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<div class="chapter" id="berglee_1.0-ch08" version="5.0" lang="en">
<h1 class="title editable block">
<span class="title-prefix">Chapter 8</span> North Africa and Southwest Asia</h1>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s00">
<h2 class="title editable block">Identifying the Boundaries</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s00_p01">The realm of North Africa and Southwest Asia is large and expansive in terms of physical area, but its regions share a number of common qualities. The physical area of this realm is divided into three regions: North Africa, Southwest Asia, and the countries of <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Turkestan</a><span class="glossdef">Alternative term for the region of Central Asia named after the Turkish people who moved through the area centuries ago.</span></span> (the geographic region of Central Asia). The countries in the North African region include the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea from Morocco to Sudan. The realm borders the Atlantic Ocean, the Sahara Desert, and the African Transition Zone. Egypt has territory in both Africa and Asia through its possession of the Sinai Peninsula. The second region, Southwest Asia, includes Turkey, Iran, the <strong class="emphasis bold">Middle East</strong>, and the <strong class="emphasis bold">Arabian Peninsula</strong>. The land on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea is frequently referred to as the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Levant</a><span class="glossdef">Land area bordering the eastern Mediterranean Sea that now includes Israel, Lebanon, and parts of western Syria.</span></span> and is often included as a part of the Middle East. Technically, the term <em class="emphasis">Middle East</em> only includes the five countries of Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq, but in common practice <em class="emphasis">Middle East</em> refers to all of Southwest Asia. Central Asia, also referred to as Turkestan, includes the “stan” countries from Kazakhstan to Afghanistan in the region between China and the Caspian Sea. The suffix <em class="emphasis">stan</em>, meaning “land of,” is a common suffix for country names in Central Asia. Afghanistan is the only country of Central Asia that was not officially a part of the former Soviet Union.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s00_p02">The Middle East—a European term that bridges the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Near East</a><span class="glossdef">Region of present-day Turkey.</span></span> and the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Far East</a><span class="glossdef">General European term for the regions of Asia including India and China.</span></span>—can also be defined as the area between the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. Turkey, with its focal point of Istanbul, has been considered part of the Near East by Europeans. The famous Agatha Christie novel <em class="emphasis">Murder on the Orient Express</em> was about a train that traveled between Paris and Istanbul. The word <em class="emphasis">orient</em> refers to the east; <em class="emphasis">occident</em> refers to the west. Because Turkey was referred to as the Near East and India and China were the Far East, the region in between became the Middle East. This term is not entirely accurate but is widely used to refer to Southwest Asia.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s00_p03">Three small countries in the Caucasus Mountains—Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia—are affiliated with this realm through their geographic location and their histories. They are technically European countries and were once part of the former Soviet Union. The details of these countries are covered in <a class="xref" href="berglee_1.0-ch01#berglee_1.0-ch01">Chapter 1 "Introduction to the World"</a>. Turkey, which has territory in both Europe and Asia, was historically referred to as <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Asia Minor</a><span class="glossdef">The ancient region that is present-day Turkey.</span></span> because most of its land mass is in Asia. The portion of Turkey that lies to the west of Istanbul is on the European continent, which connects Turkey with the European community. Cyprus is a small island in the eastern Mediterranean that has ties to Turkey and a historical connection to the Middle East. Cyprus is technically a European country and is a member of the European Union. Bordering both Iran and China is Afghanistan, which has been a transitional country in the pages of history. Many empires have conquered it, and many groups have fought over its territory. Today, Afghanistan is a key country in the globalization process because of its huge mineral reserves, yet it has a volatile and unstable political scene.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s00_p04">Sudan, a country geographically located in Africa, is included in this realm because it shares similar traits with the rest of the realm’s three regions. Sudan could also be studied with East Africa. The African Transition Zone cuts across Sudan and extends through the widest part of the African continent. The African Transition Zone creates a boundary for the realms of North Africa and Southwest Asia dividing the Islamic influence to the north from the Christian influence to the south. It is also a transitional boundary between the dry and arid type B climates and the more tropical type A climates of Equatorial Africa. The countries on the eastern end of the African Transition Zone—including Eritrea, Somalia, and Ethiopia—are often covered with this realm in other contexts, but in this textbook, the critical information was included in the section on East Africa (<a class="xref" href="berglee_1.0-ch07#berglee_1.0-ch07">Chapter 7 "Subsaharan Africa"</a>, <a class="xref" href="berglee_1.0-ch07_s05#berglee_1.0-ch07_s05">Section 7.5 "East Africa"</a>). The African Transition Zone can be volatile, with the potential for ethnic, cultural, or political conflicts.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s00_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.1</span> The Regions of North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Turkestan</p>
<img src="section_11/b77c0047f6fffa6634093aa66c7a87b8.jpg">
<p class="para">The African Transition Zone is the southern boundary of the realm.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of University of Texas Libraries, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/world_maps/world_pol_2011.pdf">http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/world_maps/world_pol_2011.pdf</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01" condition="start-of-chunk" version="5.0" lang="en">
<h2 class="title editable block">
<span class="title-prefix">8.1</span> Introducing the Realm</h2>
<div class="learning_objectives editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_n01">
<h3 class="title">Learning Objectives</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_l01">
<li>Understand three basic traits the countries of the realm shares in common.</li>
<li>Outline the two cultural hearths and explain why they developed where they did.</li>
<li>Describe how the people of this realm gain access to fresh water.</li>
<li>Understand how the events of the 2011 Arab Spring have affected the realm.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_p01">The countries of the realm share three key dominant traits that influence all other human activities. The first key common trait relates to the climate of the region. Though various climate types can be found in this realm, it is the dry or arid type B climate that dominates and covers most of the physical area. Other climate types include the type H highland climate (cold temperatures at the high elevations with moderate temperatures at the bases) of the mountains of the Maghreb, Iran, or Central Asia and the more moderate type C climate in the coastal regions bordering the sea. The type C climate along the coastal Mediterranean area attracts human development and is home to many large port cities. The overall fact is that vast areas of each region are uninhabited desert. North Africa has the largest desert in the world—the Sahara—which borders the <strong class="emphasis bold">Libyan Desert</strong> and the <strong class="emphasis bold">Nubian Desert</strong>. About one third of the Arabian Peninsula is part of the <strong class="emphasis bold">Empty Quarter</strong> of the Rub’ al Khali (Arabian Desert). Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan have vast regions of desert with few if any inhabitants. This aspect of the realm reveals the importance of water as a valuable natural resource. Most people in the realm are more dependent on the availability of water than on the availability of oil.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_p02">The second trait is Islam: most of the people in the realm are Muslims. The practice of Islam in day-to-day life takes different forms in the various divisions of the religion. The differences between the divisions have contributed to conflict or open warfare. Islam acts as more than just a religion. It also serves as a strong cultural force that has historically unified or divided people. The divisive nature of the religion has often resulted in serious political confrontations within the realm between groups of different Islamic ideologies. Concurrently, the religion of Islam is also a unifying force that brings Muslims with similar beliefs together with common bonds. Islam provides structure and consistency in daily life. The faith can provide comfort and a way of living. The holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located in Saudi Arabia. Other holy cities for other divisions of Islam include Jerusalem and the two cities holy to Shia Muslims: Karbala and Najaf in Iraq. Islam dominates the realm, but other religions are significant in various regions. Israel is a Jewish state, and Christianity is common in places from Lebanon to Egypt. There are also followers of the Baha’i faith, Zoroastrianism, and groups such as the Druze, just to name a few.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_p03">The third factor that all three regions of the realm share is the availability of significant natural resources. North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Turkestan all have significant reserves of oil, natural gas, and important minerals. It stands to reason that not every country has the same reserves and that some of the countries have very few or none at all. However, in terms of how the countries gain national wealth, it is the export of oil that has dominated the economic activity as it relates to the global community. This realm is a peripheral realm. The resource that the realm can offer to the core economic regions of the world is the energy to fuel their economies and maintain their high standard of living. Enormous economic profits from the sale of these resources have traditionally been held in the hands of the elite ruling leader or his clan and do not always filter down to most of the population. The control of and profits from natural resources have become the primary objectives of the countries; this fuels conflicts and armed military interventions in areas such as Iraq and Afghanistan.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Cultural Hearths</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_p01">Availability and control of fresh water have typically resulted in the ability of humans to grow food crops and expand their cultural activities. Hunter-gatherer groups did not settle down in one area but were more nomadic because of their seasonal search for food. As humans developed the ability to grow crops and provide enough food in one place, they no longer needed to move. The earliest human settlements sprang up in what is the present-day Middle East. Early human settlements provide some indication of early urbanization patterns based on the availability or surplus of food. The shift to permanent settlements included the domestication of livestock and the production of grain crops. Fruits and vegetables were grown and harvested domestically. The activities of this era created humanity’s earliest version of the rural-to-urban shift associated with the Industrial Revolution or present development. It is theorized that the ability to grow excess food provided the time and resources for urbanization and the establishment of organized communities, which often progressed into political entities or regional empires.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_p02">It has been estimated that some of the earliest cities in the world—Jericho, for example—were first inhabited around 10,000 BCE in the Middle East. In the same region, two <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">cultural hearths</a><span class="glossdef">Region or area where an early human civilization began.</span></span> provide significant historical value to the concept of human development: <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Mesopotamia</a><span class="glossdef">The “land between rivers,” referring to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.</span></span> and the Nile Valley in Egypt. Both areas were settings for the growth of human civilization and are still being examined and studied today. In Mesopotamia, a remarkable human civilization emerged along the banks of the <strong class="emphasis bold">Tigris</strong> and <strong class="emphasis bold">Euphrates</strong> Rivers in what is present-day Iraq, Syria, and southern Turkey. The climate, soils, and availability of fresh water provided the ingredients for the growth of a human civilization that is held in high esteem because of its significant contributions to our human history.</p>
<div class="figure small medium-height editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.2</span> Head of Gudea, Sumerian Ruler from Mesopotamia, Circa 2121 BCE</p>
<img src="section_11/b5074306240890133fed08db4e1aeb75.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Marie-Lan Nguyen, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head_Gudea_Louvre_AO13.jpg">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head_Gudea_Louvre_AO13.jpg</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_s01_p01"><em class="emphasis">Mesopotamia</em>, meaning “land between rivers,” is located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Neolithic pottery found there has been dated to before 7000 BCE. Humans in this area urbanized as early as 5000 BCE. People were settling in the Mesopotamia region, building magnificent cities, and developing their sense of human culture. Mesopotamia gave rise to a historical <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">cradle of civilization</a><span class="glossdef">The location where early human settlements developed into long-term cultures with prominent advancements.</span></span> that included the Assyrian, Babylonian, Sumerian, and Akkadian Empires, all established during the Bronze Age (about 3000 BCE or later). Famous cities such as Ur, Babylon, and Nineveh were located in the Mesopotamia region. The control of water and the ability to grow excess food contributed to their success. They developed extensive irrigation systems. Large grain storage units were necessary to provide the civic structure and to develop a military to protect and serve the city or empire. The human activity in this area extended around the region all the way to the Mediterranean Sea, which is where the term <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Fertile Crescent</a><span class="glossdef">The region of Mesopotamia and the Levant where early human civilization flourished.</span></span> comes from.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.3</span> The Two Main Cultural Hearths in the Realm: Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent in Asia and Upper and Lower Egypt in Africa</p>
<img src="section_11/623083410cfc67a9cf8ac67dec3c9474.jpg">
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_s01_p02">Various ancient groups were well established on the eastern side of the Fertile Crescent along the Mediterranean coast. The cities of Tyre and Sidon were ports and access points for trade and commerce for groups like the Phoenicians who traded throughout the Mediterranean. Ancient cities such as Damascus and Jericho became established in the same region and were good examples of early human urbanization during the Bronze Age. These cities are two of the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Nile River Civilization</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_s02_p01">Human civilization also emerged along the Nile River valley of what is now Egypt. The pyramids and the Sphinx in the <strong class="emphasis bold">Giza Plateau</strong> just outside Cairo stand testimony to the human endeavors that took place here. Spring flooding of the <strong class="emphasis bold">Nile River</strong> brought nutrients and water to the land along the Nile Valley. The land could produce excess food, which subsequently led to the ability to support a structured, urbanized civilization. The Nile River is the lifeblood of the region. In the fifth century BCE, the ancient Greek historian Herodotus suggested that Egypt was “the gift of the Nile.” The dating for the beginning of the civilization along the Nile River is often in question, but Egyptologists estimate the first dynasty ruled both Upper and Lower Egypt around 3100 BCE. Upper Egypt is in the south and Lower Egypt is in the north because the Nile River flows north. The terms “Upper” and “Lower” refer to elevation. Geologists, using the erosion patterns of the Sphinx, estimate that it was constructed about 10,000 BCE. The ability of humans to harness the potential of the environment set the stage for technological advancements that continue to this day. The Egyptian civilization flourished for thousands of years and spawned a legacy that influenced their neighbors in the region, who benefited from their advancements.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s01_s02_p02">The human activities that created the civilizations in Mesopotamia and along Egypt’s Nile River gave humanity a rich heritage to help us understand our history. Many of our legends, stories, and myths have their origins in these cultures. Their cultural developments provided the basis for much of the Western world’s religious beliefs and early philosophical ideas. The engineering feats needed to create the magnificent temples and pyramids have by themselves been studied and analyzed over the centuries to give modern scientists and scholars a reason to pause and recognize the high level of organization and structure that must have gone into developing and managing these civilizations. Various aspects of science and the arts were being developed by these ancient people. Writing, mathematics, engineering, and astronomy were becoming highly advanced. Artifacts such as clay tablets and hieroglyphs are still being discovered and interpreted and shed additional light on the advancements of these civilizations and their contribution to our collective human civilization.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Access to Fresh Water</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_p01">Water is one of the necessities for human existence, and human settlements have long been based on the availability of water for human consumption and agriculture, navigation, and the production of energy. In North Africa and Southwest Asia, the availability of water has an even greater relevance because of the dominant type B climate. Methods used to address the shortage of water or to access fresh water have been nearly as diverse as the people who live here. Large populations of people can be found wherever there is fresh water. Water has historically been transferred from source to destination through canals, aqueducts, or special channels. Many ruins of extensive aqueducts from Roman times and earlier remain throughout the realm. The issues associated with water use continue to affect the lives of the people of this realm. Rapid population growth and industrialization have intensified the demand for fresh water.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.5</span> Roman Aqueduct Near Caesarea</p>
<img src="section_11/9b7e918634c54e865e157161a08c24cf.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo by R. Berglee.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_p02">Water can be found in the desert regions in a range of forms. For example, there are oases, springs, or noted wells from which people can draw underground water that is close to the surface. Mountainous regions such as the Atlas Mountains in North Africa or the Elburz Mountains in Iran trap moisture, which produces higher quantities of precipitation. The precipitation is then available in the valleys to irrigate crops. Discovering or developing other methods of acquiring fresh water is a requirement in areas without mountains.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Underground Water in Libya</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s01_p01">In the Sahara region, Libya draws water from deep underground wells that tap into the vast aquifers beneath the desert that were charged with water when the region was tropical thousands of years ago. The water is referred to as fossil water. Extensive systems of canals and pipelines have been developed in Libya to extract fossil water and use it for agricultural production or for urban purposes. The man-made river project, one of the largest of its kind, has drawn fresh water from the desert to large cities such Tripoli and Benghazi. The local drinking water in Benghazi is contaminated by saltwater intrusion from the Mediterranean. Underground aquifers are underneath political boundaries, so the allocation and control of water are matters of political debate with the potential to lead to military conflict. The project’s potential duration will be a function of how quickly the water is used and how many people use the aquifer system. The main problem with this system is that underground aquifers are not considered a renewable resource; as more countries tap into the aquifers, the available water will be depleted more quickly. As water is drawn from the aquifers for industrial irrigation, the water table goes down. Local settlements that rely on well water may in time have to dig deeper wells or move to locations where water resources are still available.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Nile Water in Egypt</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s02_p01">Egypt draws water from the Nile to irrigate fields for extensive food production. For thousands of years, floods of the Nile annually covered the land with fresh silt and water. This made the land productive, but the flooding often caused serious damage to human infrastructure. The building of the Aswan High Dam in the 1970s helped control the flooding of the Nile Valley. The river no longer flooded annually, and water had to be pumped onto the land. Over time, the constant and extensive use of this type of irrigation causes the small quantities of salt in the water to build up in the soil to serious levels, thereby reducing the land’s productivity. This process, called <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">salinization</a><span class="glossdef">The buildup of salts in soils that have been heavily irrigated over the years, typically in arid climates.</span></span>, is a common problem in arid climates. To rid the soil of the salts, fresh water is needed to flood the fields, dissolving the salt and then moving the salty water back off the fields. High salinization in the soil and the reduction in agricultural productivity is a growing concern for Egypt. Egypt’s growing population places a high demand on the availability of food. More than half of the eighty million people in Egypt live in rural areas, and many of them make their living in agriculture, growing food that plays a critical role in the country’s economic stability</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">Water from the Tigris and Euphrates</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s03_p01">The major source of water in the Fertile Crescent region comes from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Both have their origins in Turkey and converge at the Shatt al-Arab waterway that flows into the Persian Gulf. The Euphrates is the longest river in Southwest Asia and flows through Syria from Turkey before entering into Iraq. Turkey had developed large dams on both the Tigris and Euphrates for agricultural purposes and to generate hydroelectric power. As water is diverted for agriculture in Turkey there is less water flowing downstream for Syria or Iraq. Disputes over water resources continue to be a major concern in the Tigris-Euphrates Basin. The Atatürk Dam in Turkey is largest dam on the Euphrates, and it has a reservoir behind the dam that is large enough to hold the total annual discharge of the river. All three countries have dams on the Euphrates and both Turkey and Iraq have dams on the Tigris. The three countries signed a memorandum of understanding in 2009 to strengthen cooperation within the Tigris-Euphrates Basin. All three countries need the water for agriculture to produce food for a growing population. Agreements to share water have been difficult as a result of the Iraq War and the recent protests and demonstrations in Syria that have contributed to further political tension between the three countries.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s04">
