Constants and Variables
let aspectRatio = 1.6 // Constant, Inferred Type
var remainingTime = 60 // Variable, Inferred Type
var userName: String = "john@doe.com" // Variable, Annotated Type
let age = 10, name = "John" // Multiple Constants, Inferred Type
var x, y, z: Double // Multiple Variable Declarations, The same Annotated Type
var x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 // Multiple Variable Initializations, Inferred Type
typealias Distance = Int64 // Type AliasRelations and Logical Operations
obj1 == obj2 // Equality check
obj1 != obj2 // Not-Equals check
if 2 < 3, i <= 5, i > 7, i >= 8 // Usual order relationsString
print(welcomeMessage) // Print, Acts like println by default
print("My name is \(userName)") // String Interploation, Basic
let longString = """ // Multi-line Strings
Long multiline
string.
""" // Closing quote determines the alignment (no need for strip)
let immutableString = "no can change" // Constant strings are immutable
var changeMeLater = "Yes, " // Variable strings are mutable
chaneMeLater += "We Can!"
let exclamationMark: Character = "!" // Character type, Chracter String literal (no single quotes)
let unicode = "Penguin 🐧" // Unicode
let s = "Guten Tag!" // Indexing
s[s.startIndex] // G
s[s.index(before: s.endIndex)] // !
s[s.index(after: s.startIndex)] // u
for character in "Dog!🐶" { // Iterate over characters
print(character)
}
let threeMoreDoubleQuotationMarks = #""" // Escape from escaping!
Here are three more double quotes: """
"""#Numeric Types
let minValue: UInt8 = UInt8.min // Unsigned Integer, a la C types
let largeNumber: Int = 102334 // Platform-specific, Either Int32 or Int64
let highPrecision: Double = 2.718182198 // 64-bit floating point number
let ascpetRatio: Float = 1.333333 // 32-bit floating point number Booleans
let thisIsATautology: Bool = true // Bool type for booleans, true litreal
let examFailed = false // `false` literal
let isSafe = zombiesCount == 0 // Equality comparison operator ==
if isSafe { print("No worries") } // Conditional
else { print("Run!") }Tuples
let binding = ("localhost", 8080) // 2-Tuple Construction, Inferred Type (String, Int)
let p: (Int, Int, Int) = (1, 3, 5) // 3-Tuple Construction, Annotated Type
let (x, y, z) = coordinates // Deconstruction
let (host, _) = binding // Discarding extra information with _
print("Host: \(binding.0)") // Accessing the First component (0-based index)
print("Port: \(binding.1)") // Accessing the Second component
let user = (name: "John", age: 10) // Named tuples
print("User name: \(user.name)") // Accessing named component
(b, a) = (a, b) // Trick to swap two variables!
(10, "Zebra") < (10, "Apple") // Component-wise left-to-right comparisonOptionals
var maybeNumber: Int? // A type qualified with a `?` means optional
maybeNumber = nil // `nil` indicates absence of a value
var policyNoOpt: String? // Initial value is `nil` for uninitialized variables
policyNoOpt = "#FF2345" // Assign an actual value, indicates presense of a value
if (maybeNumber != nil) { // Presence of value Check
let num = maybeNumber! // Access value by forcing matters using !
print("Lucky number is: \(num)") // Forcing throws runtime error if value is nil
}
if let policyNo = policyNoOpt { // Optional Binding, checks presence and binds
print("Policy No: \(policyNo)") // the actual value, if any,
} // at the same time (a la monadic map)
if var name = nameOpt, // Multiple Optional Bindings
let age = ageOpt, // Unpacking to a variable or constant is allowed
age > 2 { // Using unpacked value in more conditionals is allowed
name = "Passenger \(name)" // Condition fails if any of optionals are nil or
print("\(name): \(age)") // if subsequent constraints don't hold
}
var email: String! // Implicitly Unwrapped Optional, Type qualified by !
