group.py

"""Define the Group class."""
import os
from collections import Counter, OrderedDict, defaultdict
from collections.abc import Iterable

from itertools import product, chain
from numbers import Number
import inspect
from fnmatch import fnmatchcase
import copy

import numpy as np
import networkx as nx

from openmdao.jacobians.dictionary_jacobian import DictionaryJacobian
from openmdao.core.system import System, INT_DTYPE
from openmdao.core.component import Component, _DictValues, _full_slice
from openmdao.core.constants import _UNDEFINED
from openmdao.proc_allocators.default_allocator import DefaultAllocator, ProcAllocationError
from openmdao.jacobians.jacobian import SUBJAC_META_DEFAULTS
from openmdao.recorders.recording_iteration_stack import Recording
from openmdao.solvers.nonlinear.nonlinear_runonce import NonlinearRunOnce
from openmdao.solvers.linear.linear_runonce import LinearRunOnce
from openmdao.utils.array_utils import convert_neg, array_connection_compatible, \
    _flatten_src_indices
from openmdao.utils.general_utils import ContainsAll, all_ancestors, simple_warning, \
    common_subpath, conditional_error, _is_slicer_op, _slice_indices
from openmdao.utils.units import is_compatible, unit_conversion, _has_val_mismatch
from openmdao.utils.mpi import MPI, check_mpi_exceptions, multi_proc_exception_check
from openmdao.utils.coloring import Coloring, _STD_COLORING_FNAME
import openmdao.utils.coloring as coloring_mod
from openmdao.core.constants import _SetupStatus

# regex to check for valid names.
import re
namecheck_rgx = re.compile('[a-zA-Z][_a-zA-Z0-9]*')


class Group(System):
    """
    Class used to group systems together; instantiate or inherit.

    Attributes
    ----------
    _mpi_proc_allocator : ProcAllocator
        Object used to allocate MPI processes to subsystems.
    _proc_info : dict of subsys_name: (min_procs, max_procs, weight)
        Information used to determine MPI process allocation to subsystems.
    _subgroups_myproc : list
        List of local subgroups.
    _subsystems_proc_range : (int, int)
        List of ranges of each myproc subsystem's processors relative to those of this system.
    _manual_connections : dict
        Dictionary of input_name: (output_name, src_indices) connections.
    _group_inputs : dict
        Mapping of promoted names to certain metadata (src_indices, units).
    _static_group_inputs : dict
        Group inputs added outside of setup/configure.
    _pre_config_group_inputs : dict
        Group inputs added inside of setup but before configure.
    _static_manual_connections : dict
        Dictionary that stores all explicit connections added outside of setup.
    _conn_abs_in2out : {'abs_in': 'abs_out'}
        Dictionary containing all explicit & implicit connections owned
        by this system only. The data is the same across all processors.
    _conn_discrete_in2out : {'abs_in': 'abs_out'}
        Dictionary containing all explicit & implicit discrete var connections owned
        by this system only. The data is the same across all processors.
    _transfers : dict of dict of Transfers
        First key is the vec_name, second key is (mode, isub) where
        mode is 'fwd' or 'rev' and isub is the subsystem index among allprocs subsystems
        or isub can be None for the full, simultaneous transfer.
    _discrete_transfers : dict of discrete transfer metadata
        Key is system pathname or None for the full, simultaneous transfer.
    _loc_subsys_map : dict
        Mapping of local subsystem names to their corresponding System.
    _approx_subjac_keys : list
        List of subjacobian keys used for approximated derivatives.
    _setup_procs_finished : bool
        Flag to check if setup_procs is complete
    _has_distrib_vars : bool
        If True, this Group contains distributed variables. Only used to determine if a parallel
        group or distributed component is below a DirectSolver so that we can raise an exception.
    _contains_parallel_group : bool
        If True, this Group contains a ParallelGroup. Only used to determine if a parallel
        group or distributed component is below a DirectSolver so that we can raise an exception.
    _raise_connection_errors : bool
        Flag indicating whether connection errors are raised as an Exception.
    _order_set : bool
        Flag to check if set_order has been called.
    """

    def __init__(self, **kwargs):
        """
        Set the solvers to nonlinear and linear block Gauss--Seidel by default.

        Parameters
        ----------
        **kwargs : dict
            dict of arguments available here and in all descendants of this
            Group.
        """
        self._mpi_proc_allocator = DefaultAllocator()
        self._proc_info = {}

        super(Group, self).__init__(**kwargs)

        self._subgroups_myproc = None
        self._subsystems_proc_range = []
        self._manual_connections = {}
        self._group_inputs = {}
        self._pre_config_group_inputs = {}
        self._static_group_inputs = {}
        self._static_manual_connections = {}
        self._conn_abs_in2out = {}
        self._conn_discrete_in2out = {}
        self._transfers = {}
        self._discrete_transfers = {}
        self._approx_subjac_keys = None
        self._setup_procs_finished = False
        self._has_distrib_vars = False
        self._contains_parallel_group = False
        self._raise_connection_errors = True
        self._order_set = False

        # TODO: we cannot set the solvers with property setters at the moment
        # because our lint check thinks that we are defining new attributes
        # called nonlinear_solver and linear_solver without documenting them.
        if not self._nonlinear_solver:
            self._nonlinear_solver = NonlinearRunOnce()
        if not self._linear_solver:
            self._linear_solver = LinearRunOnce()

    def setup(self):
        """
        Build this group.

        This method should be overidden by your Group's method. The reason for using this
        method to add subsystem is to save memory and setup time when using your Group
        while running under MPI.  This avoids the creation of systems that will not be
        used in the current process.

        You may call 'add_subsystem' to add systems to this group. You may also issue connections,
        and set the linear and nonlinear solvers for this group level. You cannot safely change
        anything on children systems; use the 'configure' method instead.

        Available attributes:
            name
            pathname
            comm
            options
        """
        pass

    def configure(self):
        """
        Configure this group to assign children settings.

        This method may optionally be overidden by your Group's method.

        You may only use this method to change settings on your children subsystems. This includes
        setting solvers in cases where you want to override the defaults.

        You can assume that the full hierarchy below your level has been instantiated and has
        already called its own configure methods.

        Available attributes:
            name
            pathname
            comm
            options
            system hieararchy with attribute access
        """
        pass

    def set_input_defaults(self, name, val=_UNDEFINED, units=None):
        """
        Specify metadata to be assumed when multiple inputs are promoted to the same name.

        Parameters
        ----------
        name : str
            Promoted input name.
        val : object
            Value to assume for the promoted input.
        units : str or None
            Units to assume for the promoted input.
        """
        meta = {'prom': name}
        if val is not _UNDEFINED:
            meta['value'] = val
        if units is not None:
            meta['units'] = units

        if self._static_mode:
            dct = self._static_group_inputs
        else:
            dct = self._group_inputs

        if name in dct:
            old = dct[name][0]
            overlap = sorted(set(old).intersection(meta))
            if overlap:
                simple_warning(f"{self.msginfo}: Setting input defaults for input '{name}' which "
                               f"override previously set defaults for {overlap}.")
            old.update(meta)
        else:
            dct[name] = [meta]

    def _get_scope(self, excl_sub=None):
        """
        Find the input and output variables that are needed for a particular matvec product.

        Parameters
        ----------
        excl_sub : <System>
            A subsystem whose variables should be excluded from the matvec product.

        Returns
        -------
        (set, set)
            Sets of output and input variables.
        """
        try:
            return self._scope_cache[excl_sub]
        except KeyError:
            pass

        if excl_sub is None:
            # All outputs
            scope_out = frozenset(self._var_allprocs_abs_names['output'])

            # All inputs connected to an output in this system
            scope_in = frozenset(self._conn_global_abs_in2out).intersection(
                self._var_allprocs_abs_names['input'])

        else:
            # Empty for the excl_sub
            scope_out = frozenset()

            # All inputs connected to an output in this system but not in excl_sub
            scope_in = set()
            for abs_in in self._var_allprocs_abs_names['input']:
                if abs_in in self._conn_global_abs_in2out:
                    abs_out = self._conn_global_abs_in2out[abs_in]

                    if abs_out not in excl_sub._var_allprocs_abs2idx['linear']:
                        scope_in.add(abs_in)
            scope_in = frozenset(scope_in)

        self._scope_cache[excl_sub] = (scope_out, scope_in)
        return scope_out, scope_in

    def _compute_root_scale_factors(self):
        """
        Compute scale factors for all variables.