<h2 class="title editable block">Water Conservation in Israel</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s04_p01">Israel has taken innovative steps to conserve water and use it efficiently. Drip irrigation mixed with fertilizers is called <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">fertigation</a><span class="glossdef">System of drip irrigation mixed with fertilizers used in Israel.</span></span>. Fertigation is used extensively in the area. Israel grows plantation crops such as bananas, which require large quantities of water. Banana groves are covered with material that allows sunlight to penetrate but reduces the amount of transpiration, which conserves water. Israel has worked to recycle water whenever possible. Gray water is water extracted from sewage that has been treated to be used in agriculture. Underground wells in the West Bank region provide water for a high percentage of people in both the Palestinian areas and Israel. The issue of control over the water is contentious at times. Just as the control of water may have been an important factor in the early Mesopotamian civilizations, it remains a point of political conflict in places such as Israel and the West Bank. The lack of fresh water and the heavier demand placed on water resources have caused countries that can afford it to desalinize seawater. This process is used extensively in the oil-rich states of the Arabian Peninsula. Israel is implementing a similar plan to accommodate their increasing population and fresh water requirements.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s04_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.6</span> Banana Grove in Israel Near the Lebanese Border</p>
<img src="section_11/e2f7ab54a8e417bc32ee5aff5286979f.jpg">
<p class="para">The grove is covered with material that allows sunlight to penetrate but helps reduce the loss of water through transpiration.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo by R. Berglee.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s05">
<h2 class="title editable block">Mountain Water in Iran</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s05_p01">Iran is largely a desert climate; thus most of the country does not receive copious amounts of precipitation. In an effort to redistribute the water available from the high mountains, Iranians have developed a system of <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">qanats</a><span class="glossdef">System of shafts or wells along a mountain slope that allows water to collect into a common underground channel, which is then diverted to wherever it is needed.</span></span> to collect water where it is available and channel it to the cities or urban areas for use. A qanat might include a system of shafts or wells along a mountain slope that allows water to collect into a common underground channel, which is then diverted to wherever it is needed. This system has been in use since ancient times in many arid regions of the realm and around the world. More than 2,700 years ago, a qanat was developed in what is present-day Iran. The qanat has a system of hundreds of wells and channels water for more than twenty-eight miles; it still provides drinking water to more than forty thousand people in the city of Gonabad. Thousands of qanats were developed over the centuries in this area. Persians used cold qanat water from the mountains to keep ice cool during the summer months. Agricultural production relies heavily on water from qanats, which in turn are dependent on climate conditions and local weather patterns.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s06">
<h2 class="title editable block">Water Shortages in Arabia</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s06_p01">The Arabian Peninsula almost always conjures up images of desert conditions; contrary to that image, there is water in the peninsula. Underground aquifers of fossil water are located beneath the sands similar to that in the Sahara Desert. Saudi Arabia taps into these water resources to irrigate agricultural land to grow food. This area faces the same issue as Libya and other areas of the world that rely on underground aquifers: eventually the water supply will be used up. The majority of the Arabian Peninsula is desert and water is always in short supply. Many coastal desert countries such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, and Qatar have resorted to the desalinization of seawater for their needs, but this is viable only as long as the country can afford the energy cost required to operate the desalinization plants.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s06_p02">Yemen is a state on the Arabian Peninsula that is mountainous and has used terracing to more effectively benefit from what little precipitation they receive. Water from precipitation is trapped in terraces, and as it flows down the mountainside, each terrace uses what it needs and then passes the water to the next lower terrace. More land can be farmed to produce higher yields of agricultural crops such as sorghum and cereals. One of the main problems with Yemen’s terrace system is that most of its trees are being cut down for firewood. Tree roots are essential for holding the soil together on the fragile mountain slopes. Another problem is heavy rains that cause serious erosion and damage to the terrace system. Additionally, the extremely rapid growth rate of Yemen’s population is outstripping its agricultural production.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s07">
<h2 class="title editable block">Diversion of Water in Turkestan</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s07_p01">Fresh water is in short supply in many of the desert regions of Turkestan in Central Asia. Agricultural production has traditionally been dependent on water flowing in rivers and streams that originated with the precipitation from the mountains, but as humans have developed canals and irrigation systems, water from rivers has been diverted for agricultural use. Vast fields of cash crops such as cotton were developed during the Soviet era for economic reasons, and as discussed in more detail in <a class="xref" href="berglee_1.0-ch08_s07#berglee_1.0-ch08_s07">Section 8.7 "Central Asia and Afghanistan"</a>, the result had devastating consequences for the Aral Sea, which depended on the water from these rivers for its survival. More than half the population of Central Asia depends on agriculture for their livelihood. The other half, of course, requires water and food for their existence.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s02_s07_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.7</span> Precipitation Patterns for North Africa and Southwest Asia</p>
<img src="section_11/be6e27b744d6e17499665cba023f9a7f.jpg">
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">Arab Spring of 2011</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_p01">The year 2011 brought about important changes for the human geography of parts of this realm. The year ushered in a wave of human activity that awakened the power of the citizens to speak out against conditions in their country and actively protest against their governments. North Africa, the Middle East, and the Arabian Peninsula experienced the highest levels of protests and insurgency. Political leaders that had been in power for extended periods were challenged and removed from office. Democratic reforms were requested or demanded by citizens seeking more individual freedom and greater access to political power. Uprisings in some of the countries were internal; other countries received external support or intervention. Overall, demonstrations, protests, and outright revolution involved millions of people desiring improved living conditions and a better future for themselves and their families.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_p02">Protests emerged in North Africa in the beginning of 2011. Tunisia was the first country in which leadership felt the heat of civil resistance and open revolution. In January, the Tunisian president of more than twenty-three years was forced to flee to Saudi Arabia. In Egypt, millions of protesters demonstrated in the streets against political corruption and the lack of reforms. The revolution of Egypt’s citizens was not an armed conflict, but it was an effective protest, because it eventually brought about the ouster of President Hosni Mubarak, who had been in office for almost thirty years. Demonstrations and protests continued against governments in Morocco and Algeria; the people voiced their concerns regarding issues such as high unemployment, poor living conditions, and government corruption. Libya’s protests erupted into a full-scale armed revolution as antigovernment rebels took control of the city of Benghazi in an attempt to topple Muammar Gadhafi’s forty-two years of authoritarian control of the government, oil revenues, and the people. The armed Libyan revolution was eventually successful in taking control of Tripoli and in removing Gadhafi and his family from power. The revolution in Libya was aided by North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) air strikes and the implementation of a no-fly zone over the country.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_p03">The ripple effect that the Tunisian revolution had on North Africa was felt on the Arabian Peninsula in places such as Yemen and Bahrain. Mass public demonstrations in Yemen over government corruption, economic conditions, and high unemployment escalated into serious armed conflicts between government troops and opposition factions that wanted the president removed from office. In Bahrain, the protests and demonstrations were centered on the request for more personal freedoms and a greater role in leadership for the Shia population, who experienced discrimination by the Sunni-dominated government. Protests also occurred in Oman for greater reforms.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_p04">The Middle East did not escape the Arab Spring of 2011. Protests in Jordan forced King ‘Abdullah II to reorganize his government. Israel and Lebanon were not as affected, as they have been addressing many of these issues on an ongoing basis. The country experiencing the greatest impact was Syria. Major mass demonstrations and serious protests against the government were staged in a number of cities across the country. In Syria, the long-term leadership of an Alawite minority continues to run the government and control the military. The al-Assad family—a father and then his son—has ruled Syria since 1971. The Syrian government has cracked down on the revolution with hard-line measures aimed at subduing the protests and demonstrations. By September 2011, more than two thousand protesters had been killed in Syria, and many more were detained or tortured. Countless others have tried to flee to neighboring countries for their safety. The protesters in Syria want democratic reforms as well as the end of the al-Assad family reign.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_p05">Other parts of the realm also felt the effects of the Arab Spring of 2011 with mixed results. Iran has had similar protests and demonstrations in past years, but there was not a major revolution or uprising as a direct result of the Arab Spring. Iran is not an Arab country but has experienced ongoing political friction between citizen factions and the government. The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have tempered or isolated internal protests or revolutionary activities in those countries even though armed conflicts continue. Various Central Asian states have been working through similar issues but either have not had mass demonstrations or have not received the attention of news media regarding their situations. The wave of change that swept over the realm in the Arab Spring of 2011 is an example of how centripetal and centrifugal cultural forces act on a state or region. The political landscape was altered or drastically changed in many countries. The impact of these changes will be realized in the years and decades to come.</p>
<div class="key_takeaways editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_n01">
<h3 class="title">Key Takeaways</h3>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_l01">
<li>The realm of North Africa and Southwest Asia extends from the Atlantic Ocean along the Moroccan coast to the western border of China. It includes the regions of North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia (often referred to as Turkestan).</li>
<li>Three basic features that dominate this realm include the arid type B climates, Islam as the predominant religion, and the export of petroleum and minerals to gain wealth. There are exceptions to all three features, but these three are found within most countries of the realm.</li>
<li>The two main cultural hearths in this realm are located along the rivers in Mesopotamia and in Egypt. Control of and access to water resources to grow excess food were the basis for the success of the empires that flourished in these two areas.</li>
<li>Fresh water is a valuable resource that is not always available in North Africa and Southwest Asia because of the climate and physical geography. Each region within the realm has developed its own methods to draw from or extract the valuable resource of fresh water.</li>
<li>The Arab Spring of 2011 was a massive wave of protests and demonstrations by citizens of the realm against their governments over such issues as poor living conditions, high unemployment, government corruption, and the lack of democratic reforms. Various leaders were removed from office and governments were pressed to reform their power structures to allow for more shared governance and reduced political corruption.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_n02">
<h3 class="title">Discussion and Study Questions</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_l02">
<li>Why does this realm include parts of three continents?</li>
<li>Which countries have territory on more than one continent?</li>
<li>What common traits are shared by most people in this realm?</li>
<li>What might have prompted the first rural-to-urban shift for human settlements?</li>
<li>Why is the Middle East called by that term? What is it in the “middle” of?</li>
<li>What did the two cultural hearths contribute to the advancement of human culture?</li>
<li>Why did the cultural hearths develop where they did?</li>
<li>What are some of the methods Israel has used to address their fresh water requirements?</li>
<li>What prompted the Arab Spring of 2011? Which country was the first to see change?</li>
<li>What were some of the common issues that people protested across the realm?</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_n03">
<h3 class="title">Geography Exercise</h3>
<p class="para" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_p06">Identify the following key places on a map:</p>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s01_s03_l03">
<li>Arabian Peninsula</li>
<li>Asia Minor</li>
<li>Atlas Mountains</li>
<li>Elburz Mountains</li>
<li>Empty Quarter</li>
<li>Euphrates River</li>
<li>Fertile Crescent</li>
<li>Giza Plateau</li>
<li>Levant</li>
<li>Libyan Desert</li>
<li>Mesopotamia</li>
<li>Middle East</li>
<li>Nile River</li>
<li>Nubian Desert</li>
<li>Tigris River</li>
<li>Turkestan</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02" condition="start-of-chunk" version="5.0" lang="en">
<h2 class="title editable block">
<span class="title-prefix">8.2</span> Muhammad and Islam</h2>
<div class="learning_objectives editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_n01">
<h3 class="title">Learning Objectives</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_l01">
<li>Summarize the early life of Muhammad and the origins of Islam.</li>
<li>Analyze the differences and similarities among the three main monotheistic religions.</li>
<li>Explain the process of spatial diffusion and the various forms it may represent.</li>
<li>Outline the main divisions of Islam and the approximate percentages of the followers of each division.</li>
<li>Explain how Islamic fundamentalism influences the debate between a religious state and a secular state</li>
</ol>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_p01">Located in the mountains of western Saudi Arabia, the city of <strong class="emphasis bold">Mecca</strong> (also spelled Makkah) began as an early trade center for the region and a hub for camel caravans trading throughout Southwest Asia and North Africa. Mecca is about forty-five miles from the Red Sea coast at an elevation of 531 feet. South of Mecca, the mountains reach more than 7,200 feet in elevation. According to Islamic tradition, the patriarch Abraham came to Mecca with his Egyptian wife Hagar and their son Ishmael more than two thousand years before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (born 571 CE). When Hagar died, Abraham and Ishmael built the <strong class="emphasis bold">Kaaba</strong> (or Ka‘ba), a rectangular shrine that included a special stone, in Mecca. The shrine was destined to become one of the holiest sites for nomadic groups in Arabia. Abraham later died in Palestine in what is now the country of Israel. Centuries after Abraham’s death, the Kaaba and the rituals associated with it deteriorated and mixed with other local traditions.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Prophet Muhammad</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_p01">The traditional groups in the region of Arabia were polytheistic and worshiped their own gods. By the time of Muhammad, Mecca is said to have been a center of worship to more than 360 deities or gods; the greatest of these was Allah (meaning “the god”). Allah was known as the chief of the Meccan pantheon of gods and was worshiped from southern Syria to Arabia. Mecca was full of idols, temples, and worship sites. Tradition states that the god Allah was the only god without an idol; he would become the sole entity of Muhammad’s new Islamic religion.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_p02">Muhammad, born in Mecca 571 years after the birth of Christ and about 100 years after the fall of the Roman Empire, was orphaned at an early age, and was employed in a camel caravan when he reached his teens. His life and what has been reported about it changed the Middle East forever. Muhammad traveled throughout the region with the camel caravans. He was fortunate to have been able to live as he did, because most orphans in the region did not have many opportunities in life. His travels introduced him to many people, places, and issues. His situation changed when Muhammad and a widow many years his senior were married. Muhammad became a merchant, the leader of a camel caravan, and a respected member of his community. He was reported to have been intelligent and a wise businessman.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_p03">The traditional groups that traded in Mecca held many different religious beliefs. The city was a forum for the many vices and activities associated with trade, travel, and metropolitan business. To escape the activities of Mecca, Muhammad would often seek the solitude of the mountains, where he would contemplate and think. Tradition states that the angel Gabriel appeared to him while he was meditating in a mountain cave in 610 CE, when Muhammad was about forty. Muhammad was given words from Allah, which he recited from memory to his followers. According to tradition, Muhammad was illiterate; his supporters wrote down his words, compiled them into the Koran (Qur’an), the holiest book of Islam. Muhammad was the founder of the new religion, which he called <em class="emphasis">Islam</em> (meaning “submission to Allah”). The term <em class="emphasis">Muslim</em> (meaning “one who submits”) refers to a follower of Islam.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_p04">After Muhammad returned to Mecca and related his visions and Allah’s words from the angel Gabriel, he began to speak out against the city’s vices and many gods. He stated that there was only one god: Allah, the same creator god of Abraham. He spoke out against gambling and drinking alcohol. He advocated the caretaking of widows and orphans. He also preached regarding family and community. His message was not well received: in 622 CE the people of Mecca forced Muhammad out. He fled to the safety of the nearby city of <strong class="emphasis bold">Medina</strong> in a journey known as the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">hejira (hijra)</a><span class="glossdef">The start of the Islamic calendar, which refers to when Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina.</span></span>. This historic journey became the start of the Islamic calendar, which is based on the lunar cycles. Muhammad found refuge in Medina and became a respected citizen.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_p05">Launching out from Medina, Muhammad and those loyal to him defeated the army of Mecca and converted the city into Islam’s holiest place. They destroyed all Mecca’s idols and temples except the Kaaba. Muhammad’s teaching united the many Arabian groups under one religion. Since the Koran was written in Arabic, Arabic became the official language of Islam. The Kaaba and the mosque built at Mecca became the center of the Islamic world and a destination for Muslim pilgrims. Islam brought a new identity, a faith in one god, and a set of values to the Arab world. Islam made sense in a world with many traditional beliefs and few unifying principles.</p>
<div class="figure medium large-height editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.9</span> Traditional Succession of the Three Main Monotheistic Religions of the Middle East: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam</p>
<img src="section_11/ac922102b3c18c1a153d2c78337a11fe.jpg">
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_p06">It’s important to keep in mind that monotheist belief was not new: Christianity had been around for more than six hundred years. Judaism and Zoroastrianism in Persia had been around for centuries before Christianity. The principles of Islam and Muhammad’s teachings are a continuation of Judaism and Christianity. All three traditions assert a faith in a divine creator, with important messages coming through prophets or holy messengers. All three religions acknowledge Abraham as a founding patriarch. Muslims believe that Moses and Jesus were major prophets and that Muhammad was the greatest and final prophet. All three religions have stories about creation, Adam and Eve, the flood, and other similar stories that have been adapted to the traditions and characters of each religion.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s01_p07">Religion is a part of culture. The religions that emerged out of the Middle East absorbed many of the existing cultural traits, traditions, or habits of the people into their religious practices. Early Islam adapted many Arab cultural traits, styles of dress, foods, and the pilgrimage and folded them into its principles. Early Christianity and Judaism also adopted cultural traits, holidays, styles of dress, and cultural traditions.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Spatial Diffusion</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s02_p01">The spread of Islam was accomplished through trade and conquest. Mecca was a center of trade. When camel caravans left Mecca, they carried Muhammad’s teachings with them. Islam diffused from Mecca and spread throughout the Middle East and into Central Asia and North Africa. The geographic principle of <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">spatial diffusion</a><span class="glossdef">The spread of any phenomenon, idea, disease, or concept through a population across space and through time.</span></span> can be applied to any phenomenon, idea, disease, or concept that spreads through a population across space and through time. The spatial diffusion of Islam outward from Mecca was significant and predictable.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s02_p02">There are two main types of spatial diffusion: <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">expansion diffusion</a><span class="glossdef">A phenomenon that starts at one point and propagates outward from person to person; includes both contagious diffusion and hierarchical diffusion.</span></span> and <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">relocation diffusion</a><span class="glossdef">A phenomenon that starts at one point and propagates outward by relocating to a different location.</span></span>. Expansion diffusion has two main subtypes: contagious diffusion and hierarchical diffusion. A religion can spread from individual to individual through contagious diffusion when a religion starts at one point and propagates or expands outward from person to person or place to place in a pattern similar to the spreading of a disease. Another way a religion can spread through expansion diffusion is hierarchically, when rulers of a region convert to the religion and decree it as the official religion of their realm; the religion filters down the political chain of command and eventually reaches the masses. The second type of diffusion, relocation diffusion, takes place when the religion relocates to a new place from a central point. When Islam jumped from the Middle East to Indonesia, it diffused through relocation. Relocation diffusion also occurred when Islam spread to the United States.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s02_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.10</span> Diffusion of Islam and the Ten Countries with the Highest Muslim Populations</p>
<img src="section_11/8c76f1a1addc17f3c4cfb934d2c7e112.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Data courtesy of Pew Research Center, Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf">http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s02_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.11</span> Faithful Muslims Praying toward Mecca in Umayyad, Damascus</p>