email = "john@doe.com" // Initialization, Most probably in a class constructor
print(email) // Auto-unwrapped, email acts as email! everyhwere
maybeNumber ?? 0 // Nil Coalesce, Like maybeNumber.getOrElse(0) in ScalaError Handling
func getPermission() throws { // Indicates a possibility of throwing errors
throw Permissions.deniedByUser // Throws an error
}
do { // Error handling
try getUserPermission()
} catch Permissions.deniedByUser {
// handle error
} catch Permissions.deniedByAdmin(let name) where name == "CEO" {
println("Ohhhkay")
} catch catch Permissions.deniedByAdmin(let name) {
println("Gotcha \(name)! ")
}
let x = try? someThrowingFunction() // Convert Errors to Optionals
let photo = try! someThrowingButSound() // Disables error propagation, aka "I'm sure it never fails"
assert(age >= 0, "Unexpected!") // Assertions
precondition(index > 0, "Must be true") // Preconditions, compiler flag dependentRanges
for index in 1...5 { // a..b is the inclusive range [a, b]
print("\(index)") // 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
}
a..<b // [a, b) half-open range, includes a, excludes b
myArray[2...] // One-Sided range, Array Slicing a la Python's myArray[2:]
myArray[...2] // One-Sided inclusive range, myArray[:3] in Python
myArray[..<2] // One-Sided exclusive range, myArray[:2] in PythonCollections: Arrays
var arr: Array<Int> // Mutable array of integers, var signals mutability
var arr: [Int] = [] // Shorthand and preferred notation for array types
["a", "b", "c"] // Array Literal
arr.append(1) // Append an element
arr += [1, 2] // Append an array to the end of this array
arr1 + arr2 // Concatenate two arrays
arr.count // Size of the array
arr.isEmpty // Emptiness check
arr[0] // Access elements, Subscript syntax
arr[0] = "NewValue" // Update element at a specific index
const justRemoved = arr.remove(at: 2) // Remove the item at index 2 and return it
const wasLast = arr.removeLast() // Remove last element from array
for item in shoppingList { // Iterate over an array
print(item)
}
for (idx, elem) in arr.enumerated() { // Iterate with index
print("Item \(idx + 1): \(elem)")
}
myArray[2...] // One-Sided range, Array Slicing a la Python's myArray[2:]
myArray[...2] // One-Sided inclusive range, myArray[:3] in Python
myArray[..<2] // One-Sided exclusive range, myArray[:2] in PythonCollections: Sets
var mySet: Set<SomeType> // Set type, SomeType must be Hashable
var letters = Set<Character>() // Empty set
const genres: Set = ["Rock", "Jazz"] // Array litreal can be used for sets
letters.insert("b") // Add a new member
letters.count // Size of the set
letters.contains("c") // Membership, indicator function of the set
setA.intersection(setB) // Set-theoric functions
setA.symmetricDifference(setB)
setA.union(setB)
setA.subtracting(setB)
setA.isSubset(of: setB)
setA.isSuperset(of: setB)
setA.isStrictSubset(of: setB)
setA.isStrictSuperset(of: setB)
setA.isDisjoint(with: setB) Collections: Dictionaries
var dict: Dictionary<String, String> // Dictionary<Key, Value>
var population: [String: Int] // Shorthand and preferred type notation
var population = [String: Int]() // Empty dictionary with explicit types
population = [:] // Empty set litreal for an already proven type
["Earth": 42, "Mars": 1, "Moon": -14] // Dictionary literal
population["Earth"] = 42 // Assign value to key
// Alternative syntax for updating
const oldVal: Int? = population.updateValue(43, forKey: "Earth")
if let old = population.updateValue(43, forKey: "Earth") {
print("The old value for Earth was \(old).")
}
population.removeValue(forKey: "Earth") // Remove a key
population["Earth"] = nil // Syntactic sugar for removing a key
const p: Int? = population["Moon"] // Access values for a key, if any
for (where, howMany) in population { // Iterate over <K,V> pairs
print("\(where): \(howMany)")
}
population.keys // Keys set
population.values // Values set
[String](population.keys.sorted()) // Convert the key set to a sorted arraySwitch
switch someCharacter {
case "a": print("The first letter of the alphabet")
case "z": print("The last letter of the alphabet")
default : print("Some other character")
}
// No fall through
// First match wins
// Must be exhaustive, that is should always match any value of the target type
// Compile error if switch is not exhaustive, very helpful
swith someCharacter {
case "a", "A": print("A or a") // Either "a" or "A"
}
switch approximateCount {
case 0 : naturalCount = "no"
case 1..<5 : naturalCount = "a few" // Range matching
}
let anotherPoint = (2, 0)
switch anotherPoint {
case (let x, 0): // Binding and partial matcing
print("on x-axis \(x)")
case (0, let y):
print("on y-axis (y)")
case let (x, y) where x == y: // Where clause for bound variables
print("on the diagnoal")
case let (x, y):
print("any other case")
}
ler origin = (0, 0)
let myPoint = (9, 0)
switch myPoint {
case origin: // Value match: checks equality
print("Is Origin")
case (let dist, 0), (0, let dist): // Compound case with binding: all of the same type
print("On an axis, \(dist) ") // If it doesn't make sense at first sight, play with it
default:
print("Not on an axis")
} Control Flow
for char in input {
if char == "a" {
continue // Skip the rest of current and go to next iteration
}
process(char)
}
for char in input {
if char == "E" {
break // Break out of the whole loop
}
process(char)
}
print("E pressed, game over!")
