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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8" />
<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge" />
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,initial-scale=1.0" />
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<a class="nav-link" href="#ml">Machine Learning</a>
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<div class="section" id="home">
<div class="center-wrap" id="home">
<h1 class="text-center" id="title-1">
Islamphobia in Social Media Analysis
</h1>
<div id="text-us" class="text-center">
<span class="color-gradient-red-yellow">
By Anshul Gupta, Welton Wang, and Timothy Trick
</span>
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<div class="row" style="margin-top: 20px">
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<span>Code</span>
</button>
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<p></p>
</div>
<section
id="section02"
class="demo"
style="
position: absolute;
bottom: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 60px;
margin-bottom: 50px;
left: 0;
"
>
<a href="#about-p"><span></span></a>
</section>
<div
style="
position: absolute;
bottom: 10px;
left: 50%;
width: 46px;
height: 46px;
margin-left: -23px;
"
>
Scroll
</div>
</div>
<div id="about" style="margin-bottom: 60px" class="section">
<div class="row">
<div
class="col-lg-6 col-12"
style="
margin-top: 15px;
left: 50%;
top: 50%;
transform: translate(-50%, -50%);
position: absolute;
max-width: 80%;
min-width: 369px;
"
>
<h3 style="text-align: center">#PervyPasha</h3>
<h3 style="text-align: center">#GoBackWhereYouCameFrom</h3>
<h3 style="text-align: center">#DontSullyOurSoil</h3>
<div>
<p
style="
margin-top: 15px;
width: 80%;
margin: 0 auto;
max-width: 701px;
"
>
Inspired by the shocking hatred and social stigma towards
Muslims portrayed in Kamila Shamsie's
<span style="font-style: italic">Home Fire</span>, we set out to
analyze Islamophobia in a real-world context. <br /><br />What
better place to turn to
<span style="color: #1da1f2">Twitter</span> &
<span style="color: #ff1b44">Parler</span>, a cess-pool of hate?
</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="inspiration" class="section">
<div
class="center-page"
style="
display: flex;
flex-wrap: wrap;
max-width: 1050px;
padding-top: 40px;
padding-bottom: 5px;
"
>
<div class="flex-row">
<div class="flex-half" style="flex-basis: 100%">
<h2>Machine Learning</h2>
<p>
To analyze trends at scale, we built and trained an ensemble of
machine learning models to classify Islamophobia. Put simply,
processing natural language involves representing words as
mathematical vectors used to calculate a final output.
</p>
<p>
Take the term "Muslims are (not) Terrorists" for example. It
could be represented as:
</p>
</div>
<div class="flex-half" style="flex-basis: 85%">
<img
src="assets/text-embedding.svg"
style="width: 71%; height: auto"
/>
</div>
</div>
<div class="flex-row" style="justify-content: center">
<div class="flex-half">
<h3 style="font-size: 36px">Training</h3>
<p>
To find suitable representations & relationships between
words (weights), pre-labeled training data is required. Coupled
with some linear algebra, the most optimal representation of
words can be computed get a desired output. It's akin to finding
a line of best fit.
</p>
</div>
<div
class="flex-half"
style="display: flex; justify-content: center"
>
<img
src="assets/regression.svg"
id="regression"
style="margin-top: 10px; width: auto"
/>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="machinelearning" class="section">
<div
class="center-page"
style="max-width: 1050px; padding-top: 20px; padding-bottom: 20px"
>
<h2>The Dataset</h2>
<p>
To build a dataset suitable for training the model, we hand-labeled
over 12,000 Twitter & Parler posts, categorizing each post into
one of three categories:
</p>
<!-- <div class="row">
<div class="col"></div>
<div class="col"></div>
<div class="col"></div>
</div> -->
<p style="font-size: 20px">
<b style="color: #2ecc71">None</b> - No Islamophobic content.
</p>
<div>
<div
class="arrow"
onclick="collapseDiv(this)"
data-controls="text-1"
data-arrow="arrow-1"
id="arrow-1"
>
<b>Examples</b>
</div>
<p id="text-1" class="collapse-text hidden">
"Steph Curry has played ten straight minutes. So impressive."<br />"The
2020 Election was Fraudulent! #maga"<br />"My Muslim friend was
called a terrorist in London today. People are #racist #idiots"<br />"You
can be a Muslim and not wear a hijab, you can wear the hijab
outside the school, Neutrality of the state is above any religious
edict. Religious freedom exists, outside government venues and
positions."