        Returns
        -------
        dict
            Mapping of each absolute var name to its corresponding scaling factor tuple.
        """
        scale_factors = super(Group, self)._compute_root_scale_factors()

        if self._has_input_scaling:
            abs2meta_in = self._var_abs2meta
            allprocs_meta_out = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
            for abs_in, abs_out in self._conn_global_abs_in2out.items():
                if abs_in not in abs2meta_in:
                    # we only perform scaling on local, non-discrete arrays, so skip
                    continue

                meta_in = abs2meta_in[abs_in]

                meta_out = allprocs_meta_out[abs_out]
                ref = meta_out['ref']
                ref0 = meta_out['ref0']

                src_indices = meta_in['src_indices']

                if src_indices is not None:
                    if not (np.isscalar(ref) and np.isscalar(ref0)):
                        # TODO: if either ref or ref0 are not scalar and the output is
                        # distributed, we need to do a scatter
                        # to obtain the values needed due to global src_indices
                        if meta_out['distributed']:
                            raise RuntimeError("{}: vector scalers with distrib vars "
                                               "not supported yet.".format(self.msginfo))

                        if src_indices.ndim != 1:
                            src_indices = _flatten_src_indices(src_indices, meta_in['shape'],
                                                               meta_out['global_shape'],
                                                               meta_out['global_size'])

                        ref = ref[src_indices]
                        ref0 = ref0[src_indices]

                # Compute scaling arrays for inputs using a0 and a1
                # Example:
                #   Let x, x_src, x_tgt be the dimensionless variable,
                #   variable in source units, and variable in target units, resp.
                #   x_src = a0 + a1 x
                #   x_tgt = b0 + b1 x
                #   x_tgt = g(x_src) = d0 + d1 x_src
                #   b0 + b1 x = d0 + d1 a0 + d1 a1 x
                #   b0 = d0 + d1 a0
                #   b0 = g(a0)
                #   b1 = d0 + d1 a1 - d0
                #   b1 = g(a1) - g(0)

                units_in = meta_in['units']
                units_out = meta_out['units']

                if units_in is None or units_out is None or units_in == units_out:
                    a0 = ref0
                    a1 = ref - ref0
                else:
                    factor, offset = unit_conversion(units_out, units_in)
                    a0 = (ref0 + offset) * factor
                    a1 = (ref - ref0) * factor

                scale_factors[abs_in] = {
                    ('input', 'phys'): (a0, a1),
                    ('input', 'norm'): (-a0 / a1, 1.0 / a1)
                }

        return scale_factors

    def _configure(self):
        """
        Configure our model recursively to assign any children settings.

        Highest system's settings take precedence.
        """
        # reset group_inputs back to what it was just after self.setup() in case _configure
        # is called multiple times.
        self._group_inputs = self._pre_config_group_inputs.copy()
        for n, lst in self._group_inputs.items():
            self._group_inputs[n] = lst.copy()

        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            subsys._configure()
            subsys._setup_var_data()

            self._has_guess |= subsys._has_guess
            self._has_bounds |= subsys._has_bounds
            self.matrix_free |= subsys.matrix_free

        conf_info = self._problem_meta['config_info']
        conf_info._reset()

        self._problem_meta['setup_status'] = _SetupStatus.POST_CONFIGURE
        self.configure()

        # if our configure() has added or promoted any variables, we have to call
        # _setup_var_data again on any modified systems and their ancestors (only those that
        # are our descendents).
        for s in conf_info._modified_system_iter(self):
            s._setup_var_data()

    def _setup_procs(self, pathname, comm, mode, prob_meta):
        """
        Execute first phase of the setup process.

        Distribute processors, assign pathnames, and call setup on the group. This method recurses
        downward through the model.

        Parameters
        ----------
        pathname : str
            Global name of the system, including the path.
        comm : MPI.Comm or <FakeComm>
            MPI communicator object.
        mode : string
            Derivatives calculation mode, 'fwd' for forward, and 'rev' for
            reverse (adjoint). Default is 'rev'.
        prob_meta : dict
            Problem level metadata.
        """
        super(Group, self)._setup_procs(pathname, comm, mode, prob_meta)
        self._setup_procs_finished = False

        self._vectors = {}
        nproc = comm.size

        if self._num_par_fd > 1:
            info = self._coloring_info
            if comm.size > 1:
                # if approx_totals has been declared, or there is an approx coloring, setup par FD
                if self._owns_approx_jac or info['dynamic'] or info['static'] is not None:
                    comm = self._setup_par_fd_procs(comm)
                else:
                    msg = "%s: num_par_fd = %d but FD is not active." % (self.msginfo,
                                                                         self._num_par_fd)
                    raise RuntimeError(msg)
            elif not MPI:
                msg = ("%s: MPI is not active but num_par_fd = %d. No parallel finite difference "
                       "will be performed." % (self.msginfo, self._num_par_fd))
                simple_warning(msg)

        self.comm = comm

        self._approx_subjac_keys = None

        self._subsystems_allprocs = self._static_subsystems_allprocs.copy()
        self._manual_connections = self._static_manual_connections.copy()
        self._group_inputs = self._static_group_inputs.copy()
        # copy doesn't copy the internal list so we have to do it manually (we don't want
        # a full deepcopy either because we want the internal metadata dicts to be shared)
        for n, lst in self._group_inputs.items():
            self._group_inputs[n] = lst.copy()

        # Call setup function for this group.
        self.setup()

        # need to save these because _setup_var_data can be called multiple times
        # during the config process and we don't want to wipe out any group_inputs
        # that were added during self.setup()
        self._pre_config_group_inputs = self._group_inputs.copy()
        for n, lst in self._pre_config_group_inputs.items():
            self._pre_config_group_inputs[n] = lst.copy()

        if MPI:

            proc_info = [self._proc_info[s.name] for s in self._subsystems_allprocs]

            # Call the load balancing algorithm
            try:
                sub_inds, sub_comm, sub_proc_range = self._mpi_proc_allocator(
                    proc_info, len(self._subsystems_allprocs), comm)
            except ProcAllocationError as err:
                subs = self._subsystems_allprocs
                if err.sub_inds is None:
                    raise RuntimeError("%s: %s" % (self.msginfo, err.msg))
                else:
                    raise RuntimeError("%s: MPI process allocation failed: %s for the following "
                                       "subsystems: %s" % (self.msginfo, err.msg,
                                                           [subs[i].name for i in err.sub_inds]))

            self._subsystems_myproc = [self._subsystems_allprocs[ind] for ind in sub_inds]

            # Define local subsystems
            if not (np.sum([minp for minp, _, _ in proc_info]) <= comm.size):
                # reorder the subsystems_allprocs based on which procs they live on. If we don't
                # do this, we can get ordering mismatches in some of our data structures.
                new_allsubs = []
                seen = set()
                gathered = self.comm.allgather(sub_inds)
                for rank, inds in enumerate(gathered):
                    for ind in inds:
                        if ind not in seen:
                            new_allsubs.append(self._subsystems_allprocs[ind])
                            seen.add(ind)
                self._subsystems_allprocs = new_allsubs
        else:
            sub_comm = comm
            self._subsystems_myproc = self._subsystems_allprocs
            sub_proc_range = (0, 1)

        # Compute _subsystems_proc_range
        self._subsystems_proc_range = [sub_proc_range] * len(self._subsystems_myproc)
        self._subsystems_inds = inds = {}

        # need to set pathname correctly even for non-local subsystems
        for i, s in enumerate(self._subsystems_allprocs):
            inds[s.name] = i
            s.pathname = '.'.join((self.pathname, s.name)) if self.pathname else s.name

        # Perform recursion
        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            subsys._setup_procs(subsys.pathname, sub_comm, mode, prob_meta)

        # build a list of local subgroups to speed up later loops
        self._subgroups_myproc = [s for s in self._subsystems_myproc if isinstance(s, Group)]

        self._loc_subsys_map = {s.name: s for s in self._subsystems_myproc}

        if MPI and nproc > 1:
            if self._mpi_proc_allocator.parallel:
                self._problem_meta['parallel_groups'].append(self.pathname)

            allpars = self.comm.allgather(self._problem_meta['parallel_groups'])
            full = set()
            for p in allpars:
                full.update(p)
            self._problem_meta['parallel_groups'] = sorted(full)

        if self._problem_meta['parallel_groups']:
            prefix = self.pathname + '.' if self.pathname else ''
            for par in self._problem_meta['parallel_groups']:
                if par.startswith(prefix) and par != prefix:
                    self._contains_parallel_group = True
                    break

        self._setup_procs_finished = True

    def _configure_check(self):
        """
        Do any error checking on i/o and connections.
        """
        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            subsys._configure_check()

        super(Group, self)._configure_check()

    def _list_states(self):
        """
        Return list of all local states at and below this system.