let myInt = 5
var description = "\(myInt) is"
switch myInt {
case 1:
break // Match and ignore case using break
case 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19:
description += " is prime, and also"
fallthrough // Falls through to next case, like C
default:
description += " an integer."
}
// prints "5 is prime and also an integer"
func greet(user: [String: String]) {
guard let name = user["name"] else { // Guard statement
return // Early exit pattern
}
print("Hello \(name)!")
guard let loc = user["loc"] else { // Watch out, another guard!
print("Where are you?") // Another not so early exist
return
}
print("Weather is nice in \(loc).")
}Functions
func abs(x: Int) -> Int { // Defining a function of type Int -> Int
return x < 0 ? -x : x
}
abs(x: -3) // Calling the function, naming the param is required
// A function that returns an optional tuple
func minMax(array: [Int]) -> (min: Int, max: Int)? {
if array.isEmpty {
return nil
}
// Find min and max is array is not empty
return (min, max)
}
// Calling the function
if let bounds = minMax(array: [8, -6, 2, 109, 3, 71]) {
print("min is \(bounds.min) and max is \(bounds.max)")
}
func sgn(x: Int) -> Int { // Implicit Return
x < 0 ? -1 : x > 0 ? 1 : 0 // If the entire body is a single expression, there
} // is no need for the "return" keywrod
// Argument label "from"
// Parameter name "hometown"
func greet(person: String, from hometown: String) -> String {
"You're from \(hometown)." // Parameter name is used in the body
}
greet(person: "Joe", from: "Montreal") // Argument label is used at call site
// By default param name is used as the arg label
// Like "person" param in this function
func abs(_ x: Int) -> Int { // Omitting the arg label
x < 0 ? -x : x
}
abs(4) // Now "abs" can be called wihtout any label
// Default values for parameters
func dockerPort(host: String = "localhost", port: Int = 80) -> Int {
// function body
}
func mean(_ arr: Double...) -> Double { // Variadic params, like Varargs in Java
var total: Double = 0 // At mpst one varaidic arg is allowed per function
for number in numbers { // Type of variadic arg "arr" is [Double]
total += number
}
return total / Double(numbers.count)
}
mean(1, 2, 3, 4)
// inout params, annotated by putting the
// "inout" keyword before the type
// Indicates that the param is passed as a mutable reference.
// Please avoid this at all costs!
func swapTwoInts(_ a: inout Int, _ b: inout Int) {
let temporaryA = a
a = b
b = temporaryA
}
var someInt = 3
var anotherInt = 107 // Only mutable vars are allowed as inout params
swapTwoInts(&someInt, &anotherInt) // Prefixing with & is required for inout vars
func add(_ a: Int, _ b: Int) -> Int { // Type of this function is (Int, Int) -> Int
return a + b
}
var myFunc: (Int, Int) -> Int = add // Function variable,
// For λ calculus geeks: Eta conversion
// Higher order function
func hof(_ adder: (Int, Int) -> Int, _ a: Int, _ b: Int) -> Int {
adder(a, b)
}
// Nested functions, and returning functions
func choose(dir: Bool) -> (Int) -> Int {
func forward(_ x: Int) -> Int { x + 1 }
func backward(_ x: Int) -> Int {x - 1 }
return dir ? forward : backward
}
func sideEffect() { // Type of this function is () -> Void or () -> ()
print("Hello") // () indicates no input params and also is an alias for Void
} // Void is the same as Unit in Haskell and Scala
// If you find it confusing that Unit in Haskell is Void in
// Swift and the Void type in Haskell is
// a totally different thing, then congrats, you are a
// normal person.
