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Nikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalfNikitazimov’snicknameforthevehicleseemedoddatfirst.Itdidn’tlooklikeababymammoth.Itlookedlikeasmalltank,witharmoredwheelsandapitbull’scenterofgravity.Onlyafterhesmashedusintothefirsttreedidtheconnectionbecomeclear.WeweredrivingthrougharemoteforestinEasternSiberia,justnorthoftheArcticCircle,whenithappened.Thesummerthawwasinfullswing.Theundergrowthglowedgreen,andtheairhungheavywithmosquitoes.Wehadjustsplashedthroughaseriesofdeeppondswhen,withoutawordofwarning,Nikitaveeredoffthetrailandintothetrees,rammingusintothetrunkofayoung20-footlarch.Thewheelsspunforamoment,andthensurgedusforward.Adrycrackrangoutfromunderthefenderasthelarchsnappedcleanlyatitsbaseandtoppledover,fallinginthequiet,dignifiedwaythattreesdo.Listentotheaudioversionofthisarticle:DownloadtheAudmappforyouriPhonetolistentomoretitles.IhadneverseenNikitahappier.Evenseatedbehindthewheel,heloomedtallandbroad-shouldered,hisbrownhaircutshortlikeasoldier’s.Hefixedhislargeice-blueeyesonthefallentreeandgrinned.Irememberthinkingthatinanotherage,Nikitamighthaveledahunter-gathererbandinsomewildlandofthefarnorth.Hesqueezedtheaccelerator,slammingusintoanotherlarch,untilittoosnappedandtoppledover,felledbyourelephantineforce.Werampaged20yardswiththissameviolentrhythm—churningwheels,crackingtimber,silentfall—beforestoppingtosurveytheflattenedstripoflarchesinourwake.“Ingeneral,Iliketrees,”Nikitasaid.“Buthere,theyareagainstourtheory.”Behindus,throughthefreshgapintheforest,ourdestinationshoneintheJulysun.Beyondthebrokentrunksandafewdarktree-linedhillsstoodPleistocenePark,a50-square-milenaturereserveofgrassyplainsroamedbybison,muskoxen,wildhorses,andmaybe,inthenot-too-distantfuture,lab-grownwoollymammoths.ThoughitsnamewinksatJurassicPark,Nikita,thereserve’sdirector,waskeentoexplainthatitisnotatouristattraction,orevenaspecies-resurrectionproject.Itis,instead,aradicalgeoengineeringscheme.“Itwillbecutetohavemammothsrunningaroundhere,”hetoldme.“ButI’mnotdoingthisforthem,orforanyotheranimals.I’mnotoneofthesecrazyscientiststhatjustwantstomaketheworldgreen.Iamtryingtosolvethelargerproblemofclimatechange.I’mdoingthisforhumans.I’vegotthreedaughters.I’mdoingitforthem.”PleistoceneParkisnamedforthegeologicalepochthatendedonly12,000yearsago,havingbegun2.6millionyearsearlier.ThoughcolloquiallyknownastheIceAge,thePleistocenecouldeasilybecalledtheGrassAge.Evenduringitsdeepestchills,whenthick,blue-veinedglacierswerebearingdownontheMediterranean,hugeswathsoftheplanetwerecoatedingrasslands.InBeringia,theArcticbeltthatstretchesacrossSiberia,allofAlaska,andmuchofCanada’sYukon,thesevastplainsofgreenandgoldgaverisetoanewbiome,acold-weatherversionoftheAfricansavannacalledtheMammothSteppe.ButwhentheIceAgeended,manyofthegrasslandsvanishedundermysteriouscircumstances,alongwithmostofthegiantspecieswithwhomweoncesharedthisEarth.NikitaistryingtoresurfaceBeringiawithgrasslands.HewantstosummontheMammothSteppeecosystem,completewithitsextinctcreatures,backfromtheunderworldofgeologicallayers.Theparkwasfoundedin1996,andalreadyithasbrokenoutofitsoriginalfences,eatingitswayintothesurroundingtundrascrublandsandsmallforests.IfNikitahashisway,PleistoceneParkwillspreadacrossArcticSiberiaandintoNorthAmerica,helpingtoslowthethawingoftheArcticpermafrost.Werethatfrozenundergroundlayertowarmtooquickly,itwouldreleasesomeoftheworld’smostdangerousclimate-changeaccelerantsintotheatmosphere,visitingcatastropheonhumanbeingsandmillionsofotherspecies.Initsscopeandradicalism,theideahasfewpeers,saveperhapstheschemetocooltheEarthbyseedingtheatmospherewithsilverymistsofsun-reflectingaerosols.OnlyinSiberia’semptyexpansecouldanexperimentofthisscalesucceed,andonlyifhumanbeingslearntocooperateacrosscenturies.Thisintergenerationalworkhasalreadybegun.ItwasNikita’sfather,Sergey,whofirstdevelopedtheideaforPleistocenePark,beforecedingcontrolofittoNikita.SergeyZimovsaystheparkwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”TheZimovshaveacomplicatedrelationship.ThefathersayshehadtowoothesonbacktotheArctic.WhenNikitawasyoung,Sergeywas,byhisownadmission,obsessedwithwork.