        Returns
        -------
        list
            List of all states.
        """
        states = []
        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            states.extend(subsys._list_states())

        return sorted(states)

    def _list_states_allprocs(self):
        """
        Return list of all states at and below this system across all procs.

        Returns
        -------
        list
            List of all states.
        """
        if MPI:
            all_states = set()
            byproc = self.comm.allgather(self._list_states())
            for proc_states in byproc:
                all_states.update(proc_states)
            return sorted(all_states)
        else:
            return self._list_states()

    def _get_all_promotes(self, remote_systems):
        """
        Create the top level mapping of all promoted names to absolute names.

        This includes all buried promoted names.

        Parameters
        ----------
        remote_systems : dict
            Mapping of system pathname to owning rank.  Includes only systems that are
            remote in at least one MPI process.

        Returns
        -------
        dict
            Mapping of all promoted names to absolute names.
        """
        myrank = self.comm.rank
        mysys = set(n for n, rank in remote_systems.items() if rank == myrank)
        iotypes = ('input', 'output')
        if self.comm.size > 1:
            prom2abs = {'input': defaultdict(set), 'output': defaultdict(set)}

            for s in self.system_iter(recurse=True):
                if s.pathname in mysys:  # we 'own' this system
                    prefix = s.pathname + '.' if s.pathname else ''
                    for typ in iotypes:
                        # use abs2prom to determine locality since prom2abs is for allprocs
                        sys_abs2prom = s._var_abs2prom[typ]
                        t_prom2abs = prom2abs[typ]
                        for prom, alist in s._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list[typ].items():
                            t_prom2abs[prefix + prom].update(n for n in alist if n in sys_abs2prom)

            all_proms = self.comm.gather(prom2abs, root=0)
            if myrank == 0:
                prom2abs = {'input': defaultdict(list), 'output': defaultdict(list)}
                for typ in iotypes:
                    t_prom2abs = prom2abs[typ]
                    for rankproms in all_proms:
                        for prom, absnames in rankproms[typ].items():
                            t_prom2abs[prom].extend(absnames)

                t_prom2abs = prom2abs['input']
                for prom, absnames in t_prom2abs.items():
                    t_prom2abs[prom] = sorted(absnames)  # sort to keep order the same on all procs

                self.comm.bcast(prom2abs, root=0)
            else:
                prom2abs = self.comm.bcast(prom2abs, root=0)
        else:  # serial
            prom2abs = {'input': defaultdict(list), 'output': defaultdict(list)}
            for s in self.system_iter(recurse=True):
                prefix = s.pathname + '.' if s.pathname else ''
                for typ in iotypes:
                    t_prom2abs = prom2abs[typ]
                    for prom, abslist in s._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list[typ].items():
                        t_prom2abs[prefix + prom] = abslist

        return prom2abs

    def _top_level_setup(self, mode):
        self._problem_meta['connections'] = conns = self._conn_global_abs_in2out
        self._problem_meta['all_meta'] = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        self._problem_meta['meta'] = self._var_abs2meta

        rsystems = self._find_remote_sys_owners()
        self._problem_meta['remote_vars'] = self._find_remote_var_owners(rsystems)
        self._problem_meta['prom2abs'] = self._get_all_promotes(rsystems)

        self._resolve_group_input_defaults()
        auto_ivc = self._setup_auto_ivcs(mode)
        self._check_prom_masking()

    def _check_prom_masking(self):
        """
        Raise exception if any promoted variable name masks an absolute variable name.
        """
        prom2abs_in = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list['input']
        prom2abs_out = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list['output']
        abs2meta = self._problem_meta['all_meta']

        for absname in abs2meta:
            if absname in prom2abs_in:
                for name in prom2abs_in[absname]:
                    if name != absname:
                        raise RuntimeError(f"{self.msginfo}: Absolute variable name '{absname}'"
                                           " is masked by a matching promoted name. Try"
                                           " promoting to a different name. This can be caused"
                                           " by promoting '*' at group level or promoting using"
                                           " dotted names.")
            elif absname in prom2abs_out:
                if absname != prom2abs_out[absname][0]:
                    raise RuntimeError(f"{self.msginfo}: Absolute variable name '{absname}' is"
                                       " masked by a matching promoted name. Try"
                                       " promoting to a different name. This can be caused"
                                       " by promoting '*' at group level or promoting using"
                                       " dotted names.")

    def _top_level_setup2(self):
        self._resolve_ambiguous_input_meta()

        if self.comm.size > 1:
            abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta
            abs2idx = self._var_allprocs_abs2idx['nonlinear']
            all_abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
            conns = self._conn_global_abs_in2out

            # the code below is to handle the case where src_indices were not specified
            # for a distributed input. This update can't happen until sizes are known.
            dist_ins = [n for n in self._var_allprocs_abs_names['input']
                        if all_abs2meta[n]['distributed']]
            dcomp_names = set(d.rsplit('.', 1)[0] for d in dist_ins)
            if dcomp_names:
                added_src_inds = set()
                for comp in self.system_iter(recurse=True, typ=Component):
                    if comp.pathname in dcomp_names:
                        added_src_inds.update(
                            comp._update_dist_src_indices(conns, all_abs2meta, abs2idx,
                                                          self._var_sizes))
                all_added = set()
                for a in self.comm.allgather(added_src_inds):
                    all_added.update(a)

                for a in all_added:
                    all_abs2meta[a]['has_src_indices'] = True
                    if a in conns:
                        src = conns[a]
                        if src.startswith('_auto_ivc.'):
                            all_abs2meta[src]['distributed'] = True

    def _setup_var_index_ranges(self):
        """
        Compute the division of variables by subsystem.
        """
        nsub_allprocs = len(self._subsystems_allprocs)

        subsystems_var_range = self._subsystems_var_range = {}

        vec_names = self._lin_rel_vec_name_list if self._use_derivatives else self._vec_names

        # First compute these on one processor for each subsystem
        for vec_name in vec_names:

            # Here, we count the number of variables in each subsystem.
            # We do this so that we can compute the offset when we recurse into each subsystem.
            allprocs_counters = {}
            for type_ in ['input', 'output']:
                allprocs_counters[type_] = np.zeros(nsub_allprocs, INT_DTYPE)
                for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
                    if vec_name in subsys._rel_vec_names:
                        comm = subsys.comm if subsys._full_comm is None else subsys._full_comm
                        if comm.rank == 0:
                            isub = self._subsystems_inds[subsys.name]
                            allprocs_counters[type_][isub] = \
                                len(subsys._var_allprocs_relevant_names[vec_name][type_])

            # If running in parallel, allgather
            if self.comm.size > 1:
                gathered = self.comm.allgather(allprocs_counters)
                allprocs_counters = {
                    type_: np.zeros(nsub_allprocs, INT_DTYPE) for type_ in ['input', 'output']
                }
                for myproc_counters in gathered:
                    for type_ in ['input', 'output']:
                        allprocs_counters[type_] += myproc_counters[type_]