<img src="section_11/7c22bb7a06384751620542e3dae2f274.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Antonio Melina of Agência Brasil, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mosque.jpg">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mosque.jpg</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s02_p03">Early on, the unifying principles of Islam found their way into the regional groups of Arabia and into the minds of their leaders. By 700 CE, Islam had spread to the east, to the Mogul Empire of Pakistan and northern India. In India, the Emperor Shah Jehan, who built the famous architectural marvel of the Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his wife, was a Muslim. The expansion of Islam fueled the Arab Empire of the Middle East. The capital city of the Arab Empire was first established at Medina and then moved to Damascus and later to Baghdad. While Europe was enduring the Dark Ages, Islam was experiencing a renaissance, expanding its knowledge of mathematics, architecture, and the sciences. The Arab institutions of higher learning kept the Greek classics alive and established universities in Toledo (Spain), Cairo, and Baghdad. As of 2010, Islam has attracted as many as 1.5 billion followers, second only to Christianity, which has about 2 billion followers. Hinduism is third, with about 900 million followers. Buddhism is considered the world’s fourth-largest religion.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Five Pillars of Islam</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s03_p01">The basic tenets of the <strong class="emphasis bold">Five Pillars of Islam</strong> create the foundational structure of Islam. Prayer is an important part of the religion. A Muslim must offer prayers five times a day: before sunrise, at midday, at midafternoon, after sunset, and in the early evening. During prayer, Muslims face toward the compass direction of Mecca. Before clocks and time were well established, a mosque leader would climb a minaret (a tall tower next to the mosque, their place of public worship) and call the faithful to prayer at the required times of day. Muslims gather together for common prayer on Friday, which is a time to unite the community of believers. Mosques sprang up after Muhammad died, and they became the center of community activities in the Islamic world.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s03_p02">The Five Pillars of Islam can be translated as follows:</p>
<ol class="orderedlist editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s03_l01">
<li>
<strong class="emphasis bold">Express the basic creed (</strong><em class="emphasis bolditalic">Shahadah</em><strong class="emphasis bold">).</strong> Profess that there is no god but Allah and his messenger and prophet is Muhammad.</li>
<li>
<strong class="emphasis bold">Perform the prayers (</strong><em class="emphasis bolditalic">Salat</em><strong class="emphasis bold">).</strong> Pray five times a day.</li>
<li>
<strong class="emphasis bold">Pay alms or give to charity (</strong><em class="emphasis bolditalic">Zakat</em><strong class="emphasis bold">).</strong> Share what you have with people who are less fortunate.</li>
<li>
<strong class="emphasis bold">Fast (</strong><em class="emphasis bolditalic">Sawm</em><strong class="emphasis bold">).</strong> During the month of Ramadan, abstain from personal needs, drinking, and eating from dawn to dusk (as one’s health permits).</li>
<li>
<strong class="emphasis bold">Make the pilgrimage to Mecca (</strong><em class="emphasis bolditalic">Hajj</em><strong class="emphasis bold">).</strong> Conduct at least one pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca (if within one’s capacity).</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s04">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Death of Muhammad</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s04_p01">Muhammad died at the age of sixty-two. He never claimed to be a god or anything other than a mere mortal. His tomb is located in Medina, the City of the Prophet. No provision was made to continue Muhammad’s work after he died. One division thought his successor should be a blood relative. This division led to the <strong class="emphasis bold">Shia</strong> (or <strong class="emphasis bold">Shi’ite</strong>) branch of Islam, which makes up about 15 percent of Muslims. Others felt that the successor should be a worthy follower and did not need to be a blood relative. This branch became known as <strong class="emphasis bold">Sunni</strong>, which makes up about 84 percent of Muslims. Various smaller branches of Islam also exist, including <strong class="emphasis bold">Sufi</strong>, which approaches the Islamic faith from a more mystical and spiritual perspective.</p>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s04_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.12</span> Three Main Divisions of Islam with Approximate Percentages</p>
<img src="section_11/fffb4724fadd2726837fd7c5718ba0b2.jpg">
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s04_p02">Sunni Muslims look to the family and community for direction; Sunni leaders are elected by the whole community. Shia Muslims look to their <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">imams</a><span class="glossdef">Mosque leader in Islam.</span></span> for the official source of direction. Imams hold the religious and political leadership in the Shia faith. Through the right of divine appointment, Imams are considered by many in the Shia division to hold absolute spiritual authority. Imams often have the final word regarding religious doctrine. Shia Muslims consider Muhammad’s son-in-law and cousin Ali to be the origin of the direct line of succession for Imams. Ali is considered in Islam to have been the first person to accept and follow the words of Muhammad. There are many subgroups or branches in each of the Islamic divisions.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s04_p03">In understanding the Middle East, it is most critical to understand the Sunni and Shia divisions of Islam. The Shia and Sunni divisions of Islam have sometimes had divergent beliefs, resulting in conflicts. In the early sixteenth century, the Persian Empire, which is now Iran, declared the Shia branch its official religion. Its surrounding neighbors were predominantly Sunni. This divergence is part of the basis for the current civil unrest in Iraq. The two divisions of Islam currently vie for political power and control in Iraq. The majority of the Arab population in Iraq, about 60 percent in 2010, follows the Shia division of Islam, but the leadership under Saddam Hussein until 2003 was Sunni. Tradition states that Ali is buried in the Iraqi city of Najaf, which is considered by Shia Muslims to be one of the holiest sites in Islam. Just north of Najaf is the city of Karbala, which is also considered to be a holy place for Shia Muslims because it is the burial place of the Prophet Muhammad’s grandson Husayn. The Shia majority in Iraq who are Arab share their faith with the Shia majority in Iran who are ethnically Persian.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05">
<h2 class="title editable block">Secular State versus Religious State</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_p01">Islam has a code of law called the <strong class="emphasis bold">Sharia</strong> criminal code, which is similar to Old Testament law. The Sharia dictates capital punishment for certain crimes. For example, if a person is caught stealing, his or her arm would be severed. For more serious offenses, he or she would be beheaded or stoned to death. Some countries use the Sharia as the law of their country. Countries are called <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">religious states</a><span class="glossdef">A state with laws based on religious rules or doctrines determined by religious leaders.</span></span> (Islamic states in this case) when religious codes take precedence over civil law. States in which people democratically vote on civil law based on common agreement are called <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">secular states</a><span class="glossdef">A state with civil law based on democratic consensus or by vote that is not affiliated with any particular religion.</span></span>. Whereas secular states attempt to separate religious issues and civil law, religious states attempt to combine the two. Iran is a good example of an Islamic religious state, and Turkey is a good example of a secular state. When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003 and Saddam Hussein was removed from leadership, the country entered a transitional period in which they had to decide if the country would develop into an Islamic state with the Sharia or move to a democratically elected government with civil law. The debate on these issues continually surfaces in many of the countries in North Africa and Southwest Asia whenever transition occurs.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_p02">The cultural forces of democratic reforms and Islamic fundamentalism have been pushing and pulling on the Islamic world. Democratic reformers push for a more open society with equality for women, social freedoms for the people, and democratically elected leaders in government. Islamic fundamentalists pull back toward a stricter following of Islamic teachings; they oppose what they consider the decadent and vulgar ways of Western society and wish to restrict the influence of liberal, nonreligious teaching. A rift between militant Islamic fundamentalists and moderate Islamic reformers is evident throughout the Muslim world. Militant leaders strive to uphold the Sharia criminal code as law. Moderate reformers work toward a civil law based on democratic consensus. This rift adds to the conflicts that have been occurring in this realm. Islamic fundamentalists push for a more traditional and conservative society and express opposition to the United States’ intervention in the realm. The Muslim world will continue to confront such arguments over the future direction of Islam in a globalized economy.</p>
<div class="key_takeaways editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_n01">
<h3 class="title">Key Takeaways</h3>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_l01">
<li>Islam has its origins with Muhammad, who was born 571 years after the birth of Jesus, when Christianity was well established. Muhammad received his revelations through the angel Gabriel and passed them to his followers, who wrote down his words into what became the Koran.</li>
<li>Islam is the youngest of the three major monotheistic religions of the realm: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three trace their origins back to the patriarch Abraham. Other monotheistic religions, such as the Baha’i faith and Zoroastrianism, are also evident in the Southwest Asia.</li>
<li>Spatial diffusion can be applied to any phenomenon, idea, disease, or concept that spreads through a population across space and through time. Islam has diffused through both expansion diffusion and relocation diffusion to become the second most followed religion in the world.</li>
<li>Since the death of Muhammad, Islam has divided into a number of different factions. The two most prevalent divisions of Islam are Sunni (followed by about 84 percent of Muslims) and Shia (followed by about 15 percent of Muslims). Other minor divisions of Islam, such as Sufi, also exist.</li>
<li>Religious states are structured around laws based on religious regulations that are usually determined by religious leaders. Secular states are structured around civil law, which is decided on by democratic consensus.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_n02">
<h3 class="title">Discussion and Study Questions</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_l02">
<li>What was Muhammad’s early life like? Do you think his background influenced his teachings?</li>
<li>Who were Sarah and Hagar? How were their sons influential to the people of the Middle East?</li>
<li>Name the individual who is considered a patriarch to the three major monotheistic religions of the Middle East.</li>
<li>What event triggered the start of the Islamic calendar? What is this calendar based on?</li>
<li>List the Five Pillars of Islam. On which day of the week does the Islamic community gather for prayer?</li>
<li>Name the two main divisions of Islam. What percentage of Islam’s disciples follow each of the divisions?</li>
<li>What are the differences between the two main divisions of Islam?</li>
<li>What are the two main types of spatial diffusion? Provide an example of each.</li>
<li>What is the difference between a religious state and a secular state? Which of these types of state does the United States fit into?</li>
<li>How has the conflict between Islamic fundamentalists and Islamic reformers manifested itself in the North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Turkestan realm in recent years?</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_n03">
<h3 class="title">Geography Exercise</h3>
<p class="para" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_p03">Identify the following key places on a map:</p>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_l03">
<li>Baghdad</li>
<li>Cairo</li>
<li>Damascus</li>
<li>Jerusalem</li>
<li>Karbala</li>
<li>Mecca</li>
<li>Medina</li>
<li>Najaf</li>
<li>Toledo</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_n04">
<h3 class="title">Activity</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s02_s05_l04">
<li>On a map of this realm, indicate the type of government for each country. Determine which countries are religious states and which are secular states.</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03" condition="start-of-chunk" version="5.0" lang="en">
<h2 class="title editable block">
<span class="title-prefix">8.3</span> North Africa and the African Transition Zone</h2>
<div class="learning_objectives editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_n01">
<h3 class="title">Learning Objectives</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_l01">
<li>Summarize the historical geography of North Africa, identify the major physical features and the main cities, and understand who the people are and where most of the population lives in the region.</li>
<li>Understand the unique geographic qualities of the Maghreb and explain how this region is connected to Europe.</li>
<li>Outline the political issues in North Africa and understand the transitions and conflicts occurring in the governments of the region.</li>
<li>Describe the main qualities of the African Transition Zone and explain how the dynamics of this zone are affecting the country of Sudan.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_p01">North Africa’s primary connection with the Middle East and Central Asia is that Islam diffused to North Africa from the Middle East and Central Asia. Today, it is a Muslim-dominated realm with Arabic as its primary language. Historically, the ethnicity of North Africa was predominantly <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Berber</a><span class="glossdef">The main ethnic background of the African groups in the Maghreb.</span></span> with the nomadic <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Tuareg</a><span class="glossdef">Nomadic ethnic group of the Sahara known for its indigo-colored clothing and use of camels for transportation.</span></span> and other local groups interspersed. When Islam diffused into North Africa, the Arab influence and culture were infused with it. Modern Egypt has become the cornerstone of the Arab world; more Arabs live in Cairo than in any other city on Earth. The three main areas of interest are the <strong class="emphasis bold">Maghreb</strong> of the northwest; the <strong class="emphasis bold">Nile River</strong> valley in the east; and the <strong class="emphasis bold">African Transition Zone</strong>, where the Sahara Desert transitions into the tropical type A climates of Central Africa’s equatorial region.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.13</span> North Africa and the Maghreb</p>
<img src="section_11/99599531cded2a3da6e68208b4443a69.jpg">
<p class="para">The Maghreb traditionally includes Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, but Libya is also considered part of the Maghreb by many inhabitants of the region.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of University of Texas Libraries, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/world_maps/world_pol_2011.pdf">http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/world_maps/world_pol_2011.pdf</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_p02">Islam diffused through North Africa to the Berber people of the Maghreb and entered Europe across the <strong class="emphasis bold">Strait of Gibraltar</strong> to the <strong class="emphasis bold">Iberian Peninsula</strong>. The Arab-Berber alliance, called the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Moors</a><span class="glossdef">Berber-Arab alliance in North Africa that crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and brought Islam to the Iberian Peninsula.</span></span>, invaded Spain in 711 CE. The Islamic influence thrived in Iberia and would have continued into mainland Europe if not stopped by Christian forces such as Charles Martel’s army in the famous Battle of Tours. Islam was eventually pushed out of the Iberian Peninsula and held south of the Strait of Gibraltar. Islamic architecture and influence remain part of the heritage of Iberia.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_p03">The historical geography of North Africa is not complete without an understanding of the European influences that have dominated or controlled this region for centuries. The Roman Empire controlled much of the coastal area of the Mediterranean during its zenith. The Romans built ports, aqueducts, roads, and valuable infrastructure. After the fall of the Roman Empire, common bonds of religion and language were created for the people through the invasion of the Arabs, who introduced the Islamic faith. North Africa was later dominated by European colonialism. France controlled and colonized the region of the Barbary Coast along North Africa’s western waterfront, including Algeria, Tunisia, and parts of Morocco. Italians colonized the region that is now Libya. The Barbary Coast of the Mediterranean was once a haven for pirates and a danger to shipping during the colonial era. Even the United States involved itself with wars against the pirates off the coast of the Berber states of North Africa during the early 1800s. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Britain controlled Egypt and parts of the Sudan. The Spanish colonized parts of Morocco and Western Sahara. In due time, resistance movements were successful in defeating the colonial powers and declaring independence for all the countries of North Africa. However, the European influence remains through the region’s dependence on trade and economic partnerships with Europe.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_p04">North Africa is separated from Subsaharan Africa by the African Transition Zone, a transitional area between Islamic-dominated North Africa and animist- and Christian-dominated Subsaharan Africa. It is also a transition between the Sahara Desert and the tropical type A climates of Africa’s equatorial region. This is a zone subject to shifting boundaries. The region was once a major trade route between the Mali Empire of the west and the trade centers of Ethiopia in the east. Camel caravans have crossed this sector of Africa for centuries, and camel caravans from Mecca might have traveled across this zone. Many nomadic groups continue to herd their livestock across the region in search of grazing.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Maghreb: “Isle of the West”</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s01_p01">The <strong class="emphasis bold">Maghreb</strong> is a region extending from Morocco to Libya that is distinguished by the main ranges of the <strong class="emphasis bold">Atlas Mountains</strong>, which reach elevations of near thirteen thousand feet. The main Atlas range is often snow-covered at higher elevations. The name <em class="emphasis">Maghreb</em>, which in Arabic means “Isle of the West,” receives between ten and thirty inches of rainfall per year. This is substantially more rainfall than what is received in the Sahara Desert to the south. The Atlas Mountains extract precipitation from the air in the form of rain or snow, which allows fruits and vegetables to be grown in the fertile mountain valleys of the Maghreb. To the south of this region is the vast Sahara Desert with lower precipitation and warmer temperatures. Libya is actually outside the range of the Atlas Mountains but is associated with the Maghreb by most local inhabitants.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.14</span> The Main Mountain Ranges of the Maghreb</p>
<img src="section_11/dce26f24597cce8ab26962d8bf30a9c8.jpg">
<p class="para">The Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb extend to the east and west of the main ranges.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of Williamborg, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas-Mountains-Labeled-2.jpg">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas-Mountains-Labeled-2.jpg</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s01_p02">Aided by a moderate type C climate, the northern coastal region of the Maghreb and the mountain valleys are a center for agricultural production, including grapes, dates, oranges, olives, and other food products. Think about how geography affects population: Which climate type do most human groups gravitate toward? What conditions will you find when you combine this climate type and generous quantities of water and food? As you fit the pieces of the geographic puzzle together, you can understand why populations centralize in some places and not in others. The Maghreb is an attractive place for human habitation, but it borders on the inhospitable vastness of the Sahara Desert. Most of the Maghreb’s residents live in cities along the Mediterranean coast. There are few people in the vast desert interior of these countries. The exceptions are groups such as the Tuareg that are found in the Sahara.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s01_p03">The Maghreb is an expansive region with countries of size. Algeria, Libya, and Morocco are large countries in terms of physical area. Algeria is Africa’s largest country as of 2011. Algeria is similar in area to the entire United States east of the Mississippi River, Libya is larger than the state of Alaska, and Morocco is the size of the state of California. A large percentage of Algeria south of the Maghreb and a large percentage of the area south of the Mediterranean coastline in Libya fit the classification of desert conditions. The largest cities of Libya are along the coast, but other Libyan cities are positioned in the desert region. Tunisia, the smallest of the countries on the Mediterranean, is about the same size as the US state of Wisconsin and has mountains in its north and desert areas to the southwest.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s01_p04">All the countries of the Maghreb have former connections to Europe. These ties have strengthened in recent years because of an increase in trade and the economic dependencies that have been created between Europe and the Mediterranean. North Africa can grow fruit and vegetable crops that are not as plentiful in the colder northern latitudes. In the last half of the twentieth century, an enormous amount of oil was discovered in the Maghreb, and Europe has a growing need for energy. The discovery of oil changed the trade equation: oil and natural gas revenues subsequently advanced past agricultural goods as the main export products. Oil and natural gas exports now make up 95 percent of the export income for Algeria and Libya.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Economic Geography of the Maghreb</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_p01">Europe, which is in the higher stages of the index of economic development, has small families with fewer young people to fill entry-level service jobs, and North Africa has a burgeoning population of young people seeking employment. Many people from North Africa speak the languages of their former colonial masters, and when they leave North Africa seeking employment, they find the transition to a European lifestyle relatively straightforward. Migration from the shores of North Africa to Europe is not difficult; the Strait of Gibraltar, for example, is only about nine miles across from Morocco to Spain.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.15</span> The Strait of Gibraltar</p>
<img src="section_11/28ba66f2bd496aa4a1b728257dafa7fb.jpg">