</p>
</div>
<p style="font-size: 20px">
<b style="color: #f8ab37">General</b> - Generalized Islamophobic
hate speech
</p>
<div>
<div
class="arrow"
onclick="collapseDiv(this)"
data-controls="text-2"
data-arrow="arrow-2"
id="arrow-2"
>
<b>Examples</b>
</div>
<p id="text-2" class="hidden collapse-text">
"Muslims in #Congress are taking over our governments, Keep them
out!"<br />"The 2020 Election was Fraudulent and rigged by
muhammad followers! #maga"<br />"You're a Muslim go marry your
brother"<br />"There's 39,000 extreme muslims in Britain atm. Over
3,000 are watched 24/7 Believe it needs 70 security personnel for
each one. Costs hundreds of billions per year. "
</p>
</div>
<p style="font-size: 20px">
<b style="color: #da2c4d">Terrorism</b> - Hate speech associating
Islam/Muslims with terrorism or violent activities
</p>
<div>
<div
class="arrow"
onclick="collapseDiv(this)"
data-controls="text-3"
data-arrow="arrow-3"
id="arrow-3"
>
<b>Examples</b>
</div>
<p id="text-3" class="hidden collapse-text">
"Muslims are Radical Islamic terrorists"<br />"We need to get
these violent criminals out of our government. #Muslims"<br />"The
Quran incites violence against the good people of our
republic."<br />"Not all, but a significant amount of terrorism in
the world these days is due to Islamic teachings and principles.
Let's adhere to the truth and accept there is a problem."
</p>
</div>
<!-- <p style="font-style: italic; margin-top: 10px">
Note that all the examples presented on this site are from actual
data used to train our models.
</p> -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="data" style="margin-bottom: 50px" class="section">
<div class="center-page" style="max-width: 1050px">
<h2>Language is Nuanced</h2>
<p>
Despite our initial assumptions, it turns out understanding hate
speech is a lot harder than it sounds, especially given that many
tweets happen
<span style="font-style: italic">without</span> context.
</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 20px">Take the following:</p>
<div class="tabset">
<!-- Tab 1 -->
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="tab1"
class="tab-label active-select"
data-controls="implicit"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
check
>
Implicit
</div>
<!-- Tab 2 -->
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="tab2"
class="tab-label"
data-controls="slander"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
>
Slander
</div>
<!-- Tab 3 -->
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="tab3"
class="tab-label"
data-controls="vague"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
>
Vague
</div>
<div class="tab-panels">
<section id="implicit" class="tab-panel">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">
Implicit: "Three terrorists bombers of the station were
Muslim."
</h3>
<p>
It's not explicitly calling Muslims terrorists, or associating
Islam itself with an negative values. Yet, as Shamsie writes,
"terrorists were never described by the media as 'British
Terrorists'...always something interposed between their
Britishness and terrorism." Therefore, we interpreted the
conscious decision to name them as Muslim, instead of another
label, as stigmatizing the Muslim population, reinforcing
untrue stereotypes, and therefore Islamophobic.
</p>
</section>
<section id="slander" class="tab-panel" style="display: none">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">
Slander: "Obama is Muslim" vs "John Doe is Muslim"
</h3>
<p>
A surprisingly large number of tweets claimed Obama was a
Muslim. Saying someone is a Muslim doesn't necessarily
constitute as hate speech. Yet, in context of Obama (the
President) not being a Muslim, calling him a Muslim would be
interprested by most as an insult. Therefore, the word
"Muslim" carries the same purpose in the sentence as, say,
"evil." <br /><br />
</p>
</section>
<section id="vague" class="tab-panel" style="display: none">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">Vague: "Is he a Muslim?"</h3>
<p>
Given the context that this was found on Parler, it's mostly
likely intended as an insult. It's easy to see it as a reply
to "X is an idiot," in which case it becomes a derogatory
term. Yet, such context is not available to the machine
learning model, and presented on another website, it could
very well mean something totally different. As such, it
wouldn't be reasonable to call this statement alone hate
speech.
<br />
</p>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="stats" class="section">
<div
class="center-page"
style="max-width: 1050px; padding-top: 20px; padding-bottom: 20px"
>
<h2>The Model</h2>
<p style="margin-bottom: 10px">
After labeling the dataset, we trained & tuned ~ 30 variations
of models across 12 hours, acheiving 93% 3-fold cross-validated
accuracy on a validation dataset. We picked three of the best
performing models, trained on slightly varied data and merged the
probability outputs from each model with a logistic regression
classifier.