            # Compute _subsystems_var_range
            subsystems_var_range[vec_name] = {}

            for type_ in ['input', 'output']:
                subsystems_var_range[vec_name][type_] = {}

                for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
                    if vec_name not in subsys._rel_vec_names:
                        continue
                    isub = self._subsystems_inds[subsys.name]
                    start = np.sum(allprocs_counters[type_][:isub])
                    subsystems_var_range[vec_name][type_][subsys.name] = (
                        start, start + allprocs_counters[type_][isub]
                    )

        if self._use_derivatives:
            subsystems_var_range['nonlinear'] = subsystems_var_range['linear']

        self._setup_var_index_maps()

        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            subsys._setup_var_index_ranges()

    def _setup_var_data(self):
        """
        Compute the list of abs var names, abs/prom name maps, and metadata dictionaries.
        """
        if self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list is None:
            old_prom2abs = {}
        else:
            old_prom2abs = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list['input']

        super(Group, self)._setup_var_data()

        abs_names = self._var_abs_names
        abs_names_discrete = self._var_abs_names_discrete

        allprocs_abs_names = self._var_allprocs_abs_names
        allprocs_abs_names_discrete = self._var_allprocs_abs_names_discrete

        var_discrete = self._var_discrete
        allprocs_discrete = self._var_allprocs_discrete

        abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta
        abs2prom = self._var_abs2prom

        allprocs_abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        allprocs_abs2prom = self._var_allprocs_abs2prom

        allprocs_prom2abs_list = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list
        gatherable = self._gatherable_vars

        for n, lst in self._group_inputs.items():
            lst[0]['path'] = self.pathname  # used for error reporting
            self._group_inputs[n] = lst.copy()  # must copy the list manually

        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            self._has_output_scaling |= subsys._has_output_scaling
            self._has_resid_scaling |= subsys._has_resid_scaling

            var_maps = subsys._get_maps(subsys._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list)

            # Assemble allprocs_abs2meta and abs2meta
            allprocs_abs2meta.update(subsys._var_allprocs_abs2meta)
            abs2meta.update(subsys._var_abs2meta)

            gatherable.update(subsys._gatherable_vars)

            sub_prefix = subsys.name + '.'

            for type_ in ['input', 'output']:
                subprom2prom = var_maps[type_]
                # Assemble abs_names and allprocs_abs_names
                allprocs_abs_names[type_].extend(
                    subsys._var_allprocs_abs_names[type_])
                allprocs_abs_names_discrete[type_].extend(
                    subsys._var_allprocs_abs_names_discrete[type_])

                abs_names[type_].extend(subsys._var_abs_names[type_])
                abs_names_discrete[type_].extend(subsys._var_abs_names_discrete[type_])

                allprocs_discrete[type_].update(subsys._var_allprocs_discrete[type_])
                var_discrete[type_].update({sub_prefix + k: v for k, v in
                                            subsys._var_discrete[type_].items()})

                # Assemble allprocs_prom2abs_list and abs2prom
                sub_loc_proms = subsys._var_abs2prom[type_]
                for sub_prom, sub_abs in subsys._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_].items():
                    prom_name = subprom2prom[sub_prom]
                    if prom_name not in allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_]:
                        allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_][prom_name] = []
                    allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_][prom_name].extend(sub_abs)
                    for abs_name in sub_abs:
                        if abs_name in sub_loc_proms:
                            abs2prom[type_][abs_name] = prom_name
                        allprocs_abs2prom[type_][abs_name] = prom_name

            if isinstance(subsys, Group):
                subprom2prom = var_maps['input']
                for sub_prom, metalist in subsys._group_inputs.items():
                    key = subprom2prom[sub_prom]
                    if key not in self._group_inputs:
                        self._group_inputs[key] = []
                    self._group_inputs[key].extend(metalist)

        # If running in parallel, allgather
        if self.comm.size > 1 and self._mpi_proc_allocator.parallel:
            mysub = self._subsystems_myproc[0] if self._subsystems_myproc else False
            if (mysub and mysub.comm.rank == 0 and (mysub._full_comm is None or
                                                    mysub._full_comm.rank == 0)):
                raw = (allprocs_abs_names, allprocs_abs_names_discrete, allprocs_discrete,
                       allprocs_prom2abs_list, allprocs_abs2prom, allprocs_abs2meta,
                       self._has_output_scaling, self._has_resid_scaling, self._group_inputs)
            else:
                raw = (
                    {'input': [], 'output': []},
                    {'input': [], 'output': []},
                    {'input': {}, 'output': {}},
                    {'input': {}, 'output': {}},
                    {'input': {}, 'output': {}},
                    {},
                    False,
                    False,
                    {}
                )

            gathered = self.comm.allgather(raw)

            for type_ in ['input', 'output']:
                allprocs_abs_names[type_] = []
                allprocs_abs_names_discrete[type_] = []
                allprocs_abs2prom[type_] = {}
                allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_] = OrderedDict()

            myrank = self.comm.rank
            for rank, (myproc_abs_names, myproc_abs_names_discrete, myproc_discrete,
                       myproc_prom2abs_list, all_abs2prom, myproc_abs2meta, oscale,
                       rscale, ginputs) in enumerate(gathered):
                self._has_output_scaling |= oscale
                self._has_resid_scaling |= rscale

                if rank != myrank:
                    for p, mlist in ginputs.items():
                        if p not in self._group_inputs:
                            self._group_inputs[p] = []
                        self._group_inputs[p].extend(mlist)

                # Assemble in parallel allprocs_abs2meta
                for n in myproc_abs2meta:
                    if n not in allprocs_abs2meta:
                        allprocs_abs2meta[n] = myproc_abs2meta[n]

                for type_ in ['input', 'output']:

                    # Assemble in parallel allprocs_abs_names
                    allprocs_abs_names[type_].extend(myproc_abs_names[type_])
                    allprocs_abs_names_discrete[type_].extend(myproc_abs_names_discrete[type_])
                    allprocs_discrete[type_].update(myproc_discrete[type_])
                    allprocs_abs2prom[type_].update(all_abs2prom[type_])

                    # Assemble in parallel allprocs_prom2abs_list
                    for prom_name, abs_names_list in myproc_prom2abs_list[type_].items():
                        if prom_name not in allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_]:
                            allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_][prom_name] = []
                        allprocs_prom2abs_list[type_][prom_name].extend(abs_names_list)

            # determine 'gatherable' vars, i.e., vars that are remote somewhere in the comm
            locs = {}
            locs_disc = {}
            for type_ in ('input', 'output'):
                locs[type_] = np.array([n in abs2meta and abs2meta[n]['size'] > 0
                                        for n in allprocs_abs_names[type_]], dtype=bool)
                locs_disc[type_] = np.array([
                    n in abs2prom[type_] for n in allprocs_abs_names_discrete[type_]
                ], dtype=bool)

            raw_locs = (locs, locs_disc)
            allprocs_raw_locs = self.comm.allgather(raw_locs)
            for type_ in ('input', 'output'):
                all_locs = np.ones(len(allprocs_abs_names[type_]), dtype=bool)
                all_locs_disc = np.ones(len(allprocs_abs_names_discrete[type_]), dtype=bool)
                for rank, (loc, loc_disc) in enumerate(allprocs_raw_locs):
                    all_locs &= loc[type_]
                    all_locs_disc &= loc_disc[type_]

                for i, n in enumerate(allprocs_abs_names[type_]):
                    if not all_locs[i]:
                        gatherable.add(n)

                for i, n in enumerate(allprocs_abs_names_discrete[type_]):
                    if not all_locs_disc[i]:
                        gatherable.add(n)

        for prom_name, abs_list in allprocs_prom2abs_list['output'].items():
            if len(abs_list) > 1:
                raise RuntimeError("{}: Output name '{}' refers to "
                                   "multiple outputs: {}.".format(self.msginfo, prom_name,
                                                                  sorted(abs_list)))

        if self._group_inputs:
            p2abs_in = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list['input']
            extra = [gin for gin in self._group_inputs if gin not in p2abs_in]
            if extra:
                # make sure that we don't have a leftover group input default entry from a previous
                # execution of _setup_var_data before promoted names were updated.
                ex = set()
                for e in extra:
                    if e in old_prom2abs:
                        del self._group_inputs[e]  # clean up old key using old promoted name
                    else:
                        ex.add(e)
                if ex:
                    raise RuntimeError(f"{self.msginfo}: The following group inputs, passed to "
                                       f"set_input_defaults(), could not be found: {sorted(ex)}.")

