R-ints.texi

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@c %**start of header
@setfilename R-ints.info
@settitle R Internals
@setchapternewpage on
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@c @documentencoding ISO-8859-1

@syncodeindex fn vr

@dircategory Programming
@direntry
* R Internals: (R-ints).      R Internals.
@end direntry

@finalout

@include R-defs.texi
@include version.texi

@ifinfo
This is a guide to R's internal structures.

@Rcopyright{1999}

@ignore
Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the
results, provided the printed document carries a copying permission
notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph
(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).

@end ignore

@permission{}
@c ---------- ^- read that
@end ifinfo

@titlepage
@title R Internals
@subtitle Version @value{VERSION}
@author R Development Core Team
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
@permission{}

@Rcopyright{1999}

@value{ISBN-ints}
@end titlepage

@c @ifnothtml
@contents
@c @end ifnothtml

@ifnottex
@node Top, R Internal Structures, (dir), (dir)
@top R Internals

This is a guide to the internal structures of @R{} and coding standards for
the core team working on @R{} itself.

The current version of this document is @value{VERSION}.

@value{ISBN-ints}
@end ifnottex

@menu
* R Internal Structures::       
* .Internal vs .Primitive::     
* Internationalization in the R sources::  
* Graphics Devices::            
* Tools::                       
* R coding standards::          
* Testing R code::              
* Function and variable index::  
* Concept index::               
@end menu
@node R Internal Structures, .Internal vs .Primitive, Top, Top
@chapter R Internal Structures

This chapter is the beginnings of documentation about @R{} internal
structures.  It is written for the R core team and others studying the
code in the @file{src/main} directory.

It is a work-in-progress, first begun for @R{} 2.4.0, and should be
checked against the current version of the source code.

@menu
* SEXPs::                       
* Environments and variable lookup::  
* Attributes::                  
* Contexts::                    
* Argument evaluation::         
* Autoprinting::                
* The write barrier::           
* Serialization Formats::       
* Encodings for CHARSXPs::      
* The CHARSXP cache::           
* Warnings and errors::         
* S4 objects::                  
* Memory allocators::           
* Internal use of global and base environments::  
* Modules::                     
@end menu

@node SEXPs, Environments and variable lookup, R Internal Structures, R Internal Structures
@section SEXPs

@cindex SEXP
@cindex SEXPRREC
What @R{} users think of as @emph{variables} or @emph{objects} are
symbols which are bound to a value.  The value can be thought of as
either a @code{SEXP} (a pointer), or the structure it points to, a
@code{SEXPREC} (and there are alternative forms used for vectors, namely
@code{VECSXP} pointing to @code{VECTOR_SEXPREC} structures).
So the basic building blocks of @R{} objects are often called
@emph{nodes}, meaning @code{SEXPREC}s or @code{VECTOR_SEXPREC}s.

Note that the internal structure of the @code{SEXPREC} is not made
available to R Extensions: rather @code{SEXP} is an opaque pointer, and
the internals can only be accessed by the functions provided.

@cindex node
Both types of node structure have as their first three fields a 32-bit
@code{sxpinfo} header and then three pointers (to the attributes and the
previous and next node in a doubly-linked list), and then some further
fields.  On a 32-bit platform a node@footnote{strictly, a @code{SEXPREC}
node; @code{VECTOR_SEXPREC} nodes are slightly smaller but followed by
data in the node.} occupies 28 bytes: on a 64-bit platform typically 56
bytes (depending on alignment constraints).

The first five bits of the @code{sxpinfo} header specify one of up to 32
@code{SEXPTYPE}s.

@menu
* SEXPTYPEs::                   
* Rest of header::              
* The 'data'::                  
* Allocation classes::          
@end menu

@node SEXPTYPEs, Rest of header, SEXPs, SEXPs
@subsection SEXPTYPEs

@cindex SEXPTYPE
Currently @code{SEXPTYPE}s 0:10 and 13:25 are in use.  Values 11 and 12 were
used for internal factors and ordered factors and have since been
withdrawn.  Note that the @code{SEXPTYPE}s are stored in @code{save}d
objects and that the ordering of the types is used, so the gap cannot
easily be reused.

@cindex SEXPTYPE table
@quotation
@multitable {no} {SPECIALSXPXXX} {S4 classes not of simple type}
@headitem no @tab  SEXPTYPE@tab  Description
@item @code{0}   @tab @code{NILSXP}      @tab @code{NULL}
@item @code{1}   @tab @code{SYMSXP}      @tab symbols
@item @code{2}   @tab @code{LISTSXP}     @tab pairlists
@item @code{3}   @tab @code{CLOSXP}      @tab closures
@item @code{4}   @tab @code{ENVSXP}      @tab environments
@item @code{5}   @tab @code{PROMSXP}     @tab promises
@item @code{6}   @tab @code{LANGSXP}     @tab language objects
@item @code{7}   @tab @code{SPECIALSXP}  @tab special functions
@item @code{8}   @tab @code{BUILTINSXP}  @tab builtin functions
@item @code{9}   @tab @code{CHARSXP}     @tab internal character strings
@item @code{10}   @tab @code{LGLSXP}     @tab logical vectors
@item @code{13}   @tab @code{INTSXP}     @tab integer vectors
@item @code{14}   @tab @code{REALSXP}    @tab numeric vectors
@item @code{15}   @tab @code{CPLXSXP}    @tab complex vectors
@item @code{16}   @tab @code{STRSXP}     @tab character vectors
@item @code{17}   @tab @code{DOTSXP}     @tab dot-dot-dot object
@item @code{18}   @tab @code{ANYSXP}     @tab make ``any'' args work
@item @code{19}   @tab @code{VECSXP}     @tab list (generic vector)
@item @code{20}   @tab @code{EXPRSXP}    @tab expression vector
@item @code{21}   @tab @code{BCODESXP}   @tab byte code
@item @code{22}   @tab @code{EXTPTRSXP}  @tab external pointer
@item @code{23}   @tab @code{WEAKREFSXP} @tab weak reference
@item @code{24}   @tab @code{RAWSXP}     @tab raw vector
@item @code{25}   @tab @code{S4SXP}      @tab S4 classes not of simple type
@end multitable
@end quotation

@cindex atomic vector type
Many of these will be familiar from @R{} level: the atomic vector types
are @code{LGLSXP}, @code{INTSXP}, @code{REALSXP}, @code{CPLXSP},
@code{STRSXP} and @code{RAWSXP}.  Lists are @code{VECSXP} and names
(also known as symbols) are @code{SYMSXP}.  Pairlists (@code{LISTSXP},
the name going back to the origins of @R{} as a Scheme-like language)
are rarely seen at @R{} level, but are for example used for argument
lists.  Character vectors are effectively lists all of whose elements
are @code{CHARSXP}, a type that is rarely visible at @R{} level.

@cindex language object
@cindex argument list
Language objects (@code{LANGSXP}) are calls (including formulae and so
on).  Internally they are pairlists with first element a
reference@footnote{a pointer to a function or a symbol to look up the
function by name, or a language object to be evaluated to give a
function.} to the function to be called with remaining elements the
actual arguments for the call (and with the tags if present giving the
specified argument names).  Although this is not enforced, many places
in the code assume that the pairlist is of length one or more, often
without checking.

@cindex expression
Expressions are of type @code{EXPRSXP}: they are a vector of (usually
language) objects most often seen as the result of @code{parse()}.

@cindex function
The functions are of types @code{CLOSXP}, @code{SPECIALSXP} and
@code{BUILTINSXP}: where @code{SEXPTYPE}s are stored in an integer
these are sometimes lumped into a pseudo-type @code{FUNSXP} with code
99.  Functions defined via @code{function} are of type @code{CLOSXP} and
have formals, body and environment.

@cindex S4 type
The @code{SEXPTYPE} @code{S4SXP} was introduced in @R{} 2.4.0 for S4
classes which were previously represented as empty lists, that is
objects which do not consist solely of a simple type such as an atomic
vector or function.


@node Rest of header, The 'data', SEXPTYPEs, SEXPs
@subsection Rest of header

The @code{sxpinfo} header is defined as a 32-bit C structure by

@example
struct sxpinfo_struct @{
    SEXPTYPE type      :  5;  /* @r{discussed above} */
    unsigned int obj   :  1;  /* @r{is this an object with a class attribute?} */
    unsigned int named :  2;  /* @r{used to control copying} */
    unsigned int gp    : 16;  /* @r{general purpose, see below} */
    unsigned int mark  :  1;  /* @r{mark object as `in use' in GC} */
    unsigned int debug :  1;
    unsigned int trace :  1;
    unsigned int spare :  1;  /* @r{unused} */
    unsigned int gcgen :  1;  /* @r{generation for GC} */
    unsigned int gccls :  3;  /* @r{class of node for GC} */
@};  /*              Tot: 32 */
@end example

@findex debug bit
The @code{debug} bit is used for closures and environments.  For
closures it is set by @code{debug()} and unset by @code{undebug()}, and
indicates that evaluations of the function should be run under the
browser.  For environments it indicates whether the browsing is in
single-step mode.

@findex trace bit
The @code{trace} bit is used for functions for @code{trace()} and for
other objects when tracing duplications (see @code{tracemem}).

@findex named bit
@findex NAMED
@findex SET_NAMED
@cindex copying semantics
The @code{named} field is set and accessed by the @code{SET_NAMED} and
@code{NAMED} macros, and take values @code{0}, @code{1} and @code{2}.
@R{} has a `call by value' illusion, so an assignment like
@example
b <- a
@end example

@noindent
appears to make a copy of @code{a} and refer to it as @code{b}.
However, if neither @code{a} nor @code{b} are subsequently altered there
is no need to copy.  What really happens is that a new symbol @code{b}
is bound to the same value as @code{a} and the @code{named} field on the
value object is set (in this case to @code{2}).  When an object is about
to be altered, the @code{named} field is consulted.  A value of @code{2}
means that the object must be duplicated before being changed.  (Note
that this does not say that it is necessary to duplicate, only that it
should be duplicated whether necessary or not.)  A value of @code{0}
means that it is known that no other @code{SEXP} shares data with this
object, and so it may safely be altered.  A value of @code{1} is used
for situations like

@example
dim(a) <- c(7, 2)
@end example

@noindent
where in principle two copies of @code{a} exist for the duration of the
computation as (in principle)

@example
a <- `dim<-`(a, c(7, 2))
@end example

@noindent
but for no longer, and so some primitive functions can be optimized to
avoid a copy in this case.

The @code{gp} bits are by definition `general purpose'.  We label these
from 0 to 15.  As of version 2.4.0 of R, bit 4 is turned on to mark S4
objects.  Bits 0-3 and bits 14-15 have been used previously as described
below (from detective work on the sources).

@findex gp bits
@findex LEVELS
@findex SETLEVELS
The bits can be accessed and set by the @code{LEVELS} and
@code{SETLEVELS} macros, which names appear to date back to the internal
factor and ordered types and are now used in only a few places in the
code.  The @code{gp} field is serialized/unserialized for the
@code{SEXPTYPE}s other than @code{NILSXP}, @code{SYMSXP} and
@code{ENVSXP}.

Bits 14 and 15 of @code{gp} are used for `fancy bindings'.  Bit 14 is
used to lock a binding or an environment, and bit 15 is used to indicate
an active binding.  (For the definition of an `active binding' see the
header comments in file @file{src/main/envir.c}.)  Bit 15 is used for an
environment to indicate if it participates in the global cache.

Almost all other uses seem to be only of bits 0 and 1, although one
reserves the first four bits.

@findex ARGSUSED
@findex SET_ARGUSED
The macros @code{ARGUSED} and @code{SET_ARGUSED} are used when matching
actual and formal function arguments, and take the values 0, 1 and 2.

@findex MISSING
@findex SET_MISSING
The macros @code{MISSING} and @code{SET_MISSING} are used for pairlists
of arguments.  Four bits are reserved, but only two are used (and
exactly what for is not explained).  It seems that bit 0 is used by
@code{matchArgs} to mark missingness on the returned argument list, and
bit 1 is used to mark the use of a default value for an argument copied
to the evaluation frame of a closure.

@findex DDVAL
@findex SET_DDVAL
@cindex ... argument
Bit 0 is used by macros @code{DDVAL} and @code{SET_DDVAL}.  This
indicates that a @code{SYMSXP} is one of the symbols @code{..n} which
are implicitly created when @code{...} is processed, and so indicates
that it may need to be looked up in a @code{DOTSXP}.

@findex PRSEEN
@cindex promise
Bit 0 is used for @code{PRSEEN}, a flag to indicate if a promise has
already been seen during the evaluation of the promise (and so to avoid
recursive loops).

Bit 0 is used for @code{HASHASH}, on the @code{PRINTNAME} of the
@code{TAG} of the frame of an environment.

Bits 0 and 1 are used for weak references (to indicate 'ready to
finalize', 'finalize on exit').

Bit 0 is used by the condition handling system (on a @code{VECSXP}) to
indicate a calling handler.

As from @R{} 2.5.0, bits 2 and 3 for a @code{CHARSXP} are used to note
that it is known to be in Latin-1 and UTF-8 respectively.  (These are not
usually set if it is also known to be in ASCII, since code does not need
to know the charset to handle ASCII strings.  From @R{} 2.8.0
it is guaranteed that they will not be set for CHARSXPs created by @R{}
itself.)  As from @R{} 2.8.0 bit 5 is used to indicate that a CHARSXP
is hashed by its address, that is NA_STRING or in the CHARSXP cache.


@c Finally, @code{SETLEVELS} and @code{LEVELS} are used by that name for
@c the internal code for @code{terms.formula} to compute the @code{order}
@c attribute of the result.  This is computed on an internal pairlist, and
@c marks the order of the interaction.  This is in principle unlimited
@c (although no test is done) and could in principle exceed 15.  (This
@c usage could easily be replaced by one not making use of @code{gp}.)


@node The 'data', Allocation classes, Rest of header, SEXPs
@subsection The `data'

A @code{SEXPREC} is a C structure containing the 32-bit header as
described above, three pointers (to the attributes, previous and next
node) and the node data, a union

@example
union @{
    struct primsxp_struct primsxp;
    struct symsxp_struct symsxp;
    struct listsxp_struct listsxp;
    struct envsxp_struct envsxp;
    struct closxp_struct closxp;
    struct promsxp_struct promsxp;
@} u;
@end example

@noindent
All of these alternatives apart from the first (an @code{int}) are three
pointers, so the union occupies three words.

@cindex vector type
The vector types are @code{RAWSXP}, @code{CHARSXP}, @code{LGLSXP},
@code{INTSXP}, @code{REALSXP}, @code{CPLXSXP}, @code{STRSXP},
@code{VECSXP}, @code{EXPRSXP} and @code{WEAKREFSXP}.  Remember that such
types are a @code{VECTOR_SEXPREC}, which again consists of the header
and the same three pointers, but followed by two integers giving the
length and `true length'@footnote{This is almost unused.  The only
current use is for hash tables of environments (@code{VECSXP}s), where
@code{length} is the size of the table and @code{truelength} is the
number of primary slots in use, and for the reference hash tables in
serialization (@code{VECSXP}s), where @code{truelength} is the number of
slots in use.} of the vector, and then followed by the data (aligned as
required: on most 32-bit systems with a 24-byte @code{VECTOR_SEXPREC}
node the data can follow immediately after the node).  The data are a
block of memory of the appropriate length to store `true length'
elements (rounded up to a multiple of 8 bytes, with the 8-byte blocks
being the `Vcells' referred in the documentation for @code{gc()}).

The `data' for the various types are given in the table below.  A lot of
this is interpretation, i.e. the types are not checked.

@table @code
@item NILSXP

There is only one object of type @code{NILSXP}, @code{R_NilValue}, with
no data.

@item SYMSXP
Pointers to three nodes, the name, value and internal, accessed by
@code{PRINTNAME} (a @code{CHARSXP}), @code{SYMVALUE} and
@code{INTERNAL}.  (If the symbol's value is a @code{.Internal} function,
the last is a pointer to the appropriate @code{SEXPREC}.)  Many symbols
have @code{SYMVALUE} @code{R_UnboundValue}.

@item LISTSXP
Pointers to the CAR, CDR (usually a @code{LISTSXP} or @code{NULL}) and TAG
(usually a @code{SYMSXP}).