“Idon’tthinkheevenpaidattentiontomeuntilIwas20,”Nikitatoldme.Nikitawentawayforhighschool,toaprestigiousscienceacademyinNovosibirsk,Siberia’slargestcity.Hefoundlifetheretohisliking,anddecidedtostayforuniversity.SergeymadethejourneytoNovosibirskduringNikita’sfreshmanyearandaskedhimtocomehome.ItwouldhavebeeneasyforNikitatosayno.Hesoonstarteddatingthewomanhewouldgoontomarry.SayingyestoSergeymeantaskinghertolive,andraisechildren,intheicefieldsatthetopoftheworld.Andthentherewashispride.“Itisdifficulttodedicateyourlifetosomeoneelse’sidea,”hetoldme.ButSergeywaspersuasive.LikemanyRussians,hehasapoeticwayofspeaking.IntheArcticresearchcommunity,heisfamousforhisabilitytothinkacrossseveralscientificdisciplines.Hewillspendyearsnurturingabigideabeforepreviewingitforthefield’sluminaries.Itwillsoundcrazyatfirst,severalofthemtoldme.“Butthenyougoawayandyouthink,”saidMaxHolmes,thedeputydirectorofWoodsHoleResearchCenter,inMassachusetts.“Andtheideastartstomakessense,andthenyoucan’tcomeupwithagoodreasonwhyit’swrong.”OfallthebigideasthathavecomespillingoutofSergeyZimov,nonerouseshispassionslikePleistocenePark.Heoncetoldmeitwouldbe“thelargestprojectinhumanhistory.”Asithappens,humanhistorybeganinthePleistocene.Manybehaviorsthatdistinguishusfromotherspeciesemergedduringthat2.6-million-yearepoch,whenglacierspulseddownfromtheNorthPoleatregularintervals.InthefloodmythsofNoahandGilgamesh,andinPlato’sstoryofAtlantis,wegetaclueastowhatitwaslikewhenthelastglaciationendedandtheicemeltedandtheseaswelledup,swallowingcoastsandislands.Buthumanculturehaspreservednomemoryofanoncomingglaciation.Wecanonlyimaginewhatitwasliketowatchmillenniaofsnowpileupintoiceslabsthatpushedeversouthward.Intheepicpoemsthatcompressgenerationsofexperience,aglaciationwouldhaveseemedlikeatsunamioficerollingdownfromthegreatwhitenorth.Oneofthese10,000-yearwintersmayhaveinspiredourdomesticationoffire,thatstillunequaledtechnologicalleapthatwarmedus,wardedawaypredators,andcookedthecalorie-densemealsthatnourishedourgrowingbrains.Onourwatch,fireevolvedquickly,fromabonfireatthecenterofcamptoindustrialcombustionthatpowerscitieswhoseglowcanbeseenfromspace.Butthesefossil-fueledfiresgiveoffanexhaust,onethatispooling,invisibly,inthethinshellofairaroundourplanet,warmingitssurface.Andnowhereiswarmingfaster,orwithgreaterconsequence,thantheArctic.EveryArcticwinterisanIceAgeinminiature.InlateSeptember,theskydarkensandtheicesheetatoptheNorthPoleexpands,spreadingasurfacefreezeacrosstheseasoftheArcticOcean,likeacataractdilatingoverablueiris.InOctober,thefreezehitsSiberia’snorthcoastandcontinuesintotheland,sandwichingthesoilbetweensurfacesnowpackandsubterraneanfrost.Whenthespringsuncomes,itmeltsthesnow,butthefrozenundergroundlayerremains.Nearlyamilethickinsomeplaces,thisSiberianpermafrostextendsthroughthenortherntundramoonscapeandwellintothetaigaforestthatstretches,likeanevergreenstripe,acrossEurasia’smidsection.SimilarfrozenlayersliebeneaththesurfaceinAlaskaandtheYukon,andallarenowbeginningtothaw.KevinTongIfthisintercontinentaliceblockwarmstooquickly,itsthawingwillsendasmuchgreenhousegasintotheatmosphereeachyearasdoallofAmerica’sSUVs,airliners,containerships,factories,andcoal-burningplantscombined.Itcouldthrowtheplanet’sclimateintoacalamitousfeedbackloop,inwhichfasterheatingbegetsfastermelting.Themoreapocalypticclimate-changescenarioswillbeinplay.Coastalpopulationcenterscouldbeswamped.Oceanscouldbecomemoreacidic.Amassextinctioncouldripitswayupfromtheplanktonbaseofthemarinefoodchain.Megadroughtscouldexpanddesertsandsendhundredsofmillionsofrefugeesacrossborders,triggeringglobalwar.