// Keywords for search: "Initial and Terminal objects"
Closures, aka Lambdas
let nums = [1, 5, 3, 4]
// "by" is a lambda passed to the sorted function
// syntax : { (Params) -> ReturnType in expr }
nums.sorted(by: { (x: Int, y: Int) -> Bool in x < y })
nums.sorted(by: { x, y in x < y }) // Inferred types and implicit return, short and nice!
// Bash and Perl fans, brace for impact
names.sorted(by: { $0 > $1 } ) // Shorthand notation, $0 for 1st arg, $1 the 2nd and so on
names.sorted(by: >) // Operator methods, String::< in this case
names.sorted(by: <) // Beautiful and simple and type-safe at the same time
// Not as powerful as type-classes in Haskell or Scala, but it'll do
names.sorted { $0 > $1 } // Trailing closure syntax
// At call site if the last arg of a function call is
// a closure, it can be passed in after the parens or
// after the function name if there's no parens
nums.map { x in x * 2 } // Another example with the map method of arrays
var globalHandlers: [() -> ()]
// @escaping is needed if the closure escapes
// Compiler is rightfully very strict, no surprises like youKnowWho.js
func register(handler: @escaping () -> ()) {
globalHandlers.append(handler)
}
// AutoClosures, aka Call-by-Name
// Passed param won't be evaluated until and if used
// in the body at runtime
func serve(customer customerProvider: @autoclosure () -> String) {
print("Now serving \(customerProvider())!")
}
// Because customer is an autoclosure we can pass it
// like a regular param without parens
serve(customer: customersInLine.remove(at: 0))Enums
enum CompassPoint { // Enum type
case north // Enum case
case south // Unlike C, there's no integer value by default
case east
case west
}
enum Direction {
case up, left, down, right // Multiple comma-separated cases
}
let nextMove = Direction.up // Using it with a fully qualified name
var dir: CompassPoint
dir = .north // Shorthand, works only if the type is known
switch dir { // Pattern matching on enums
case .north: print("Us") // Must be exhaustive as usual
case .south: print("Them")
case .east: print("Far")
case .west: print("Also us")
}
enum Drink: CaseIterable { // Makes it iterable
case coffee, tea, juice
}
let all: [Drink] = Drink.allCases // allCases return the array of all cases
enum TwoFactorAuthMethod { // Enums cas be used for ADTs
case disabled
case phone(String) // Associated values, works like tuples, can be named
case textMessage(String)
case google(token: String, time: Int)
case accessCodes(codes: [String])
case email(String, secondary: String)
}
var method: TwoFactorAuthMethod
method = .phone("+1-111-111111") // Passing associated values, just like tuples
method = .accessCodes(codes: ["1", "2"])
method = .disabled
switch method { // Pattern matching on ADTs
case .disabled:
print("No way!")
case .phone(let number): // Binding the associated value, think tuples
print(number)
case let .accessCodes(codes): // Let or var can be placed before case name
print(codes.count)
case .email: // Associated values can be ignored
print("Temporarily unsupported")
default:
print("Other methods are not supported yet!")
}
enum ASCII: Character { // Raw values, lifting value types to enums
case tab = "\t" // Each raw value must be unique
case lf = "\n" // Compiler asserts this because it's smart and it
case cr = "\r" // knows how to distinguish different literals!
}
// Implicit raw values
// Each case's raw value is the previous' + 1
enum Planet: Int {
case mercury = 1, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune
}
extension Planet: CaseIterable {} // Making it iterable using extensions
Planet.earth.rawValue // Accessing raw values
enum CompassPoint: String { // For String raw values, the name of each
case north, south, east, west // case is implicitly assigned as the raw value
}
CompassPoint.north.rawValue // "north"
// Initializing from a raw value
// Returns an optional, reasonably, because not
// all raw values necessarily correspond to an actual case
let maybe: Planet? = Planet(rawValue: 7)
// And now, the super power of enums in Swift!