<p class="para">North Africa is separated from the Iberian Peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, which connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. The distance from Morocco to Spain across the strait is about nine miles, making immigration to Europe from North Africa only a matter of a short boat ride.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Satellite image courtesy of NASA SRTM Team, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=3926">http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=3926</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_p02">European countries have attempted to implement measures to halt the tide of illegal immigration into their continent from North Africa but have not been successful. The need for cheap labor in European countries is a major economic factor in this equation. The core-periphery spatial relationship creates the push-pull forces of migration based on opportunities and advantages. Europe needs cheap labor and more energy, provides employment opportunities, and has an advantage in its higher standards of living: these forces attract immigration and pull people toward Europe. North Africa can supply labor and oil, has high levels of unemployment, and suffers from poor economic conditions: these factors push people to emigrate from North Africa to places where conditions are more attractive. Europe is the core economic region, and North Africa is the peripheral economic region. People usually shift from periphery to core in their migration patterns, and this is the case across the Mediterranean.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_p03">European and American influences have been strong in North Africa. Western culture continues to compete with fundamental Islamic tendencies in the region, especially in urban centers. In Morocco, which is the farthest country from Mecca, democratic reforms have opened the country to more opportunities for women and have led to exposure to Western fashions, ideas, and products. Tunisia has a supportive Westernized society. In Libya, birth control or family planning products have not always been supported by the government, so family size remained relatively high until about 1985 when it began to decline. Women are allowed to go to college in Libya, but a smaller percentage are enrolled compared to men. More than 90 percent of Libyans live in urban areas. Exposure to Western concepts, along with urbanizing and industrializing of the economy, has caused a drop in family size in Libya—from 7.5 children in 1975, to about 4.0 children in 1990, and down to 3.0 children in 2010.<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_001">“The World Factbook,” Central Intelligence Agency, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook</a>; “Demographics of Libya,” Wikipedia, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Libya">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Libya</a>.</span> More women are trading traditional dress for Western-style clothing and are entering the workforce to the extent they are allowed.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Political Geography of the Maghreb</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_p01">Economic and political pressures are building across North Africa. Toward the end of 2010 and the spring of 2011, activists called for the governments in North Africa to implement change and address the push of North Africans for stronger democratic openness, less government corruption, and the sharing of wealth accumulated by those in power. Leaders have been reluctant to relinquish power and are being challenged by protests and revolution. The driving forces for the people have been high unemployment rates, high food prices, and the lack of adequate housing.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Western Sahara and Morocco</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s01_p01"><strong class="emphasis bold">Western Sahara</strong> is the region south of Morocco. In the latter half of the 1970s, Morocco annexed and took control of this region following the withdrawal of Mauritanian control. A local resistance group called the Polisario Front challenged Morocco’s claim to Western Sahara and staged a guerilla war to fight for the independence of Western Sahara. By 1991, the United Nations (UN) had stepped in, brokered a halt to the fighting, and worked to resolve the matter. Both sides have offered proposals to the UN; Morocco’s plan advocates for annexation, and Polisario’s plan is for independence. Western Sahara is mainly desert terrain and only has about three hundred thousand people. The UN delegation has indicated that independence is not realistic. However, talks continue between the factions to work out a solution.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.16</span> Morocco and Western Sahara</p>
<img src="section_11/72d9fdcf94f8fd6c239ba43523ef5876.jpg">
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<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Algeria</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s02_p01">Algeria has also experienced its share of violent clashes; in this case, the clashes are between Islamic fundamentalist groups and the democratically elected government. In the 1990s, the Islamic Salvation Front, which advocates for a fundamentalist Islamic state in Algeria, challenged the secular political mainstream. The electoral process was interrupted, and the government found itself fighting an Islamic insurgency within the country. By 1998, more than one hundred thousand people had been killed. The horror of the violence received international attention. Islamic extremists widened their attacks and massacred entire villages to send a message to support their cause. By the end of the decade, government forces gained control of the country, and the Islamic Salvation Front officially disbanded. Smaller extremist groups continued to operate. They joined forces with Osama bin Laden’s al-Qaeda group to create an insurgent group called <em class="emphasis">al-Qaeda in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb</em>, which has continued a campaign of terror and violence against the Algerian government and people in the region with Western interests. Coinciding with similar protests across North Africa, during 2010 and 2011, there was an insurgence of protests and demonstrations against the government of Algeria by its people, who were asking for better living conditions. The government made some concessions to address the issues, but the political climate in Algeria continues to be tense as the government struggles to find ways to satisfy the needs of the people.</p>
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<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">Tunisia</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s03_p01">Tunisia was once an outpost of the Roman Empire, and well-preserved Roman ruins can be found throughout North Africa. In 1956, at the end of the colonial era, France recognized Tunisia’s independence, and the country established its own government. The political problems in Tunisia today stem from the fact that little has changed in the government since the time of independence. Since independence Tunisia has had few changes in government leaders. The country’s second president, <strong class="emphasis bold">Ben Ali</strong>, dominated the country for twenty-four years (1987–2011). Ben Ali worked to stem the tide of Islamic fundamentalism, opened the country to establishing rights for women, and allowed more tolerance of religious diversity; however, under his leadership the government struggled to find a balance between democratic openness and authoritarian measures to keep the country moving forward with economic development and social services for a growing population.</p>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s03_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.17</span> Egyptian Demonstration</p>
<img src="section_11/b9f7208fccaf30e30ad12c80b7e6bb48.jpg">
<p class="para">Protests in Cairo’s Tahrir Square on March 4, 2011, were in support of demonstrations in Egypt and in Libya, which followed the protests in Tunisia.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of gr33ndata, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/gr33ndata/5500654825/in/photostream">http://www.flickr.com/photos/gr33ndata/5500654825/in/photostream</a>.</p>
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<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s03_p02">Beginning in 2010, corruption, unemployment, and a lack of personal freedoms prompted Tunisians to take to the streets in massive protests, which grew into a revolution for change. By the end of the year, President Ben Ali was removed from power and an interim government was formed. Protests continued as the government shifted to adapt to the conditions. In 2011, a new constitutional assembly was formed to address changes in the government. Economic conditions have remained thorny during the transition.</p>
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<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s04">
<h2 class="title editable block">Libya</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s04_p01"><strong class="emphasis bold">Muammar Gadhafi</strong> came to power in Libya in 1969 by overthrowing the king and never held an election for political control. He used Libya’s oil revenues to build up the country’s infrastructure, enhance his military, and create an anti-Western terrorist network with weapons production. Personal freedoms have been limited in Libya, and there has been no free speech, freedom of the press, or freedom of assembly. Gadhafi supported various Islamic terrorist groups and nationalized all the oil assets of international corporations in Libya in the early 1980s. This action of nationalism directly opposed and angered many corporate colonialists. His policies caused the international oil companies, which operated much of the oil industry there, to pressure the US government to conduct a series of devastating military bombing raids on Libya in 1986 in an attempt to kill Gadhafi.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s04_p02">Gadhafi deployed his military along Libya’s southern border with Chad in a zone called the <strong class="emphasis bold">Aozou Strip</strong>. This border territory was the site of a boundary dispute over land that was reported to hold uranium reserves. Libyan forces controlled the Aozou Strip for a number of years before Chad forced them out. In 1994, the UN ruled that the zone belonged to Chad, and the dispute was finally resolved. In other activities, Libyan agents were accused of planting bombs on passenger airlines, such as the 1988 explosion on Pan Am flight over Scotland that killed 270 people and the 1989 explosion of UTA flight 772 over Niger that killed 170 people. After the 9-11 tragedy in New York, Gadhafi backed down on his aggressive anti-Western activities and agreed to dismantle some of his weapons production facilities and comply with international trade agreements. Libya then denounced terrorism, and the United States lifted economic sanctions against Libya and exchanged ambassadors.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s04_p03">Unrest in Libya surfaced again in 2011, coinciding with protests under way in neighboring Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt. Factions in Libya that opposed Gadhafi’s regime advocated for his removal from office and for more democratic freedoms. Based in Libya’s second-largest city of Benghazi, in the eastern sector of the country, the resistance movement gained momentum and pushed for an all-out civil war that split the country in half. Forces loyal to Gadhafi in the capital city of Tripoli in the western part of the country faced off against the separatists under the structure of the National Transitional Council (NTC). In 2011, Gadhafi had been in power for more than forty-two years. His family and clan controlled much of the country’s wealth from the export of oil. Gadhafi’s control of Libya did not allow for the establishment of strong administrative divisions within the government to share power.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s04_p04">The UN, through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), implemented a no-fly zone over Libya and allowed military strikes against Gadhafi’s forces to stop the massacre of civilians in the civil war. By the end of the summer of 2011, the resistance forces headquartered in Benghazi had pushed across to the western part of Libya and took control of Tripoli. Gadhafi was no longer in control of the country, as the NTC became the transitional power base. Muammar Gadhafi was killed in October 2011. Post-Gadhafi Libya will most likely be quite different from the status quo of the past four decades. Nation building will become a major focus for North Africa, which may be more difficult for Libya than its neighbors because of the lack of an administrative structure.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s02_s01_s04_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.18</span> Control of Cities in Libya Based on the Civil War as of June 5, 2011</p>
<img src="section_11/45402b808bc1c8374c7e6b1a0a6400eb.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of Rafy, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Libyan_Uprising.svg">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Libyan_Uprising.svg</a>.</p>
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<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Nile River and Egypt</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_p01">The Nile River originates in East Africa in Lake Victoria and in Ethiopia in Lake Tana. The White Nile flows north from Lake Victoria through Uganda and into Sudan, where it converges with the Blue Nile at the city of Khartoum, Sudan’s capital. The Blue Nile originates in Lake Tana in Ethiopia. From Khartoum, the Nile River flows north through the Nubian Desert into Egypt, where it eventually reaches the Mediterranean Sea. The fresh water of the Nile is a lifeline that enables agriculture and transportation and supports a growing human population in the region.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.19</span> Nile River System</p>
<img src="section_11/0ad0bd7b4605fd7eca70fe8b42665be2.jpg">
<p class="para">The White Nile originates in Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile originates in Lake Tana. They converge at Khartoum.</p>
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<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_p02">Until the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1968, the river flooded its banks yearly, depositing silt and nutrients onto the soil and causing enormous damage to infrastructure. As far back as when the pharaohs ruled Egypt, the people used flood irrigation to grow their crops. Today, water is pumped from the controlled Nile River onto the fields to water crops. This change has increased the number of crops that can be grown per year. However, it has also caused a buildup of salt in the soil, resulting in declining soil quality. Without annual flooding, the salts cannot be dissolved away but remain in the soil, reducing yields. Almost a third of Egypt’s population works in agriculture; about half the population is rural.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Population Dynamics</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s01_p01">Cairo, Egypt’s capital, lies at the northern end of the Nile River. With a population of more than ten million, it is the largest North African city and home to more Arabs than any other city in the world. It is considered the cornerstone city of Arab culture. Cairo is so crowded that more than a million people live in its old cemetery, the City of the Dead. Cairo’s residents, and the millions of people in Egypt, depend on the Nile River for their survival. About 95 percent of Egypt’s population lives within fifteen miles of the Nile River. As the population has grown, urban expansion has encroached on the farmland of the Nile Valley. Egypt can no longer produce enough food for its people; about 15 percent of its food comes from other countries, mainly the United States.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s01_p02">Conflicts between democratic reforms and Islamic fundamentalism are evident in Egypt. The growing population of about eighty million in 2010 is a major concern. In Egypt’s case, democratic reformers were able to promote a strong program of family planning and birth control to help reduce family size, which in 2008 was at 2.8 children per woman and declining. The government even created a popular Egyptian soap opera to promote the concept that it was appropriate in an Arab culture to use family planning and have a small family. The prime-time program, called <em class="emphasis">And the Nile Flows On</em>, told the story of a young village bride dealing with the issues of pregnancy and life complicated by the interjection of a progressive sheik and a meddling female doctor. The drama addressed many family planning and religious issues regarding the acceptability of breaking with tradition to address the growing population problem in Egypt.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s01_p03">Television programming is popular in Egypt, and even reruns of old American shows such as <em class="emphasis">Bonanza</em> and <em class="emphasis">Dallas</em> are dubbed into Arabic and shown on Egyptian television. Egypt is a cultural mix with a strong heritage steeped in Arab history with a secular side that is open to the outside world. The cultural forces that create this paradox have not always been in unison. Egypt has a major connection to Western society because of tourism. The Pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx are major attractions that pull in millions of people per year from around the world. Tourism opens up Egypt to outside elements from various cultural backgrounds, most of which are secular.</p>
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<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Political Dynamics</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s02_p01">On the political front, the democratically elected government has received strong opposition from the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Islamic Brotherhood</a><span class="glossdef">Muslim-based organization in Egypt that was banned by the Egyptian government.</span></span>, which advocates a more fundamentalist Islamic lifestyle and government structure. The democratic reformers that vie with the Islamic Brotherhood for political power support a more open and democratic civil government. These two elements are what drive Egyptian culture and society.</p>
<div class="figure large medium-height editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s02_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.20</span> Protesting in Egypt</p>
<img src="section_11/8a0e02b8aa8c1780531590108f0119c9.jpg">
<p class="para">On January 25, 2011, the “Day of Revolt” protests were held in Egypt. Tens of thousands of Egyptians went onto the streets to peaceably protest against the Mubarak government.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Muhammad Ghafari, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/70225554@N00/5390371651">http://www.flickr.com/photos/70225554@N00/5390371651</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s03_s02_p02">The political situation changed in Egypt with the Arab Spring of 2011. Student protests against government corruption and the lack of democratic reforms emerged with an intensity that gained the support of the Egyptian people and forced the Egyptian government to respond. Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak had been in power since 1981 after the assassination of the previous president, Anwar Sadat. President Mubarak was able to win every election for president that had been held since that time. Millions of Egyptians took to the streets in early 2011 in civil protests against the Mubarak government. Massive protests and demonstrations continued until February 11, when President Mubarak announced his resignation. The transition to an interim government has been complicated by continued protests and calls for justice from the people, who have called for Mubarak to stand trial for stealing billions of dollars from the state and concealing it in his own bank accounts. The people and the government continue to search for progressive opportunities to address their issues. What started out as the Arab Spring turned into the Arab Year as all three long-term leaders in Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt were removed from positions of power.</p>
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</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s04">
<h2 class="title editable block">The African Transition Zone</h2>
<div class="figure small editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s04_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.21</span> Camel and Tuareg Rider in the Southern Sahara Desert</p>
<img src="section_11/72a20b24a7680500a7c38abfb622e9f6.jpg">
<p class="para">The Tuareg are masters of the desert and camels. They often lead camel caravans on long trips through the desert.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Marco Bellucci, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/marcobellucci/3417054939">http://www.flickr.com/photos/marcobellucci/3417054939</a>.</p>
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<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s04_p01">Stretching across the widest part of Africa on the southern edge of the Sahara Desert is the African Transition Zone. Known as the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Sahel</a><span class="glossdef">Meaning “border or margin”; the local variation of the African Transition Zone.</span></span>, meaning “border or margin,” this zone is where the dry arid conditions of the desert north meet up with the moister region of the tropics. For thousands of years, the seasonal grazing lands of the Sahel have been home to nomadic groups herding their livestock across the zone and eking out a living held together by tradition and heritage. Changing climate conditions and overgrazing has enhanced the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">desertification</a><span class="glossdef">Loss of plant life and the encroachment of sand, creating desert conditions.</span></span> process, and the region is slowly turning into desert. The Sahara Desert is shifting southward, altering the economic activities of the millions of people who live in its path. Ten thousand years ago, North Africa and the Sahara Desert were tropical environments filled with all the biodiversity and wildlife now found in Subsaharan Africa. This desertification process has been occurring for centuries; it is not a new process. Human factors and climate change may be accelerating this process, but they did not create it.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s04_p02">Political stability is complicated to achieve in the African Transition Zone. The political borders established by European colonialism during the Berlin Conference of 1884 remain basically intact and create barriers that hamper the nomadic groups from traveling through the Sahel in search of grazing land for their livestock. Political boundaries now restrict movement and keep people divided and separated into national identities. The African Transition Zone is also in transition from a rural, traditional agrarian culture to a society confronting the information age and modern technology. Camel caravans that once transported goods and materials across wide expanses of desert terrain are being replaced with motor vehicles and aircraft. The many traditional groups across this zone are adapting to the conditions of the modern world but work to retain their values and the traditions of their heritage.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s04_p03">The colonial political borders have impeded progress in the region’s effort to establish stable governments and control the land and resources within its borders. Postindependence governments have thus far been unable to establish stable economic conditions within many of the countries in the Sahel. Natural resources are being exploited for economic profit, which is changing the natural environment. Security and safety have become significant issues. Today this region is unstable, with political and cultural conflicts between the local groups and governments. The current conflicts in Sudan are examples of the instability.</p>
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<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s05">
<h2 class="title editable block">Sudan: Slavery and Genocide</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s05_p01">Comparable in size to the entire United States east of the Mississippi River, Sudan is the largest country in Africa. The capital city of Khartoum lies where the Blue Nile River converges with the White Nile. Khartoum’s government has a black Arab majority and follows Islam, complete with Sharia laws. The African Transition Zone crosses Sudan and separates the Arab-Muslim north from the mainly African-Christian south. There has been a civil war between the north and the south for decades. Before a peace agreement brokered in 2005, military soldiers from the north would raid the villages in the south, taking women and children as slaves. Though the Sudanese government denied the slave trade, thousands of Africans were owned by northern black Arabs in Sudan, and many still are. The world community has made little effort to intervene. The price for a slave in Sudan is about fifty US dollars.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s05_p02">The differences in religion, ethnicity, and culture have always divided southern Sudan from the north. Additional economic considerations might fuel the debate because of an increase in oil production in the region. In January 2011, the southern region of Sudan voted on a referendum that would allow the south to break away and become an independent country called the Republic of South Sudan. The acceptance of this new republic will change the map of the region and the dynamics between South Sudan and North Sudan. The new Republic of South Sudan was formalized in July of 2011. Juba is designated as the capital with talk of creating a new forward capital in the center of the newly formed country in the future. The many clans and indigenous groups make it difficult for unity and cohesiveness in the new country. Armed groups in the various states continue to cause internal division, while at the same time boundary disputes continue to be worked out with North Sudan.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s05_p03">In 2003, various groups in <strong class="emphasis bold">Darfur</strong> complained that the Khartoum government was neglecting them. A militia group calling itself the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Janjaweed</a><span class="glossdef">Militias in Sudan hired by the Arabs to ethnically cleanse the Darfur region.</span></span> was recruited by the local Arabs to counter the resistance in Darfur. The Janjaweed began an ethnic cleansing campaign that pushed into the Darfur region, burning villages, raping women, and killing anyone who opposed them. Refugees began to flee into the neighboring country of Chad.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s05_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.22</span> Sudan, the Region of Darfur and the Republic of South Sudan</p>