</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 10px">Yet, 93% isn't perfect.</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 10px">
We noticed several weakness in the models. These include:
</p>
<div class="tabset">
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="secondTab1"
class="tab-label active-select lang-label"
data-controls="Referentials"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
>
Referentials
</div>
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="secondTab2"
class="tab-label lang-label"
data-controls="Negatives"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
check
>
Negatives
</div>
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="secondTab3"
class="tab-label lang-label"
data-controls="Quotations"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
>
Quotations
</div>
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="secondTab4"
class="tab-label lang-label"
data-controls="Variations"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
>
Text Variations
</div>
<div
type="radio"
name="tabset"
id="secondTab5"
class="tab-label lang-label"
data-controls="Language"
onclick="tabToggle(this);"
>
Linguistic Style
</div>
<div class="tab-panels">
<section id="Referentials" class="tab-panel">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">Complex Referentials</h3>
<p>
Results are varied when it comes to multiple layers of
referential statements, such as:<br />
"Islam is a bad religion. Some people agree with this
statement (referring to the 1st statement). Others do not
agree (referring to the 1st statement). I'm in agreement with
the latter (referring to the 3rd statement), and those in the
former group are wrong (referring to the 2nd statement). "
<br />
<br />
</p>
</section>
<section id="Negatives" class="tab-panel" style="display: none">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">Triple Negatives</h3>
<p>
Results are inaccurate past a double negative ("not not"),
such as "Muslims are not not not not bad."
<br />
<br />
<br />
</p>
</section>
<section id="Quotations" class="tab-panel" style="display: none">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">Quotations</h3>
<p>
Results are varied when it comes to quotations. For
example:<br />"He told me that 'Muslims are bad.' I told him
he was wrong." is classified correctly as not hate speech.
<br />"'Screw You' said the Muslim man on the street." is
incorrectly classified as hate speech.
<br />
<br />
</p>
</section>
<section id="Variations" class="tab-panel" style="display: none">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">
Hashtags, Slang, Text Variations
</h3>
<p>
Results are varied when it comes to hashtags, slang, and
variations of text [such as abbreviations] (because of how
they are tokenized/represented), though it is generally
accurate and could be addressed further through data
normalization.
<br />
<br />
<br />
</p>
</section>
<section id="Language" class="tab-panel" style="display: none">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">Language Style</h3>
<p>
The model was trained on Twitter + Parler social media data,
and therefore is less accurate when applied to other forms of
writing/social media content (which have their own linguistic
styles, such as Reddit).
<br />
<br />
<br />
</p>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="trends" class="section" style="">
<div
class="center-page"
style="padding-top: 20px; padding-bottom: 20px; max-width: 1050px"
>
<h2>Data Analysis</h2>
<p style="margin-bottom: 35px">
Using our model, we analyzed 939,908 tweets containing the word
"Muslim" from September 2nd, 2012 to December 4th, 2021. Here's what
we found.
</p>
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">
No correlation between terrorism incidents and % of Islamophobic
tweets
</h3>
<p style="margin-bottom: 20px">
We zoomed in on data for several major terrorism incidents (2015
Paris Attacks, 2016 Brussels Bombings, 2021 Afganistan + Liverpool
attacks) and calculated the % of tweets that contained either
general ot terrorism-related Islamophobic (Formula: tweets tagged as
Islamophobic ÷ total tweets). Contrary to what we initially
hypothesized, we found no correlation between such incidents and
increases in hate speech. (Below: 2 Day M.A, 30 Day Interval)
</p>
<div class="flex-charts" style="margin-bottom: 35px">
<img src="assets/trend_3.svg" />
<img src="assets/trend_5.svg" /><img src="assets/trend_7.svg" />
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="trends2" class="section" style="height: 969px">
<div
class="center-page"
style="
margin: 0 auto;
max-width: 1050px;
display: block;
position: relative;
top: 0%;
left: 0%;
transform: none;
padding-top: 100px;
padding-bottom: 100px;
"
>
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">
Decrease in Terrorism Related Islamophobic Speech
</h3>
<div class="flex-row" style="">
<div class="flex-half">
<p style="padding-right: 14px">
We did, however, find a downward trend of % of Islamphobic
tweets that were terrorism related from 2012 to 2021 (Formula:
tweets tagged as Terrorism ÷ tweets tagged as Islamophobic ).