@item CLOSXP
Pointers to the formals (a pairlist), the body and the environment.

@item ENVSXP
Pointers to the frame, enclosing environment and hash table (@code{NULL} or a
@code{VECSXP}).  A frame is a tagged pairlist with tag the symbol and
CAR the bound value.

@item PROMSXP
Pointers to the value, expression and environment (in which to evaluate
the expression).  Once an promise has been evaluated, the environment is
set to @code{NULL}.

@item LANGSXP
A special type of @code{LISTSXP} used for function calls.  (The CAR
references the function (perhaps via a symbol or language object), and
the CDR the argument list with tags for named arguments.)  @R{}-level
documentation references to `expressions' / `language objects' are
mainly @code{LANGSXP}s, but can be symbols (@code{SYMSXP}s) or
expression vectors (@code{EXPRSXP}s).

@item SPECIALSXP
@itemx BUILTINSXP
An integer giving the offset into the table of
primitives/@code{.Internal}s.

@item CHARSXP
@code{length}, @code{truelength} followed by a block of bytes (allowing
for the @code{nul} terminator).

@item LGLSXP
@itemx INTSXP
@code{length}, @code{truelength} followed by a block of C @code{int}s
(which are 32 bits on all @R{} platforms).

@item REALSXP
@code{length}, @code{truelength} followed by a block of C @code{double}s

@item CPLXSXP
@code{length}, @code{truelength} followed by a block of C99
@code{double complex}s, or equivalent structures.

@item STRSXP
@code{length}, @code{truelength} followed by a block of pointers
(@code{SEXP}s pointing to @code{CHARSXP}s).

@item DOTSXP
A special type of @code{LISTSXP} for the value bound to a @code{...}
symbol: a pairlist of promises.

@item ANYSXP
This is used as a place holder for any type: there are no actual objects
of this type.

@item VECSXP
@itemx EXPRSXP
@code{length}, @code{truelength} followed by a block of pointers.  These
are internally identical (and identical to @code{STRSXP}) but differ in
the interpretations placed on the elements.

@item BCODESXP
For the future byte-code compiler.

@item EXTPTRSXP
Has three pointers, to the pointer, the protection value (an @R{} object
which if alive protects this object) and a tag (a @code{SYMSXP}?).

@item WEAKREFSXP
A @code{WEAKREFSXP} is a special @code{VECSXP} of length 4, with
elements @samp{key}, @samp{value}, @samp{finalizer} and @samp{next}.
The @samp{key} is @code{NULL}, an environment or an external pointer,
and the @samp{finalizer} is a function or @code{NULL}.

@item RAWSXP
@code{length}, @code{truelength} followed by a block of bytes.

@item S4SXP
two unused pointers and a tag.
@end table

@node Allocation classes,  , The 'data', SEXPs
@subsection Allocation classes

@cindex allocation classes
As we have seen, the field @code{gccls} in the header is three bits to
label up to 8 classes of nodes.  Non-vector nodes are of class 0, and
`small' vector nodes are of classes 1 to 6, with `large' vector nodes
being of class 7.  The `small' vector nodes are able to store vector
data of up to 8, 16, 32, 48, 64 and 128 bytes: larger vectors are
@code{malloc}-ed individually whereas the `small' nodes are allocated
from pages of about 2000 bytes.


@node Environments and variable lookup, Attributes, SEXPs, R Internal Structures
@section Environments and variable lookup

@cindex environment
@cindex variable lookup
What users think of as `variables' are symbols which are bound to
objects in `environments'.  The word `environment' is used ambiguously
in @R{} to mean @emph{either} the frame of an @code{ENVSXP} (a pairlist
of symbol-value pairs) @emph{or} an @code{ENVSXP}, a frame plus an
enclosure.

@cindex user databases
There are additional places that `variables' can be looked up, called
`user databases' in comments in the code.  These seem undocumented in
the @R{} sources, but apparently refer to the @pkg{RObjectTable} package
at @uref{http://www.omegahat.org/RObjectTables/}.

@cindex base environment
@cindex environment, base
The base environment is special.  There is an @code{ENVSXP} environment
with enclosure the empty environment @code{R_EmptyEnv}, but the frame of
that environment is not used.  Rather its bindings are part of the
global symbol table, being those symbols in the global symbol table
whose values are not @code{R_UnboundValue}.  When @R{} is started the
internal functions are installed (by C code) in the symbol table, with
primitive functions having values and @code{.Internal} functions having
what would be their values in the field accessed by the @code{INTERNAL}
macro.  Then @code{.Platform} and @code{.Machine} are computed and the
base package is loaded into the base environment followed by the system
profile.

The frames of environments (and the symbol table) are normally hashed
for faster access (including insertion and deletion).

By default @R{} maintains a (hashed) global cache of `variables' (that
is symbols and their bindings) which have been found, and this refers
only to environments which have been marked to participate, which
consists of the global environment (aka the user workspace), the base
environment plus environments@footnote{Remember that attaching a list or
a saved image actually creates and populates an environment and attaches
that.} which have been @code{attach}ed.  When an environment is either
@code{attach}ed or @code{detach}ed, the names of its symbols are flushed
from the cache.  The cache is used whenever searching for variables from
the global environment (possibly as part of a recursive search).

@menu
* Search paths::                
* Name spaces::                 
@end menu

@node Search paths, Name spaces, Environments and variable lookup, Environments and variable lookup
@subsection Search paths

@cindex search path
@Sl{} has the notion of a `search path': the lookup for a `variable'
leads (possibly through a series of frames) to the `session frame' the
`working directory' and then along the search path.  The search path is
a series of databases (as returned by @code{search()}) which contain the
system functions (but not necessarily at the end of the path, as by
default the equivalent of packages are added at the end).

@R{} has a variant on the @Sl{} model.  There is a search path (also
returned by @code{search()}) which consists of the global environment
(aka user workspace) followed by environments which have been attached
and finally the base environment.  Note that unlike @Sl{} it is not
possible to attach environments before the workspace nor after the base
environment.

However, the notion of variable lookup is more general in @R{}, hence
the plural in the title of this subsection.  Since environments have
enclosures, from any environment there is a search path found by looking
in the frame, then the frame of its enclosure and so on.  Since loops
are not allowed, this process will eventually terminate: until @R{}
2.2.0 it always terminated at the base environment, but nowadays it can
terminate at either the base environment or the empty environment.  (It
can be conceptually simpler to think of the search always terminating at
the empty environment, but with an optimization to stop at the base
environment.)  So the `search path' describes the chain of environments
which is taken once the search reaches the global environment.

@node Name spaces,  , Search paths, Environments and variable lookup
@subsection Name spaces

@cindex name space
Name spaces are environments associated with packages (and once again
the base package is special and will be considered separately).  A
package @code{@var{pkg}} with a name space defines two environments
@code{namespace:@var{pkg}} and @code{package:@var{pkg}}: it is
@code{package:@var{pkg}} that can be @code{attach}ed and form part of
the search path.

The objects defined by the @R{} code in the package are symbols with
bindings in the @code{namespace:@var{pkg}} environment.  The
@code{package:@var{pkg}} environment is populated by selected symbols
from the @code{namespace:@var{pkg}} environment (the exports).  The
enclosure of this environment is an environment populated with the
explicit imports from other name spaces, and the enclosure of
@emph{that} environment is the base name space.  (So the illusion of the
imports being in the name space environment is created via the
environment tree.)  The enclosure of the base name space is the global
environment, so the search from a package name space goes via the
(explicit and implicit) imports to the standard `search path'.

@cindex base name space
@cindex name space, base
@findex R_BaseNamespace
The base name space environment @code{R_BaseNamespace} is another
@code{ENVSXP} that is special-cased.  It is effectively the same thing
as the base environment @code{R_BaseEnv} @emph{except} that its
enclosure is the global environment rather than the empty environment:
the internal code diverts lookups in its frame to the global symbol
table.


@node Attributes, Contexts, Environments and variable lookup, R Internal Structures
@section Attributes

@cindex attributes
@findex ATTRIB
@findex SET_ATTRIB
@findex DUPLICATE_ATTRIB
As we have seen, every @code{SEXPREC} has a pointer to the attributes of
the node (default @code{R_NilValue}).  The attributes can be accessed/set
by the macros/functions @code{ATTRIB} and @code{SET_ATTRIB}, but such
direct access is normally@footnote{An exception is the internal code for
@code{terms.formula} which directly manipulates the attributes.} only
used to check if the attributes are @code{NULL} or to reset them.
Otherwise access goes through the functions @code{getAttrib} and
@code{setAttrib} which impose restrictions on the attributes.  One thing
to watch is that if you copy attributes from one object to another you
may (un)set the @code{"class"} attribute and so need to copy the object
and S4 bits as well.  There is a macro/function
@code{DUPLICATE_ATTRIB} to automate this.

The code assumes that the attributes of a node are either
@code{R_NilValue} or a pairlist of non-zero length (and this is checked
by @code{SET_ATTRIB}).  The attributes are named (via tags on the
pairlist).  The replacement function @code{attributes<-} ensures that
@code{"dim"} precedes @code{"dimnames"} in the pairlist.  Attribute
@code{"dim"} is one of several that is treated specially: the values are
checked, and any @code{"names"} and @code{"dimnames"} attributes are
removed.  Similarly, you cannot set @code{"dimnames"} without having set
@code{"dim"}, and the value assigned must be a list of the correct
length and with elements of the correct lengths (and all zero-length
elements are replaced by @code{NULL}).

The other attributes which are given special treatment are
@code{"names"}, @code{"class"}, @code{"tsp"}, @code{"comment"} and
@code{"row.names"}.  For pairlist-like objects the names are not stored
as an attribute but (as symbols) as the tags: however the @R{} interface
makes them look like conventional attributes, and for one-dimensional
arrays they are stored as the first element of the @code{"dimnames"}
attribute.  The C code ensures that the @code{"tsp"} attribute is an
@code{REALSXP}, the frequency is positive and the implied length agrees
with the number of rows of the object being assigned to.  Classes and
comments are restricted to character vectors, and assigning a
zero-length comment or class removes the attribute.  Setting or removing
a @code{"class"} attribute sets the object bit appropriately.  Integer
row names are converted to and from the internal compact representation.

@cindex copying semantics
Care needs to be taken when adding attributes to objects of the types
with non-standard copying semantics.  There is only one object of type
@code{NILSXP}, @code{R_NilValue}, and that should never have attributes
(and this is enforced in @code{installAttrib}).  For environments,
external pointers and weak references, the attributes should be relevant
to all uses of the object: it is for example reasonable to have a name
for an environment, and also a @code{"path"} attribute for those
environments populated from @R{} code in a package.

@cindex attributes, preserving
@cindex preserving attributes
When should attributes be preserved under operations on an object?
Becker, Chambers & Wilks (1988, pp. 144--6) give some guidance.  Scalar
functions (those which operate element-by-element on a vector and whose
output is similar to the input) should preserve attributes (except
perhaps class, and if they do preserve class they need to preserve the
@code{OBJECT} and S4 bits).  Binary operations normally call
@findex copyMostAttributes
@code{copyMostAttributes} to copy most attributes from the longer
argument (and if they are of the same length from both, preferring the
values on the first).  Here `most' means all except the @code{names},
@code{dim} and @code{dimnames} which are set appropriately by the code
for the operator.

Subsetting (other than by an empty index) generally drops all attributes
except @code{names}, @code{dim} and @code{dimnames} which are reset as
appropriate.  On the other hand, subassignment generally preserves such
attributes even if the length is changed.  Coercion drops all
attributes. For example:

@example
> x <- structure(1:8, names=letters[1:8], comm="a comment")
> x[]
a b c d e f g h
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
attr(,"comm")
[1] "a comment"
> x[1:3]
a b c
1 2 3
> x[3] <- 3
> x
a b c d e f g h
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
attr(,"comm")
[1] "a comment"
> x[9] <- 9
> x
a b c d e f g h
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
attr(,"comm")
[1] "a comment"
@end example


@node Contexts, Argument evaluation, Attributes, R Internal Structures
@section Contexts

@cindex context
@emph{Contexts} are the internal mechanism used to keep track of where a
computation has got to (and from where), so that control-flow constructs
can work and reasonable information can be produced on error conditions,
(such as @emph{via} traceback) and otherwise (the @code{sys.@var{xxx}}
functions).

Execution contexts are a stack of C @code{structs}:

@example
typedef struct RCNTXT @{
    struct RCNTXT *nextcontext; /* @r{The next context up the chain} */
    int callflag;               /* @r{The context `type'} */
    JMP_BUF cjmpbuf;            /* @r{C stack and register information} */
    int cstacktop;              /* @r{Top of the pointer protection stack} */
    int evaldepth;              /* @r{Evaluation depth at inception} */
    SEXP promargs;              /* @r{Promises supplied to closure} */
    SEXP callfun;               /* @r{The closure called} */
    SEXP sysparent;             /* @r{Environment the closure was called from} */
    SEXP call;                  /* @r{The call that effected this context} */
    SEXP cloenv;                /* @r{The environment} */
    SEXP conexit;               /* @r{Interpreted @code{on.exit} code} */
    void (*cend)(void *);       /* @r{C @code{on.exit} thunk} */
    void *cenddata;             /* @r{Data for C @code{on.exit} thunk} */
    char *vmax;                 /* @r{Top of the @code{R_alloc} stack} */
    int intsusp;                /* @r{Interrupts are suspended} */
    SEXP handlerstack;          /* @r{Condition handler stack} */
    SEXP restartstack;          /* @r{Stack of available restarts} */
    struct RPRSTACK *prstack;   /* @r{Stack of pending promises} */
@} RCNTXT, *context;
@end example

@noindent
plus additional fields for the future byte-code compiler.  The `types'
are from

@example
enum @{
    CTXT_TOPLEVEL = 0,  /* @r{toplevel context} */
    CTXT_NEXT     = 1,  /* @r{target for @code{next}} */
    CTXT_BREAK    = 2,  /* @r{target for @code{break}} */
    CTXT_LOOP     = 3,  /* @r{@code{break} or @code{next} target} */
    CTXT_FUNCTION = 4,  /* @r{function closure} */
    CTXT_CCODE    = 8,  /* @r{other functions that need error cleanup} */
    CTXT_RETURN   = 12, /* @r{@code{return()} from a closure} */
    CTXT_BROWSER  = 16, /* @r{return target on exit from browser} */
    CTXT_GENERIC  = 20, /* @r{rather, running an S3 method} */
    CTXT_RESTART  = 32, /* @r{a call to @code{restart} was made from a closure} */
    CTXT_BUILTIN  = 64  /* @r{builtin internal function} */
@};
@end example

@noindent
where the @code{CTXT_FUNCTION} bit is on wherever function closures are
involved.

Contexts are created by a call to @code{begincontext} and ended by a
call to @code{endcontext}: code can search up the stack for a
particular type of context via @code{findcontext} (and jump there) or
jump to a specific context via @code{R_JumpToContext}.
@code{R_ToplevelContext} is the `idle' state (normally the command
prompt), and @code{R_GlobalContext} is the top of the stack.

Note that whilst all calls to closures set a context, those to special
internal functions never do, and those to builtin internal functions
have done so only recently (and prior to that only when profiling).

@findex UseMethod
@cindex method dispatch
Dispatching from a S3 generic (via @code{UseMethod} or its internal
equivalent) or calling @code{NextMethod} sets the context type to
@code{CTXT_GENERIC}.  This is used to set the @code{sysparent} of the
method call to that of the @code{generic}, so the method appears to have
been called in place of the generic rather than from the generic.

The @R{} @code{sys.frame} and @code{sys.call} work by counting calls to
closures (type @code{CTXT_FUNCTION}) from either end of the context
stack.

Note that the @code{sysparent} element of the structure is not the same
thing as @code{sys.parent()}.  Element @code{sysparent} is primarily
used in managing changes of the function being evaluated, i.e. by
@code{Recall} and method dispatch.

@code{CTXT_CCODE} contexts are currently used in @code{cat()},
@code{load()}, @code{scan()} and @code{write.table()} (to close the
connection on error), by @code{PROTECT}, serialization (to recover from
errors, e.g.@: free buffers) and within the error handling code (to
raise the C stack limit and reset some variables).