<img src="section_11/e9e362cddddf5a9d738f2aa9992c12a7.jpg">
<p class="para">South Sudan has elected to break away and become independent. The Darfur region has been experiencing genocide by Janjaweed militias backed by the Arab majority in northern Sudan.</p>
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<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s05_p04">In this particular case, the campaign was not based on religious divisions, because both sides were Muslim. This was an ethnic conflict in that the people of Darfur are of a traditional African background and the people of northern Sudan consider themselves Arab, even though they may have dark skin. Accurate numbers have been difficult to verify, but as of 2010 an estimated 300,000 people have died in this conflict. There are more than 2.7 million refugees, many of them in Chad.<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_002">“Q&A: Sudan’s Darfur Conflict,” BBC News, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3496731.stm">http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3496731.stm</a>.</span> Just as the government of Sudan denied the slave trade, it denies that it supports the Janjaweed. The African Union provided a modest number of peacekeeping troops before the UN stepped in to provide security. It has been up to the world community and Sudan to take more action and provide more assistance. Food, water, and care for the refugees have taxed the region’s aid and support system.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06">
<h2 class="title editable block">The African Union</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_p01">Former Libyan leader Muammar Gadhafi was instrumental in the development of the African Union (AU) in the mid-1990s. The Sirte Declaration (titled after Gadhafi’s hometown of Sirte in Libya) was issued by the Organization of African Unity, which outlined the need for the creation of the AU. The AU was launched in Durban, South Africa, on July 9, 2002. Fifty-three countries formed this intergovernmental organization. The focus of the AU is on the health, education, economic development, political stability, environmental sustainability, and general welfare of the people of Africa. The organization strives to integrate the socioeconomic and political stability of its members and promote a continent-wide effort for security and peace. The AU is working to create a proper political climate, one that helps its member states engage in the global economic marketplace by negotiating international issues and policies that affect Africa.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_p02">The dominating activities of colonialism and neocolonialism (corporate colonialism) are big concerns for the AU. The AU’s objective is to bring more unity to the political and economic arena between the African countries to address the transition to a globalized world. It faces many challenges within its realm, including health care issues such as HIV/AIDS and malaria that have devastated much of Africa. The AU is working to bring political stability to countries such as Sudan and other countries experiencing civil unrest because of political turmoil or civil war, such as the Congo, Somalia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, and Liberia. AU peacekeeping troops are assisting in this process. The legal issues regarding border disputes or territorial disputes such as that of Western Sahara are problems that the AU attempts to address.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_p03">In the global scale of economic and political supranationalism, the AU will be up against three main powerhouses: the European Union, the North American Free Trade Agreement, and the East Asian Community. Regions across the globe are working on trade associations to create economic networks to bring about greater cooperation and commerce between nations. The AU is one part of that network that represents a growing percentage of the world’s population and the second-largest continent on Earth.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_p04">Gadhafi was the AU chairman when the uprisings and demonstrations of the Arab Spring began in January of 2011, at which time his chairmanship ended. At the beginning of the civil war in Libya, the AU attempted to meet with Gadhafi to mediate the situation. The NATO no-fly zone declaration and intervention restricted AU activities in Libya. After Gadhafi was no longer in power in Libya by the fall of 2011, the AU continued to not recognize the NTC (National Transition Council) as the legitimate government of Libya.</p>
<div class="key_takeaways editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_n01">
<h3 class="title">Key Takeaways</h3>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_l01">
<li>Three main physical features of North Africa are the Atlas Mountains, the Sahara Desert, and the Nile River. Most of North Africa’s population lives along the Mediterranean coast or along the Nile River. The ethnic majority in the Maghreb are Berber, with Arabs dominating in Egypt.</li>
<li>The Maghreb centers on the Atlas Mountains, which traditionally has provided for a diversity of food production. Oil has been found in North Africa, the export of which has surpassed the export of food products.</li>
<li>Europe has had a strong influence on the region, ranging from the Roman Empire, to colonial activity, to becoming a destination for immigrants looking for employment and opportunities.</li>
<li>North Africa has experienced serious political conflicts. Political leaders in Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt remained in power for decades. People have protested for economic and political reforms. The presidents of Egypt and Tunisia have stepped down, but Libya’s longtime leader, Muammar Gadhafi, did not step down but instead engaged the country in a civil war.</li>
<li>The African Transition Zone creates the southern boundary for North Africa. This zone serves as the transition between the arid type B climates and the tropical type A climates. It is also the transition between the dominance of Islam and the dominance of Christianity and animism.</li>
<li>The African Transition Zone cuts through the center of Sudan and divides the country along religious and ethnic distinctions. Civil war has been waged in the south and in the Darfur region, which has split the country into separate regions. Southern Sudan has initiated the process for independence.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_n02">
<h3 class="title">Discussion and Study Questions</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_l02">
<li>What is the name of the majority ethnic group that resides in the Maghreb? What is the main physical feature there?</li>
<li>What have been the main ties between North Africa and European continent?</li>
<li>How did the construction of the Aswan High Dam change the way crops are grown along the Nile River?</li>
<li>What political changes have been occurring in North Africa? Why are they occurring?</li>
<li>Why has there been a civil war in Libya? How was the country divided in this civil war?</li>
<li>Where is the African Transition Zone? What does it transition between?</li>
<li>What centripetal force brought villagers together in Timbuktu?</li>
<li>Name the country in the Sahel where slavery has become prominent. Why did no one step in to stop it?</li>
<li>How has the African Transition Zone divided Sudan? What are the main groups on each side?</li>
<li>What are the most serious problems in the Darfur region of Sudan? Who is conducting ethnic cleansing and why?</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_n03">
<h3 class="title">Geography Exercise</h3>
<p class="para" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_p05">Identify the following key places on a map:</p>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s03_s06_l03">
<li>African Transition Zone</li>
<li>Atlas Mountains</li>
<li>Blue Nile</li>
<li>Darfur</li>
<li>Iberian Peninsula</li>
<li>Lake Tana</li>
<li>Lake Victoria</li>
<li>Maghreb</li>
<li>Nile River</li>
<li>Strait of Gibraltar</li>
<li>Western Sahara</li>
<li>White Nile</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04" condition="start-of-chunk" version="5.0" lang="en">
<h2 class="title editable block">
<span class="title-prefix">8.4</span> Israel and Its Neighbors</h2>
<div class="learning_objectives editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_n01">
<h3 class="title">Learning Objectives</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_l01">
<li>Summarize how the region of Palestine has evolved into the current Jewish State of Israel. Identify and locate the territories that have been annexed to Israel over the years.</li>
<li>Understand the division between the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and the Jewish State of Israel. Outline the complications of the one-state and two-state solutions to this division.</li>
<li>Describe the differences between the governments of Jordan and Syria.</li>
<li>Outline the political arrangements of the government leadership positions in Lebanon.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">The State of Israel</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_p01">At the center of the Middle East, on the shores of the Mediterranean in the Levant (the area bordering the eastern Mediterranean Sea), lies the country of Israel. Israel is bordered by Lebanon to the north, Syria and Jordan to the east, and Egypt to the south. Covering an area of only 8,522 square miles, Israel is smaller than the US state of Massachusetts and only one-fifth the size of the state of Kentucky. The coastal region, which has a moderate type C climate, receives more rainfall than the dry interior and the <strong class="emphasis bold">Negev Desert</strong> in the south, both of which have arid type B climates. The <strong class="emphasis bold">Sea of Galilee</strong>, also called Lake Kinneret or the Sea of Tiberias, is a major fresh water supply. The <strong class="emphasis bold">Jordan River</strong> flows from the Sea of Galilee to the <strong class="emphasis bold">Dead Sea</strong>. The Dead Sea is 1,300 feet below sea level, so it has no outlet. Over time, salts and minerals have built up, creating an environment that does not support fish or aquatic life. South of the Negev Desert is the <strong class="emphasis bold">Gulf of Aqaba</strong>, which provides access to the Red Sea for both Israel and Jordan. Israel does not have substantial oil resources but has a potential for natural gas in offshore locations along the Mediterranean Sea.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_p02">Though most of the population in the Middle East is Islamic, there are exceptions, such as in Israel, which has a Jewish majority. Israel was established in 1948. Before that time, the country was called <strong class="emphasis bold">Palestine</strong>. The region went through a series of tumultuous transitions before it became the nation of Israel. Before 1948, most people in Palestine were called <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Palestinians</a><span class="glossdef">People who lived in the region of Palestine before Israel was recognized as a nation in 1948.</span></span> and consisted primarily of Arab Muslims, Samaritans, Bedouins, and Jews. Most Jewish people were dispersed throughout the world, with the majority in Europe and the United States.</p>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Division of Palestine</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p01">Palestine was a part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire before the end of World War I. Britain defeated Turkish forces in 1917 and occupied Palestine for the remainder of the war. The British government was granted control of Palestine by the mandate of the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919 at the end of World War I. Britain supported the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which favored a Jewish homeland. The British Mandate included Palestine and Transjordan, the area east of the Jordan River, which includes the current country of Jordan.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p02">Between 1922 and 1947, during British control, most of the population of Palestine was ethnically Arab and followed Islam. In 1922, Jews made up less than 20 percent of the population. The Jewish settlements were mainly along the west coast and in the north. Jewish people from other countries—including primarily Jews escaping German oppression in the 1930s—migrated to the Israeli settlements. Palestine was turned over to the control of the newly created United Nations (UN) in 1945 at the end of World War II.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p03">The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) was created by the UN in 1947. To address the Palestine region, UNSCOP recommended that Palestine be divided into an Arab state, a Jewish state, and an international territory that included Jerusalem. Palestine was divided by the UN. About 44 percent of the territory was allocated to the Palestinians, who consisted of about 67 percent of the population, which was mainly Arab. Approximately 56 percent of the territory was allocated to the minority Jewish population, who only consisted of about 33 percent of the population. The country of Jordan was created out of the region east of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea. The city of Jerusalem was to remain under the administrative control of the UN as an international city. The Jewish State of Israel was officially recognized in 1948. The Palestinians, who were a majority of Israel’s total population at the time and who owned about 90 percent of the land, denounced the agreement as unacceptable.<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_003">“Division of Palestine by United Nations,” Knowledgerush, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Division_of_Palestine_by_United_Nations">http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Division_of_Palestine_by_United_Nations</a>.</span> One of the consequences of the territorial partition was that thousands of Palestinian Arabs were forced off the land that was allocated to the Jewish state. These Palestinians became refugees in the Palestinian portion or in neighboring countries.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p04">Palestine’s Arab neighbors—Syria, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Iraq, and Egypt—sided with the Arab Palestinians and declared war on Israel. The war did not end favorably for the Arabs. With support and aid from Britain and the United States, the Jewish State of Israel defeated the attacking Arab armies and took control of a larger portion of the land, including some of the land designated by the UN as a portion of the Arab half.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.23</span> Satellite Image of Palestine (<em class="emphasis">left</em>); 1948 UN Division of Palestine into Half Jewish State and Half Arab State (<em class="emphasis">center</em>); Political Map of Israel in 2011(<em class="emphasis">right</em>)</p>
<img src="section_11/0e4af3696f20f6ca1ede8e035e21d9ec.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Sources: Satellite image on left courtesy of NASA, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Southeast_mediterranean_annotated_geography.jpg">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Southeast_mediterranean_annotated_geography.jpg</a>. Map in the center courtesy of Kordas, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1947-UN-Partition-Plan-1949-Armistice-Comparison-es.svg">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1947-UN-Partition-Plan-1949-Armistice-Comparison-es.svg</a>. Map on right courtesy of CIA World Factbook.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p05">After the Arabs lost the first war against the Jewish State of Israel, the Palestinians’ problems increased. By 1950 over 750,000 Palestinians living in the Jewish-controlled regions of Israel were forced out of their homes and into refugee camps. According to the UN in 2010, about one-third of the registered Palestine refugees, more than 1.4 million, live in fifty-eight recognized refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. Jordan has the highest number of Palestinian refugees: almost two million, with more than 330,000 living in refugee camps.<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_004">“Palestine Refugees,” United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.unrwa.org/etemplate.php?id=86">http://www.unrwa.org/etemplate.php?id=86</a>; “Statistics,” United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.unrwa.org/etemplate.php?id=253">http://www.unrwa.org/etemplate.php?id=253</a>.</span> Jordan has allowed most of its Palestinian refugees to receive Jordanian citizenship.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p06">By 1967, the Arab armies had regrouped and were willing to attack Israel again. The 1967 war was short lived, lasting only about a week. The Arab armies were devastated once again, and Israel gained even more territory. Israel took the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, the Golan Heights from Syria, and the <strong class="emphasis bold">West Bank</strong> from Jordan. The entire city of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. The 1967 war solidified the control of the region of Palestine under the Israeli government and placed Israel at greater odds with its Arab neighbors. Syria wanted Israel to return the Golan Heights, which has a strategic military advantage in overlooking northern Israel, and Egypt wanted Israel to return control of the Sinai Peninsula.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p07">Egypt and Syria attacked Israel again on October 6, 1973, which was Yom Kippur, the most solemn holiday in the Jewish religion. The Israeli army counterattacked, driving the Syrians out and the Egyptian army and back across the <strong class="emphasis bold">Suez Canal</strong>. After a few weeks of conflict, a peace treaty was agreed upon. In 1977, Israeli president Menachem Begin and Egyptian president Anwar Sadat were invited to Camp David, Maryland, by US president Jimmy Carter. Israel and Egypt signed the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Camp David Accord</a><span class="glossdef">A 1977 peace agreement between Israel and Egypt to not go to war again.</span></span>, an agreement not to go to war again. Egypt agreed to officially recognize the State of Israel and to not invade Israel again. Israel agreed to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt; the peninsula was returned in 1982. Each participant in the accord won the Nobel Peace Prize.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.24</span> The Western Wall in Jerusalem</p>
<img src="section_11/413e9e94a997e9483d2fcfe622ef110e.jpg">
<p class="para">A remnant of the Jewish temple built by Herod the Great and destroyed in 70 CE, the Western Wall is the most holy place for the Jewish people. The Dome of the Rock mosque in the background is the third-holiest site for Muslims.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo by R. Berglee.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p08">In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law, which stated that greater Jerusalem was Israeli territory and that Jerusalem was the eternal capital of the State of Israel. The UN rejected Israel’s claim on greater Jerusalem, and few if any countries have accepted it. Israel moved its capital from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem to solidify its claim on the city even though most of the world’s embassies remain in Tel Aviv. The move of the capital was designed to create a <em class="emphasis">forward capital</em>, the purpose of which is usually either to protect a nation’s territory or to spur the development of the country. In this case, it was to protect valuable territory.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s01_p09">Palestinians were left with only the regions of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, which is controlled by the Israeli government and is subject to Israel’s national jurisdiction. As of 2010, about 1.5 million Palestinians live in the Gaza Strip and 2.5 million live in the West Bank. A number of cities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip have been turned over to the <strong class="emphasis bold">Palestinian Authority (PA)</strong> for self-governing. The PA was established between the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)</a><span class="glossdef">Governing body that represents the Palestinians.</span></span> and the Israeli government to administer internal security and civil matters. The PLO and the PA are two separate entities. The PLO is the internationally recognized governing body of the Palestinian people. It is legitimately recognized by the UN to represent the area known as Palestine in political matters. There are two main political parties within the PLO: Hamas and Fatah. The Hamas party is the strongest in the region of the Gaza Strip, and the Fatah party is more prominent in the West Bank.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Palestinians, Israel, and Possible Solutions</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p01">The future of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip has been the focus of talks and negotiation for decades. There are various ways to approach this issue; a one-state solution and a two-state solution have been proposed. The one-state solution proposes the creation of a fully democratic state of Israel and the integration of all the people within its borders into one country. Integration of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank into the Jewish State of Israel is part of this plan; in other words, “Take the walls down and create one state.”<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_005">Source: Mahmoud Masri, Nablus—West Bank 2011 (Paraphrased quote).</span> Many Palestinians support the one-state solution, but most of the Jewish population does not. Family size is much larger in the Palestinian side, so it would be only a matter of time before the Jewish population would be a minority population and would not have full political control with a democratic government. To have the Jewish State of Israel, the Jewish population needs to keep its status as the majority.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p02">In a two-state solution, Palestinians would have their own nation-state, which would include the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. The rest of former Palestine would be included in the Jewish State of Israel. The two-nation concept (Israel and a Palestinian state) has been proposed and supported by a number of foreign governments, including the United States. Implementation of a two-state solution is, of course, not without its own inherent problems. At the present time, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip are subjects under the Jewish State of Israel without full political or economic autonomy. The two-state solution would buy more time for the Jewish population with smaller families to retain power as a majority political voting bloc.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p03">Parties to the negotiations have acknowledged that the most likely solution is to create a Palestinian state bordering Israel. However, it is not clear how to make this happen. Palestine is now divided between the Jewish State of Israel (with 7.3 million people) on one side and the Palestinians (with 4.0 million people) in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip on the other side. About 75 percent of Israel’s population of 7.3 million people are Jewish, and about 25 percent are Arab. Travel between Israel and the Palestinian areas is heavily restricted and tightly controlled. A high concrete and barbed wire barrier separates the two sides for much of the border. The West Bank provides fresh water used on the Israeli side for agriculture and industrial processes. The industries also employ Palestinians and support them economically.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p04">Jewish people from various parts of the world continue to migrate to Israel, and the Israeli government continues to build housing settlements to accommodate them. Since the West Bank region is under the Israeli national jurisdiction, many of the new housing settlements have been built in the West Bank. The Palestinians who live there strongly oppose the settlements. In 1977, only about five thousand Jews lived in the West Bank settlements. As of 2010 there were more than two hundred thousand. The Palestinians argue that if they were to have their own nation-state, then the Jewish settlements would be in their country and would have to be either resettled or absorbed. Israel responds by indicating that the two-state solution is indefensible because the Jewish settlements in the West Bank cannot be protected if the West Bank is separated from Israel.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p05">The issues in Israel are generally complicated. After a series of wars and considerable negotiations, the central problems remain: Jews and Palestinians both want the same land, both groups want Jerusalem to be their capital city, and neither group can find a compromise. Support for the Jewish State of Israel has primarily come from the United States and from Jewish groups external to Israel. There are more Jews in the United States than there are in Israel, and the US Jewish lobby is powerful. Israel has been the top recipient of US foreign aid for most of the years since 1948. Through charitable donations, US groups provide Israel additional billions of dollars annually. Foreign aid has given the Jewish population in Israel a standard of living that is higher than the standard of living of many European countries.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p06">In the past decade, most of the PLO’s operating budget has come from external sources. Arab neighbors provide millions of dollars annually. Though Iran is not Arab, they have provided aid to the Palestinian cause in support of fellow Muslims against the Jewish State of Israel. The PLO has received the bulk of its funding from the European Union. Russia has also provided millions of dollars in aid. The United States provides millions in direct or indirect aid to the Palestinians annually.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p07">The Gaza Strip is one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, and it is located in a desert. There are few jobs and no real methods of gaining wealth. Palestinians living in the Gaza Strip or the West Bank need to rely on outside support to survive. These are small areas with lots of people. The West Bank is only about thirty miles wide by seventy-five miles long, yet more than 2.5 million people call it home. The Gaza Strip is a desert region about six miles wide by twenty-three miles long and is home to more than 1.5 million people. In 2010, family size in the West Bank was about 3.2, and in the Gaza Strip, it was about 5.0. Unemployment rates averaged about 40 percent in the Gaza Strip and over 20 percent in the West Bank.<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_006">“The World Factbook,” Central Intelligence Agency, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook">https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook</a></span> Underemployment is also a major issue in that there may be few employment opportunities for professionals with specialized skills or a university degree in a specific field of interest.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.25</span> A Street in the West Bank City of Nablus</p>