        if self._var_discrete['input'] or self._var_discrete['output']:
            self._discrete_inputs = _DictValues(self._var_discrete['input'])
            self._discrete_outputs = _DictValues(self._var_discrete['output'])
        else:
            self._discrete_inputs = self._discrete_outputs = ()

    def _resolve_group_input_defaults(self):
        """
        Resolve any ambiguities in group input defaults throughout the model.
        """
        skip = set(('path', 'use_tgt', 'prom'))
        prom2abs_in = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list['input']

        for prom, metalist in self._group_inputs.items():
            top_origin = metalist[0]['path']
            top_prom = metalist[0]['prom']
            allmeta = set()
            for meta in metalist:
                allmeta.update(meta)
            fullmeta = {n: _UNDEFINED for n in allmeta - skip}

            for key in sorted(fullmeta):
                for i, submeta in enumerate(metalist):
                    if key in submeta:
                        if fullmeta[key] is _UNDEFINED:
                            origin = submeta['path']
                            origin_prom = submeta['prom']
                            val = fullmeta[key] = submeta[key]
                            if origin != top_origin:
                                simple_warning(f"Group '{top_origin}' did not set a default "
                                               f"'{key}' for input '{top_prom}', so the value of "
                                               f"({val}) from group '{origin}' will be used.")
                        else:
                            eq = submeta[key] == val
                            if isinstance(eq, np.ndarray):
                                eq = np.all(eq)
                            if not eq:
                                # first, see if origin is an ancestor
                                if not origin or submeta['path'].startswith(origin + '.'):
                                    simple_warning(f"Groups '{origin}' and '{submeta['path']}' "
                                                   f"called set_input_defaults for the input "
                                                   f"'{origin_prom}' with conflicting '{key}'. "
                                                   f"The value ({val}) from '{origin}' will be "
                                                   "used.")
                                else:  # origin is not an ancestor, so we have an ambiguity
                                    if origin_prom != submeta['prom']:
                                        prm = f"('{origin_prom}' / '{submeta['prom']}')"
                                    else:
                                        prm = f"'{origin_prom}'"
                                    common = common_subpath((origin, submeta['path']))
                                    if common:
                                        sub = self._get_subsystem(common)
                                        if sub is not None:
                                            for a in prom2abs_in[prom]:
                                                if a in sub._var_abs2prom['input']:
                                                    prom = sub._var_abs2prom['input'][a]
                                                    break

                                    gname = f"Group named '{common}'" if common else 'model'
                                    conditional_error(f"{self.msginfo}: The subsystems {origin} "
                                                      f"and {submeta['path']} called "
                                                      f"set_input_defaults for promoted input "
                                                      f"{prm} with conflicting values for "
                                                      f"'{key}'. Call <group>.set_input_defaults("
                                                      f"'{prom}', {key}=?), where <group> is the "
                                                      f"{gname} to remove the ambiguity.")

            # update all metadata dicts with any missing metadata that was filled in elsewhere
            for meta in metalist:
                meta.update(fullmeta)

    def _setup_var_sizes(self):
        """
        Compute the arrays of local variable sizes for all variables/procs on this system.
        """
        super(Group, self)._setup_var_sizes()

        self._var_offsets = None

        iproc = self.comm.rank
        nproc = self.comm.size

        subsystems_proc_range = self._subsystems_proc_range

        # Recursion
        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            subsys._setup_var_sizes()

        sizes = self._var_sizes
        relnames = self._var_allprocs_relevant_names

        vec_names = self._lin_rel_vec_name_list if self._use_derivatives else self._vec_names

        n_distrib_vars = 0

        # Compute _var_sizes
        for vec_name in vec_names:
            sizes[vec_name] = {}
            subsystems_var_range = self._subsystems_var_range[vec_name]

            for type_ in ['input', 'output']:
                sizes[vec_name][type_] = sz = np.zeros((nproc, len(relnames[vec_name][type_])),
                                                       INT_DTYPE)

                for ind, subsys in enumerate(self._subsystems_myproc):
                    if isinstance(subsys, Component):
                        if subsys.options['distributed']:
                            n_distrib_vars += 1
                    elif subsys._has_distrib_vars:
                        n_distrib_vars += 1

                    if vec_name not in subsys._rel_vec_names:
                        continue
                    proc_slice = slice(*subsystems_proc_range[ind])
                    var_slice = slice(*subsystems_var_range[type_][subsys.name])
                    if proc_slice.stop - proc_slice.start > subsys.comm.size:
                        # in this case, we've split the proc for parallel FD, so subsys doesn't
                        # have var_sizes for all the ranks we need. Since each parallel FD comm
                        # has the same size distribution (since all are identical), just 'tile'
                        # the var_sizes from the subsystem to fill in the full rank range we need
                        # at this level.
                        assert (proc_slice.stop - proc_slice.start) % subsys.comm.size == 0, \
                            "%s comm size (%d) is not an exact multiple of %s comm size (%d)" % (
                                self.pathname, self.comm.size, subsys.pathname, subsys.comm.size)
                        proc_i = proc_slice.start
                        while proc_i < proc_slice.stop:
                            sz[proc_i:proc_i + subsys.comm.size, var_slice] = \
                                subsys._var_sizes[vec_name][type_]
                            proc_i += subsys.comm.size
                    else:
                        sz[proc_slice, var_slice] = subsys._var_sizes[vec_name][type_]

        # If parallel, all gather
        if self.comm.size > 1:
            for vec_name in self._lin_rel_vec_name_list:
                sizes = self._var_sizes[vec_name]
                for type_ in ['input', 'output']:
                    sizes_in = sizes[type_][iproc, :].copy()
                    self.comm.Allgather(sizes_in, sizes[type_])

            self._has_distrib_vars = self.comm.allreduce(n_distrib_vars) > 0

            if (self._has_distrib_vars or self._contains_parallel_group or
                not np.all(self._var_sizes[vec_names[0]]['output']) or
               not np.all(self._var_sizes[vec_names[0]]['input'])):

                if self._distributed_vector_class is not None:
                    self._vector_class = self._distributed_vector_class
                else:
                    raise RuntimeError("{}: Distributed vectors are required but no distributed "
                                       "vector type has been set.".format(self.msginfo))

            # compute owning ranks and owned sizes
            abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
            owns = self._owning_rank
            self._owned_sizes = self._var_sizes[vec_names[0]]['output'].copy()
            for type_ in ('input', 'output'):
                sizes = self._var_sizes[vec_names[0]][type_]
                for i, name in enumerate(self._var_allprocs_abs_names[type_]):
                    for rank in range(self.comm.size):
                        if sizes[rank, i] > 0:
                            owns[name] = rank
                            if type_ == 'output' and not abs2meta[name]['distributed']:
                                self._owned_sizes[rank + 1:, i] = 0  # zero out all dups
                            break

                if self._var_allprocs_discrete[type_]:
                    local = list(self._var_discrete[type_])
                    for i, names in enumerate(self.comm.allgather(local)):
                        for n in names:
                            if n not in owns:
                                owns[n] = i
        else:
            self._owned_sizes = self._var_sizes[vec_names[0]]['output']
            self._vector_class = self._local_vector_class

        if self._use_derivatives:
            self._var_sizes['nonlinear'] = self._var_sizes['linear']

        if self.comm.size > 1:
            self._setup_global_shapes()

    def _setup_global_connections(self, conns=None):
        """
        Compute dict of all connections between this system's inputs and outputs.