@node Argument evaluation, Autoprinting, Contexts, R Internal Structures
@section Argument evaluation

@cindex argument evaluation
As we have seen, functions in @R{} come in three types, closures
(@code{SEXPTYPE} @code{CLOSXP}), specials (@code{SPECIALSXP}) and
builtins (@code{BUILTINSXP}).  In this section we consider when (and if)
the actual arguments of function calls are evaluated.  The rules are
different for the internal (special/builtin) and R-level functions
(closures).

For a call to a closure, the actual and formal arguments are matched and
a matched call (another @code{LANGSXP}) is constructed.  This process
first replaces the actual argument list by a list of promises to the
values supplied.  It then constructs a new environment which contains
the names of the formal parameters matched to actual or default values:
all the matched values are promises, the defaults as promises to be
evaluated in the environment just created.  That environment is then
used for the evaluation of the body of the function, and promises will
be forced (and hence actual or default arguments evaluated) when they
are encountered. 
@findex NAMED
(Evaluating a promise sets @code{NAMED = 2} on its value, so if the
argument was a symbol its binding is regarded as having multiple
references during the evaluation of the closure call.)

If the closure is an S3 generic (that is, contains a call to
@code{UseMethod}) the evaluation process is the same until the
@code{UseMethod} call is encountered.  At that point the argument on
which to do dispatch (normally the first) will be evaluated if it has
not been already.  If a method has been found which is a closure, a new
evaluation environment is created for it containing the matched
arguments of the method plus any new variables defined so far during the
evaluation of the body of the generic.  (Note that this means changes to
the values of the formal arguments in the body of the generic are
discarded when calling the method, but @emph{actual} argument promises
which have been forced retain the values found when they were forced.
On the other hand, missing arguments have values which are promises to
use the default supplied by the method and not the generic.)  If the
method found is a special or builtin it is called with the matched
argument list of promises (possibly already forced) used for the generic.

@cindex builtin function
@cindex special function
@cindex primitive function
@cindex .Internal function
The essential difference@footnote{There is currently one other
difference: when profiling builtin functions are counted as function
calls but specials are not.} between special and builtin functions is
that the arguments of specials are not evaluated before the C code is
called, and those of builtins are.  In each case positional matching of
arguments is used.  Note that being a special/builtin is separate from
being primitive or @code{.Internal}: @code{function} is a special
primitive, @code{+} is a builtin primitive, @code{switch} is a special
@code{.Internal} and @code{grep} is a builtin @code{.Internal}.

@cindex generic, internal
@findex DispatchOrEval
Many of the internal functions are internal generics, which for specials
means that they do not evaluate their arguments on call, but the C code
starts with a call to @code{DispatchOrEval}.  The latter evaluates the
first argument, and looks for a method based on its class.  (If S4
dispatch is on, S4 methods are looked for first, even for S3 classes.)
If it finds a method, it dispatches to that method with a call based on
promises to evaluate the remaining arguments.  If no method is found,
the remaining arguments are evaluated before return to the internal
generic.

@cindex generic, generic
@findex DispatchGeneric
The other way that internal functions can be generic is to be group
generic.  All such functions are builtins (so immediately evaluate all
their arguments), and contain a call to the C function
@code{DispatchGeneric}.  There are some peculiarities over the number of
arguments for the @code{"Math"} group generic, with some members
allowing only one argument, some having two (with a default for the
second) and @code{trunc} allows one or more but the default only
accepts one.

@menu
* Missingness::                 
* Dot-dot-dot arguments::       
@end menu

@node Missingness, Dot-dot-dot arguments, Argument evaluation, Argument evaluation
@subsection Missingness

@cindex missingness
Actual arguments to (non-internal) @R{} functions can be fewer than are
required to match the formal arguments of the function.  Having
unmatched formal arguments will not matter if the argument is never used
(by lazy evaluation),  but when the argument is evaluated, either its
default value is evaluated (within the evaluation environment of the
function) or an error is thrown with a message along the lines of

@example
argument "foobar" is missing, with no default
@end example

@findex MISSING
@findex R_MissingArg
Internally missingness is handled by two mechanisms. The object
@code{R_MissingArg} is used to indicate that a formal argument has no
(default) value.  When matching the actual arguments to the formal
arguments, a new argument list is constructed from the formals all of
whose values are @code{R_MissingArg} with the first @code{MISSING} bit
set.  Then whenever a formal argument is matched to an actual argument,
the corresponding member of the new argument list has its value set to
that of the matched actual argument, and if that is not
@code{R_MissingArg} the missing bit is unset.

This new argument list is used to form the evaluation frame for the
function, and if named arguments are subsequently given a new value
(before they are evaluated) the missing bit is cleared.

Missingness of arguments can be interrogated via the @code{missing()}
function.  An argument is clearly missing if its missing bit is set or
if the value is @code{R_MissingArg}.  However, missingness can be passed
on from function to function, for using a formal argument as an actual
argument in a function call does not count as evaluation.  So
@code{missing()} has to examine the value (a promise) of a
non-yet-evaluated formal argument to see if it might be missing, which
might involve investigating a promise and so on @dots{}.

@node Dot-dot-dot arguments,  , Missingness, Argument evaluation
@subsection Dot-dot-dot arguments

@cindex ... argument
Dot-dot-dot arguments are convenient when writing functions, but
complicate the internal code for argument evaluation.

The formals of a function with a @code{...} argument represent that as a
single argument like any other argument, with tag the symbol
@code{R_DotsSymbol}.  When the actual arguments are matched to the
formals, the value of the @code{...} argument is of @code{SEXPTYPE}
@code{DOTSXP}, a pairlist of promises (as used for matched arguments)
but distinguished by the @code{SEXPTYPE}.

Recall that the evaluation frame for a function initially contains the
@code{@var{name}=@var{value}} pairs from the matched call, and hence
this will be true for @code{...} as well.  The value of @code{...} is a
(special) pairlist whose elements are referred to by the special symbols
@code{..1}, @code{..2}, @dots{} which have the @code{DDVAL} bit set:
when one of these is encountered it is looked up (via @code{ddfndVar})
in the value of the @code{...} symbol in the evaluation frame.

Values of arguments matched to a @code{...} argument can be missing.

@node Autoprinting, The write barrier, Argument evaluation, R Internal Structures
@section Autoprinting

@cindex autoprinting
@findex R_Visible

Whether the returned value of a top-level @R{} expression is printed is
controlled by the global boolean variable @code{R_Visible}.  This is set
(to true or false) on entry to all primitive and internal functions
based on the @code{eval} column of the table in @file{names.c}: the
appropriate setting can be extracted by the macro @code{PRIMPRINT}.
@findex PRIMPRINT

@findex invisible
The @R{} primitive function @code{invisible} makes use of this
mechanism: it just sets @code{R_Visible = FALSE} before entry and
returns its argument.

For most functions the intention will be that the setting of
@code{R_Visible} when they are entered is the setting used when they
return, but there need to be exceptions.  The @R{} functions
@code{identify}, @code{options}, @code{system} and @code{writeBin}
determine whether the result should be visible from the arguments or
user action.  Other functions themselves dispatch functions which may
change the visibility flag: examples@footnote{the other current example
is left brace, which is implemented as a primitive.} are
@code{.Internal}, @code{do.call}, @code{eval},
@code{eval.with.vis}@footnote{a @code{.Internal}-only function used in
@code{source}, @code{withVisible} and a few other places.}, @code{if},
@code{NextMethod}, @code{Recall}, @code{recordGraphics},
@code{standardGeneric}, @code{switch} and @code{UseMethod}.

`Special' primitive and internal functions evaluate their arguments
internally @emph{after} @code{R_Visible} has been set, and evaluation of
the arguments (e.g.@: an assignment as in PR#9263)) can change the value
of the flag.  Prior to @R{} 2.5.0, known instances of such functions
reset the flag after the internal evaluation of arguments: examples
include @code{[}, @code{[[}, @code{$}, @code{c}, @code{cbind},
@code{dump}, @code{rbind} and @code{unlist}, as well as the language
constructs (which are primitives) @code{for}, @code{while} and
@code{repeat}.

The @code{R_Visible} flag can also get altered during the evaluation of
a function, with comments in the code about @code{warning},
@code{writeChar} and graphics functions calling @code{GText} (PR#7397).
(Since the C-level function @code{eval} sets @code{R_Visible}, this
could apply to any function calling it.  Since it is called when
evaluating promises, even object lookup can change @code{R_Visible}.)
From @R{} 2.1.0 internal functions that were marked to set
@code{R_Visible = FALSE} enforced this when the function returned.  As
from @R{} 2.5.0 both internal and primitive functions force the
documented setting of @code{R_Visible} on return, unless the C code is
allowed to change it (the exceptions above are indicated by
@code{PRIMPRINT} having value 2).

The actual autoprinting is done by @code{PrintValueEnv} in
@file{print.c}.  If the object to be printed has the S4 bit set and S4
methods dispatch is on, @code{show} is called to print the object.
Otherwise, if the object bit is set (so the object has a
@code{"class"} attribute), @code{print} is called to dispatch methods:
for objects without a class the internal code of @code{print.default}
is called.


@node The write barrier, Serialization Formats, Autoprinting, R Internal Structures
@section The write barrier and the garbage collector

@cindex write barrier
@cindex garbage collector
@R{} has since version 1.2.0 had a generational garbage collector, and
bit @code{gcgen} in the @code{sxpinfo} header is used in the
implementation of this.  This is used in conjunction with the
@code{mark} bit to identify two previous generations.

There are three levels of collections.  Level 0 collects only the
youngest generation, level 1 collects the two youngest generations and
level 2 collects all generations.  After 20 level-0 collections the next
collection is at level 1, and after 5 level-1 collections at level 2.
Further, if a level-@var{n} collection fails to provide 20% free space
(for each of nodes and the vector heap), the next collection will be at
level @var{n+1}.  (The R-level function @code{gc()} performs a level-2
collection.)

A generational collector needs to efficiently `age' the objects,
especially list-like objects (including @code{STRSXP}s).  This is done
by ensuring that the elements of a list are regarded as at least as old
as the list @emph{when they are assigned}.  This is handled by the
functions @code{SET_VECTOR_ELT} and @code{SET_STRING_ELT}, which is why
they are functions and not macros.  Ensuring the integrity of such
operations is termed the @dfn{write barrier} and is done by making the
@code{SEXP} opaque and only providing access via functions (which cannot
be used as lvalues in assignments in C).

All code in @R{} extensions is by default behind the write barrier.  The
only way to obtain direct access to the internals of the @code{SEXPREC}s
is to define @samp{USE_RINTERNALS} before including @file{Rinternals.h},
which is normally defined in @file{Defn.h}.  To enable a check on the
way that the access is used, @R{} can be compiled with flag
@option{--enable-strict-barrier} which ensures that @file{Defn.h} does
not define @samp{USE_RINTERNALS} and hence that @code{SEXP} is opaque in
most of @R{} itself.  (There are some necessary exceptions: foremost
@file{memory.c} where the accessor functions are defined and also
@file{size.c} which needs access to the sizes of the internal
structures.)

For background papers see
@uref{http://www.stat.uiowa.edu/~luke/R/barrier.html} and
@uref{http://www.stat.uiowa.edu/~luke/R/gengcnotes.html}.

@node Serialization Formats, Encodings for CHARSXPs, The write barrier, R Internal Structures
@section Serialization Formats

@cindex serialization
Serialized versions of @R{} objects are used by @code{load}/@code{save}
and also at a lower level by @code{.saveRDS}/@code{.readRDS} and
@code{serialize}/@code{unserialize}.  These differ in what they
serialize to (a file, a connection, a raw vector) and whether they are
intended to serialize a single object or a collection of objects
(typically a workspace).  @code{save} writes a header indicating the
format at the beginning of the file (a single LF-terminated line) which
the lower-level versions do not.

@R{} has used the same serialization format since @R{} 1.4.0 in December
2001.  Reading of earlier formats is still supported via @code{load},
but they are not described here.  (Files of most of these formats can
still be found in @file{data} directories of packages.) The current
serialization format is called `version 2', and has been expanded in
back-compatible ways since @R{} 1.4.0, for example to support additional
@code{SEXPTYPE}s.

@code{save()} works by first creating a tagged pairlist of objects to be
saved, and then saving that single object preceded by a single-line
header (typically @code{RDX2\n} for a binary save).  @code{load()} reads
the header line, unserializes a single object (a pairlist or a vector
list) and assigns the elements of the list in the appropriate
environment.

Serialization in @R{} needs to take into account that objects may
contain references to environments, which then have enclosing
environments and so on.  (Environments recognized as package or name
space environments are saved by name.)  Further, there are `reference
objects' which are not duplicated on copy and should remain
shared on unserialization.  These are weak references, external pointers
and environments other than those associated with packages, name spaces
and the global environment.  These are handled via a hash table, and
references after the first are written out as a reference marker indexed
by the table entry.

Serialization first writes a header indicating the format (normally
@samp{X\n} for an XDR format binary save, but @samp{A\n}, ASCII, and
@samp{B\n}, native word-order binary@footnote{there is no R-level
interface to this format}, can also occur) and the version number of the
format and of two @R{} versions (as integers).  (Unserialization
interprets the two versions as the version of @R{} which wrote the file
followed by the minimal version of @R{} needed to read the format.)
Serialization then writes out the object recursively using function
@code{WriteItem} in file @file{src/main/serialize.c}.

Some objects are written as if they were @code{SEXPTYPE}s: such
pseudo-@code{SEXPTYPE}s cover @code{R_NilValue}, @code{R_EmptyEnv},
@code{R_BaseEnv}, @code{R_GlobalEnv}, @code{R_UnboundValue},
@code{R_MissingArg} and @code{R_BaseNamespace}.

For all @code{SEXPTYPE}s except @code{NILSXP}, @code{SYMSXP} and
@code{ENVSXP} serialization starts with an integer with the
@code{SEXPTYPE} in bits 0:7@footnote{only 0:4 will currently be used for
@code{SEXPTYPE}s but values 241:255 are used for pseudo-@code{SEXPTYPE}s.}
followed by the object bit, two bits indicating if there are any
attributes and if there is a tag (for the pairlist types), an unused bit
and then the @code{gp} field@footnote{Currently the only relevant bits
are 0:1, 4, 14:15.} in bits 12:27.  Pairlist-like objects write their
attributes (if any), tag (if any), CAR and then CDR (using tail
recursion): other objects write their attributes after themselves.
Atomic vector objects write their length followed by the data: generic
vector-list objects write the length followed by a call to
@code{WriteItem} for each element.  The code for @code{CHARSXP}s
special-cases @code{NA_STRING} and writes it as length @code{-1} with no
data.

Environments are treated in several ways: as we have seen, some are
written as specific pseudo-@code{SEXPTYPE}s.  Package and name space
environments are written with pseudo-@code{SEXPTYPE}s followed by the
name.  `Normal' environments are written out as @code{ENVSXP}s with an
integer indicating if the environment is locked followed by the
enclosure, frame, `tag' (the hash table) and attributes.

In the `XDR' format integers and doubles are written in bigendian
order: however the format is not fully XDR as defined in RFC 1832 as byte
quantities (such as the contents of @code{CHARSXP} and @code{RAWSXP}
types) are written as-is and not padded to a multiple of four bytes.

The `ASCII' format writes 7-bit characters.  Integers are formatted with
@code{%d} (except that @code{NA_integer_} is written as @code{NA}),
doubles formatted with @code{%.16g} (plus @code{NA}, @code{Inf} and
@code{-Inf}) and bytes with @code{%02x}.  Strings are written using
standard escapes (e.g.@: @code{\t} and @code{\013} for non-printing and
non-ASCII bytes.

@node Encodings for CHARSXPs, The CHARSXP cache, Serialization Formats, R Internal Structures
@section Encodings for CHARSXPs

Character data in @R{} are stored in the sexptype @code{CHARSXP}.  Until
@R{} 2.1.0 it was assumed that the data were in the platform's native
8-bit encoding, and furthermore it was quite often assumed that the
encoding was ISO Latin-1 or a superset (such as Windows' CP1252 or
Latin-9).