<img src="section_11/85e409e5ec916d6430ca74460c742acd.jpg">
<p class="para">Cell phones are ubiquitous in Nablus.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo by R. Berglee.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p08">In 2006, both Israel and the PLO held democratic elections for their leaders. In 2006, a candidate from the Hamas party won the election for the leadership of the PLO, which concerned many of the PLO’s external financial supporters. The Israeli government characterizes Hamas as a terrorist organization that supports the destruction of the State of Israel. Hamas has advocated for suicide bombers to blow themselves up on populated Jewish streets. The Jewish State of Israel has been fighting a low-level war against Palestinian resistance groups such as Hamas since 1948. In 2008, the leaders of the Fatah party, which are more prominent in the West Bank region, took matters to the PLO Central Council, which chose Mahmoud Abbas as president of the State of Palestine.</p>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_f03">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.26</span> Security Wall between Israel and the West Bank</p>
<img src="section_11/8ee6de0094167f6f5f8d78f2b07ebf19.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo by R. Berglee.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_p09">The problems between Israel and Palestinians are far from settled. The region has plenty of interconnected concerns. The biggest supporter of Israel, the United States, invaded Iraq in 2003, an invasion that raised the concern level of Islamic groups in the Middle East, including the Islamic leaders that control the government of Iran. Israel has nuclear weapons, and Iran has worked at developing nuclear weapons. US involvement in the region has heightened tensions between Iran and Israel. Oil revenues are driving the economies of most of the Arab countries that support the Palestinians. Oil is an important export of the region, with the United States as a major market. The difficulties between Israel and the Palestinians continue to fuel the conflict between Islamic fundamentalists and Islamic reformers. Some Islamic groups have accepted Israel’s status as a country and others have not. The Israel-Palestinian problem drives the geopolitics of the Middle East. The US war in Iraq has complicated the situation but has not superseded it. The situation in Palestine is predicted to continue long after the problems in Iraq have stabilized.</p>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s01_s02_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.27</span> West Bank Settlements and Palestinian-Controlled Areas</p>
<img src="section_11/a9dc426cb3ed6fce0fd1fd059be8fd4a.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Updated from map courtesy of CIA World Factbook.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Jordan</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s02_p01">North of the Arabian Peninsula are three Arab states that surround Israel: Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. Each country possesses its own unique physical and cultural geography. The country of Jordan was created through the British Mandate after World War I, when Britain defeated the Turks in Palestine. The area east of the Jordan River became the modern country of Jordan in 1946. From 1953 to 1999, during the most volatile period of the region, the country was ruled by a pragmatic leader, King Hussein, who was able to skillfully negotiate his way through the difficult relationship with Israel and yet keep his country stable. When Palestine was divided by the UN to create the State of Israel, the region of Jordan received more than a million Palestinian refugees from the West Bank and Israel. Refugees make up a large portion of the more than six million people who live in Jordan today; about a half million refugees from the US war in Iraq are included in that total.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s02_p02">Jordan is not large in physical area. Natural resources such as oil and water are not abundant here, and the country often has to rely on international aid to support its economy. Inflation, poverty, and unemployment are basic issues. The government of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy. King Hussein’s son ‘Abdullah II took power after the king’s death in 1999. Economic reforms were implemented by King ‘Abdullah II to improve the long-term outlook of the country and raise the standard of living for his citizens. The king allowed municipal elections to be conducted, which allowed for 20 percent of the positions to be dedicated to women candidates. Parliamentary elections were held by a democratic vote.</p>
<div class="figure medium large-height editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s02_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.28</span> King ‘Abdullah II of Jordan Visits US President Barack Obama in the White House in 2011</p>
<img src="section_11/3aa46b805a486c8fad57a3899d6b59c9.jpg">
<p class="para">Jordan has had good political relations with the United States. King ‘Abdullah II has worked to maintain a stable government in Jordan and maintain civil stability in spite of Jordan’s lack of economic opportunities.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of the White House.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s02_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.29</span> Jordan</p>
<img src="section_11/641aa56ba004a829af20f8010763c982.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of CIA World Factbook.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s02_p03">Jordan has demonstrated how a country with few natural resources in a volatile region of the world can proceed down a progressive path despite difficult circumstances. Jordan has developed a positive trade relationship with Europe and the United States while at the same time working with its Arab neighbors to access oil and to maintain a civil state of affairs. Jordan is not without its challenges but has managed to confront each issue yet retain a sense of stability and nationalism.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">Syria</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_p01">The strategically located country of Syria is at the center of the Middle East’s geopolitical issues. Syria gained its independence from the French Mandate in 1946, the same year as Jordan. Syria has strived to work out and stabilize its political foundation. In a move to create greater Arab unity in the realm, Egypt and Syria joined forces and created the United Arab Republic in 1958. This geopolitical arrangement lasted until 1961, when the partnership was dissolved. Syria returned to its own republic. The Arab Socialist Baath Party gained strength, and in 1970 Hafiz al-Assad, of the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Alawite</a><span class="glossdef">Minority religious group that is an offshoot from Shia Islam and has controlled Syria for decades.</span></span> minority (an offshoot branch of Shia Islam making up about 10 percent of the Syrian population), took over leadership in a coup that stabilized the political scene. It was during this era that the Golan Heights was lost to Israel in the Arab-Israeli War of 1967. This strategic geographical location is a point of contention in the peace negotiations between Syria and Israel.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_p02">Hafiz al-Assad served as the leader of Syria for twenty-nine years without having been democratically elected to the office by the people. His son Bashar took the reins of leadership after Hafiz died in 2000. The Alawite sect held power in Syria through the Assad family under military control. Syria has been accused of using its military power to influence conditions in Lebanon, where it brokered a peace deal in its civil war (1975–1990). Syria has also been accused of supporting the anti-Israel groups headquartered in Lebanon.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_p03">Syria is located in an ancient land with a long history of empires and peoples. The region of Syria was once part of the cradle of civilization that sprung up in Mesopotamia. Damascus claims to have been continually inhabited longer than any other capital city on Earth. The largest city and the center of industrial activity is Aleppo, which lies in the north of Syria. Syria’s physical area is slightly larger than the US state of North Dakota. Overall, Syria’s climate is characterized as an arid type B climate; some regions receive more rain than others. The western region, because it borders the Mediterranean Sea, is an area that receives more rainfall. The additional rainfall translates into extensive agricultural production. The northeast area of Syria is also productive agriculturally through water resources provided where the Euphrates River cuts through the country. Oil and natural gas have been the country’s main export products. The petroleum reserves are being depleted, and few new fields are being developed. Eventually, the wealth generated by the sale of petroleum reserves, which are finite resources, is projected to diminish, even as the population continues to increase.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_p04">The Syrian government has exerted strict control over the economy. The country will face serious economic issues in the future. There is a high rate of unemployment. Because oil production has not been increasing, the government has been forced to take on additional national debt. The arid climate and the need to supplement agriculture production have placed additional pressure on precious fresh water supplies. The Euphrates River provides fresh water, but it originates in Turkey, where large dams restrict the flow. Water rights for the region are therefore an issue. One third of Syria’s population is under the age of fifteen, which indicates a rapid population growth pattern that will tax future resources at an increasing rate. In 2010, Syria had about twenty-two million people. The country holds political significance; its strategic location between Iraq and Israel makes it is a vital player in any solution for lasting peace in the Middle East.</p>
<div class="figure large medium-height editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.30</span> Female Protesters in Douma, a Suburb of Damascus, in 2011</p>
<img src="section_11/31509364c3f5fb78807db2e225f67537.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of syriana2011, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/syriana2011/5650171577">http://www.flickr.com/photos/syriana2011/5650171577</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.31</span> Syria</p>
<img src="section_11/17a20b2ef4f94fbc1809c342785b86af.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of CIA World Factbook.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_p05">Syria has experienced protests and demonstrations similar to those that swept through North Africa in the Arab Spring of 2011. Citizens expressed dissatisfaction with the government because of the lack of democratic reforms, high unemployment, and the loss of civil rights, which had been taken away when the government declared a state of emergency in 1963. Student protests escalated to massive citizen demonstrations that emerged in various Syrian cities in the spring of 2011. The government cracked down on protesters, killing some. After extensive demonstrations on March 15, the government arrested more than three thousand people. Hundreds have been killed in violent clashes between the people and government security forces.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_p06">The lack of democratic processes by President Bashar al-Assad’s government has continued to prompt protests and demonstrations in Syria. The US government eventually placed sanctions against Assad and a number of high-level Syrian officials. A new cabinet was installed in Syria, and the decades-old state of emergency was rescinded. Unrest and protests by the people continue, and the government responds by cracking down on them with harsher methods. Syria’s neighbors and various European nations have increased sanctions and denounced the Assad regime, which has increased the pressure on Syria.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s03_p07">The uprising in Syria that started as a part of the wave of the Arab Spring continues. The Arab Spring protests and demonstrations in Syria have often been compared to those in Libya. Both Syria and Libya have had long-time leaders that ruled for decades without democratic reforms or wide-spread personal freedoms for their citizens. The difference is that in Syria the Assad regime has held total control over a large military and comprehensive control over political and economic activities. This is unlike Libya under Muammar Gadhafi, whose modest military forces included hired mercenaries from other countries and the government had a fragmented or weak political structure. Speculation regarding changes in the government and the future of Syria is more difficult.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04">
<h2 class="title editable block">Lebanon</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p01">Phoenicians created an empire along the Mediterranean coast of present-day Lebanon four thousand years ago, and many armies fought over the strategically located region. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the area became a European protectorate under the French Mandate. Independence was granted by the French in 1943.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p02">Lebanon is smaller than the US state of Connecticut with a population of about four million. The country’s high central mountain chain, the <strong class="emphasis bold">Lebanon Mountains</strong>, reaches as much as ten thousand feet in elevation. At these elevations, precipitation turns to snow and allows the operation of ski resorts. To the east of the central range is the fertile <strong class="emphasis bold">Bekaa Valley</strong>, which plays a vital role in the country’s agriculture. On the eastern side of the Bekaa Valley is another shorter mountain range that borders Syria.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.32</span> Lebanon (<em class="emphasis">left</em>); Majority Religious Factions in 2006 (<em class="emphasis">right</em>)</p>
<img src="section_11/7cbbc680e34cf88b2e597589599aa329.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Maps courtesy of CIA World Factbook.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p03">Following World War II, Beirut, the capital city of Lebanon, became known as the “Paris of the Middle East,” complete with Western-style night clubs and a jet-setting business class. In the past, of Lebanon was called the “Switzerland of the Middle East” because of its capabilities in banking and finance, which were supported by a relatively stable political climate. Unfortunately, stable and progressive conditions were not enough to keep the country from escalating into division and civil war in the 1970s.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p04">In the latter half of the twentieth century, internal tensions were building between the many religious and cultural factions competing for power in Lebanon. By the early 1970s, the minority Christian government clashed with a majority Muslim population. Many factions entered the arena on both the Christian and Muslim sides. On the Christian side are Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant factions. The Islamic side includes the Sunni, the Shia, and the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Druze</a><span class="glossdef">Minority religious group that is semi-Islamic and incorporates Gnostic or neo-Platonic philosophies.</span></span>, a semi-Islamic offshoot group that incorporates Gnostic or neo-Platonic philosophies.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p05">Lebanon was experiencing a full-scale civil war by 1975 that continued until 1990, when the Syrian military brokered a peace deal. By the time it ended, the bitter civil war had destroyed the infrastructure of the country. Only one-third of Beirut’s population remained. The former thriving city had been reduced to a collection of bullet-ridden empty buildings. It took more than a decade, but through the resiliency of the people, Beirut rebounded and continues to recover. A massive rebuilding program has resurrected the city of Beirut and stimulated the economy.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p06">Still, conflicts linger, and discord between Israel and Syria has violent results. Israel has taken military action against anti-Israel factions within Lebanon on a number of occasions. In 1982, Israel attacked PLO strongholds, which were operating out of Lebanon in the Bekaa Valley and West Beirut. In 1993, Israel conducted air raids and military strikes against guerilla bases in Southern Lebanon. Anti-Israel groups such as <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Hezbollah</a><span class="glossdef">Anti-Israeli group based in Lebanon.</span></span> operate out of Lebanon and receive aid from other Arab states, a source of contention that has prompted Israel to confront Hezbollah on Lebanon’s territory. As a result, Lebanon has become a battleground on which factions try to work out their differences. Syria’s continual intervention in Lebanon has sometimes been unappreciated; in 2004, massive demonstrations advocated for the removal of all Syrian troops. Syria withdrew its forces in 2005.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p07">There is no dominant majority political party in Lebanon to coalesce power. Lebanon consequently developed a unique parliamentary democratic system to relieve some of the tension between the various cultural-political factions. In this system, a number of positions in government are reserved for specific religious/political parties. The deputy prime minister position, for example, is reserved for an Orthodox Christian; the prime minister is a Sunni Muslim; the speaker of the parliament is a Shia Muslim; and the president can only be a Maronite Catholic Christian.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p08">Lebanon’s cultural and religious factions within its small state clash with political fervor and conviction, at times creating chaotic conditions that interrupt economic growth and discourage international investments. Add the dynamic cultural conditions to Lebanon’s attractive physical features—the beautiful Mediterranean coast, the attractive interior mountains, and the cosmopolitan city of Beirut—and it is easy to see why Lebanon is such a fascinating geographic study. Lebanon holds a unique location and position in the Middle East that will remain a focus of interest to the rest of the world.</p>
<div class="figure large medium-height editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.33</span> Beirut, Lebanon</p>
<img src="section_11/d9e68bdd2ac0c8cadeb7a78d73a8052a.jpg">
<p class="para">Located in the middle of an upscale neighborhood in Beirut, this food shop is in a building that has not been fully repaired from damage resulting from the 1975 civil war. The restaurant offers diverse foods, including Chinese food and pizza.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Steven Damron, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/sadsnaps/4256203486/in/photostream">http://www.flickr.com/photos/sadsnaps/4256203486/in/photostream</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="key_takeaways editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_n01">
<h3 class="title">Key Takeaways</h3>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_l01">
<li>The current Jewish State of Israel was recognized in 1948. Before this time, the region was called Palestine and the people who lived there were called Palestinians.</li>
<li>Victorious in war against their Arab neighbors, Israel acquired the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the city of Jerusalem. The West Bank and the Gaza Strip are considered Palestinian territory. Two plans have been proposed to address the division but have not been agreed upon.</li>
<li>Jordan is a constitutional monarchy led by King ‘Abdullah II, who has worked to implement reforms to maintain a country that has few natural resources.</li>
<li>The government of Syria is led by Bashar al-Assad, a member of a minority ethnic group called the Alawites. Assad and his father have ruled Syria for more than forty years under a state of emergency. Massive protests and demonstrations against the government have resulted in hundreds of deaths and thousands imprisoned.</li>
<li>Lebanon is a diverse country with a large number of religious groups that dominate the cultural and political scene. The physical geography includes the Lebanon Mountains, the Bekaa Valley, and the Mediterranean coast.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_n02">
<h3 class="title">Discussion and Study Questions</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_l02">
<li>How did the UN divide Palestine? Why was the division a problem for the Palestinians?</li>
<li>What happened to the Palestinians that lived in the Jewish-controlled areas after Israel was divided?</li>
<li>What was the Camp David Accord about? Which country’s leaders were involved?</li>
<li>What was so important about the Golan Heights? What is the issue with this territory?</li>
<li>Why would Israel move its capital to Jerusalem and establish it as a forward capital?</li>
<li>How are the governments of Israel, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon different?</li>
<li>Why were there massive protests and demonstrations in Syria in 2011?</li>
<li>Why was the United Arab Republic created in 1958? Why was it dissolved?</li>
<li>Where was the “Paris of the Middle East”? What happened to the city in 1975?</li>
<li>How has Lebanon attempted to satisfy all the political factions in their government?</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_n03">
<h3 class="title">Geography Exercise</h3>
<p class="para" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_p09">Identify the following key places on a map:</p>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04_s04_l03">
<li>Allepo</li>
<li>Bekaa Valley</li>
<li>Dead Sea</li>
<li>Euphrates River</li>
<li>Gaza Strip</li>
<li>Golan Heights</li>
<li>Gulf of Aqaba</li>
<li>Jordan River</li>
<li>Lebanon Mountains</li>
<li>Negev Desert</li>
<li>Sea of Galilee</li>
<li>Sinai Peninsula</li>
<li>Tel Aviv</li>
<li>Transjordan</li>
<li>West Bank</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05" condition="start-of-chunk" version="5.0" lang="en">
<h2 class="title editable block">
<span class="title-prefix">8.5</span> Arabs, Islam, and Oil</h2>
<div class="learning_objectives editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_n01">
<h3 class="title">Learning Objectives</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_l01">
<li>Summarize the physical features of the Arabian Peninsula.</li>
<li>Understand the main economic activities of each country.</li>
<li>Describe the types of governments found in the region.</li>
<li>Outline women’s rights and circumstances in each country in the region.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">States of the Arabian Peninsula</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s01_p01">The Arabian Peninsula is a desert environment surrounded by saltwater bodies. The <strong class="emphasis bold">Persian Gulf</strong>, the <strong class="emphasis bold">Arabian Sea</strong>, and the <strong class="emphasis bold">Red Sea</strong> border the peninsula on three sides. Arid type B climates dominate the region. Saudi Arabia only receives an average of four inches of precipitation per year. The southern portions of the peninsula are some of hottest places on Earth. Summer temperatures can reach more than 120 ºF. In the south is the <strong class="emphasis bold">Rub’ al-Khali</strong> (Empty Quarter), which is mainly desert and comprises about 25 percent of Saudi Arabia. It is extremely dry and virtually uninhabited, though oil discoveries have brought temporary settlements to the region. There are no natural lakes or major rivers on the peninsula. Agricultural activity is dependent on the availability of water by rainfall, underground aquifers, oases, or desalinization of seawater.</p>