“PleistoceneParkismeanttoslowthethawingofthepermafrost,”Nikitatoldme.TheparksitsinthetransitionzonebetweentheSiberiantundraandthedensewoodsofthetaiga.Fordecades,theZimovsandtheiranimalshavestrippedawaytheregion’sdarktreesandshrubstomakewayforthereturnofgrasslands.Researchsuggeststhatthesegrasslandswillreflectmoresunlightthantheforestsandscrubtheyreplace,causingtheArctictoabsorblessheat.Inwinter,theshortgrassandanimal-trampledsnowwillofferscantinsulation,enablingtheseason’sfreezetoreachdeeperintotheEarth’scrust,coolingthefrozensoilbeneathandlockingoneoftheworld’smostdangerouscarbon-dioxidelodesinathermodynamicvault.Totesttheselandscape-scalecoolingeffects,NikitawillneedtoimportthelargeherbivoresofthePleistocene.He’salreadybegunbringingtheminfromfar-offlands,twobytwo,asthoughfillinganark.ButtogrowhisIceAgelawnintoabiomethatstretchesacrosscontinents,heneedsmillionsmore.Heneedswildhorses,muskoxen,reindeer,bison,andpredatorstocorraltheherbivoresintoherds.And,tokeepthetreesbeatenback,heneedshundredsofthousandsofresurrectedwoollymammoths.Video:TheRussianScientistsBringingBacktheIceAgeInashortdocumentarybyGrantSlater,SergeyandNikitaZimovexplainthevisionbehindPleistocenePark.Asaspecies,thewoollymammothisfreshinitsgrave.PeopleinSiberiastillstumbleonfrozenmammothremainswithfleshandfurintact.Somescientistshaveheldouthopethatoneofthesecarcassesmaycontainanundamagedcellsuitableforcloning.ButJurassicParknotwithstanding,theDNAofadeceasedanimaldecaysquickly.Evenifadeepfreezesparesacelltheravenousmicrobialswarmsthatfollowindeath’swake,afewthousandyearsofcosmicrayswillreduceitsgeneticcodetoajumbleofunreadablefragments.YoucouldwandertheentireEarthandnotfindamammothcellwithaperfectlypreservednucleus.Butyoumaynotneedone.Amammothismerelyacold-adaptedmemberoftheelephantfamily.Asianelephantsinzooshavebeencaughtoncameramakingsnowballswiththeirtrunks.Modifythegenomesofelephantslikethose,asnaturemodifiedtheirancestors’acrosshundredsofthousandsofyears,andyoucanmakeyourownmammoths.ThegeneticistGeorgeChurchandateamofscientistsathisHarvardlabaretryingtodoexactlythat.Inearly2014,usingcrispr,thegenome-editingtechnology,theybeganflyingalongtherailsoftheAsianelephant’sdoublehelix,switchinginmammothtraits.Theyaretryingtoaddcold-resistanthemoglobinandafull-bodylayerofinsulatingfat.Theywanttoshrinktheelephant’sflapping,expressiveearssotheydon’tfreezeintheArcticwind,andtheywanttocoatthewholeanimalinluxuriousfur.ByOctober2014,Churchandhisteamhadsucceededinediting15oftheAsianelephant’sgenes.Latelastyearhetoldmehewastweaking30more,andhesaidhemightneedtochangeonly50todothewholejob.WhenIaskedBethShapiro,theworld’sforemostexpertinextinctspecies’DNA,aboutChurch’swork,shegushed.“GeorgeChurchisawesome,”shesaid.“He’sontherightpath,andnoonehasmademoreprogressthanhim.Butit’stooearlytosaywhetheritwilltakeonly50genes,becauseittakesalotofworktoseewhateachofthosechangesisgoingtodotothewholeanimal.”Evenifittakeshundredsofgenetweaks,Churchwon’thavetomakeaperfectmammoth.IfhecanresculpttheAsianelephantsoitcansurviveJanuarysinSiberia,hecanleavenaturalselectiontodothepolishing.Forinstance,mammothhairwasaslongas12inches,butshorterfurwillbefineforChurch’spurposes.Yakutianwildhorsestooklessthan1,000yearstoregrowlongcoatsaftertheyreturnedtotheArctic.Churchhopestodeliverthefirstmammothtotheparkwithinadecade.“Thegeneeditingistheeasypart,”Churchtoldme,beforeIleftforPleistocenePark.Assemblingtheeditedcellsintoanembryothatsurvivestotermistherealchallenge,inpartbecausesurrogacyisoutofthequestion.Asianelephantsareanendangeredspecies.Fewscientistswanttotinkerwiththeirreproductiveprocesses,andnootheranimal’swombwilldo.Instead,theembryoswillhavetobenurturedinanengineeredenvironment,mostlikelyatinysacofuterinecellsatfirst,andthenacloset-sizetankwherethefetuscangrowintoafullyformed,200-poundcalf