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Computing from Scratch

Instruction Set Architecture

Defines the operations and encoding formats.

Assembler

Converts plain text assembly into machine code.

Virtual Machine

Simulates basic building blocks of hardware.

Bootloader

Initializes machine and loads operating system from storage

Kernel

Manages computer resources.

Communication Manager
Process Manager
Memory Manager
IO Manager

Operating System

Device Drivers
Utilities
Shell/Terminal
User Interface/User Experience