<div class="figure large medium-height editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.34</span> Satellite Image from 2008 of the Arabian Peninsula Illustrating the Mountainous Regions, the Uninhabited Empty Quarter Desert Region, and the Surrounding Bodies of Water</p>
<img src="section_11/08d51ede4b1e33de7fa3bb4ac78df14b.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Satellite image courtesy of NASA’s Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor project and John Nevard, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arabian_Peninsula_dust_SeaWiFS-2.jpg">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arabian_Peninsula_dust_SeaWiFS-2.jpg</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s01_p02">Most of the people living on the peninsula are Arabs, and most of the peninsula’s countries are ruled by monarchs who rely on oil revenues to gain wealth. Minerals are mined in the mountains that dominate the peninsula’s western and southern regions. The highest peaks reach more than twelve thousand feet in elevation in northern Yemen. Of the countries on the peninsula, Yemen has the fewest oil resources and has had the sole democratically elected government. Saudi Arabia dominates the region in size and in oil resources. Islam, the major religion, infiltrates all aspects of Arab culture.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Saudi Arabia</h2>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.35</span> Political Map of the Arabian Peninsula</p>
<img src="section_11/22929394ba52dcc6ae7eb4b6bef81fe7.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of University of Texas Libraries, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/txu-oclc-192062619-middle_east_pol_2008.jpg">http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/txu-oclc-192062619-middle_east_pol_2008.jpg</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_p01">The holy cities of <strong class="emphasis bold">Medina</strong> and <strong class="emphasis bold">Mecca</strong> are in Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Islam. Islam first united the many traditional groups of Arabia with religion and then with the Arabic language. The region was further united after 1902, when Abdul Aziz Al-Sa‘ud and his followers captured the city of Riyadh and brought it under the control of the <strong class="emphasis bold">House of Sa‘ud</strong>. In 1933, the lands under the control of the king were renamed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. In 1938, US oil corporation Chevron found large quantities of oil in the region, which has sustained the royal family ever since. Aramco is the state-run oil corporation. Controlling about one-fifth of the world’s known oil reserves, the Saudi royal family claims considerable power.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_p02">The Saudi royal family gave safe haven to thousands of Kuwaitis, including the emir and his family, during the First Persian Gulf War (1991). Saudi Arabia allowed US and Western military forces to use bases on its soil during <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Operation Desert Storm</a><span class="glossdef">Military action to remove Saddam Hussein from power in Kuwait during the First Persian Gulf War in 1991.</span></span>. Acquiescence to non-Muslims operating military bases on the same soil as the holy cities of Mecca and Medina gave extremist groups a reason to engage in terrorist activities. Out of the nineteen hijackers in the 9-11 attack in New York, sixteen were from Saudi Arabia. The Saudi government has been forced to step up its efforts against terrorism and domestic extremist groups.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_p03">The entire economy of Saudi Arabia is based on the export of oil, and more than 20 percent of the known oil reserves in the world are located in Saudi Arabia. The country is a key member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and has been the world’s number one oil exporter. Millions of foreign workers in the petroleum industry make up a vital component of the country’s economy.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_p04">A high rate of population growth has been outstripping economic growth in Saudi Arabia. In 2010, more than one-third of the population was younger than fifteen years old, and family size was about 3.8 children. The unemployment rate is high, and there is a shortage of job skills in the workforce. The government has been working to shift its focus away from a petroleum-based economy and increase other economic opportunities; it plans to heavily invest in the necessary infrastructure and education to diversify its economy.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_p05">Saudi Arabia has made several efforts to move forward and put the country more in line with globalization efforts that are modernizing the other Persian Gulf States. The World Trade Organization accepted Saudi Arabia as a member in 2005. In 2008, the king implemented the initiative for interfaith dialogue in an effort to address religious tolerance and acceptance. The first woman was appointed to the cabinet, and municipal councils held elections for its members.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.36</span> Modern Infrastructure Illustrated on Medina Road in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia</p>
<img src="section_11/b5a1ee91ddc6348cadb3f8c89f194576.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Ammar shaker, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DSC00093-m.r.JPG">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DSC00093-m.r.JPG</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Saudi Culture</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s01_p01">The royal family and most of the people in Saudi Arabia are Sunni Muslims. The country has a strong fundamentalist Islamic tendency. The law of the state is strict and supports conservative Islamic ideals. The <strong class="emphasis bold">Wahhabi</strong> branch of Sunni Islam has a major influence on culture. Activities such as gambling, alcohol consumption, and the promotion of other religions are outlawed. Alcohol and pork products are forbidden in accordance with Islamic dietary laws. Movie theaters and other Western-style productions are prohibited but can be found in areas where workers from other countries live in private compounds. Though movie theaters are restricted, movies on DVDs are not prohibited and are widely available. The dress code in Saudi Arabia strictly follows the Islamic principles of modesty. The black abaya (an article of clothing that looks like a cloak or robe) or modest clothing is appropriate for women. Men often wear the traditional full-length shirt and a headcloth held in place by a cord.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s01_p02">In Saudi Arabia, human rights organizations, legal associations, trade unions, and political parties are banned. The country maintains a tight censorship of all local media. The press is only allowed to publish what the government permits it to report. Communication with foreigners, satellite media, and Internet access are highly controlled. Those who speak out against the government can be arrested or imprisoned.</p>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.37</span> Women in Saudi Arabia</p>
<img src="section_11/43f0b62f34d69fde9219672551c7f71f.jpg">
<p class="para">Former First Lady Laura Bush meets medical staff in Saudi Arabia. Note the women’s attire.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of the White House, taken by Shealah Craighead, 2008.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s01_p03">The Sharia is the basic criminal code in Saudi Arabia, along with whatever law is established by the king. A wide range of corporal and capital punishments—from long prison sentences to amputations (arm or foot), floggings, and beheadings—are proscribed for legal or religious offenses. Trials are most often held in secret without lawyers. Torture has been used to force confessions that are then used to convict the accused. Torture techniques—including the use of sticks, electric shocks, or flogging—can be applied to children and women as well as men. Executions are usually held in a public place every Friday.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">Role of Women</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s02_p01">Men hold the dominant roles in Saudi society. Under strict Islamic law, women do not have the same rights as men, so Saudi women do not have the opportunities that women in many Western countries have. For example, it is not customary for a woman to walk alone in public; traditionally, she must be accompanied by a family member so as to not be accused of moral offences or prostitution. The <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">mutawa’een</a><span class="glossdef">Religious police in Saudi Arabia that monitor social behavior in public.</span></span> (religious police) have the authority to arrest people for such actions. The punishment could be as many as to twenty-five days in prison and a flogging of as many as sixty lashes.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s02_p02">As of 2011, the following restrictions have been made on women:</p>
<ul class="itemizedlist editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s02_l01">
<li>Women are not allowed to drive motor vehicles.</li>
<li>Women must wear modest clothing such as the black abaya and cover their hair.</li>
<li>Women can only choose certain college degrees. They cannot be engineers or lawyers, for example.</li>
<li>Women cannot vote in political elections.</li>
<li>Women cannot walk in a public spaces or travel without a male relative.</li>
<li>Women are segregated from men in the workplace and in many formal spaces, even in homes.</li>
<li>Women need written permission from a husband or father to travel abroad.</li>
<li>Marriages can be arranged without the woman’s consent, and women often lose everything in a divorce.</li>
</ul>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s02_s02_p03">Saudi Arabia is a country steeped in tradition based on the heritage of its people, and many of the traditions regarding women were implemented to protect and care for them. However, as the forces of globalization seep into the fabric of society, many of these traditions are evolving and changing to adapt to the times and to a more open society. Women are asserting themselves in the culture, and many of these long-standing traditions are starting to break down. In late 2011, there were a number of women who organized to defy the ban on driving. One woman was arrested for driving a car and sentenced to ten lashes. Saudi King Abdullah then overturned the sentence and promised to support or protect women’s rights. There is no law stating that women cannot drive a vehicle. The taboo is based on tradition and religious views. More women have taken to the roadways in spite of the taboo against it.<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_007">“Saudi Arabia: Woman Driver Verdict Reportedly Overturned By King,” Huffington Post, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/28/saudi-arabia-woman-driver-verdict_n_985857.html">http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/28/saudi-arabia-woman-driver-verdict_n_985857.html</a>.</span> Saudi Arabia is an example of how Islamic fundamentalism is being challenged by modernity and democratic principles.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">Kuwait</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s03_p01">Kuwait, a small country located on the Persian Gulf, is a monarchy ruled by an emir from the royal family. Immense oil reserves have made Kuwait attractive to international oil investors. In 1961, <strong class="emphasis bold">Zapata Oil Company</strong> (now Pennzoil), owned by former US president <strong class="emphasis bold">George H. W. Bush</strong>, drilled the first offshore Kuwaiti oil well in the Persian Gulf. Thanks to ample oil revenues, the small Kuwaiti population (about three million people) has adequate social services. The country has a high standard of living. Education is free, and much of the labor base comes from non-Kuwaiti migrants. Petroleum exports account for most of the government’s income.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s03_p02">Kuwait has an excellent port at Kuwait City. However, one of the environmental problems with building a large city in the desert is the shortage of fresh water. To solve this problem, Kuwait has turned to the desalinization of seawater to provide for its domestic, agricultural, and industrial needs.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s03_p03">The United States and an international coalition fought the First Persian Gulf War in 1991 to “liberate” Kuwait from the grip of Saddam Hussein. It is compelling to note that the war was not about democracy. The war was about the control of oil resources. Under Hussein, Iraq invaded Kuwait and took over its enormous oil industry and port facilities. By taking over the oil assets, Hussein was in actuality taking over the oil assets of various international oil corporations. With the support of United Nations (UN) resolutions demanding that Hussein leave Kuwait, President George H. W. Bush organized an international military coalition to remove Hussein from Kuwait. The US mission was called <strong class="emphasis bold">Operation Desert Storm</strong>. The war started on bases in Saudi Arabia and pushed the Iraqi army out of Kuwait. When Hussein realized that he could not benefit from the oil in Kuwait, he had approximately 750 oil wells in Kuwait dynamited, which caused serious well fires and large lakes of oil flowing out onto the desert sands. The fires and spilled oil caused extensive environmental damage.</p>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s03_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.38</span> Desert Storm</p>
<img src="section_11/84dcf0573db5579eaa6786ae7b83d6d5.jpg">
<p class="para">US fighter jets in Operation Desert Storm fly over burning oil well fires in Kuwait. The fires were set by retreating Iraqi forces.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of the US Air Force, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USAF_F-16A_F-15C_F-15E_Desert_Storm_edit2.jpg">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USAF_F-16A_F-15C_F-15E_Desert_Storm_edit2.jpg</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s03_p04">Kuwait was not a democracy during the Persian Gulf War and is not a true democracy today. It is considered a constitutional <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">emirate</a><span class="glossdef">An Islamic political unit governed by a ruler, chief, or sheik.</span></span>. The <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">emir</a><span class="glossdef">A ruler or chief in Islamic countries.</span></span>, or head of the royal family, is the head of state. He appoints the prime minister and has a high level of control over the government. The emir has the authority to dissolve the National Assembly, which has members that hold seats by election. A number of groups wish to have a political voice in the government, including Islamists, business merchants, secular liberals, Shia activists, and a small number of local groups. Islamist groups are usually those who support an Islamic religious state as the desired type of government.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s03_p05">Kuwait had to invest nearly five billion dollars to reestablish the oil industry after the Persian Gulf War, but the emirate has recovered, and its economy is growing with the increased sale of exported oil. Kuwait has about 104 billion barrels of oil in known reserves. In 2010, the four largest export partners were Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore, which are all economic powers in East Asia that have to import almost all of their energy and raw materials. The US has traditionally been Kuwait’s number one source of imported goods.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s04">
<h2 class="title editable block">Bahrain</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s04_p01">Bahrain is a small archipelago (group of islands) in the Persian Gulf. The country received its independence from Great Britain in 1971. Iran has made claims on the islands to no avail. Similar to other small monarchies in the region, Bahrain has lots of oil and a small population. Though more than 50 percent of the population is Shia, the country is opening up to democratic reforms. In 1999, elections were approved for a parliament, all political prisoners were released, and women were allowed to vote. The royal family, ruled by the king, has had an enormous degree of power over its government. Officially, Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy, but the king appoints the members of the upper house in its bicameral legislature. The first female was appointed to a cabinet position in 2004, which was an indication of the move toward openness to the globalization process and modernization. Some in the country think the implementation of these measures is still too slow.</p>
<div class="figure medium editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s04_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.39</span> Development in Bahrain</p>
<img src="section_11/88399b5462acfcc42c0f44e215784a86.jpg">
<p class="para">This Hardee’s franchise in Bahrain is a clear example of Americanization of the Arabian Peninsula.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Brent Gullet.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s04_p02">Most of Bahrain’s wealth is gained through the extraction of natural resources. Enormous natural gas reserves are located in Bahrain’s coastal waters, and oil now makes up about 60 percent of the export profits. The small land area size of the country, lack of sufficient supplies of fresh water, and few other natural resources has prompted a shift for Bahrain to expand into the financial sector. Islamic banking and financial services for the global marketplace have been an expanding sector of the economy. The objective in diversifying the economy is to reduce the dependency on oil as a future source of national wealth. In addition, the United States has entered into a free-trade agreement with Bahrain, which has attracted multinational corporations to do business in the region. Bahrain has been supportive of a US military presence for both protection and cooperation and is the permanent headquarters for the US Fifth Fleet navel operations. In a mutual defense agreement, some one thousand American navel officers and personnel are stationed on the island. Bahrain has been a frontline state for the US military in the Iraq War and the war in Afghanistan.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s04_p03">The country is also opening up development in the service sectors. Tourism is not what usually comes to mind when one thinks about the Arabian Peninsula, but Bahrain has been attracting millions of visitors yearly. The country’s authentic heritage is attractive to tourists from neighboring Arab states and the global community. The country boasts of nearly five thousand years of human activity. UNESCO has designated the Qal’at al-Bahrain castle as a World Heritage Site. The country has invested heavily in modern shopping malls and international sports facilities in an effort to modernize its country and attract more international events.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s04_p04">The citizens of Bahrain have had to work to balance the shift toward modernization and globalization with the strong Arab heritage and Islamic beliefs that have been the foundation of their culture. The term <em class="emphasis">Middle East Lite</em> has been applied to Bahrain because Bahrain has been investing in modern infrastructure but has worked hard to maintain its Arab heritage with a Persian Gulf identity that is more accepting and open to the outside world. The growing and prosperous middle class is more tolerant and liberal than many of its Middle East neighbors.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s04_p05">The same level of tolerance toward outsiders has not been witnessed within the country. The 2011 protests and demonstrations that swept across North Africa and the Middle East also occurred in Bahrain. The king, the royal family, and the majority in government follow the Sunni branch of Islam; however, most of the population follows the Shia branch of Islam. Many within the Shia community felt that they were being discriminated against and protested the lack of democratic reforms. Protests and demonstrations in Bahrain have prompted the government to call in military support from Saudi Arabia to help quell the uprising. A number of Shia mosques were reported to have been destroyed, and hundreds of people were detained by police. The protests and demonstrations in Bahrain are more than just a conflict between Shia and Sunni, though this split has been a major concern for years. Many Sunni have participated in the demonstrations because they are in support of more democratic reforms as well.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s05">
<h2 class="title editable block">Qatar</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s05_p01">The small peninsula jutting out from Arabia into the Persian Gulf is an Arab land in transition. Ruled by an emir who has supported democratic reforms, Qatar is moving forward with a globalization policy similar to other Westernized nations. Many of these reforms are similar to those in Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Oil and gas exports have fueled a building boom that has produced shopping malls, wide boulevards, and even a large US military base. Women are allowed to vote, Western clothing and products are permitted, and rap music can be heard in the streets. Though still politically restrictive in many ways, Qatar is more open than many of its neighbors. Qatar is also home to the <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Al Jazeera</a><span class="glossdef">International news agency based in Qatar.</span></span> news organization, which often balances out Western news programming. Al Jazeera is also allowed to report critically on its home country.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s05_p02">In the past few years, oil revenues have provided Qatar with a rapidly growing economy and a high standard of living. Proven reserves of oil and natural gas are enormous for such a small country. Qatar’s natural gas reserves are the world’s third largest. Qatar has been pursuing development of private and foreign investments in non-energy-related businesses, including banking and financial institutions.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s05_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.40</span> Building Boom in Qatar City</p>
<img src="section_11/67965bb2f84e3a1ccc70a4d1155a066b.jpg">
<p class="para">Revenues from oil and natural gas are fueling the rapid development of this small peninsula that is rivaling core economic countries.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Brent Gullet.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s05_p03">Modernization efforts have supported Qatar’s push for a greater emphasis on education. Infrastructure and financial support have been allocated to support educational reform, and university opportunities are expanding rapidly. Qatar University was founded in 1973, and in the last decade many more universities from Western countries have opened up branch campuses in <strong class="emphasis bold">Education City</strong>, which was established to advance Qatar’s educational reform goals. The emir’s second wife has actively promoted educational reforms and has encouraged women to pursue higher education to excel in their careers. She has also created greater visibility for women in public roles and has broken through some of the cultural barriers and taboos that have restricted women in other conservative Islamic Arab countries.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s06">
<h2 class="title editable block">United Arab Emirates (UAE)</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s06_p01">Seven small Arab emirates joined together in 1971 to form the UAE. Each emirate is an absolute monarchy ruled by a <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">sheik</a><span class="glossdef">An Arab chief.</span></span>. The UAE has been integrating its economy with the global marketplace and has established a high standard of living for its people. Two of the emirates—Abu Dhabi and Dubai—possess most of the oil reserves. Abu Dhabi is the capital city and consists of 87 percent of the land area in the UAE. The head of the royal family in this emirate is considered the head of state for the UAE.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s06_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.41</span> The Seven Emirates of the UAE</p>
<img src="section_11/52b58bf8694c62e0fd882619702196b3.jpg">