// Recursive enumerations
enum Expr {
case number(Int)
indirect case add(Expr, Expr) // indirect keyword is needed for recursive branches
indirect case mul(Expr, Expr)
}
indirect enum Expr { // indirect keyword can be put before the enum
case number(Int) // keyword which then applies to all cases with
case add(Expr, Expr) // associated values
case mul(Expr, Expr)
}
func eval(_ expr: Expr) -> Int { // A recursive function
switch expr { // Pattern matching recursive enums
case let .number(value): return value
case let .add(l, r): return eval(l) + eval(r)
case let .mul(l, r): return eval(l) * eval(r)
}
}Structures, Value Types
struct Resolution { // Structs, similar to case classes in Scala
var width = 0 // A stored property with a default property value
var height = 0
}
// Member-wise initializer
// Compiler automatically generates it for structs
let vga = Resolution(width: 640, height: 480)
vga.width // Accessing properties of a struct
// Structs, enums, strings, inetegres, floats, and booleans are all value types
// When assigned to a variable or constant, they get copied
var currentResoltion = vga // Gets copied, because right hand side is a value type
currentResoltion.width = 320 // Only the new copy is mutated
vga.width // still 640, original copy is intact
vga.width = 100 // Impossible! Compile error! Kaboom!
// If a value type is assigned to a constant, none of
// its properties can be mutated, even if they are defined
// as vars. This behavior is different for reference types.Classes, Reference Types
class VideoMode { // Class definition
var resolution = Resolution() // Stored property
var interlaced = false
var frameRate = 0.0
var name: String?
}
// Classes are reference types
// They don't get copied when assigned, all references of a class
// point to the same instance
let tenEighty = VideoMode() // Initialization
tenEighty.resolution = hd // Set property
tenEighty.interlaced = true // Because classes are reference types, we can
tenEighty.name = "1080i" // mutate mutable properties of an instance, even if
tenEighty.frameRate = 25.0 // that instance is a constant like tenEighty here
let alsoTenEighty = tenEighty // Assign the instance to a new reference
alsoTenEighty.frameRate = 30.0 // Mutate the property via the new reference
tenEighty.frameRate // Is now 30.0
// Triple equal signs is the "identical to" operator
// Returns true if both references refer to exactly the
// same class instance
// Similar to == in Java (reference equality)
tenEighty === alsoTenEighty // True
someOther !== tenEighty // Not idential to, Similar to != in JavaProperties
struct FixedLengthRange { // Stored properties
var firstValue: Int // Variable stored property, can be mutated if the struct
// instance is a variable
let length: Int // Constant stored property, can't be mutated even if
// the struct instance is a variable
}
class DataManager {
lazy var importer = DataImporter() // Lazy stored properties, their initial value is
var data = [String]() // not calculated until the first time it is used
// Opposite to Scala, in Swift only a var can be lazy
func manage() {
// use importer here
}
}
struct Rect {
var origin = Point()
var size = Size()
var center: Point { // Computed property, no storage just getter and setter
get { // Compute the value from other properties
let x = origin.x + (size.width / 2)
let y = origin.y + (size.height / 2)
return Point(x: x, y: y)
}
set(newCenter) { // Setter: sets values to other properties
origin.x = newCenter.x - (size.width / 2)
origin.y = newCenter.y - (size.height / 2)
}
}
}
struct Rect {
var origin = Point()
var size = Size()
var center: Point { // A computed property can't be a constant
get { // Shorthand getter, no return needed for a single expression
Point(x: origin.x + (size.width / 2), y: origin.y + (size.height / 2))
}
set { // Shorthand for setter (no explicit name for the param)
origin.x = newValue.x - (size.width / 2) // newValue is the implicit name for the param
origin.y = newValue.y - (size.height / 2)
}
}
}
var square = Rect(origin: Point(x: 0.0, y: 0.0),
size: Size(width: 10.0, height: 10.0))
square.center = Point(x: 15.0, y: 15.0) // Setting a computed property
struct Cuboid {
var width = 0.0,
var height = 0.0
var depth = 0.0
var volume: Double { // Read only computed property
width * height * depth // No setter. Getter can be omitted like here
}
}
class StepCounter { // Property observers, a door to reactive programming
var total: Int = 0 { // A normal stored property with observers
willSet(newTotal) { // Called right before a new value is stored
print("Will set to \(newTotal)") // Like componentWillUpdate in old versions of React
