = maxCapacity
	}
	if max <= cap {
		return
	}
	if v.Len() > 0 {
		extra := reflect.MakeSlice(v.Type(), 0, max)
		reflect.Copy(extra, v)
		v.Set(extra)
	} else {
		extra := reflect.MakeSlice(v.Type(), 0, max)
		v.Set(extra)
	}
}

// Watch implements storage.Interface.Watch.
func (s *store) Watch(ctx context.Context, key string, resourceVersion string, pred storage.SelectionPredicate) (watch.Interface, error) {
	return s.watch(ctx, key, resourceVersion, pred, false)
}

// WatchList implements storage.Interface.WatchList.
func (s *store) WatchList(ctx context.Context, key string, resourceVersion string, pred storage.SelectionPredicate) (watch.Interface, error) {
	return s.watch(ctx, key, resourceVersion, pred, true)
}

func (s *store) watch(ctx context.Context, key string, rv string, pred storage.SelectionPredicate, recursive bool) (watch.Interface, error) {
	rev, err := storage.ParseWatchResourceVersion(rv)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	key = path.Join(s.pathPrefix, key)
	return s.watcher.Watch(ctx, key, int64(rev), recursive, pred)
}

func (s *store) getState(getResp *clientv3.GetResponse, key string, v reflect.Value, ignoreNotFound bool) (*objState, error) {
	state := &objState{
		obj:  reflect.New(v.Type()).Interface().(runtime.Object),
		meta: &storage.ResponseMeta{},
	}
	if len(getResp.Kvs) == 0 {
		if !ignoreNotFound {
			return nil, storage.NewKeyNotFoundError(key, 0)
		}
		if err := runtime.SetZeroValue(state.obj); err != nil {
			return nil, err
		}
	} else {
		data, stale, err := s.transformer.TransformFromStorage(getResp.Kvs[0].Value, authenticatedDataString(key))
		if err != nil {
			return nil, storage.NewInternalError(err.Error())
		}
		state.rev = getResp.Kvs[0].ModRevision
		state.meta.ResourceVersion = uint64(state.rev)
		state.data = data
		state.stale = stale
		if err := decode(s.codec, s.versioner, state.data, state.obj, state.rev); err != nil {
			return nil, err
		}
	}
	return state, nil
}

func (s *store) getStateFromObject(obj runtime.Object) (*objState, error) {
	state := &objState{
		obj:  obj,
		meta: &storage.ResponseMeta{},
	}

	rv, err := s.versioner.ObjectResourceVersion(obj)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, fmt.Errorf("couldn't get resource version: %v", err)
	}
	state.rev = int64(rv)
	state.meta.ResourceVersion = uint64(state.rev)

	// Compute the serialized form - for that we need to temporarily clean
	// its resource version field (those are not stored in etcd).
	if err := s.versioner.PrepareObjectForStorage(obj); err != nil {
		return nil, fmt.Errorf("PrepareObjectForStorage failed: %v", err)
	}
	state.data, err = runtime.Encode(s.codec, obj)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	s.versioner.UpdateObject(state.obj, uint64(rv))
	return state, nil
}

func (s *store) updateState(st *objState, userUpdate storage.UpdateFunc) (runtime.Object, uint64, error) {
	ret, ttlPtr, err := userUpdate(st.obj, *st.meta)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, 0, err
	}

	if err := s.versioner.PrepareObjectForStorage(ret); err != nil {
		return nil, 0, fmt.Errorf("PrepareObjectForStorage failed: %v", err)
	}
	var ttl uint64
	if ttlPtr != nil {
		ttl = *ttlPtr
	}
	return ret, ttl, nil
}

// ttlOpts returns client options based on given ttl.
// ttl: if ttl is non-zero, it will attach the key to a lease with ttl of roughly the same length
func (s *store) ttlOpts(ctx context.Context, ttl int64) ([]clientv3.OpOption, error) {
	if ttl == 0 {
		return nil, nil
	}
	// TODO: one lease per ttl key is expensive. Based on current use case, we can have a long window to
	// put keys within into same lease. We shall benchmark this and optimize the performance.
	lcr, err := s.client.Lease.Grant(ctx, ttl)
	if err != nil {
		return nil, err
	}
	return []clientv3.OpOption{clientv3.WithLease(clientv3.LeaseID(lcr.ID))}, nil
}

// decode decodes value of bytes into object. It will also set the object resource version to rev.
// On success, objPtr would be set to the object.
func decode(codec runtime.Codec, versioner storage.Versioner, value []byte, objPtr runtime.Object, rev int64) error {
	if _, err := conversion.EnforcePtr(objPtr); err != nil {
		panic("unable to convert output object to pointer")
	}
	_, _, err := codec.Decode(value, nil, objPtr)
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// being unable to set the version does not prevent the object from being extracted
	versioner.UpdateObject(objPtr, uint64(rev))
	return nil
}

// appendListItem decodes and appends the object (if it passes filter) to v, which must be a slice.
func appendListItem(v reflect.Value, data []byte, rev uint64, filter storage.FilterFunc, codec runtime.Codec, versioner storage.Versioner) error {
	obj, _, err := codec.Decode(data, nil, reflect.New(v.Type().Elem()).Interface().(runtime.Object))
	if err != nil {
		return err
	}
	// being unable to set the version does not prevent the object from being extracted
	versioner.UpdateObject(obj, rev)
	if filter(obj) {
		v.Set(reflect.Append(v, reflect.ValueOf(obj).Elem()))
	}
	return nil
}

func checkPreconditions(key string, preconditions *storage.Preconditions, out runtime.Object) error {
	if preconditions == nil {
		return nil
	}
	objMeta, err := meta.Accessor(out)
	if err != nil {
		return storage.NewInternalErrorf("can't enforce preconditions %v on un-introspectable object %v, got error: %v", *preconditions, out, err)
	}
	if preconditions.UID != nil && *preconditions.UID != objMeta.GetUID() {
		errMsg := fmt.Sprintf("Precondition failed: UID in precondition: %v, UID in object meta: %v", *preconditions.UID, objMeta.GetUID())
		return storage.NewInvalidObjError(key, errMsg)
	}
	return nil
}

func notFound(key string) clientv3.Cmp {
	return clientv3.Compare(clientv3.ModRevision(key), "=", 0)
}