        The connections come from 4 sources:
        1. Implicit connections owned by the current system
        2. Explicit connections declared by the current system
        3. Explicit connections declared by parent systems
        4. Implicit / explicit from subsystems

        Parameters
        ----------
        conns : dict
            Dictionary of connections passed down from parent group.
        """
        if self._raise_connection_errors is False:
            self._set_subsys_connection_errors(False)

        global_abs_in2out = self._conn_global_abs_in2out = {}

        allprocs_prom2abs_list_in = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list['input']
        allprocs_prom2abs_list_out = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list['output']

        allprocs_discrete_in = self._var_allprocs_discrete['input']
        allprocs_discrete_out = self._var_allprocs_discrete['output']

        abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta
        allprocs_abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        pathname = self.pathname

        abs_in2out = {}

        if pathname == '':
            path_len = 0
            nparts = 0
        else:
            path_len = len(pathname) + 1
            nparts = len(pathname.split('.'))

        new_conns = defaultdict(dict)

        if conns is not None:
            for abs_in, abs_out in conns.items():
                inparts = abs_in.split('.')
                outparts = abs_out.split('.')

                if inparts[:nparts] == outparts[:nparts]:
                    global_abs_in2out[abs_in] = abs_out

                    # if connection is contained in a subgroup, add to conns
                    # to pass down to subsystems.
                    if inparts[nparts] == outparts[nparts]:
                        new_conns[inparts[nparts]][abs_in] = abs_out

        # Add implicit connections (only ones owned by this group)
        for prom_name in allprocs_prom2abs_list_out:
            if prom_name in allprocs_prom2abs_list_in:
                abs_out = allprocs_prom2abs_list_out[prom_name][0]
                out_subsys = abs_out[path_len:].split('.', 1)[0]
                for abs_in in allprocs_prom2abs_list_in[prom_name]:
                    in_subsys = abs_in[path_len:].split('.', 1)[0]
                    if out_subsys != in_subsys:
                        abs_in2out[abs_in] = abs_out

        src_ind_inputs = set()

        # Add explicit connections (only ones declared by this group)
        for prom_in, (prom_out, src_indices, flat_src_indices) in \
                self._manual_connections.items():

            # throw an exception if either output or input doesn't exist
            # (not traceable to a connect statement, so provide context)
            if not (prom_out in allprocs_prom2abs_list_out or prom_out in allprocs_discrete_out):
                if (prom_out in allprocs_prom2abs_list_in or prom_out in allprocs_discrete_in):
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Attempted to connect from '{prom_out}' to " + \
                          f"'{prom_in}', but '{prom_out}' is an input. " + \
                          "All connections must be from an output to an input."
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise NameError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
                        continue
                else:
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Attempted to connect from '{prom_out}' to " + \
                          f"'{prom_in}', but '{prom_out}' doesn't exist."
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise NameError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
                        continue

            if not (prom_in in allprocs_prom2abs_list_in or prom_in in allprocs_discrete_in):
                if (prom_in in allprocs_prom2abs_list_out or prom_in in allprocs_discrete_out):
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Attempted to connect from '{prom_out}' to " + \
                          f"'{prom_in}', but '{prom_in}' is an output. " + \
                          "All connections must be from an output to an input."
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise NameError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
                        continue
                else:
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Attempted to connect from '{prom_out}' to " + \
                          f"'{prom_in}', but '{prom_in}' doesn't exist."
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise NameError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
                        continue

            # Throw an exception if output and input are in the same system
            # (not traceable to a connect statement, so provide context)
            # and check if src_indices is defined in both connect and add_input.
            abs_out = allprocs_prom2abs_list_out[prom_out][0]
            outparts = abs_out.split('.')
            out_subsys = outparts[:-1]

            for abs_in in allprocs_prom2abs_list_in[prom_in]:
                inparts = abs_in.split('.')
                in_subsys = inparts[:-1]
                if out_subsys == in_subsys:
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Output and input are in the same System for " + \
                          f"connection from '{prom_out}' to '{prom_in}'."
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise RuntimeError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
                        continue

                if src_indices is not None:
                    if abs_in in abs2meta:
                        meta = abs2meta[abs_in]
                        if meta['src_indices'] is not None:
                            msg = f"{self.msginfo}: src_indices has been defined in both " + \
                                  f"connect('{prom_out}', '{prom_in}') and " + \
                                  f"add_input('{prom_in}', ...)."
                            if self._raise_connection_errors:
                                raise RuntimeError(msg)
                            else:
                                simple_warning(msg)
                                continue
                        meta['src_indices'] = np.atleast_1d(src_indices)
                        meta['flat_src_indices'] = flat_src_indices

                    src_ind_inputs.add(abs_in)

                if abs_in in abs_in2out:
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Input '{abs_in}' cannot be connected to " + \
                          f"'{abs_out}' because it's already connected to '{abs_in2out[abs_in]}'"
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise RuntimeError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
                        continue

                abs_in2out[abs_in] = abs_out

                # if connection is contained in a subgroup, add to conns to pass down to subsystems.
                if inparts[:nparts + 1] == outparts[:nparts + 1]:
                    new_conns[inparts[nparts]][abs_in] = abs_out

        # Compute global_abs_in2out by first adding this group's contributions,
        # then adding contributions from systems above/below, then allgathering.
        conn_list = list(global_abs_in2out.items())
        conn_list.extend(abs_in2out.items())
        global_abs_in2out.update(abs_in2out)

        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            if isinstance(subsys, Group):
                if subsys.name in new_conns:
                    subsys._setup_global_connections(conns=new_conns[subsys.name])
                else:
                    subsys._setup_global_connections()
                global_abs_in2out.update(subsys._conn_global_abs_in2out)
                conn_list.extend(subsys._conn_global_abs_in2out.items())

        if len(conn_list) > len(global_abs_in2out):
            dupes = [n for n, val in Counter(tgt for tgt, src in conn_list).items() if val > 1]
            dup_info = defaultdict(set)
            for tgt, src in conn_list:
                for dup in dupes:
                    if tgt == dup:
                        dup_info[tgt].add(src)
            dup_info = [(n, srcs) for n, srcs in dup_info.items() if len(srcs) > 1]
            if dup_info:
                dup = ["%s from %s" % (tgt, sorted(srcs)) for tgt, srcs in dup_info]
                msg = f"{self.msginfo}: The following inputs have multiple connections: " + \
                      f"{', '.join(dup)}"
                if self._raise_connection_errors:
                    raise RuntimeError(msg)
                else:
                    simple_warning(msg)

        # If running in parallel, allgather
        if self.comm.size > 1 and self._mpi_proc_allocator.parallel:
            if self._subsystems_myproc and self._subsystems_myproc[0].comm.rank == 0:
                raw = (global_abs_in2out, src_ind_inputs)
            else:
                raw = ({}, ())
            gathered = self.comm.allgather(raw)

            all_src_ind_ins = set()
            for myproc_global_abs_in2out, src_ind_ins in gathered:
                global_abs_in2out.update(myproc_global_abs_in2out)
                all_src_ind_ins.update(src_ind_ins)
            src_ind_inputs = all_src_ind_ins

        for inp in src_ind_inputs:
            allprocs_abs2meta[inp]['has_src_indices'] = True

    @check_mpi_exceptions
    def _setup_connections(self):
        """
        Compute dict of all connections owned by this Group.
        """
        abs_in2out = self._conn_abs_in2out = {}
        global_abs_in2out = self._conn_global_abs_in2out
        pathname = self.pathname
        allprocs_discrete_in = self._var_allprocs_discrete['input']
        allprocs_discrete_out = self._var_allprocs_discrete['output']