As from @R{} 2.1.0 there was support for other encodings, in particular
UTF-8 and the multi-byte encodings used on Windows for CJK languages.
However, there was no way of indicating which encoding had been used,
even if this was known (and e.g.@: @code{scan} would not know the
encoding of the file it was reading).  This lead to packages with data
in French encoded in Latin-1 in @code{.rda} files which could not be
read in other locales (and they would be able to be displayed in a
French UTF-8 locale, if not in non-UTF-8 Japanese locales).

@R{} 2.5.0 introduced a limited means to indicate the encoding of a
@code{CHARSXP} via two of the `general purpose' bits which are used to
declare the encoding to be either Latin-1 or UTF-8.  (Note that it is
possible for a character vector to contain elements in different
encodings.)  Both printing and plotting notice the declaration and
convert the string to the current locale (possibly using @code{<xx>} to
display in hexadecimal bytes that are not valid in the current locale).
Many (but not all) of the character manipulation functions will either
preserve the declaration or re-encode the character string.

Strings that refer to the OS such as file names need to be passed
through a wide-character interface on some OSes (e.g. Windows), which is
to a large extent done as from @R{} 2.7.0.

When are character strings declared to be of known encoding?  One way is
to do so directly via @code{Encoding}.  The parser declares the encoding
if this is known, either via the @code{encoding} argument to
@code{parse} or from the locale within which parsing is being done at
the @R{} command line.  (Other ways are recorded on the help page for
@code{Encoding}.)

It is not necessary to declare the encoding of ASCII strings as they
will work in any locale.  As from @R{} 2.8.0, ASCII strings should never
have a marked encoding, as any encoding will be ignored when entering
such strings into the @code{CHARSXP} cache.

The rationale behind considering only UTF-8 and Latin-1 is that most
systems are capable of producing UTF-8 strings and this is the nearest
we have to a universal format.  For those that do not (for example those
lacking a powerful enough @code{iconv}), it is likely that they work in
Latin-1, the old @R{} assumption.

This was taken further in @R{} 2.7.0.  There the parser can return a
UTF-8-encoded string if it encounters a @samp{\uxxx} escape for a
Unicode point that cannot be represented in the current charset.  (This
needs MBCS support, and is currently only enabled@footnote{See define
@code{USE_UTF8_IF_POSSIBLE} in @file{gram.c}.} on Windows.)
Many of the character manipulation functions now preserve UTF-8 encodings.

Graphics devices are offered the possibility of handing UTF-8-encoded
strings without re-encoding to the native character set, by setting
@code{hasTextUTF8} to be @samp{TRUE}@footnote{To maximize
back-compatibility with devices installed prior to @R{} 2.7.0 it has to
be exactly that value: all others are equivalent to @samp{FALSE}.} and
supplying functions @code{textUTF8} and @code{strWidthUTF8} that expect
UTF-8-encoded inputs.  Normally the symbol font is encoded in Adobe
Symbol encoding, but that can be re-encoded to UTF-8 by setting
@code{wantSymbolUTF8} to @samp{TRUE}.

Windows has no UTF-8 locales, but rather expects to work with
UCS-2@footnote{or UTF-16 if support for surrogates is enabled in the OS,
which it is not normally at least for Western versions of Windows,
despite some claims to the contrary on the Microsoft site.} strings.
@R{} (being written in standard C) would not work internally with UCS-2
without extensive changes.  As from @R{} 2.7.0 the @file{Rgui}
console@footnote{but not the GraphApp toolkit.} uses UCS-2 internally,
but communicates with the @R{} engine in the native encoding.  To allow
UTF-8 strings to be printed in UTF-8 in @file{Rgui.exe}, an escape
convention is used (see header @file{rgui_UTF8.h}) which is used by
@code{cat}, @code{print} and autoprinting.

`Unicode' (UCS-2LE) files are common in the Windows world, and
@code{readLines} and @code{scan} will read them into UTF-8 strings on
Windows if the encoding is declared explicitly on an unopened
connection passed to those functions.

@node The CHARSXP cache, Warnings and errors, Encodings for CHARSXPs, R Internal Structures
@section The CHARSXP cache

@findex mkChar
A global cache for @code{CHARSXP}s created by @code{mkChar} was
introduced in @R{} 2.6.0 -- the cache ensures that most @code{CHARSXP}s
with the same contents share storage (`contents' including any declared
encoding).  Not all @code{CHARSXP}s are part of the cache -- notably
@samp{NA_STRING} is not.

In @R{} 2.6.x and 2.7.x character strings created by @code{mkCharLen}
were not part of the cache: these were intended to be those containing
embedded nuls.  As from @R{} 2.8.0 the cache can handle any content,
although embedded nuls are now disallowed.

There are a few other ways in which @code{CHARSXP}s could or can escape
the cache.  @code{CHARSXP}s reloaded from the @code{save} formats of
@R{} prior to 0.99.0 are not cached (since the code used is frozen and
few examples still exist).  Prior to @R{} 2.8.0, @code{CHARSXP}s were
used to hold the finalizer function of a C finalizer (uncached) -- now
@code{RAWSXP}s are used.  Finally, user code could create uncached
@code{CHARSXP}s via @code{allocString} (removed in @R 2.8.0) and
@code{allocVector(CHARSXP ...)} (deprecated in @R 2.8.0, removed in @R{}
2.9.0).

@findex mkCharLenCE
The cache records the encoding of the string as well as the bytes: all
requests to create a @code{CHARSXP} should be @emph{via} a call to
@code{mkCharLenCE}.  As from @R{} 2.8.0 any encoding given in
@code{mkCharLenCE} call will be ignored if the string's bytes are all
ASCII characters.


@node Warnings and errors, S4 objects, The CHARSXP cache, R Internal Structures
@section Warnings and errors

@findex warning
@findex warningcall
@findex error
@findex errorcall

Each of @code{warning} and @code{stop} have two C-level equivalents,
@code{warning}, @code{warningcall}, @code{error} and @code{errorcall}.
The relationship between the pairs is similar: @code{warning} tries to
fathom out a suitable call, and then calls @code{warningcall} with that
call as the first argument if it succeeds, and with @code{call =
R_NilValue} it is does not.  When @code{warningcall} is called, it
includes the deparsed call in its printout unless @code{call =
R_NilValue}.

@code{warning} and @code{error} look at the context stack.  If the
topmost context is not of type @code{CTXT_BUILTIN}, it is used to
provide the call, otherwise the next context provides the call.
This means that when these function are called from a primitive or
@code{.Internal}, the imputed call will not be to
primitive/@code{.Internal} but to the function calling the
primitive/@code{.Internal} .  This is exactly what one wants for a
@code{.Internal}, as this will give the call to the closure wrapper.
(Further, for a @code{.Internal}, the call is the argument to
@code{.Internal}, and so may not correspond to any @R{} function.)
However, it is unlikely to be what is needed for a primitive.

The upshot is that that @code{warningcall} and @code{errorcall} should
normally be used for code called from a primitive, and @code{warning}
and @code{error} should be used for code called from a @code{.Internal}
(and necessarily from @code{.Call}, @code{.C} and so on, where the call
is not passed down).  However, there are two complications.  One is that
code might be called from either a primitive or a @code{.Internal}, in
which case probably @code{warningcall} is more appropriate.  The other
involves replacement functions, where the call will be of the form
(from @R{} < 2.6.0)
@example
> length(x) <- y ~ x
Error in "length<-"(`*tmp*`, value = y ~ x) : invalid value
@end example

@noindent
which is unpalatable to the end user.  For replacement functions there
will be a suitable context at the top of the stack, so @code{warning}
should be used.  (The results for @code{.Internal} replacement functions
such as @code{substr<-} are not ideal.)



@node S4 objects, Memory allocators, Warnings and errors, R Internal Structures
@section S4 objects

[This section is currently a preliminary draft and should not be taken
as definitive.  The description assumes that @env{R_NO_METHODS_TABLES}
has not been set.]

@menu
* Representation of S4 objects::  
* S4 classes::                  
* S4 methods::                  
* Mechanics of S4 dispatch::    
@end menu

@node Representation of S4 objects, S4 classes, S4 objects, S4 objects
@subsection Representation of S4 objects

[The internal representation of objects from S4 classes changed in @R{}
2.4.0.  It is possible that objects from earlier representations still
exist, but there is no guarantee that they will be handled correctly.
An attempt is made to detect old-style S4 objects and warn when binary
objects are @code{load}ed or a workspace is restored.]

S4 objects can be of any @code{SEXPTYPE}.  They are either an object of
a simple type (such as an atomic vector or function) with S4 class
information or of type @code{S4SXP}.  In all cases, the `S4 bit' (bit 4
of the `general purpose' field) is set, and can be tested by the
macro/function @code{IS_S4_OBJECT}.

S4 objects are created via @code{new()}@footnote{This can also create
non-S4 objects, as in @code{new("integer")}.} and thence via the C
function @code{R_do_new_object}.  This duplicates the prototype of the
class, adds a class attribute and sets the S4 bit.  All S4 class
attributes should be character vectors of length one with an attribute
giving (as a character string) the name of the package (or
@code{.GlobalEnv}) containing the class definition.  Since S4 objects
have a class attribute, the @code{OBJECT} bit is set.

It is currently unclear what should happen if the class attribute is
removed from an S4 object, or if this should be allowed.

@node S4 classes, S4 methods, Representation of S4 objects, S4 objects
@subsection S4 classes 

S4 classes are stored as @R{} objects in the environment in which they
are created, with names @code{.__C__@var{classname}}: as such they are
not listed by default by @code{ls}.

The objects are S4 objects of class @code{"classRepresentation"} which
is defined in the @pkg{methods} package.

Since these are just objects, they are subject to the normal scoping
rules and can be imported and exported from name spaces like other
objects.  The directives @code{importClassesFrom} and
@code{exportClasses} are merely convenient ways to refer to class
objects without needing to know their internal `metaname' (although
@code{exportClasses} does a little sanity checking via @code{isClass}).

@node S4 methods, Mechanics of S4 dispatch, S4 classes, S4 objects
@subsection S4 methods

Details of methods are stored in S4 objects of class
@code{"MethodsList"}.  They have a non-syntactic name of the form
@code{.__M__@var{generic}:@var{package}} for all methods defined in the
current environment for the named generic derived from a specific
package (which might be @code{.GlobalEnv}).

There is also environment @code{.__T__@var{generic}:@var{package}} which
has names the signatures of the methods defined, and values the
corresponding method functions.  This is often referred to as a `methods
table'.

When a package without a name space is attached these objects become
visible on the search path.  @code{library} calls
@code{methods:::cacheMetaData} to update the internal tables.

During an @R{} session there is an environment associated with each
non-primitive generic containing objects @code{.AllMTable},
@code{.Generic}, @code{.Methods}, @code{.MTable}, @code{.SigArgs} and
@code{.SigLength}.  @code{.MTable} and @code{AllMTable} are merged
methods tables containing all the methods defined directly and via
inheritance respectively.  @code{.Methods} is a merged methods list.

Exporting methods from a name space is more complicated than exporting a
class.  Note first that you do not export a method, but rather the
directive @code{exportMethods} will export all the methods defined in
the name space for a specified generic: the code also adds to the list
of generics any that are exported directly.  For generics which are
listed via @code{exportMethods} or exported themselves, the
corresponding @code{"MethodsList"} and environment are exported and so
will appear (as hidden objects) in the package environment.

Methods for primitives which are internally S4 generic (see below) are
always exported, whether mentioned in the @file{NAMESPACE} file or not.

Methods can be imported either via the directive
@code{importMethodsFrom} or via importing a namespace by @code{import}.
Also, if a generic is imported via @code{importFrom}, its methods are
also imported.  In all cases the generic will be imported if it is in
the namespace, so @code{importMethodsFrom} is most appropriate for
methods defined on generics in other packages.  Since methods for a
generic could be imported from several different packages, the methods
tables are merged.

When a package with a name space is attached
@code{methods:::cacheMetaData} is called to update the internal tables:
only the visible methods will be cached.


@node Mechanics of S4 dispatch,  , S4 methods, S4 objects
@subsection Mechanics of S4 dispatch

This subsection does not discuss how S4 methods are chosen: see
@uref{http://@/developer.@/r-project.org/howMethodsWork.pdf}.

For all but primitive functions, setting a method on an existing
function that is not itself S4 generic creates a new object in the
current environment which is a call to @code{standardGeneric} with the
old definition as the default method.  Such S4 generics can also be
created @emph{via} a call to @code{setGeneric}@footnote{although this is
not recommended as it is less future-proof.} and are standard closures
in the @R{} language, with environment the environment within which they
are created.  With the advent of name spaces this is somewhat
problematic: if @code{myfn} was previously in a package with a name
space there will be two functions called @code{myfn} on the search
paths, and which will be called depends on which search path is in use.
This is starkest for functions in the base name space, where the
original will be found ahead of the newly created function from any
other package with a name space.

Primitive functions are treated quite differently, for efficiency
reasons: this results in different semantics.  @code{setGeneric} is
disallowed for primitive functions.  The @pkg{methods} namespace
contains a list @code{.BasicFunsList} named by primitive functions:
the entries are either @code{FALSE} or a standard S4 generic showing
the effective definition.  When @code{setMethod} (or
@code{setReplaceMethod}) is called, it either fails (if the list entry
is @code{FALSE}) or a method is set on the effective generic given in
the list.

Actual dispatch of S4 methods for almost all primitives piggy-backs on
the S3 dispatch mechanism, so S4 methods can only be dispatched for
primitives which are internally S3 generic.  When a primitive that is
internally S3 generic is called with a first argument which is an S4
object and S4 dispatch is on (that is, the @pkg{methods} name space is
loaded), @code{DispatchOrEval} calls @code{R_possible_dispatch} (defined
in @file{src/main/objects.c}).  (Members of the S3 group generics, which
includes all the generic operators, are treated slightly differently:
the first two arguments are checked and @code{DispatchGroup} is called.)
@code{R_possible_dispatch} first checks an internal table to see if any
S4 methods are set for that generic (and S4 dispatch is currently
enabled for that generic), and if so proceeds to S4 dispatch using
methods stored in another internal table.  All primitives are in the
base name space, and this mechanism means that S4 methods can be set for
(some) primitives and will always be used, in contrast to setting
methods on non-primitives.

The exception is @code{%*%}, which is S4 generic but not S3 generic as
its C code contains a direct call to @code{R_possible_dispatch}.

The primitive @code{as.double} is special, as @code{as.numeric} and
@code{as.real} are copies of it.  The @pkg{methods} package code partly
refers to generics by name and partly by function, and was modified in
@R{} 2.6.0 to map @code{as.double} and @code{as.real} to
@code{as.numeric} (since that is the name used by packages exporting
methods for it).

Some elements of the language are implemented as primitives, for example
@code{@}}.  This includes the subset and subassignment `functions' and
they are S4 generic, again piggybacking on S3 dispatch.

@code{.BasicFunsList} is generated when @pkg{methods} is installed, by
computing all primitives, initially disallowing methods on all and then
setting generics for members of @code{.GenericArgsEnv}, the S4 group
generics and a short exceptions list in @file{BasicFunsList.R}: this
currently contains the subsetting and subassignment operators and an
override for @code{c}.

@node Memory allocators, Internal use of global and base environments, S4 objects, R Internal Structures
@section Memory allocators

@R{}'s memory allocation is almost all done via routines in
@file{src/main/memory.c}.  It is important to keep track of where memory
is allocated, as the Windows port (by default) makes use of a memory
allocator that differs from @code{malloc} etc as provided by MinGW.
Specifically, there are entry points @code{Rm_malloc}, @code{Rm_free},
@code{Rm_calloc} and @code{Rm_free} provided by
@code{src/gnuwin32/malloc.c}.  This was done for two reasons.  The
primary motivation was performance: the allocator provided by MSVCRT
@emph{via} MinGW was far too slow at handling the many small allocations
that the current (since @R{} 1.2.0) allocation system for
@code{SEXPREC}s uses.  As a side benefit, we can set a limit on the
amount of allocated memory: this is useful as whereas Windows does
provide virtual memory it is relatively far slower than many other @R{}
platforms and so limiting @R{}'s use of swapping is highly advantageous.
The high-performance allocator is only called from
@file{src/main/memory.c}, @file{src/main/regex.c}, @file{src/extra/pcre}
and @file{src/extra/xdr}: note that this means that it is not used in
packages.