}
didSet { // Called immediately after value is stored
if total > oldValue { // oldValue is the default param name if no override is given
print("Added \(total - oldValue) steps")
}
} // Similar to componentDidUpdate in React
}
}
// Wrapped properties are not covered here
// Global variables are those that are defined outside of any class, struct, or function
// Global variables can also be computed or stored and can have observers
// Global variables are always lazy! Unlike properties, global constants can, and always are, lazy
let myGlobal = expensive() // Global, automatically lazyProperty Wrappers
// Write code that manages how a property is set and re-use it for multiple properties
// Defined in a struct, enum or class
@propertyWrapper // Annotation indicating a property wrapper definition
struct TwelveOrLess {
private var number = 0 // Internal state of the propety wrapper (arbitrary)
var wrappedValue: Int { // wrappedValue is a special name, by-convention like oldValue in didSet
get { number } // Getter logic
set { number = min(newValue, 12) } // Setter logic
}
}
@TwelveOrLess var height: Int // Usage, annotation before property declaration
print(height) // 0
height = 10
print(height) // 10
height = 24
print(height) // 12
@propertyWrapper // A property wrapper with initializers
struct SmallNumber {
private var maximum: Int
private var number: Int
var wrappedValue: Int {
get { number }
set { number = min(newValue, maximum) }
}
init() { // Called when used as below
maximum = 12 // @SmallNumber var height: Int
number = 0
}
init(wrappedValue: Int) { // Called when assigned a value when initialized as below
maximum = 12 // @SmallNumber var height: Int = 8
number = min(wrappedValue, maximum)
}
init(wrappedValue: Int, max: Int) { // Used when params are passed as below variants
self.maximum = max // @SmallNumber(max: 44) var height: Int = 23
number = min(wrappedValue, max) // @SmallNumber(wrappedValue: 23, max: 44) var height: Int
}
}
@propertyWrapper
struct SmallNumber {
private var number = 0
var projectedValue = false // Another convention, projectedValue allows accessing an additional
var wrappedValue: Int { // value or type using the $ syntax
get { number }
set {
if newValue > 12 {
number = 12
projectedValue = true
} else {
number = newValue
projectedValue = false
}
}
}
}
@SmallNumber var x: Int
x = 4 // setter
x // get wrapped value 4
$x // get projected value (true)
@DbObject user: User // Another example
user.name // Wrapped value
$user.flushConnection() // Projected value can expose a lower-level object
// Don't do that in practice, instead use proper designs like domain-driven
// design but keep in mind that projected value is there and can be used
// if it does not vioalte your code of honourType Properties
struct User { // Type properties belong to the type (struct or class), not instances
static const placeholder = "John Doe" // Like static final in C, and Java
static var minAge: Int { // static computed property
18
}
}
class SomeClass { // Overridable computed type property (JVM langs are crying now!)
class var computed: Int { // keyword class has the same meaning as
107 // static but it allows sub-classes to override the
} // computed property
}
enum Rejection {
static var message = "You got rejected" // Enums can also have type properties
case noToken, badToken, expiredToken
}
User.placeholder // Query the stored type property
User.minaAge = 21 // Set the stored type propertyMethods
// Classes, Structs, and Enums can have instance methods
class Counter {
var count = 0
func increment() { // An instance method, defined exactly like a function
count += 1
}
func increment(by amount: Int) { // Another instance method with named params
count += amount
}
func exceeds(count: Int) { // Param name is the same as the instance property name, self is needed
self.count > count // self, is the instance itself, always implicitly available
} // like self in Python and this in Java
func reset() {
count = 0
}
}
struct Point { // Mutating a value type from an instance method
var x = 0.0, y = 0.0 // Method has to be qualified with the mutating keyword
mutating func moveBy(x deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) {
x += deltaX
y += deltaY
}
}
var somePoint = Point(x: 1.0, y: 1.0)
somePoint.moveBy(x: 2.0, y: 3.0) // A mutating method can be called only on variables
// Calling them on a constant gives a compile error
struct Point {
var x = 0.0, y = 0.0
mutating func moveBy(x deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) {
self = Point(x: x + deltaX, y: y + deltaY) // Big bang! Assign a new value to self is possible