        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            subsys._setup_connections()

        path_dot = pathname + '.' if pathname else ''
        path_len = len(path_dot)

        allprocs_abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta
        sizes_out = self._var_sizes['nonlinear']['output']
        out_idxs = self._var_allprocs_abs2idx['nonlinear']

        nproc = self.comm.size

        # Check input/output units here, and set _has_input_scaling
        # to True for this Group if units are defined and different, or if
        # ref or ref0 are defined for the output.
        for abs_in, abs_out in global_abs_in2out.items():
            if abs_in[:path_len] != path_dot or abs_out[:path_len] != path_dot:
                continue
            # Check that they are in different subsystems of this system.
            out_subsys = abs_out[path_len:].split('.', 1)[0]
            in_subsys = abs_in[path_len:].split('.', 1)[0]
            if out_subsys != in_subsys:
                if abs_in in allprocs_discrete_in:
                    self._conn_discrete_in2out[abs_in] = abs_out
                elif abs_out in allprocs_discrete_out:
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Can't connect discrete output '{abs_out}' " + \
                          f"to continuous input '{abs_in}'."
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise RuntimeError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
                else:
                    abs_in2out[abs_in] = abs_out

                if nproc > 1 and self._vector_class is None:
                    # check for any cross-process data transfer.  If found, use
                    # self._problem_meta['distributed_vector_class'] as our vector class.
                    if (abs_in not in abs2meta or abs_out not in abs2meta or
                            abs2meta[abs_in]['distributed'] or abs2meta[abs_out]['distributed']):
                        self._vector_class = self._distributed_vector_class

            # if connected output has scaling then we need input scaling
            if not self._has_input_scaling and not (abs_in in allprocs_discrete_in or
                                                    abs_out in allprocs_discrete_out):
                out_units = allprocs_abs2meta[abs_out]['units']
                in_units = allprocs_abs2meta[abs_in]['units']

                # if units are defined and different, we need input scaling.
                needs_input_scaling = (in_units and out_units and in_units != out_units)

                # we also need it if a connected output has any scaling.
                if not needs_input_scaling:
                    out_meta = allprocs_abs2meta[abs_out]

                    ref = out_meta['ref']
                    if np.isscalar(ref):
                        needs_input_scaling = ref != 1.0
                    else:
                        needs_input_scaling = np.any(ref != 1.0)

                    if not needs_input_scaling:
                        ref0 = out_meta['ref0']
                        if np.isscalar(ref0):
                            needs_input_scaling = ref0 != 0.0
                        else:
                            needs_input_scaling = np.any(ref0)

                        if not needs_input_scaling:
                            res_ref = out_meta['res_ref']
                            if np.isscalar(res_ref):
                                needs_input_scaling = res_ref != 1.0
                            else:
                                needs_input_scaling = np.any(res_ref != 1.0)

                self._has_input_scaling = needs_input_scaling

        # check compatability for any discrete connections
        for abs_in, abs_out in self._conn_discrete_in2out.items():
            in_type = self._var_allprocs_discrete['input'][abs_in]['type']
            try:
                out_type = self._var_allprocs_discrete['output'][abs_out]['type']
            except KeyError:
                msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Can't connect continuous output '{abs_out}' " + \
                      f"to discrete input '{abs_in}'."
                if self._raise_connection_errors:
                    raise RuntimeError(msg)
                else:
                    simple_warning(msg)
            if not issubclass(in_type, out_type):
                msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Type '{out_type.__name__}' of output '{abs_out}' is " + \
                      f"incompatible with type '{in_type.__name__}' of input '{abs_in}'."
                if self._raise_connection_errors:
                    raise RuntimeError(msg)
                else:
                    simple_warning(msg)

        # check unit/shape compatibility, but only for connections that are
        # either owned by (implicit) or declared by (explicit) this Group.
        # This way, we don't repeat the error checking in multiple groups.
        abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta

        for abs_in, abs_out in abs_in2out.items():
            # if abs_out.startswith('_auto_ivc.'):
            #     continue  # auto_ivc vars were constructed based on inputs

            # check unit compatibility
            out_units = allprocs_abs2meta[abs_out]['units']
            in_units = allprocs_abs2meta[abs_in]['units']

            if out_units:
                if not in_units:
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Output '{abs_out}' with units of '{out_units}' " + \
                          f"is connected to input '{abs_in}' which has no units."
                    simple_warning(msg)
                elif not is_compatible(in_units, out_units):
                    msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Output units of '{out_units}' for '{abs_out}' " + \
                          f"are incompatible with input units of '{in_units}' for '{abs_in}'."
                    if self._raise_connection_errors:
                        raise RuntimeError(msg)
                    else:
                        simple_warning(msg)
            elif in_units is not None:
                msg = f"{self.msginfo}: Input '{abs_in}' with units of '{in_units}' is " + \
                      f"connected to output '{abs_out}' which has no units."
                simple_warning(msg)

            # check shape compatibility
            if abs_in in abs2meta and abs_out in abs2meta:
                # get output shape from allprocs meta dict, since it may
                # be distributed (we want global shape)
                out_shape = allprocs_abs2meta[abs_out]['global_shape']
                # get input shape and src_indices from the local meta dict
                # (input is always local)
                if abs2meta[abs_in]['distributed']:
                    in_full_shape = allprocs_abs2meta[abs_in]['global_shape']
                else:
                    in_full_shape = abs2meta[abs_in]['shape']
                in_shape = abs2meta[abs_in]['shape']
                src_indices = abs2meta[abs_in]['src_indices']
                flat = abs2meta[abs_in]['flat_src_indices']

                if src_indices is None and out_shape != in_full_shape:
                    # out_shape != in_shape is allowed if
                    # there's no ambiguity in storage order
                    if not array_connection_compatible(in_shape, out_shape):
                        msg = f"{self.msginfo}: The source and target shapes do not match or " + \
                              f"are ambiguous for the connection '{abs_out}' to '{abs_in}'. " + \
                              f"The source shape is {tuple([int(s) for s in out_shape])} " + \
                              f"but the target shape is {tuple([int(s) for s in in_shape])}."
                        if self._raise_connection_errors:
                            raise ValueError(msg)
                        else:
                            simple_warning(msg)

                elif src_indices is not None:
                    shape = False
                    is_slice = _is_slicer_op(src_indices)
                    if is_slice:
                        global_size = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta[abs_out]['global_size']
                        global_shape = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta[abs_out]['global_shape']
                        src_indices = _slice_indices(src_indices, global_size, global_shape)
                        shape = True
                    else:
                        src_indices = np.atleast_1d(src_indices)

                    if np.prod(src_indices.shape) == 0:
                        continue

                    flat_array_slice_check = not(is_slice and src_indices.size == np.prod(in_shape))

                    if any('flat_src_indices' in subsys._var_abs2meta[name]
                           for name in subsys._var_abs2meta):
                        msg = ("%s: flat_src_indices has no effect when using om_slicer to "
                               "slice array." % (self.msginfo))
                        simple_warning(msg)

                    # initial dimensions of indices shape must be same shape as target
                    if flat_array_slice_check:
                        for idx_d, inp_d in zip(src_indices.shape, in_shape):
                            if idx_d != inp_d:
                                msg = f"{self.msginfo}: The source indices " + \
                                    f"{src_indices} do not specify a " + \
                                    f"valid shape for the connection '{abs_out}' to " + \
                                    f"'{abs_in}'. The target shape is " + \
                                    f"{in_shape} but indices are {src_indices.shape}."
                                if self._raise_connection_errors:
                                    raise ValueError(msg)
                                else:
                                    simple_warning(msg)
                                    continue

                    # any remaining dimension of indices must match shape of source
                    if len(src_indices.shape) > len(in_shape) and flat_array_slice_check:
                        source_dimensions = src_indices.shape[len(in_shape)]
                        if source_dimensions != len(out_shape):
                            str_indices = str(src_indices).replace('\n', '')
                            msg = f"{self.msginfo}: The source indices " + \
                                  f"{str_indices} do not specify a " + \
                                  f"valid shape for the connection '{abs_out}' to '{abs_in}'. " + \
                                  f"The source has {len(out_shape)} dimensions but the " + \
                                  f"indices expect {source_dimensions}."
                            if self._raise_connection_errors:
                                raise ValueError(msg)
                            else:
                                simple_warning(msg)
                                continue
                    else:
                        source_dimensions = 1