The rest of @R{} should where possible make use of the allocators made
available by @file{src/main/memory.c}, which are also the methods
recommended in 
@ifset UseExternalXrefs
@ref{Memory allocation, , Memory allocation, R-exts, Writing R Extensions}
@end ifset
@ifclear UseExternalXrefs
`Writing R Extensions'
@end ifclear
@findex R_alloc
@findex Calloc
@findex Realloc
@findex Free
for use in @R{} packages, namely the use of @code{R_alloc},
@code{Calloc}, @code{Realloc} and @code{Free}.  Memory allocated by
@code{R_alloc} is freed by the garbage collector once the `watermark'
has been reset by calling
@findex vmaxset
@code{vmaxset}.  This is done automatically by the wrapper code calling
primitives and @code{.Internal} functions (and also by the wrapper code
to @code{.Call} and @code{.External}), but
@findex vmaxget 
@code{vmaxget} and @code{vmaxset} can be used to reset the watermark
from within internal code if the memory is only required for a short
time.

@findex alloca
All of the methods of memory allocation mentioned so far are relatively
expensive.  All @R{} platforms support @code{alloca}, and in almost all
cases@footnote{but apparently not on Windows.} this is managed by the
compiler, allocates memory on the C stack and is very efficient.

There are two disadvantages in using @code{alloca}.  First, it is
fragile and care is needed to avoid writing (or even reading) outside
the bounds of the allocation block returned.  Second, it increases the
danger of overflowing the C stack.   It is suggested that it is only
used for smallish allocations (up to tens of thousands of bytes), and
that

@findex R_CheckStack
@example
    R_CheckStack();
@end example

@noindent
is called immediately after the allocation (as @R{}'s stack checking
mechanism will warn far enough from the stack limit to allow for modest
use of alloca).  (@code{do_makeunique} in @file{src/main/unique.c}
provides an example of both points.)

An alternative strategy has been used for various functions which
require intermediate blocks of storage of varying but usually small
size, and this has been consolidated into the routines in the header
file @file{src/main/RBufferUtils.h}.  This uses a structure which
contains a buffer, the current size and the default size. A call to
@findex R_AllocStringBuffer
@example
    R_AllocStringBuffer(size_t blen, R_StringBuffer *buf);
@end example

@noindent
sets @code{buf->data} to a memory area of at least @code{blen+1} bytes.
At least the default size is used, which means that for small
allocations the same buffer can be reused.  A call to
@findex R_FreeStringBufferL
@findex R_FreeStringBuffer
@code{R_FreeStringBufferL} releases memory if more than the default has
been allocated whereas a call to @code{R_FreeStringBuffer} frees any
memory allocated.

The @code{R_StringBuffer} structure needs to be initialized, for example by

@example
static R_StringBuffer ex_buff = @{NULL, 0, MAXELTSIZE@};
@end example

@noindent
which uses a default size of @code{MAXELTSIZE = 8192} bytes.  Most
current uses have a static @code{ R_StringBuffer} structure, which
allows the (default-sized) buffer to be shared between calls to e.g.@:
@code{grep} and even between functions: this will need to be changed if
@R{} ever allows concurrent evaluation threads.  So the idiom is

@example
static R_StringBuffer ex_buff = @{NULL, 0, MAXELTSIZE@};
...
    char *buf;
    for(i = 0; i < n; i++) @{
        compute len
        buf = R_AllocStringBuffer(len, &ex_buff);
        use buf
    @}
    /*  free allocation if larger than the default, but leave
        default allocated for future use */
   R_FreeStringBufferL(&ex_buff);
@end example


@menu
* Internals of R_alloc::        
@end menu

@node Internals of R_alloc,  , Memory allocators, Memory allocators
@subsection Internals of R_alloc

The memory used by @code{R_alloc} is allocated as @R{} vectors, of type
@code{RAWSXP} for `small' allocations (less than 2^31 - 1 bytes) and of
type @code{REALSXP} for allocations up to 2^34 - 1 bytes on 64-bit
machines.  Thus the allocation is in units of 8 bytes, and is rounded
up.  (Prior to @R{} 2.6.0 @code{CHARSXP}s were used, and so one byte was
added prior to rounding up.  This had the effect of over-allocating
areas for @code{double}s by one and thereby masked several subtle
programming errors.)

The vectors allocated are protected via the setting of @code{R_VStack},
as the garbage collector marks everything that can be reached from that
location.  When a vector is @code{R_alloc}ated, its @code{ATTRIB}
pointer is set to the current @code{R_VStack}, and @code{R_VStack} is
set to the latest allocation.  Thus @code{R_VStack} is a single-linked
chain of vectors currently allocated via @code{R_alloc}.  Function
@code{vmaxset} resets the location @code{R_VStack}, and should be to a
value that has previously be obtained @emph{via} @code{vmaxget}:
allocations after the value was obtained will no longer be protected and
hence available for garbage collection.

@node Internal use of global and base environments, Modules, Memory allocators, R Internal Structures
@section Internal use of global and base environments

This section notes known use by the system of these environments: the
intention is to minimize or eliminate them.

@menu
* Base environment::            
* Global environment::          
@end menu

@node Base environment, Global environment, Internal use of global and base environments, Internal use of global and base environments
@subsection Base environment

@cindex base environment
@cindex environment, base
@findex .Device
@findex .Devices
The graphics devices system maintains two variables @code{.Device} and
@code{.Devices} in the base environment: both are always set.  The
variable @code{.Devices} gives a list of character vectors of the names
of open devices, and @code{.Device} is the element corresponding to the
currently active device.  The null device will always be open.

@findex .Options
There appears to be a variable @code{.Options}, a pairlist giving the
current options settings.  But in fact this is just a symbol with a
value assigned, and so shows up as a base variable.

@findex .Last.value
Similarly, the evaluator creates a symbol @code{.Last.value} which
appears as a variable in the base environment.

@findex .Traceback
@findex last.warning
Errors can give rise to objects @code{.Traceback} and
@code{last.warning} in the base environment.

@node Global environment,  , Base environment, Internal use of global and base environments
@subsection Global environment

@cindex global environment
@cindex environment, global
@findex .Random.seed
The seed for the random number generator is stored in object
@code{.Random.seed} in the global environment.

@findex dump.frames
Some error handlers may give rise to objects in the global environment:
for example @code{dump.frames} by default produces @code{last.dump}.

@findex .SavedPlots
The @code{windows()} device makes use of a variable @code{.SavedPlots}
to store display lists of saved plots for later display.  This is
regarded as a variable created by the user.


@node Modules,  , Internal use of global and base environments, R Internal Structures
@section Modules

@cindex modules
@R{} makes use of a number of shared objects/DLLs stored in the
@file{modules} directory.  These are parts of the code which have been
chosen to be loaded `on demand' rather than linked as dynamic libraries
or incorporated into the main executable/dynamic library.

For a few of these (e.g.@: @code{vfonts}) the issue is size: the
database for the Hershey fonts is included in the C code of the module
and was at one time an appreciable part of the codebase for a rarely
used feature.  However, for most of the modules the motivation has been
the amount of (often optional) code they will bring in via libraries to
which they are linked.

@table @asis

@item @code{internet}
The internal HTTP and FTP clients and socket support, which link to
system-specific support libraries.

@item @code{lapack}
The code which makes use of the LAPACK library, and is linked to
@file{libRlapack} or an external LAPACK library.

@item @code{vfonts}
The Hershey font databases and the code to draw from them.

@item @code{X11}
(Unix-alikes only.)
The @code{X11()}, @code{jpeg()} and @code{png()} devices. These are
optional, and link to the @code{X11}, @code{jpeg} and @code{libpng}
libraries.

@item @file{Rbitmap.dll}
(Windows only.)  The code for the BMP, JPEG and PNG devices and for
saving on-screen graphs to those formats. This is technically optional,
and needs source code not in the tarball.

@item @file{Rchtml.dll}
(Windows only.)  A link to an ActiveX control that displays Compiled
@HTML{} help.  This is optional, and only compiled if CHTML is specified.

@item @file{iconv.dll}
(Windows only.)  A DLL compiled via Visual C++ which contains the
routines to convert between character sets.

@item @file{internet2.dll}
(Windows only.)  An alternative version of the internet access routines,
compiled against Internet Explorer internals (and so loads
@file{wininet.dll} and @file{wsock32.dll}).
@end table

@node .Internal vs .Primitive, Internationalization in the R sources, R Internal Structures, Top
@chapter @code{.Internal} vs @code{.Primitive}

@findex .Internal
@findex .Primitive
C code compiled into @R{} at build time can be called ``directly'' or
via the @code{.Internal} interface, which is very similar to the
@code{.External} interface except in syntax.  More precisely, @R{}
maintains a table of R function names and corresponding C functions to
call, which by convention all start with @samp{do_} and return a SEXP.
Via this table (@code{R_FunTab} in file @file{src/main/names.c}) one can
also specify how many arguments to a function are required or allowed,
whether the arguments are to be evaluated before calling or not, and
whether the function is ``internal'' in the sense that it must be
accessed via the @code{.Internal} interface, or directly accessible in
which case it is printed in @R{} as @code{.Primitive}.

@R{}'s functionality can also be extended by providing corresponding C
code and adding to this function table.

In general, all such functions use @code{.Internal()} as this is safer
and in particular allows for transparent handling of named and default
arguments.  For example, @code{axis} is defined as

@example
@group
axis <- function(side, at = NULL, labels = NULL, ...)
    .Internal(axis(side, at, labels, ...))
@end group
@end example

However, for reasons of convenience and also efficiency (as there is
some overhead in using the @code{.Internal} interface wrapped in a
function closure), the primitive functions are exceptions that can be
accessed directly.  Note that primitive functions make no use of @R{}
code, and hence are very different from the usual interpreted functions.
In particular, @code{args}, @code{formals} and @code{body} return
@code{NULL} for such objects, and argument matching is purely positional
(with two exceptions described below).  

The list of primitive functions is subject to change; currently, it
includes the following.

@enumerate

@item
``Special functions'' which really are @emph{language} elements, however
exist as ``primitive'' functions in @R{}:

@example
@group
@{       (         if     for      while  repeat  break  next
return  function  quote  on.exit
@end group
@end example

@item
Language elements and basic @emph{operator}s (i.e., functions usually
@emph{not} called as @code{foo(a, b, ...)}) for subsetting, assignment,
arithmetic and logic.  These are the following 1-, 2-, and
@math{N}-argument functions:

@example
@group
               [    [[    $    @@
<-   <<-  =    [<-  [[<-  $<-

+    -    *    /     ^    %%   %*%  %/%
<    <=   ==   !=    >=   >
|    ||   &    &&    !
@end group
@end example

@item
``Low level'' 0- and 1-argument functions which belong to one of the
following groups of functions:

@enumerate a
@item
Basic mathematical functions with a single argument, i.e.,

@example
@group
abs     sign    sqrt
floor   ceiling
@end group

@group
exp     expm1
log2    log10   log1p
cos     sin     tan
acos    asin    atan
cosh    sinh    tanh
acosh   asinh   atanh
@end group

@group
gamma   lgamma  digamma trigamma
@end group


@group
cumsum  cumprod cummax  cummin
@end group

@group
Im  Re  Arg  Conj  Mod
@end group
@end example

@code{log} is a function of one or two arguments, but was made
primitive as from @R{} 2.6.0 and so has named rather than positional
matching for back compatibility.

@code{trunc} is a difficult case: it is a primitive that can have zero
or more arguments: the default method handled in the primitive has
only one.

@item
Functions rarely used outside of ``programming'' (i.e., mostly used
inside other functions), such as

@example
@group
nargs        missing
interactive  is.@var{xxx}
as.call      as.character as.complex  as.double
as.environment
as.integer   as.logical   as.raw
.Primitive   .Internal
globalenv    baseenv      emptyenv     pos.to.env
unclass      invisible
seq_along    seq_len
@end group
@end example

@noindent
(where @emph{xxx} stands for 27 different notions, such as
@code{function}, @code{vector}, @code{numeric}, and so forth, but not
@code{is.loaded}).

@item
The programming and session management utilities

@example
@group
browser  proc.time  gc.time
tracemem retracemem untracemem
@end group
@end example

@end enumerate

@item
The following basic replacement and extractor functions

@example
@group
length      length<-
class       class<-
oldClass    oldCLass<-
attr        attr<-
attributes  attributes<-
names       names<-
dim         dim<-
dimnames    dimnames<-
            environment<-
            levels<-
            storage.mode<-
@end group
@end example

@findex NAMED
@noindent
Note that optimizing @code{NAMED = 1} is only effective within a
primitive (as the closure wrapper of a @code{.Internal} will set
@code{NAMED = 2} when the promise to the argument is evaluated) and
hence replacement functions should where possible be primitive to avoid
copying (at least in their default methods).

@item
The following few @math{N}-argument functions are ``primitive'' for
efficiency reasons:

@example
@group
:          ~          c           list
call       expression substitute
UseMethod  standardGeneric
.C         .Fortran   .Call       .External
.Call.graphics        .External.graphics
.subset    .subset2   .primTrace  .primUntrace
round      signif      rep        seq.int
lazyLoadDBfetch
@end group
@end example

@noindent
@code{round}, @code{signif}, @code{rep} and @code{seq.int} manage their
own argument matching and so do work in the standard way.

@end enumerate

@menu
* Special primitives::          
* Special internals::           
* Prototypes for primitives::   
@end menu

@node Special primitives, Special internals, .Internal vs .Primitive, .Internal vs .Primitive
@section Special primitives

A small number of primitives are @emph{specials} rather than
@emph{builtins}, that is they are entered with unevaluated arguments.
This is clearly necessary for the language constructs and the assignment
operators.  @code{&&} and @code{||} conditionally evaluate their second
argument, and  @code{~}, @code{.Internal}, @code{call}, @code{expression}
and @code{missing} do not evaluate their arguments.

@code{rep} and @code{seq.int} are special as they evaluate some of their
arguments conditional on which are non-missing.  @code{c} is special to
allow it to be used with language objects.

The subsetting, subassignment and @code{@@} operators are all special.
(For both extraction and replacement forms, @code{$} and @code{@@}
take a symbol argument, and @code{[} and @code{[[} allow missing
arguments.)

@code{UseMethod} is special to avoid the additional contexts added to
calls to builtins when profiling (via @code{Rprof}).

@node Special internals, Prototypes for primitives, Special primitives, .Internal vs .Primitive
@section Special internals

There are also special @code{.Internal} functions: @code{switch},
@code{Recall}, @code{cbind}, @code{rbind} (to allow for the
@code{deparse.level} argument), @code{lapply}, @code{eapply} and
@code{NextMethod}.

@node Prototypes for primitives,  , Special internals, .Internal vs .Primitive
@section Prototypes for primitives

As from @R{} 2.5.0, prototypes are available for the primitive functions
and operators, and there are used for printing, @code{args} and package
checking (e.g.@: by @code{tools::checkS3methods} and by package
@pkg{codetools}).  There are two environments in the @pkg{base} package
(and name space), @samp{.GenericArgsEnv} for those primitives which are
internal S3 generics, and @samp{.ArgsEnv} for the rest.  Those
environments contain closures with the same names as the primitives,
formal arguments derived (manually) from the help pages, a body which
is a suitable call to @code{UseMethod} or @code{NULL} and environment the
base name space.

The C code for @code{print.default} and @code{args} uses the closures in
these environments in preference to the definitions in base (as
primitives).

The QC function @code{undoc} checks that all the functions prototyped in
these environments are currently primitive, and that the primitives not
included are better thought of as language elements (at the time of
writing

@example
$  $<-  &&  (  :  @@  [  [[  [[<-  [<-  @{  ||  ~  <-  <<-  =
break  for function  if  next  repeat  return  while
@end example

@noindent
.  One could argue about @code{~}, but it is known to the parser and has
semantics quite unlike a normal function.  And @code{:} is documented
with different argument names in its two meanings.)