<p class="para">It is evident that one emirate, Abu Dhabi, dominates in terms of square miles of physical area.</p>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s06_p02">Dubai has turned its small emirate into an international trade center. The emirate has used its oil reserves to promote trade and commerce. Dubai built itself a world-class port facility equaling that of Hong Kong or New York. As a <strong class="emphasis bold">free-trade zone</strong>, there are no taxes or tariffs, so international corporations use the location as a trade center to bring high-volume buyers and sellers together. Dubai has been looking ahead to its future when the oil runs out. The creation of an international trade center would be a means to gain economic income when the revenue from the sale of oil diminishes.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s06_p03">Oil wealth and the need for workers have opened up economic opportunities in the UAE that have attracted laborers and businesspeople from many parts of the world. Noncitizens make up about 80 percent of the population; about half the noncitizens are from South Asia, and many are Muslims from India. The large number of laborers that are required to develop the infrastructure has created an imbalance between the percentage of men and women. There are about twice the number of men than there are women in Dubai. This has created an interesting dynamic for women in Dubai, who have more rights and opportunities than those in more conservative Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia. The UAE presents an excellent example of people migrating from peripheral countries to a core region in search of opportunities and advantages in a globalized economic community.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s06_p04">The UAE has invested its oil income in building up its infrastructure to compete in a global economy. Hundreds of billions of dollars of construction projects are under way in Dubai alone. Dubai has the world’s tallest structure, the most expensive hotel, the world’s most expensive airport (when completed), and the world’s largest artificial islands. Dubai is even home to an indoor downhill ski resort complete with real snow. Other ventures such as the Dubailand entertainment complex and Dubai Sports City have also been proposed. The downturn in the world’s economic situation has slowed the development in this emirate but has not diminished its perspective on the future.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s06_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.42</span> Free-Trade Zone of Dubai</p>
<img src="section_11/1078ee8400bf4b1bcd88ec292519ba68.jpg">
<p class="para">The skyline of Dubai includes the tallest building in the world.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of Paul Wilhelm, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dubai_2010.JPG">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dubai_2010.JPG</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s07">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Sultanate of Oman</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s07_p01">Ruled by a <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">sultan</a><span class="glossdef">A sovereign of a Muslim state.</span></span>, the absolute monarchy of Oman on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula also controls the tip of land next to the <strong class="emphasis bold">Strait of Hormuz</strong>. All oil tankers leaving the Persian Gulf must pass through this vital choke point. Mountains reach more than nine thousand feet in the eastern region of Oman, and rugged arid central plains cover the central region. The country gets plenty of sunshine and has some excellent beaches. Annual rainfall varies from four inches or fewer in the eastern sector to as much as twenty-five inches in the southwest. The climate is generally hot: temperatures can reach 120 °F from May to September.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s07_p02">Oman has been using its oil income to build infrastructure to benefit its people. The sultan of Oman has widespread support from his people and has built up goodwill from the international community for his investments in his country. He has built a free-trade zone with a giant container port facility, luxury tourist hotels, a good road system, and a first-rate international airport. He has also provided clean drinking water to the rural areas. Though Oman is not a democracy, the sultan has been positive role model for other monarchs. He has used Oman’s oil wealth to help his country develop and modernize. The mountains of Oman have additional natural resources such as gold, marble, and copper.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s07_p03">A lack of fresh water is a concern for Oman. The nation has limited renewable water resources. More than 90 percent of the water available is used in agriculture, and the rest is used for industry and domestic consumption. Fresh water is piped throughout most of the country, but shortages occur at times because of droughts and limited rainfall. Environmental problems have also arisen in Oman. For example, irrigation operations have caused soil conditions such as a salt buildup. Oil tankers traveling through the Strait of Hormuz and along the coast in the <strong class="emphasis bold">Gulf of Oman</strong> have leaked oil, which has washed up on coastal areas where attractive beaches are located. The higher level of exploitation of the environment by a growing population has exacted a toll on the organisms that live in the fragile desert ecosystems. Mammals, birds, and other organisms are in danger of extinction, including the Arabian leopard, the mountain gazelle, and the Arabian oryx. The country may lose its biodiversity unless action is taken toward preservation.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08">
<h2 class="title editable block">Yemen</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_p01">Yemen is a mountainous country bordering Oman and Saudi Arabia. The tallest mountains on the peninsula—reaching more than twelve thousand feet in elevation—are located here. The four main regions of Yemen are the eastern desert region of the Rub’ al Khali; the Eastern Highlands south of the Rub’ al Khali; the Western Highlands, which have the highest peaks; and the western coastal plains. The Western Highlands receive about thirty inches of rain per year, while the eastern desert received almost no rainfall. A number of volcanic islands are located off the coast. A volcano on one of the islands erupted as recently as 2007. This region is an extension of the rift valley system coming out of East Africa.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.43</span> Four Physical Regions of Yemen</p>
<img src="section_11/6b6fcbfdb76cb5fc4a6fba5e8aab7e32.jpg">
<p class="para">The highest peak in the Western Highlands is 12,028 feet in elevation.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of CIA World Factbook.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_p02">The economy has traditionally been based on agriculture. Most of the farmland is in the form of terraces cut into the mountainsides that trap rainwater as it flows down the slope from one terrace to the next. Food production is a primary concern because in 2010 the population was more than twenty-four million and increasing rapidly. The arid land has few trees, but firewood is in high demand for cooking. The demand for firewood has caused deforestation, which in turn has caused serious soil erosion and damage to the mountain terraces that produce the food. Yemen is facing serious environmental concerns. The fast-growing population will only put more pressure on the environmental systems. On the positive side, oil and natural gas reserves are being found in some quantities, which will assist with the economic conditions and help supply the energy needed in the future.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_p03">Women in Yemen do not have the opportunities available in some of the more urbanized and modernized Gulf States. The contrast between the rural dynamics of Yemen and the urban culture of Dubai provides an excellent example of a rural versus urban or a core versus peripheral spatial relationship. The basic formula of family size and income levels applies to Yemen. In 2010, the fertility rate declined to 4.8 from more than 7.0 in 2000.<span class="footnote" hidden id="berglee_1.0-fn08_008">“Total Fertility Rate (Children Born/Woman),” IndexMundi, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=ym&v=31">http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=ym&v=31</a>.</span> Rural-to-urban shift is causing cities within Yemen to grow at an increasing rate. Large family sizes are forcing young people to seek out opportunities and advantages in the cities or in other countries. The situation is only going to intensify, as the population of Yemen is projected to reach sixty million by 2050 at the current rate of increase.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_p04">Yemen has a democratically elected government that came about when North Yemen and South Yemen merged into one country to create a democratic republic in 1990. The population of Yemen is about 40 percent Shia and 60 percent Sunni. Yemen sided with Iraq and Saddam Hussein in the First Persian Gulf War in Kuwait, which resulted in Saudi Arabia expelling thousands of Yemeni workers. Yemen and Saudi Arabia have had a long-standing territorial dispute and only recently agreed on the desert border between the two countries. As the lone democracy on the peninsula, Yemen contrasts with the more conservative Islamic states and monarchies such as Saudi Arabia that are more common in the Middle East. Poor, rural, and agriculturally based, Yemen does not fit the mold of the typical oil-rich sheikdom of the region.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_p05">The cultural forces within Yemen demonstrate the dichotomy between modernization with democratic reforms and fundamentalist Islamic tendencies. Stability in Yemen is critical for the security of the regional waterways. In the past decade, piracy against ships off the coast of Somalia has increased, and many ships have been boarded and taken hostage by pirates demanding high ransoms for the release of the ship and crew. Security in the region is critical to support safe passage for international shipping activity through the <strong class="emphasis bold">Gulf of Aden</strong> and the <strong class="emphasis bold">Bab-el-Mandeb Strait</strong>.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_p06">Yemen experienced civil unrest and citizen protests in the spring of 2011 similar to those in the other Arab countries. The protests and demonstrations targeted political corruption, economic conditions, and high unemployment. During this time, the government was also looking to modify its constitution. The protesters shifted their focus to call for the president of Yemen to resign after twenty-one years in power. The president and government resisted, and the conflicts turned more serious. Clans not loyal to the president sided with the protesters, and the Yemeni president was seriously injured in a military clash. He was flown to Saudi Arabia for medical treatment. When the president recovered and returned to Yemen he still refused to step down. The country continues to adjust to the situation.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.44</span> The Capital of Yemen</p>
<img src="section_11/bb51a3a97010872558cd072b40ead7dc.jpg">
<p class="para">Sana’a, an ancient city, is the capital of Yemen and the largest city, with a population of more than two million people.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Photo courtesy of stepnout, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/stepnout/2345728292">http://www.flickr.com/photos/stepnout/2345728292</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="key_takeaways editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_n01">
<h3 class="title">Key Takeaways</h3>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_l01">
<li>The Arabian Peninsula is a desert region. The Rub’ al-Khali (Empty Quarter) provides an example of desert extremes. The mountains along the western and southern edges receive the most rainfall. There are no rivers or major lakes on the peninsula. Water, a resource that is vital to human activity, is scarce throughout the region.</li>
<li>The export of oil and natural gas is what drives the economies of the region. Many of the states are working to diversify their economies with banking, free-trade zones, and even tourism.</li>
<li>Yemen is the only country with a truly democratically elected government. Leaders of royal families rule in the other countries as heads of state with varying degrees of shared governance.</li>
<li>Family size varies widely in the region, from more than 4.5 in Yemen to around 2.5 in the progressive Gulf States of Qatar, the UAE, and Bahrain. Women’s rights and opportunities have an inverse relationship with family size; that is, when women’s rights and opportunities increase, family size usually decreases. In the Gulf States, the smaller countries in land area are more open to promoting women’s rights and responsibilities in the public and private sectors.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_n02">
<h3 class="title">Discussion and Study Questions</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_l02">
<li>Where are the mountains located on the Arabian Peninsula? How high do they reach in elevation?</li>
<li>Why type of government does Saudi Arabia have? What is the law based on?</li>
<li>What are some things that women are not allowed to do in Saudi Arabia that they can do where you live?</li>
<li>Who are the mutawa’een? When would one encounter them?</li>
<li>Who drilled the first offshore Kuwaiti oil well? Why is this significant?</li>
<li>What measures have the governments of Bahrain and Qatar taken to modernize their countries?</li>
<li>How has the emirate of Dubai been able to promote a globalized economy?</li>
<li>Why does the term <em class="emphasis">Middle East Lite</em> apply to Bahrain?</li>
<li>How has the current sultan of Oman used his country’s oil revenues?</li>
<li>Outline five differences between the emirate of Dubai and the country of Yemen.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_n03">
<h3 class="title">Geography Exercise</h3>
<p class="para" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_p07">Identify the following key places on a map:</p>
<ul class="itemizedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_l03">
<li>Arabian Sea</li>
<li>Bab-el-Mandeb Strait</li>
<li>Gulf of Aden</li>
<li>Gulf of Oman</li>
<li>Mecca</li>
<li>Medina</li>
<li>Persian Gulf</li>
<li>Red Sea</li>
<li>Rub’ al-Khali</li>
<li>Strait of Hormuz</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exercises editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_n04">
<h3 class="title">Activities</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s05_s08_l04">
<li>Check the news for world affairs and follow up on what is happening with the protests in Bahrain and Yemen. Analyze how those two countries have been addressing their internal issues.</li>
<li>Find a way to access the English version of Al Jazeera news broadcasts and compare its coverage with the coverage from other international news agencies.</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06" condition="start-of-chunk" version="5.0" lang="en">
<h2 class="title editable block">
<span class="title-prefix">8.6</span> Iraq, Turkey, and Iran</h2>
<div class="learning_objectives editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_n01">
<h3 class="title">Learning Objectives</h3>
<ol class="orderedlist" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_l01">
<li>Summarize Iraq’s role in the Persian Gulf War and the Iraq War in 2003.</li>
<li>Understand how Iraq is divided ethnically and by the branches of Islam.</li>
<li>Explain why Turkey wants to be a member of the European Union (EU) and why it has not been accepted.</li>
<li>Outline Iran’s physical geography and how it has used natural resources for economic gain.</li>
<li>Determine why young people might be dissatisfied with the policies of the Iranian government.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Iraq</h2>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.45</span> The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and the Shatt al-Arab Waterway between Iraq and Iran</p>
<img src="section_11/002d10c4e3563cc1eb2dfc5a6e56298d.jpg">
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of CIA World Factbook.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_p01">Iraq lies in the Fertile Crescent between the <strong class="emphasis bold">Tigris</strong> and <strong class="emphasis bold">Euphrates</strong> Rivers, where the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia were established. Ancient cities such as Nineveh, Ur, and Babylon were located here. Present-day Iraq and Kuwait were established out of the British Mandate territory gained following Britain’s defeat of the Turkish <strong class="emphasis bold">Ottoman Empire</strong>. Britain established straight-line political boundaries between Iraq and Jordan, Syria, and Saudi Arabia. These types of boundaries are called <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">geometric boundaries</a><span class="glossdef">Political boundaries based on straight lines rather than physical features.</span></span> because they do not follow any physical feature. In 1961, when Britain withdrew from the region, the emir controlling the southern region bordering the Persian Gulf requested that Britain separate his oil-rich kingdom as an independent country. This country became Kuwait, and the rest of the region became Iraq. After a series of governments in Iraq, the Baath party came to power in 1968, paving the way for <strong class="emphasis bold">Saddam Hussein</strong> to gain power in 1979.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_f02">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.46</span> Iraq’s Divisions of Islam as of 2008</p>
<img src="section_11/993946d9dae41e0ad870547fc9fe8cdb.jpg">
<p class="para">The two ethnic divisions are Arab and Kurd. The two religious divisions of Islam are Shia and Sunni. Karbala and Najaf both have holy sites for Shia Muslims.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s01">
<h2 class="title editable block">Iran-Iraq War (1980–88)</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s01_p01">In 1980, a disagreement arose over the <strong class="emphasis bold">Shatt al-Arab</strong> waterway in the Persian Gulf on the border between Iraq and Iran, and the feud led to war between the two countries. The people of Iran are not Arabs; their ethnic background is Persian. Most Iranians are Shia Muslims. Saddam Hussein and his Baath party were Arabs and Sunni Muslims. Ethnic and religious differences thus fueled the conflict. The Shatt al-Arab waterway was quickly filled with wrecked ships. The local battle escalated into an all-out war, which ended in 1988 without anyone declaring a victory. The Iran-Iraq War was as close to World War III as the world has ever seen, with more than a million casualties and a cost of more than one hundred billion dollars. World powers aligned themselves with one side or the other. Before the war, the Iranian government had been taken over by Islamic fundamentalists who opposed the US intervention in the region; therefore, in the Iran-Iraq War, the United States supported Hussein and provided him with industrial supplies and materials.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s02">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Persian Gulf War (1990–91)</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s02_p01">After the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein looked to Kuwait to gain new oil wealth and expand access to the Persian Gulf. By taking over Kuwait, Iraq would gain an excellent port on the Persian Gulf and earn more income from oil reserves. Hussein accused Kuwait of slant drilling oil wells along the Iraqi border and removing oil that was legally Iraq’s. It was common knowledge that both sides were engaged in this practice, but it was the excuse Hussein needed to invade Kuwait and reclaim it as the nineteenth province of Iraq.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s02_p02">In 1990, the Iraqi military invaded and occupied Kuwait. Though the world community opposed this action, it was not until Hussein nationalized all the oil assets of the international oil corporations that resistance was organized. Under the leadership of US president George H. W. Bush, the United Nations (UN) organized a military coalition to remove Hussein from Kuwait. On January 16, 1991, Operation Desert Storm began. After forty-five days of fighting, Iraq was overwhelmingly defeated and its military was ousted from Kuwait. This was a major victory for the coalition. It was during this time that President Bush publicly announced the emergence of the potential <strong class="emphasis bold">New World Order</strong>. Kuwait was not a democracy but a monarchy ruled by an emir. Clearly, the war was not a war over democracy; it was a war over the control of resources.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s02_p03">When it became evident that Hussein would lose Kuwait, his forces dynamited all the oil facilities and set all the oil wells in Kuwait on fire. His position was that if he could not have the oil, then nobody would. This was one of the worst environmental catastrophes regarding oil on record. Oil flowed into the Persian Gulf and covered the water’s surface up to three feet thick. Most mammals, birds, and organisms living on the water’s surface died. Oil flowed out onto the desert sand into large petroleum lakes. The air pollution caused by burning oil wells dimmed the sun and caused serious health problems.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s03">
<h2 class="title editable block">Ethnic and Cultural Divisions</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s03_p01">To keep Iraq from breaking apart after Operation Desert Storm, coalition forces allowed Hussein to remain in power. Ethnically and religiously, Iraq is divided into three primary groups that generally do not get along. Sunni Arabs dominate central Iraq in a region often referred to as the <strong class="emphasis bold">Sunni Triangle</strong>, which includes the three cities of Baghdad, Tikrit (Hussein’s hometown), and Ramadi. Sunnis were the most loyal to the Hussein government. Southeastern Iraq is dominated by Arabs who follow the Shia division of Islam, which is also followed by most of Iran’s population. A group that is ethnically Kurdish and follows the Sunni division dominates northern Iraq. Kurds are not Arabs or Persians; rather, they originated from somewhere in northern Europe centuries ago with their own religion, language, and customs. Many have converted to Islam.</p>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s03_p02">Hussein was a Sunni Muslim, and when he was in power, he kept the other two groups in check. He used chemical weapons on the Kurds during the Iran-Iraq War. In 1988, he used chemical weapons on the Kurdish town of Halabja and killed about 10 percent of the eighty thousand who lived there. Thousands of Kurds died in other attacks, and thousands more continue to suffer serious health effects. After Operation Desert Storm, Hussein pushed the Kurds north until the UN and the United States restricted him at the thirty-sixth parallel, which became a security zone for the Kurds. The Arab Shia population in the south often clashed with Hussein’s military in an attempt to gain more political power, and Hussein subjected them to similar harsh conditions and treatment.</p>
<div class="figure large editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s03_f01">
<p class="title"><span class="title-prefix">Figure 8.47</span> Homelands of the Kurdish People, Indicated by the Shaded Areas</p>
<img src="section_11/5fa063527875642fa60e0d76b7394e9c.jpg">
<p class="para">Future Kurdistan would be the main portions in Iran, Iraq, and Turkey and a corner of Syria. The city of Diyarbakir in Turkey would be the Kurdish capital city.</p>
<div class="copyright">
<p class="para">Source: Map courtesy of University of Texas Libraries, <a class="link" target="_blank" href="http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/kurdish_86.jpg">http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/kurdish_86.jpg</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s03_p03">The Arab Shia population in the southeast makes up most of the Iraqi people. The two main cities of <strong class="emphasis bold">Karbala</strong> and <strong class="emphasis bold">Najaf</strong> contain holy sites for Shia followers worldwide. The Shia population is three times larger than the Kurdish population in Iraq; more Kurds live outside Iraq than live in Iraq. The Kurds are the largest nation of people in the world without a country. About twenty-five million Kurds live in the Middle East, and most—about fourteen million—live in Turkey. About eight million Kurds live in Iran, about seven million live in Iraq, and a few others live in neighboring countries. At the 1945 conference of the UN, they petitioned to have their own country called <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">Kurdistan</a><span class="glossdef">Proposed state to include all Kurds in the Middle East.</span></span> carved out of Iran, Iraq, and Turkey, but they were denied. You will recall from <a class="xref" href="berglee_1.0-ch08_s04#berglee_1.0-ch08_s04">Section 8.4 "Israel and Its Neighbors"</a> that Israel was approved to become a nation at the same UN conference.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s04">
<h2 class="title editable block">The Iraq War (2003–11)</h2>
<p class="para editable block" id="berglee_1.0-ch08_s06_s01_s04_p01">After the September 11, 2001, attack on the United States, there was a renewed interest in <span class="margin_term"><a class="glossterm">weapons of mass destruction (WMD)</a><span class="glossdef">Chemical, nuclear, or biological weapons that could cause the deaths of innocent civilians on a massive scale.</span></span>. Knowing that Hussein had used chemical weapons on the Kurds, the Iranians, and the Shia, there was a concern that he would use them again. UN Weapons inspectors in Iraq never could confirm that Hussein retained WMD. They had been destroyed, moved out of Iraq, or hidden. US president George W. Bush decided to invade Iraq in 2003 to remove Hussein from power. In the invasion, Hussein’s two sons were killed and Hussein was captured. One aspect of the invasion plan was to use Iraq’s vast oil reserves to help pay for the cost of the war, which quickly ballooned to more than a billion dollars a week. Fundamentalist Islamic insurgents made the war difficult.</p>