}
}
enum TriStateSwitch {
case off, low, high
mutating func next() {
switch self {
case .off : self = .low // Assigning self in an enum is also possible
case .low : self = .high
case .high: self = .off
}
}
}Type Methods
class SomeClass {
static func someTypeMethod() { // Similar to static methods in Java
// impl // It means the method belongs to the type not to a single instance
}
class func someTypeMethod() { // class keyword means the type method can be overridden by
//type method implementation // subclasses
}
}
SomeClass.someTypeMethod() // Usage, similar to other languages, TypeName.typeMethod()
struct LevelTracker { // Structs and enums can have type methods as well
static var highestUnlocked = 1 // Type property
var current = 1 // Instance property
static func unlock(_ level: Int) {
if level > self.highestUnlocked { // self in a type method refers to the type
self.highestUnlocked = level // so here self.highestUnlocked refers to type property
}
}
static func isUnlocked(_ l: Int) {
l <= highestUnlocked
}
@discardableResult
mutating func advance(to level: Int) -> Bool {
if LevelTracker.isUnlocked(level) {
currentLevel = level
return true
} else {
return false
}
}
}
class Player {
var tracker = LevelTracker() // An instance of LevelTracker
let name: String
func complete(level: Int) {
LevelTracker.unlock(level + 1) // Calling the type method, unlocks it for all players
tracker.advance(to: level + 1) // Calling the instance method, advances only this player
}
init(name: String) {
self.name = name
}
}Subscripts
a["value"] // This is a subscript, syntax similar to Python and JS
// But how does it work? Very imilar to __getitem__() in Python
// or the apply/updateValue syntactic sugars in Scala:
// The type has to implement it so the compiler is just a proxy
struct TimesTable {
let multiplier: Int
subscript(index: Int) -> Int { // Here is how you make something subscriptable
return multiplier * index // Here it's a read only subscript
}
}
let tab = TimesTable(multiplier: 3)
tab[6] // 18
struct Matrix { // Subscripts can be of any dimensions
// impl details here
subscript(r: Int, c: Int) -> Double {
get {
grid[(r * columns) + c] // Getter, called when print(m[2,3])
}
set { // Setter, called when m[2, 3]=6
grid[(r * columns) + c] = newValue
}
}
}
var m: Matrix
m[2,3] = 6 // subscript set is called with r=2,c=3
print(m[2,3]) // subscript get is called with r=2,c=3
enum Planet { // Type subscripts are allowed! Nice!
case mercury = 1, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune
static subscript(n: Int) -> Planet { // Type or static subscript
Planet(rawValue: n)!
}
}
let mars = Planet[4] // Usage, subscrpiting a type
// Subscripts can accept and return arbitraty types
subscript(key: K) -> V? // Somewhere in the definition of the Dictionary class
// Don't worry about K and V types for now
var speedLimit = ["day": 95, "night": 85]
speedLimit["day"] // subscripting a dict by a string, returns an Int?
speedLimit["morning"]=105 // subscript setInheritance
class Vehicle { // A base class, that is a class the inherits from no other class
var speed = 0.0
var description: String {
"traveling at \(speed) km/h"
}
func makeNoise() {
// do nothing
}
}
class Bicycle: Vehicle { // Subclassing, class A: B means A is a sub-class of A
var hasBasket = false // Additional property that is not inherited
}
let bicycle = Bicycle()
bicycle.hasBasket = true
bicycle.speed = 15.0 // speed property is inherited
class Tandem: Bicycle { // Subclassing a subclass, Tandem is a Bicycle and a Vehicle
var numberOfPassengers = 0
}
class Train: Vehicle {
override func makeNoise() { // Overriding an inherited function
print("Choo Choo") // override keyword is mandatory in Swift, a blessing (belive me)
}
}
class Car: Vehicle {
var gear = 1
override var description: String { // Overriding a computed property
super.description + " in \(gear)" // super keyword can be used to access parent's property
} // similar to other languages like Java
}
class AutomaticCar: Car {
override var speed: Double {
didSet { // Overriding property observers is also possible
gear = Int(currentSpeed/10.0)+1
}
}
}
override subscript(n:Int) -> Int { } // Subscripts can also be overridden
final class A {} // final keywords prevents a class from being subclassed
class B: A {} // compile error!
class Sample {
final var x: Int // prevents the property from being overridden
final func f() {} // prevents the function from being overridden
final class func g {} // seals the type method so it can't be subclassed
final subscript(n: Int) -> Int {} // seals the subscript
}