The QC functions @code{codoc} and @code{checkS3methods} also make use of
these environments (effectively placing them in front of base in the
search path), and hence the formals of the functions they contain are
checked against the help pages by @code{codoc}.  However, there are two
problems with the generic primitives.  The first is that many of the
operators are part of the S3 group generic @code{Ops} and that defines
their arguments to be @code{e1} and @code{e2}: although it would be very
unusual, an operator could be called as e.g.@: @code{"+"(e1=a, e2=b)}
and if method dispatch occurred to a closure, there would be an argument
name mismatch.  So the definitions in environment @code{.GenericArgsEnv}
have to use argument names @code{e1} and @code{e2} even though the
traditional documentation is in terms of @code{x} and @code{y}:
@code{codoc} makes the appropriate adjustment via
@code{tools:::.make_S3_primitive_generic_env}.  The second discrepancy
is with the @code{Math} group generics, where the group generic is
defined with argument list @code{(x, ...)}, but most of the members only
allow one argument when used as the default method (and @code{round} and
@code{signif} allow two as default methods): again fix-ups are used.

Those primitives which are in @code{.GenericArgsEnv} are checked (via
@file{tests/primitives.R} to be generic @emph{via} defining methods for
them, and a check is made that the remaining primitives are probably not
generic, by setting a method and checking it is not dispatched to (but
this can fail for other reasons).  However, there is no certain way to
know that if other @code{.Internal} or primitive functions are not
internally generic except by reading the source code.


@node Internationalization in the R sources, Graphics Devices, .Internal vs .Primitive, Top
@chapter Internationalization in the R sources

The process of marking messages (errors, warnings etc) for translation
in an @R{} package is described in 
@ifset UseExternalXrefs
@ref{Localization, , Localization, R-exts, Writing R Extensions},
@end ifset
@ifclear UseExternalXrefs
`Writing R Extensions',
@end ifclear
and the standard packages included with @R{} have (with an exception in
@pkg{grDevices} for the menus of the @code{windows()} device) been
internationalized in the same way as other packages.

@menu
* R code::                      
* Main C code::                 
* Windows-GUI-specific code::   
* Mac OS X GUI::                 
* Updating::                    
@end menu

@node R code, Main C code, Internationalization in the R sources, Internationalization in the R sources
@section R code

Internationalization for @R{} code is done in exactly the same way as
for extension packages.  As all standard packages which have @R{} code
also have a namespace, it is never necessary to specify @code{domain},
but for efficiency calls to @code{message}, @code{warning} and
@code{stop} should include @code{domain = NA} when the message is
constructed @emph{via} @code{gettextf}, @code{gettext} or
@code{ngettext}.

For each package, the extracted messages and translation sources are
stored under package directory @file{po} in the source package, and compiled
translations under @file{inst/po} for installation to package directory
@file{po} in the installed package.  This also applies to C code in
packages.

@node Main C code, Windows-GUI-specific code, R code, Internationalization in the R sources
@section Main C code

The main C code (e.g.@: that in @file{src/*/*.c} and in
the modules) is where @R{} is closest to the sort of application for
which @samp{gettext} was written.  Messages in the main C code are in
domain @code{R} and stored in the top-level directory @file{po} with
compiled translations under @file{share/locale}.

The list of files covered by the @R{} domain is specified in file
@file{po/POTFILES.in}.

The normal way to mark messages for translation is via @code{_("msg")}
just as for packages.  However, sometimes one needs to mark passages for
translation without wanting them translated at the time, for example
when declaring string constants.  This is the purpose of the @code{N_}
macro, for example

@example
@{ ERROR_ARGTYPE,           N_("invalid argument type")@},
@end example

@noindent
from @file{src/main/errors.c}.

A macro

@example
#ifdef ENABLE_NLS
#define P_(StringS, StringP, N) ngettext (StringS, StringP, N)
#else
#define P_(String, StringP, N) (N > 1 ? StringP: String)
#endif
@end example

@noindent
as a wrapper for @code{ngettext}: however in some cases the preferred
approach has been to conditionalize (on @code{ENABLE_NLS}) code using
@code{ngettext}.

The macro @code{_("msg")} can safely be used in @file{src/appl}; the
header for standalone @samp{nmath} skips possible translation.  (This
does not apply to @code{N_} or @code{P_}).


@node Windows-GUI-specific code, Mac OS X GUI, Main C code, Internationalization in the R sources
@section Windows-GUI-specific code

Messages for the Windows GUI are in a separate domain @samp{RGui}.  This
was done for two reasons:

@itemize
@item
The translators for the Windows version of @R{} might be separate from
those for the rest of @R{} (familiarity with the GUI helps), and

@item
Messages for Windows are most naturally handled in the native charset
for the language, and in the case of CJK languages the charset is
Windows-specific.  (It transpires that as the @code{iconv} we ported
works well under Windows, this is less important than anticipated.)
@end itemize

Messages for the @samp{RGui} domain are marked by @code{G_("msg")}, a
macro that is defined in @file{src/gnuwin32/win-nls.h}.  The list of
files that are considered is hardcoded in the @code{RGui.pot-update}
target of @file{po/Makefile.in.in}: note that this includes
@file{devWindows.c} as the menus on the @code{windows} device are
considered to be part of the GUI.  (There is also @code{GN_("msg")}, the
analogue of @code{N_("msg")}.)

The template and message catalogs for the @samp{RGui} domain are in the
top-level @file{po} directory.


@node Mac OS X GUI, Updating, Windows-GUI-specific code, Internationalization in the R sources
@section Mac OS X GUI

This is handled separately: see
@uref{http://developer.r-project.org/Translations.html}.


@node Updating,  , Mac OS X GUI, Internationalization in the R sources
@section Updating

See @file{po/README} for how to update the message templates and catalogs.

@node Graphics Devices, Tools, Internationalization in the R sources, Top
@chapter Graphics

@R{}'s graphics internals were revised for version 1.4.0 (and tidied up
for 2.7.0).  This was to enable multiple graphics systems to be
installed on top on the graphics `engine' -- currently there are two
such systems, one supporting `base' graphics (based on that in S and
whose @R{} code@footnote{The C code is in files @file{base.c},
@code{graphics.c}, @code{par.c}, @code{plot.c} and @code{plot3d.c} in
directory @file{src/main}.} is in package @pkg{graphics}) and one
implemented in package @pkg{grid}.

Some notes on the changes for 1.4.0 can be found at
@uref{http://www.stat.auckland.ac.nz/@/~paul/@/R/basegraph.html} and
@uref{http://www.stat.auckland.ac.nz/@/~paul/R/@/graphicsChanges.html}.

At the lowest level is a graphics device, which manages a plotting
surface (a screen window or a representation to be written to a file).
This implements a set of graphics primitives, to `draw'

@itemize
@item a circle, optionally filled
@item a rectangle, optionally filled
@item a line
@item a set of connected lines
@item a polygon, optionally filled
@item text
@item and to set a clipping rectangle
@end itemize

@noindent
as well as requests for information such as

@itemize
@item the width of a string if plotted
@item the metrics (width, ascent, descent) of a single character
@item the current size of the plotting surface
@end itemize

@noindent
and requests/opportunities to take action such as

@itemize
@item start a new `page', possibly after responding to a request to ask
the user for confirmation.
@item return the position of the device pointer (if any).
@item when a device become the current device or stops being the current
device (this is usually used to change the window title on a screen
device).
@item when drawing starts or finishes (e.g. used to flush graphics to
the screen when drawing stops).
@item wait for an event, for example a mouse click or keypress.
@item an `onexit' action, to clean up if plotting is interrupted (by an
error or by the user).
@item close the device.
@end itemize

The device also sets a number of variables, mainly Boolean flags
indicating its capabilities.  Devices work entirely in `device units'
which are up to its developer: they can be in pixels, big points (1/72
inch), twips, @dots{}, and can differ@footnote{although that needs to be
handled carefully, as for example the @code{xspline} functions used
prior to @R{} 2.7.0 to depend on the aspect ratio of the pixels, and the
@code{circle} callback is given a radius (and that should be interpreted
as in the x units).}  in the @samp{x} and @samp{y} directions.

@c think of the engine as colors.c, devices.c, engine.c, plotmath.c, vfonts.c
The next layer up is the graphics `engine' that is the main interface to
the device (although the graphics subsystems do talk directly to
devices).  This is responsible for clipping, converting the @code{pch}
values @code{0...26} to sets of lines/circles, centring (and otherwise
adjusting) text, rendering mathematical expressions (`plotmath') and
mapping colour descriptions such as names to the internal
representation.

@c graphics.c looks at device dimensions, locator, metricinfo
@c par.c looks at various device pars
@c plot3d.c looks at useRotatedTextInContour
@c grid looks at size, clipping, locator, ipr

Another function of the engine is to manage display lists and snapshots.
Some but not all instances of graphics devices maintain display lists, a
`list' of operations that have been performed on the device to produce
the current plot (since the device was opened or the plot was last
cleared, e.g.@: by @code{plot.new}).  Screen devices generally maintain
a display list to handle repaint and resize events where as file-based
formats do not---display lists are also used to implement
@code{dev.copy()} and friends.  The display list is a pairlist of
@code{.Internal} (base graphics) or @code{.Call.graphics} (grid
graphics) calls, which means that the C code implementing a graphics
operation will be re-called when the display list is replayed: apart
from the part which records the operation if successful.

Snapshots of the current graphics state are taken by
@code{GEcreateSnapshot} and replayed later in the session by
@code{GEplaySnapshot}.  These are used by @code{recordPlot()},
@code{replayPlot()} and the GUI menus of the @code{windows()} device.
The `state' includes the display list.


The top layer comprises the graphics subsystems. Although there is
provision for 24 subsystems, after 6 years only two exist, `base' and
`grid'.  The base subsystem is registered with the engine when @R{} is
initialized, and unregistered (via @code{KillAllDevices}) when an @R{}
session is shut down.  The grid subsystem is registered in its
@code{.onLoad} function and unregistered in the @code{.onUnload}
function.  The graphics subsystem may also have `state' information
saved in a snapshot (currently base does and grid does not).

Package @pkg{grDevices} was originally created to contain the basic
graphics devices (although @code{X11} is in a separate load-on-demand
module because of the volume of external libraries it brings in).  Since
then it has been used for other functionality that was thought desirable
for use with @pkg{grid}, and hence has been transferred from package
@pkg{graphics} to @pkg{grDevices}.  This is principally concerned with
the handling of colours and recording and replaying plots.

@menu
* Graphics devices::            
* Colours::                     
* Base graphics::               
* Grid graphics::               
@end menu

@node Graphics devices, Colours, Graphics Devices, Graphics Devices
@section Graphics Devices

@R{} ships with several graphics devices, and there is support for
third-party packages to provide additional devices---several packages
now do.  This section describes the device internals from the viewpoint
of a would-be writer of a graphics device.

@menu
* Device structures::           
* Device capabilities::         
* Handling text::               
* Conventions::                 
* 'Mode'::                      
* Specific devices::            
@end menu

@node Device structures, Device capabilities, Graphics devices, Graphics devices
@subsection Device structures

There are two types used internally which are pointers to structures
related to graphics devices.

The @code{DevDesc} type@footnote{@code{NewDevDesc} from @R 1.4.0,
renamed in @R 2.8.0.} is a structure defined in the header file
@file{R_ext/GraphicsDevice.h} (which is included by
@file{R_ext/GraphicsEngine.h}).  This describes the physical
characteristics of a device, the capabilities of the device driver and
contains a set of callback functions that will be used by the graphics
engine to obtain information about the device and initiate actions
(e.g.@: a new page, plotting a line or some text).  Type @code{pDevDesc}
is a pointer to this type.

The relationship of device units to physical dimensions is set by the
element @code{ipr} of the @code{DevDesc} structure: a @samp{double}
array of length 2.


The @code{GEDevDesc} type is a structure defined in
@file{R_ext/GraphicsEngine.h} (with comments in the file) as

@example
typedef struct _GEDevDesc GEDevDesc;
struct _GEDevDesc @{
    pDevDesc dev;
    Rboolean displayListOn;
    SEXP displayList;
    SEXP DLlastElt;
    SEXP savedSnapshot;
    Rboolean dirty;
    Rboolean recordGraphics;
    GESystemDesc *gesd[MAX_GRAPHICS_SYSTEMS];
    Rboolean ask;
@}
@end example

@noindent
So this is essentially a device structure plus information about the
device maintained by the graphics engine and normally@footnote{It is
possible for the device to find the @code{GEDevDesc} which points to its
@code{DevDesc}, and this is done often enough that there is a
convenience function @code{desc2GEDesc} to do so.} visible to the engine
and not to the device.  Type @code{pGEDevDesc} is a pointer to this
type.

The graphics engine maintains an array of devices, as pointers to
@code{GEDevDesc} structures.  The array is of size 64 but the first
element is always occupied by the @code{"null device"} and the final
element is kept as NULL as a sentinel.@footnote{Calling
@code{R_CheckDeviceAvailable()} ensures there is a free slot or throws
an error.}  This array is reflected in the @R{} variable
@samp{.Devices}.  Once a device is killed its element becomes available
for reallocation (and its name will appear as @code{""} in
@samp{.Devices}).  Exactly one of the devices is `active': this is the
the null device if no other device has been opened and not killed.

Each instance of a graphics device needs to set up a @code{GEDevDesc}
structure by code very similar to

@example
    pGEDevDesc gdd;

    R_GE_checkVersionOrDie(R_GE_version);
    R_CheckDeviceAvailable();
    BEGIN_SUSPEND_INTERRUPTS @{
        pDevDesc dev;
        /* Allocate and initialize the device driver data */
        if (!(dev = (pDevDesc) calloc(1, sizeof(DevDesc))))
            return 0; /* or error() */
        /* set up device driver or free 'dev' and error() */
        gdd = GEcreateDevDesc(dev);
        GEaddDevice2(gdd, "dev_name");
    @} END_SUSPEND_INTERRUPTS;
@end example

The @code{DevDesc} structure contains a @code{void *} pointer
@samp{deviceSpecific} which is used to store data specific to the
device.  Setting up the device driver includes initializing all the
non-zero elements of the @code{DevDesc} structure.

Note that the device structure is zeroed when allocated: this provides
some protection against future expansion of the structure since the
graphics engine can add elements that need to be non-NULL/non-zero to be
`on' (and the structure ends with 64 reserved bytes which will be zeroed
and allow for future expansion).

Rather more protection is provided by the version number of the
engine/device API, @code{R_GE_version} defined in
@file{R_ext/GraphicsEngine.h} together with access functions

@example
int R_GE_getVersion(void);
void R_GE_checkVersionOrDie(int version);
@end example

@noindent
If a graphics device calls @code{R_GE_checkVersionOrDie(R_GE_version)}
it can ensure it will only be used in versions of @R{} which provide the
API it was designed for and compiled against.

@node Device capabilities, Handling text, Device structures, Graphics devices
@subsection Device capabilities

The following `capabilities' can be defined for the device's
@code{DevDesc} structure.

@itemize
@item canChangeGamma --
@code{Rboolean}: can the display gamma be adjusted?  This is not true
for any current device, and as from @R{} 2.8.0 there is no user-level
function to change gamma.  So @samp{FALSE} is the only useful value.
@item canHadj --
@code{integer}: can the device do horizontal adjustment of text
@emph{via} the @code{text} callback, and if so, how precisely? 0 = no
adjustment, 1 = @{0, 0.5, 1@} (left, centre, right justification) or 2 =
continuously variable (in [0,1]) between left and right justification.
@item canGenMouseDown -- 
@code{Rboolean}: should mouse down events be sent to the @code{getEvent}
callback?
@item canGenMouseMove -- 
@code{Rboolean}: ditto for mouse move events.
@item canGenMouseUp -- 
@code{Rboolean}: ditto for mouse up events.
@item canGenKeybd -- 
@code{Rboolean}: ditto for keyboard events.
@item hasTextUTF8 --
@code{Rboolean}: should non-symbol text be sent (in UTF-8) to the
@code{textUTF8} and @code{strWidthUTF8} callbacks, and sent as Unicode
points (negative values) to the @code{metricInfo} callback?
@item wantSymbolUTF8 --
@code{Rboolean}: should symbol text be handled in UTF-8 in the same way
as other text?  Requires @code{textUTF8 = TRUE}.
@end itemize

@node Handling text, Conventions, Device capabilities, Graphics devices
@subsection Handling text

Handling text is probably the hardest task for a graphics device, and
the design allows for the device to optionally indicate that it has
additional capabilities.  (If the device does not, these will if
possible be handled in the graphics engine.)