Overall, there was a ~20% reduction in terrorism-related
Islamophobia across the 9 years. (Right: Sampled 365 Day M.A., 9
Year Interval)
</p>
</div>
<div class="flex-half" style="flex-basis: 49%">
<img
src="assets/overall_trend_3.svg"
style="
width: 100%;
margin-top: 10px;
"
/>
</div>
</div>
<h3 style="font-size: 33px; margin-top: 35px">
Impact of Political Environment
</h3>
<div class="flex-charts" style="margin-bottom: 20px">
<img
src="assets/total_trends_1.svg?qc"
style="width: 100%; height: auto"
/>
</div>
<p style="margin-bottom: 20px">
We also noted that Trump's presidency was strongly correlated with a
sharp uptick in Islamophobic tweets. Major political events seem
also to have varying forms of impact as expected. It's worth
pointing out that correlation is not necessarily causation.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="trends3" class="section">
<div
class="center-page"
style="
margin: 0 auto;
max-width: 1050px;
display: block;
position: relative;
top: 0%;
left: 0%;
transform: none;
padding-top: 100px;
padding-bottom: 100px;
"
>
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-6 col-12" style="align-self: center">
<h3 style="font-size: 33px">Keyword to Hate Correlation</h3>
<p style="margin-bottom: 20px">
Besides time-based trends, we also look at the % of tweets
classified as hate speech for a given keyword. We analyzed an
additional 131,394 tweets (~5000 for each keyword) across 48
hours and charted the average percentage (Formula: tweets tagged
as Islamophobic ÷ total tweets) for each keyword.
</p>
</div>
<div class="col-lg-6 col-12">
<img
src="/assets/chart_words.svg"
id="chart_words"
style="width: 100%; height: auto"
/>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div
id="demo"
style="padding-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px"
class="section"
>
<div
class="center-page"
style="max-width: 1050px; padding-top: 40px; padding-bottom: 0px"
>
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-6 col-12">
<h3 class="inputinfo" style="font-size: 35px">
Input Text/Tweet
</h3>
<p class="input-label">
<span style="color: #2ecc71; font-weight: 700">Neutral</span>:
Absence of Islamophobic hate speech
</p>
<p class="input-label">
<span style="color: #f8ab37; font-weight: 700">General</span>:
Non-specific (cultural stereotypes, insults, slander, etc)
Islamophobic hate speech
</p>
<p class="input-label">
<span style="color: #da2c4d; font-weight: 700">Terrorism</span>:
Hate speech involving the association of Islam with terrorism
</p>
<p class="inputinfo" style="font-size: 16px">
Analysis is run on three language models trained on slightly
varied data. Results are aggregated by a weighted classifier
based on the probabilities from each model and are shown below.
They may take several seconds to appear.
</p>
</div>
<div class="col-lg-6 col-12">
<form action="" id="formInput">
<textarea
id="textForm"
placeholder="Enter Data/Text Here"
required=""
autocomplete="off"
></textarea
><br />
<div style="width: 100%; margin-top: 15px">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-sm-4 col-12">
<input
type="button"
onclick=""
class="custom-btn btn-13"
style="cursor: pointer"
id="textSubmit"
value="Submit"
/>
</div>
<div class="col-sm-8 col-12">
<div class="frame">
<button
disabled=""
class="custom-btn-3 btn-10"
id="result"
>
<div id="result-text">Enter Text for Result</div>
</button>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div id="stats2">
<div class="text-center">
<h4 id="large-result">Result</h4>
</div>
<div class="row">
<div class="col-md-4 col-sm-6 col-12">
<table
id="stats-1"
class="
charts-css
bar
show-labels show-primary-axis show-data-axes show-heading
"
>
<caption id="model-1-caption">
Model 1
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th scope="col">Models</th>
<th scope="col">Result</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th scope="row neutral">Neutral</th>
<td id="stats-1-n" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row racism">General</th>
<td id="stats-1-r" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row terrorism">Terrorism</th>
<td id="stats-1-t" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<!-- <tr>
<th scope="row">Equalizer</th>
<td id="stats-1-e" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr> -->
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div class="col-md-4 col-sm-6 col-12">
<table
id="stats-1"
class="
charts-css
bar
show-labels show-primary-axis show-data-axes show-heading
"
>
<caption id="model-2-caption">
Model 2
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th scope="col">Models</th>
<th scope="col">Result</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th scope="row neutral">Neutral</th>
<td id="stats-2-n" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row racism">General</th>
<td id="stats-2-r" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row terrorism">Terrorism</th>
<td id="stats-2-t" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<!-- <tr>
<th scope="row">Equalizer</th>
<td id="stats-2-e" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr> -->
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div class="col-md-4 col-sm-6 col-12">
<table
id="stats-1"
class="
charts-css
bar
show-labels show-primary-axis show-data-axes show-heading
"
>
<caption id="model-3-caption">
Model 3
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th scope="col">Models</th>
<th scope="col">Result</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th scope="row neutral">Neutral</th>
<td id="stats-3-n" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row racism">General</th>
<td id="stats-3-r" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row terrorism">Terrorism</th>
<td id="stats-3-t" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr>
<!-- <tr>
<th scope="row">Equalizer</th>
<td id="stats-3-e" style="--size: 0"></td>
</tr> -->
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
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