The three callbacks for handling text that must be in all graphics
devices are @code{text}, @code{strWidth} and @code{metricInfo} with
declarations

@example
void text(double x, double y, const char *str, double rot, double hadj,
          pGgcontext gc, pDevDesc dd);

double strWidth(const char *str, pGEcontext gc, pDevDesc dd);

void metricInfo(int c, pGEcontext gc,
               double* ascent, double* descent, double* width,
               pDevDesc dd);
@end example

@noindent
The @samp{gc} parameter provides the graphics context, most importantly
the current font and fontsize, and @samp{dd} is a pointer to the active
device's structure.

The @code{text} callback should plot @samp{str} at @samp{(x,
y)}@footnote{in device coordinates} with an anti-clockwise rotation of
@samp{rot} degrees.  (For @samp{hadj} see below.)  The interpretation
for horizontal text is that the baseline is at @code{y} and the start is
a @code{x}, so any left bearing for the first character will start at
@code{x}.

The @code{strWidth} callback computes the width of the string which it
would occupy if plotted horizontally in the current font.  (Width here
is expected to include both (preferably) or neither of left and right
bearings.)

The @code{metricInfo} callback computes the size of a single
character: @code{ascent} is the distance it extends above the baseline
and @code{descent} how far it extends below the baseline.
@code{width} is the amount by which the cursor should be advanced when
the character is placed.  For @code{ascent} and @code{descent} this is
intended to be the bounding box of the `ink' put down by the glyph and
not the box which might be used when assembling a line of conventional
text (it needs to be for e.g. @code{hat(beta)} to work correctly).
However, the @code{width} is used in plotmath to advance to the next
character, and so needs to include left and right bearings.
 
The @emph{interpretation} of @samp{c} depends on the locale.  Using
@code{c = 0} used to give an indication of the size of the font: it
often returned the measurements for character @code{"M"}---however it is
no longer used as from @R{} 2.7.0.  In a single-byte locale values
@code{32...255} indicate the corresponding character in the locale (if
present).  For the symbol font (as used by @samp{graphics::par(font=5)},
@samp{grid::gpar(fontface=5}) and by `plotmath'), values @code{32...126,
161...239, 241...254} indicate glyphs in the Adobe Symbol encoding.  In
a multibyte locale, @code{c} represents a Unicode point (except in the
symbol font).  So the function needs to include code like

@example
    Rboolean Unicode = mbcslocale && (gc->fontface != 5);
    if (c < 0) @{ Unicode = TRUE; c = -c; @} 
    if(Unicode) UniCharMetric(c, ...); else CharMetric(c, ...);
@end example

@noindent
In addition, if device capability @code{hasTextUTF8} (see below) is
true, Unicode points will be passed as negative values: the code snippet
above shows how to handle this.  (This applies to the symbol font only
if device capability @code{wantSymbolUTF8} is true.)

If possible, the graphics device should handle clipping of text.  It
indicates this by the structure element @code{canClip} which if true
will result in calls to the callback @code{clip} to set the clipping
region. If this is not done, the engine will clip very crudely (by
omitting any text that does not appear to be wholly inside the clipping
region).

The device structure has an integer element @code{canHadj}, which
indicates if the device can do horizontal alignment of text.  If this is
one, argument @samp{hadj} to @code{text} will be called as @code{0 ,0.5,
1} to indicate left-, centre- and right-alignment at the indicated
position.  If it is two, continuous values in the range @code{[0, 1]}
are assumed to be supported.

A new capability in @R{} 2.7.0 (graphics API version 4) is
@code{hasTextUTF8}.  If this is true, it has two consequences.  First,
there are callbacks @code{textUTF8} and @code{strWidthUTF8} that should
behave identically to @code{text} and @code{strWidth} except that
@samp{str} is assumed to be in UTF-8 rather than the current locale's
encoding.  The graphics engine will call these for all text except in
the symbol font.  Second, Unicode points will be passed to the
@code{metricInfo} callback as negative integers.  If your device would
prefer to have UTF-8-encoded symbols, define @code{wantSymbolUTF8} as
well as @code{hasTextUTF8}.  In that case text in the symbol font is
sent to @code{textUTF8} and @code{strWidthUTF8}.

Some devices can produce high-quality rotated text, but those based on
bitmaps often cannot.  Those which can should set
@code{useRotatedTextInContour} to be true from graphics API version 4.

Several other elements relate to the precise placement of text by the
graphics engine:

@example
double xCharOffset;
double yCharOffset;
double yLineBias;
double cra[2];
@end example

@noindent
These are more than a little mysterious.  Element @code{cra} provides an
indication of the character size, @code{par("cra")} in base graphics, in
device units.  The mystery is what is meant by `character size': which
character, which font at which size?  Some help can be obtained by
looking at what this is used for.  The first element, `width', is not
used by @R{} except to set the graphical parameters.  The second,
`height', is use to set the line spacing, that is the relationship
between @code{par("mai")} and @code{par("mai")} and so on.  It is
suggested that a good choice is

@example
dd->cra[0] = 0.9 * fnsize;
dd->cra[1] = 1.2 * fnsize;
@end example

@noindent
where @samp{fnsize} is the `size' of the standard font (@code{cex=1})
on the device, in device units.  So for a 12-point font (the usual
default for graphics devices), @samp{fnsize} should be 12 points in
device units.

The remaining elements are yet more mysterious.  The @code{postscript()}
device says

@example
    /* Character Addressing Offsets */
    /* These offsets should center a single */
    /* plotting character over the plotting point. */
    /* Pure guesswork and eyeballing ... */

    dd->xCharOffset =  0.4900;
    dd->yCharOffset =  0.3333;
    dd->yLineBias = 0.2;
@end example

@noindent
It seems that @code{xCharOffset} is not currently used, and
@code{yCharOffset} is used by the base graphics system to set vertical
alignment in @code{text()} when @code{pos} is specified, and in
@code{identify()}.  It is occasionally used by the graphic engine when
attempting exact centring of text, such as character string values of
@code{pch} in @code{points()} or @code{grid.points()}---however, it is
only used when precise character metric information is not available or
for multi-line strings.

@code{yLineBias} is used in the base graphics system in @code{axis()} and
@code{mtext()} to provide a default for their @samp{padj} argument.

@node Conventions, 'Mode', Handling text, Graphics devices
@subsection Conventions

The aim is to make the (default) output from graphics devices as similar
as possible, and further steps were taken in that direction in @R{}
2.7.0.  Generally people follow the model of the @code{postscript} and
@code{pdf} devices (which share most of their internal code).

The following conventions have become established:

@itemize

@item
The default size of a device should be 7 inches square.

@item
There should be a @samp{pointsize} argument which defaults to 12, and it
should give the pointsize in big points (1/72 inch).  How exactly this
is interpreted is font-specific, but it should use a font which works
with lines packed 1/6 inch apart, and looks good with lines 1/5 inch
apart (that is with 2pt leading).

@item
The default font family should be a sans serif font, e.g Helvetica or
similar (e.g.@: Arial on Windows).

@item
@code{lwd = 1} should correspond to a line width of 1/96 inch.  This
will be a problem with pixel-based devices, and generally there is a
minimum line width of 1 pixel (although this may not be appropriate
where anti-aliasing of lines is used, and @code{cairo} prefers a minimum
of 2 pixels).

@item
Even very small circles should be visible, e.g.@: by using a minimum
radius of 1 pixel or replacing very small circles by a single filled
pixel.

@item
How RGB colour values will be interpreted should be documented, and
preferably be sRGB.

@item
The help page should describe its policy on these conventions.

@end itemize

These conventions are less clear-cut for bitmap devices, especially
where the bitmap format does not have a design resolution.

The interpretation of the line texture (@code{par("lty"}) is described
in the header @file{GraphicsEngine.h} and in the help for @code{par}: note that the
`scale' of the pattern should be proportional to the line width (at
least for widths above the default).


@node 'Mode', Specific devices, Conventions, Graphics devices
@subsection `Mode'

One of the device callbacks is a function @code{mode}, documented in
the header as

@example
     * device_Mode is called whenever the graphics engine
     * starts drawing (mode=1) or stops drawing (mode=0)
     * GMode (in graphics.c) also ways that 
     * mode = 2 (graphical input on) exists.
     * The device is not required to do anything
@end example

@noindent
Since @code{mode = 2} has only recently been documented at device level,
it is not surprising that was it not used by any device: prior to @R{}
2.7.0 it was not set by @code{grid::grid.locator}.  It could be used to
change the graphics cursor, but devices currently do that in the
@code{locator} callback.  (In base graphics the mode is set for the
duration of a @code{locator} call, but if @code{type != "n"} is switched
back for each point whilst annotation is being done.)

Many devices do indeed do nothing on this call, but some screen devices
ensure that drawing is flushed to the screen when called with @code{mode
= 0}.  It is tempting to use it for some sort of buffering, but note
that `drawing' is interpreted at quite a low level and a typical single
figure will stop and start drawing many times.

@node Specific devices,  , 'Mode', Graphics devices
@subsection Specific devices

Specific devices are mostly documented by comments in their sources,
although for devices of many years' standing those comments can be in
need of updating.  This subsection is a repository of notes on design
decisions.

@menu
* X11()::                       
* windows()::                   
@end menu

@node X11(), windows(), Specific devices, Specific devices
@subsubsection X11()

The @code{X11(type="Xlib")} device dates back to the mid 1990's and was
written then in @code{Xlib}, the most basic X11 toolkit.  It has since
optionally made use of a few features from other toolkits: @code{libXt}
is used to read X11 resources, and @code{libXmu} is used in the handling
of clipboard selections.

Using basic @code{Xlib} code makes drawing fast, but is limiting.  There
is no support of translucent colours (that came in the @code{Xrender}
toolkit of 2000) nor for rotated text (which @R{} implements by
rendering text to a bitmap and rotating the latter).

The hinting for the X11 window asks for backing store to be used, and
some windows managers may use it to handle repaints, but it seems that
most repainting is done by replaying the display list (and here the fast
drawing is very helpful).

There are perennial problems with finding fonts.  Many users fail to
realize that fonts are a function of the X server and not of the machine
that @R{} is running on.  After many difficulties, @R{} tries first to
find the nearest size match in the sizes provided for Adobe fonts in the
standard 75dpi and 100dpi X11 font packages---even that will fail to
work when users of near-100dpi screens have only the 75dpi set
installed.  The 75dpi set allows sizes down to 6 points on a 100dpi
screen, but some users do try to use smaller sizes and even 6 and 8
point bitmapped fonts do not look good.

Introduction of UTF-8 locales has caused another wave of difficulties.
X11 has very few genuine UTF-8 fonts, and produces composite fontsets
for the @code{iso10646-1} encoding.  Unfortunately these seem to have
low coverage apart from a few monospaced fonts in a few sizes (which are
not suitable for graph annotation), and where glyphs are missing what is
plotted is often quite unsatisfactory.

The approach being taken for @R 2.7.0 is to make use of more modern
toolkits, namely @code{cairo} for rendering and @code{Pango} for font
management---because these are associated with @code{Gtk+2} they are
widely available.  Cairo supports translucent colours and alpha-blending
(@emph{via} @code{Xrender}), and anti-aliasing for the display of lines
and text.  Pango's font management is based on @code{fontconfig} and
somewhat mysterious, but it seems mainly to use Type 1 and TrueType
fonts on the machine running @R{} and send grayscale bitmaps to cairo.


@node windows(),  , X11(), Specific devices
@subsubsection windows()

The @code{windows()} device is a family of devices: it supports plotting
to Windows (enhanced) metafiles, @code{BMP}, @code{JPEG}, @code{PNG} and
@code{TIFF} files as well as to Windows printers.

In most of these cases the primary plotting is to a bitmap: this is used
for the (default) buffering of the screen device, which also enables the
current plot to be saved to BMP, JPEG, PNG or TIFF (it is the internal
bitmap which is copied to the file in the appropriate format).

The device units are pixels (logical ones on a metafile device).

The code was originally written by Guido Masarotto with extensive use of
macros, which can make it hard to disentangle.

For a screen device, @code{xd->gawin} is the canvas of the screen, and
@code{xd->bm} is the off-screen bitmap.  So macro @code{DRAW} arranges
to plot to @code{xd->bm}, and if buffering is off, also to
@code{xd->gawin}.  For all other device, @code{xd->gawin} is the canvas,
a bitmap for the @code{jpeg()} and @code{png()} device, and an internal
representation of a Windows metafile for the @code{win.metafile()} and
@code{win.print} device.  Since `plotting' is done by Windows GDI calls
to the appropriate canvas, its precise nature is hidden by the GDI
system.

Buffering on the screen device is achieved by running a timer, which
when it fires copies the internal bitmap to the screen.  This is set to
fire every 500ms (by default) and is reset to 100ms after plotting
activity.

Repaint events are handled by copying the internal bitmap to the screen
canvas (and then reinitializing the timer), unless there has been a resize.
Resizes are handled by replaying the display list: this might not be
necessary if a fixed canvas with scrollbars is being used, but that is
the least popular of the three forms of resizing.

Text on the device has moved to `Unicode' (UCS-2) in recent years.  As
from  @R{} 2.7.0, UTF-8 is requested (@code{hasTextUTF8 = TRUE}) for
standard text, and converted to UCS-2 in the plotting functions in file
@file{src/extra/graphapp/gdraw.c}.  However, GDI has no support for
Unicode symbol fonts, and symbols are handled in Adobe Symbol encoding.

Support for translucent colours (with alpha channel between 0 and 255)
was introduced in @R{} 2.6.0 for the screen device only, and extended to
the bitmap devices in @R{} 2.7.0.@footnote{It is technically possible to
use alpha-blending on metafile devices such as printers, but it seems
few drivers have support for this.} This is done by drawing on a further
internal bitmap, @code{xd->bm2}, in the opaque version of the colour
then alpha-blending that bitmap to @code{xd->bm}.  The alpha-blending
routine is in a separate DLL, @file{msimg32.dll}, which is loaded on
first use.@footnote{It is avaliable on Windows 2000 or later, and so had
to be optional in @R{} 2.6.0.}  As small a rectangular region as
reasonably possible is alpha-blended (this is rectangle @code{r} in the
code), but things like mitre joins make estimation of a tight bounding
box too much work for lines and polygonal boundaries.
Translucent-coloured lines are not common, and the performance seems
acceptable.

The support for a transparent background in @code{png()} predates full
alpha-channel support in @code{libpng} (let alone in PNG viewers), so
makes use of the limited transparency support in earlier versions of
PNG.  Where 24-bit colour is used, this is done by marking a single
colour to be rendered as transparent.  @R{} chose @samp{#fdfefd}, and
uses this as the background colour (in @code{GA_NewPage} if the
specified background colour is transparent (and all non-opaque
background colours are treated as transparent).  So this works by
marking that colour in the PNG file, and viewers without transparency
support see a slightly-off-white background, as if there were a
near-white canvas.  Where a palette is used in the PNG file (if less
than 256 colours were used) then this colour is recorded with full
transparency and the remaining colours as opaque.  If 32-bit colour were
available then we could add a full alpha channel, but this is dependent
on the graphics hardware and undocumented properties of GDI.


@node Colours, Base graphics, Graphics devices, Graphics Devices
@section Colours

Devices receive colours as an @code{unsigned int} (in the @code{GPar}
structure and some of the devices as the @code{typedef} @code{rcolor}):
the comments in file @file{R_ext/GraphicsDevice.h} are the primary
documentation.  The 4 bytes in the @code{unsigned int} are
@emph{R},@emph{G},@emph{B} and @emph{alpha} from least to most
significant. So each of RGB has 256 levels of luminosity from 0 to 255.
The alpha byte represents (from @R{} 2.0.0) opacity, so value 255 is
fully opaque and 0 fully transparent: many but not all devices handle
semi-transparent colours.

Colors can be created in C via the macro @code{R_RGBA}, and a set of
macros are defined in @file{R_ext/GraphicsDevice.h} to extract the
various components.

Colours in the base graphics system were originally borrowed from S (and
before that the GRZ library from Bell Labs), with the concept of a
(variable-sized) palette of colours referenced by numbers
@samp{1...@var{N}} plus @samp{0} (the background colour).  @R{}
introduced the idea of referring to colours by character strings, either
in the forms @samp{#RRGGBB} or @samp{#RRGGBBAA} (representing the bytes
in hex) as given by function @code{rgb()} or via names: the 657 known
names are given in the character vector @code{colors} and in a table in
file @file{colors.c}.  Note that semi-transparent colours are not
`premultiplied', so 50% transparent white is @samp{#ffffff80}.

What is not clear is how the RGB values are to be mapped to display
colours in the graphics device.  There is a proposal
(@uref{http://developer.r-project.org/sRGB-RFC.html}) to regard the
mapping as the colorspace `sRGB', but this is not currently done.
The sRGB colorspace is an industry standard: it is used by Web browsers
and JPEGs from all but high-end digital cameras.  The interpretation is
a matter for graphics devices and for code that manipulates colours, but
not for the graphics engine or subsystems.

@R{} uses a painting model similar to PostScript and PDF.  This means
that where shapes (circles, rectangles and polygons) can both be filled
and have a stroked border, the fill should be painted first and then the
border (or otherwise only half the border will be visible).  Where both
the fill and the border are semi-transparent there is some room for
interpretation of the intention.  Most devices first paint the fill and
then the border, alpha-blending at each step.  However, PDF does some
automatic grouping of objects, and @emph{when the fill and the border
have the same alpha}, they are painted onto the same layer and then
alpha-blended in one step.  (See p. 569 of the PDF Reference Sixth
Edition, version 1.7.  Unfortunately, although this is what the PDF
standard says should happen, it is not correctly implemented by some
viewers.)


@node Base graphics, Grid graphics, Colours, Graphics Devices
@section Base graphics

The base graphics system is likely to move to package @pkg{graphics} at
some stage, but it currently implemented in files in @file{src/main}.

For historical reasons it is largely implemented in two layers.
Files @file{plot.c}, @code{plot3d.c} and @code{par.c} contain the code
for the around 30 @code{.Internal} calls that implement the basic
graphics operations.  This code then calls functions with names starting
with @code{G} and declared in header @file{Rgraphics.h} in file
@file{graphics.c}, which in turn call the graphics engine (whose
functions almost all have names starting with @code{GE}).

A large part of the infrastructure of the base graphics subsystem are
the graphics parameters (as set/read by @code{par()}).  These are stored
in a @code{GPar} structure declared in the private header
@file{Graphics.h}.  This structure has two variables (@code{state} and
@code{valid}) tracking the state of the base subsystem on the device,
and many variables recording the graphics parameters and functions of
them.

The base system state is contained in @code{baseSystemState} structure
defined in @file{R_ext/GraphicsBase.h}.  This contains three @code{GPar}
structures and a Boolean variable used to record if @code{plot.new()}
(or @code{persp}) has been used successfully on the device.

The three copies of the @code{GPar} structure are used to store the
current parameters (accessed via @code{gpptr}), the `device copy'
(accessed via @code{dpptr}) and space for a saved copy of the `device
copy' parameters.  The current parameters are, clearly, those currently
in use and are copied from the `device copy' whenever @code{plot.new()}
is called (whether or not that advances to the next `page'). The saved
copy keeps the state when the device was last completely cleared (e.g.@:
when @code{plot.new()} was called with @code{par(new=TRUE)}), and is
used to replay the display list.

The separation is not completely clean: the `device copy' is altered if
a plot with log scale(s) is set up via @code{plot.window()}.

There is yet another copy of most of the graphics parameters in
@code{static} variables in @file{graphics.c} which are used to preserve
the current parameters across the processing of inline parameters in
high-level graphics calls (handled by @code{ProcessInlinePars}).

Snapshots of the base subsystem record the `saved device copy' of the
@code{GPar} structure.

There remain quite a number of anomalies.  For example, function
@code{GEcontourLines} is (despite its name) coded in file
@file{plot3d.c} and used to support function @code{contourLines} in
package @pkg{grDevices}.


@node Grid graphics,  , Base graphics, Graphics Devices
@section Grid graphics

[At least pointers to documentation.]

@node Tools, R coding standards, Graphics Devices, Top
@chapter Tools

The behavior of @command{R CMD check} can be controlled through a
variety of command line arguments, Perl configuration variables, and
internal environment variables.

There is an internal @option{--install=@var{value}} command line
argument not shown by @command{R CMD check --help}, with possible values

@table @code
@item check:@var{file}
Assume that installation was already performed with stdout/stderr to
@var{file}, the contents of which need to be checked (without repeating
the installation).  This is useful for checks applied by repository
maintainers: it reduces the check time by the installation time given
that the package has already been installed.  In this case, one also
needs to specify @emph{where} the package was installed to using command
line option @option{--library}.
@item fake
Fake installation, and turn off the run-time tests.
@item skip
Skip installation, e.g., when testing recommended packages bundled with
R.
@item no
The same as @option{--no-install}: turns off installation and the tests
which require the package to be installed.
@end table

The following internal environment variables are used for initializing
the corresponding public Perl configuration variables
(@pxref{Customizing checking and building, , Customizing checking and
building, R-exts, Writing R Extensions}):

@quotation
@multitable {@code{_R_CHECK_LATEX_VIGNETTES_}} {@code{$R_check_latex_vignettes}}
@item Environment variable
@tab Configuration variable
@item @code{_R_CHECK_ALL_NON_ISO_C_}
@vindex _R_CHECK_ALL_NON_ISO_C_
@tab @code{$R_check_all_non_ISO_C} 
@item @code{_R_CHECK_FORCE_SUGGESTS_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_FORCE_SUGGESTS_
@tab @code{$R_check_force_suggests}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_LATEX_VIGNETTES_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_LATEX_VIGNETTES_
@tab @code{$R_check_latex_vignettes}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_RD_STYLE_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_RD_STYLE_
@tab @code{$R_check_Rd_style}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_RD_XREFS_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_RD_XREFS_
@tab @code{$R_check_Rd_xrefs}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_SUBDIRS_NOCASE_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_SUBDIRS_NOCASE_
@tab @code{$R_check_subdirs_nocase}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_SUBDIRS_STRICT_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_SUBDIRS_STRICT_
@tab @code{$R_check_subdirs_strict}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_USE_INSTALL_LOG_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_USE_INSTALL_LOG_
@tab @code{$R_check_use_install_log}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_WEAVE_VIGNETTES_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_WEAVE_VIGNETTES_
@tab @code{$R_check_weave_vignettes}
@item @code{_R_CHECK_USE_CODETOOLS_}
@vindex_R_CHECK_USE_CODETOOLS_
@tab @code{$R_check_use_codetools}
@end multitable
@end quotation

The following internal environment variables have no corresponding
configuration variable.
@vtable @code
@item _R_CHECK_CODOC_S4_METHODS_
Control whether @code{codoc()} testing is also performed on S4 methods.
This is off by default because this can result in false positives, as
@code{rematchDefinition()} currently does not preserve the given
formals.
@item _R_CHECK_DOT_INTERNAL_
Control whether the package code is scanned for @code{.Internal} calls.
Default: false.
@item _R_CHECK_EXECUTABLES_
Control checking for executable (binary) files.
Default: true.
@item _R_CHECK_EXECUTABLES_EXCLUSIONS_
Control whether checking for executable (binary) files ignores files
listed in the package's @file{BinaryFiles} file.
Default: true.
However, most likely this package-level override mechanism will be
removed eventually.
@item _R_CHECK_FF_CALLS_
Allows turning off @code{checkFF()} testing.  Legacy mostly.
Default: true.
@item _R_CHECK_LICENSE_
Control whether license checks are performed.
Default: false.
@item _R_CHECK_RD_EMPTY_SECTIONS_
Control whether @code{Rd_parse()} and @code{check_Rd_files_in_Rd_db()}
worry about empty sections.  Of questionable use, as Rdconv drops empty
sections anyways with a note.
Default: false.
@item _R_CHECK_RD_EXAMPLES_T_AND_F_
Control whether @code{check_T_and_F()} also looks for ``bad'' (global)
@samp{T}/@samp{F} uses in examples.
Off by default because this can result in false positives.
@item _R_CHECK_RD_PARSE_
Control whether Rd files are checked against the Rd version 2 parser.
Default: true.
@item _R_CHECK_RD_USAGE_METHOD_BINOPS_
Control whether binops generics are considered as allowing useful S3
method markup. 
Default: true (as this Rd feature was added some time ago).
OBSOLETE.
@item _R_CHECK_RD_USAGE_METHOD_SUBSET_
Control whether subset generics are considered as allowing useful S3
method markup.
Default: true (as this Rd feature was added some time ago).
OBSOLETE.
@item _R_CHECK_SRC_MINUS_W_IMPLICIT_
Control whether installation output is checked for compilation warnings
about implicit function declarations (as spotted by GCC with command
line option @option{-Wimplicit-function-declaration}, which is implied
by @option{-Wall}).
Default: false.
This should really be a configuration variable, but we need a better
name.
@item _R_CHECK_SRC_MINUS_W_UNUSED_
Control whether installation output is checked for compilation warnings
about unused code constituents (as spotted by GCC with command line
option @option{-Wunused}, which is implied by @option{-Wall}).
@item _R_CHECK_WALL_FORTRAN_
Control whether gfortran 4.0 or better @option{-Wall} warnings are used in
the analysis of installation output.
Default: false, even though the warnings are justifiable.
This should really be a configuration variable, but we need a better name.
@item _R_CHECK_WARN_BAD_USAGE_LINES_
Control whether @code{checkDocFiles()} warns about bad Rd @code{\usage}
lines.
Default: true (as @code{\special} was rolled out a long time ago).
OBSOLETE.
@end vtable

@node R coding standards, Testing R code, Tools, Top
@chapter R coding standards

@cindex coding standards
@R{} is meant to run on a wide variety of platforms, including Linux and
most variants of Unix as well as 32-bit Windows versions and on Mac OS X.
Therefore, when extending @R{} by either adding to the @R{} base
distribution or by providing an add-on package, one should not rely on
features specific to only a few supported platforms, if this can be
avoided.  In particular, although most @R{} developers use @acronym{GNU}
tools, they should not employ the @acronym{GNU} extensions to standard
tools.  Whereas some other software packages explicitly rely on e.g.@:
@acronym{GNU} make or the @acronym{GNU} C++ compiler, @R{} does not.
Nevertheless, @R{} is a @acronym{GNU} project, and the spirit of the
@cite{@acronym{GNU} Coding Standards} should be followed if possible.

The following tools can ``safely be assumed'' for @R{} extensions.

@itemize @bullet
@item
An ISO C99 C compiler.  Note that extensions such as @acronym{POSIX}
1003.1 must be tested for, typically using Autoconf unless you are sure
they are supported on all mainstream @R{} platforms (including Windows
and Mac OS X).  Packages will be more portable if written assuming only
C89, but this should not be done where using C99 features will make for
cleaner or more robust code.

@item
A FORTRAN 77 compiler (but not Fortran 9x).

@item
A simple @command{make}, considering the features of @command{make} in
4.2 @acronym{BSD} systems as a baseline.
@findex make

@acronym{GNU} or other extensions, including pattern rules using
@samp{%}, the automatic variable @samp{$^}, the @samp{+=} syntax to
append to the value of a variable, the (``safe'') inclusion of makefiles
with no error, conditional execution, and many more, must not be used
(see Chapter ``Features'' in the @cite{@acronym{GNU} Make Manual} for
more information).  On the other hand, building @R{} in a separate
directory (not containing the sources) should work provided that
@command{make} supports the @code{VPATH} mechanism.

Windows-specific makefiles can assume @acronym{GNU} @command{make} 3.79
or later, as no other @command{make} is viable on that platform.

@item
A Bourne shell and the ``traditional'' Unix programming tools, including
@command{grep}, @command{sed}, and @command{awk}.

There are @acronym{POSIX} standards for these tools, but these may not
fully be supported.  Baseline features could be determined from a book
such as @cite{The UNIX Programming Environment} by Brian W. Kernighan &
Rob Pike.  Note in particular that @samp{|} in a regexp is an extended
regexp, and is not supported by all versions of @command{grep} or
@command{sed}.  The Open Group Base Specifications, Issue 6, which is
technically identical to ISO/IEC 9945 and IEEE Std 1003.1 (POSIX), 2004,
are available at
@uref{http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/mindex.html}.
@end itemize

Under Windows, most users will not have these tools installed, and you
should not require their presence for the operation of your package.
However, users who install your package from source will have them, as
they can be assumed to have followed the instructions in ``the Windows
toolset'' appendix of the ``R Installation and Administration'' manual
to obtain them.  Redirection cannot be assumed to be available via
@command{system} as this does not use a standard shell (let alone a
Bourne shell).

@noindent
In addition, the following tools are needed for certain tasks.

@itemize @bullet
@item
Perl version 5 is needed for converting documentation written in Rd
format to plain text, @HTML{}, @LaTeX{}, and to extract the examples.
In addition, several other tools, in particular @command{check} and
@command{build} require Perl.
@findex Perl

The @R{} Core Team has decided that Perl (version 5) can safely be
assumed for building @R{} from source, building and checking add-on
packages, and for installing add-on packages from source.  On the other
hand, Perl cannot be assumed at all for installing @emph{binary}
(pre-built) versions of add-on packages, or at run time.

@item
Makeinfo version 4.7 or later is needed to build the Info files for the
@R{} manuals written in the @acronym{GNU} Texinfo system.  (Future
distributions of @R{} may contain the Info files.)
@findex makeinfo
@end itemize

It is also important that code is written in a way that allows others to
understand it.  This is particularly helpful for fixing problems, and
includes using self-descriptive variable names, commenting the code, and
also formatting it properly.  The @R{} Core Team recommends to use a
basic indentation of 4 for @R{} and C (and most likely also Perl) code,
and 2 for documentation in Rd format.  Emacs (21 or later) users can
implement this indentation style by putting the following in one of
their startup files, and using customization to set the
@code{c-default-style} to @code{"bsd"} and @code{c-basic-offset} to
@code{4}.)
@findex emacs

@smallexample
@group
;;; ESS
(add-hook 'ess-mode-hook
          (lambda ()
            (ess-set-style 'C++ 'quiet)
            ;; Because
            ;;                                 DEF GNU BSD K&R C++
            ;; ess-indent-level                  2   2   8   5   4
            ;; ess-continued-statement-offset    2   2   8   5   4
            ;; ess-brace-offset                  0   0  -8  -5  -4
            ;; ess-arg-function-offset           2   4   0   0   0
            ;; ess-expression-offset             4   2   8   5   4
            ;; ess-else-offset                   0   0   0   0   0
            ;; ess-close-brace-offset            0   0   0   0   0
            (add-hook 'local-write-file-hooks
                      (lambda ()
                        (ess-nuke-trailing-whitespace)))))
(setq ess-nuke-trailing-whitespace-p 'ask)
;; or even
;; (setq ess-nuke-trailing-whitespace-p t)
@end group
@group
;;; Perl
(add-hook 'perl-mode-hook
          (lambda () (setq perl-indent-level 4)))
@end group
@end smallexample

@noindent
(The `GNU' styles for Emacs' C and R modes use a basic indentation of 2,
which has been determined not to display the structure clearly enough
when using narrow fonts.)

@node Testing R code, Function and variable index, R coding standards, Top
@chapter Testing R code

When you (as @R{} developer) add new functions to the R base (all the
packages distributed with @R{}), be careful to check if @kbd{make
test-Specific} or particularly, @kbd{cd tests; make no-segfault.Rout}
still works (without interactive user intervention, and on a standalone
computer).  If the new function, for example, accesses the Internet, or
requires @acronym{GUI} interaction, please add its name to the ``stop
list'' in @file{tests/no-segfault.Rin}.

[To be revised: use @command{make check-devel}, check the write barrier
if you change internal structures.]

@node Function and variable index, Concept index, Testing R code, Top
@unnumbered Function and variable index

@printindex vr

@node Concept index,  , Function and variable index, Top
@unnumbered Concept index

@printindex cp

@bye

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