                    # check all indices are in range of the source dimensions
                    if flat or src_indices.ndim == 1:
                        if allprocs_abs2meta[abs_in]['distributed']:
                            out_size = np.sum(sizes_out[:, out_idxs[abs_out]])
                        else:
                            out_size = np.prod(out_shape)
                        if src_indices.size > 0:
                            mx = np.max(src_indices)
                            mn = np.min(src_indices)
                            if mx >= out_size:
                                bad_idx = mx
                            elif mn < -out_size:
                                bad_idx = mn
                            else:
                                bad_idx = None
                            if bad_idx is not None:
                                msg = f"{self.msginfo}: The source indices do not specify " + \
                                      f"a valid index for the connection '{abs_out}' to " + \
                                      f"'{abs_in}'. Index '{bad_idx}' is out of range for " + \
                                      f"source dimension of size {out_size}."
                                if self._raise_connection_errors:
                                    raise ValueError(msg)
                                else:
                                    simple_warning(msg)
                        if src_indices.ndim > 1:
                            abs2meta[abs_in]['src_indices'] = src_indices.ravel()
                        else:
                            abs2meta[abs_in]['src_indices'] = src_indices

                        if src_indices.shape != in_shape and flat_array_slice_check:
                            msg = f"{self.msginfo}: src_indices shape " + \
                                  f"{src_indices.shape} does not match {abs_in} shape " + \
                                  f"{in_shape}."
                            if self._raise_connection_errors:
                                raise ValueError(msg)
                            else:
                                simple_warning(msg)
                    else:
                        for d in range(source_dimensions):
                            if allprocs_abs2meta[abs_out]['distributed'] is True or \
                               allprocs_abs2meta[abs_in]['distributed'] is True:
                                d_size = out_shape[d] * self.comm.size
                            else:
                                d_size = out_shape[d]
                            arr = src_indices[..., d]
                            if np.any(arr >= d_size) or np.any(arr <= -d_size):
                                for i in arr.flat:
                                    if shape:
                                        size_check = abs(i) >= global_size
                                    else:
                                        size_check = abs(i) >= d_size
                                    if size_check:
                                        msg = f"{self.msginfo}: The source indices " + \
                                              f"do not specify a valid index for the " + \
                                              f"connection '{abs_out}' to '{abs_in}'. " + \
                                              f"Index '{i}' is out of range for source " + \
                                              f"dimension of size {d_size}."
                                        if self._raise_connection_errors:
                                            raise ValueError(msg)
                                        else:
                                            simple_warning(msg)

    def _set_subsys_connection_errors(self, val=True):
        """
        Set flag in all subgroups indicating whether connection errors just issue a Warning.

        Parameters
        ----------
        val : bool
            If True, connection errors will raise an Exception. If False, connection errors
            will issue a warning and the offending connection will be ignored.
        """
        for sub in self._subsystems_allprocs:
            if isinstance(sub, Group):
                sub._raise_connection_errors = val
                sub._set_subsys_connection_errors(val)

    def _transfer(self, vec_name, mode, isub=None):
        """
        Perform a vector transfer.

        Parameters
        ----------
        vec_name : str
            Name of the vector RHS on which to perform a transfer.
        mode : str
            Either 'fwd' or 'rev'
        isub : None or int
            If None, perform a full transfer.
            If int, perform a partial transfer for linear Gauss--Seidel.
        """
        vec_inputs = self._vectors['input'][vec_name]

        xfer = self._transfers[vec_name][mode, isub]

        if mode == 'fwd':
            if xfer is not None:
                if self._has_input_scaling:
                    vec_inputs.scale('norm')
                    xfer._transfer(vec_inputs, self._vectors['output'][vec_name], mode)
                    vec_inputs.scale('phys')
                else:
                    xfer._transfer(vec_inputs, self._vectors['output'][vec_name], mode)
            if self._conn_discrete_in2out and vec_name == 'nonlinear':
                self._discrete_transfer(isub)

        else:  # rev
            if xfer is not None:
                if self._has_input_scaling:
                    vec_inputs.scale('phys')
                    xfer._transfer(vec_inputs, self._vectors['output'][vec_name], mode)
                    vec_inputs.scale('norm')
                else:
                    xfer._transfer(vec_inputs, self._vectors['output'][vec_name], mode)

    def _discrete_transfer(self, isub):
        """
        Transfer discrete variables between components.  This only occurs in fwd mode.

        Parameters
        ----------
        isub : None or int
            If None, perform a full transfer.
            If int, perform a partial transfer for linear Gauss--Seidel.
        """
        comm = self.comm
        key = None if isub is None else self._subsystems_allprocs[isub].name

        if comm.size == 1:
            for src_sys_name, src, tgt_sys_name, tgt in self._discrete_transfers[key]:
                tgt_sys = self._loc_subsys_map[tgt_sys_name]
                src_sys = self._loc_subsys_map[src_sys_name]
                # note that we are not copying the discrete value here, so if the
                # discrete value is some mutable object, for example not an int or str,
                # the downstream system will have a reference to the same object
                # as the source, allowing the downstream system to modify the value as
                # seen by the source system.
                tgt_sys._discrete_inputs[tgt] = src_sys._discrete_outputs[src]

        else:  # MPI
            allprocs_recv = self._allprocs_discrete_recv[key]
            discrete_out = self._var_discrete['output']
            if key in self._discrete_transfers:
                xfers, remote_send = self._discrete_transfers[key]
                if allprocs_recv:
                    sendvars = [(n, discrete_out[n]['value']) for n in remote_send]
                    allprocs_send = comm.gather(sendvars, root=0)
                    if comm.rank == 0:
                        allprocs_dict = {}
                        for i in range(comm.size):
                            allprocs_dict.update(allprocs_send[i])
                        recvs = [{} for i in range(comm.size)]
                        for rname, ranks in allprocs_recv.items():
                            val = allprocs_dict[rname]
                            for i in ranks:
                                recvs[i][rname] = val
                        data = comm.scatter(recvs, root=0)
                    else:
                        data = comm.scatter(None, root=0)
                else:
                    data = None

                for src_sys_name, src, tgt_sys_name, tgt in xfers:
                    if tgt_sys_name in self._loc_subsys_map:
                        tgt_sys = self._loc_subsys_map[tgt_sys_name]
                        if tgt in tgt_sys._discrete_inputs:
                            abs_src = '.'.join((src_sys_name, src))
                            if data is not None and abs_src in data:
                                src_val = data[abs_src]
                            else:
                                src_val = self._loc_subsys_map[src_sys_name]._discrete_outputs[src]
                            tgt_sys._discrete_inputs[tgt] = src_val

    def _setup_transfers(self):
        """
        Compute all transfers that are owned by this system.
        """
        self._vector_class.TRANSFER._setup_transfers(self)
        if self._conn_discrete_in2out:
            self._vector_class.TRANSFER._setup_discrete_transfers(self)

    def promotes(self, subsys_name, any=None, inputs=None, outputs=None,
                 src_indices=None, flat_src_indices=None):
        """
        Promote a variable in the model tree.

        Parameters
        ----------
        subsys_name : str
            The name of the child subsystem whose inputs/outputs are being promoted.
        any : Sequence of str or tuple
            A Sequence of variable names (or tuples) to be promoted, regardless
            of if they are inputs or outputs. This is equivalent to the items
            passed via the `promotes=` argument to add_subsystem.  If given as a
            tuple, we use the "promote as" standard of ('real name', 'promoted name')*[]:
        inputs : Sequence of str or tuple
            A Sequence of input names (or tuples) to be promoted. Tuples are
            used for the "promote as" capability.
        outputs : Sequence of str or tuple
            A Sequence of output names (or tuples) to be promoted. Tuples are
            used for the "promote as" capability.
        src_indices : int or list of ints or tuple of ints or int ndarray or Iterable or None
            This argument applies only to promoted inputs.
            The global indices of the source variable to transfer data from.
            A value of None implies this input depends on all entries of source.
            Default is None. The shapes of the target and src_indices must match,
            and form of the entries within is determined by the value of 'flat_src_indices'.
        flat_src_indices : bool
            This argument applies only to promoted inputs.
            If True, each entry of src_indices is assumed to be an index into the
            flattened source.  Otherwise each entry must be a tuple or list of size equal
            to the number of dimensions of the source.
        """
        if isinstance(any, str):
            raise RuntimeError(f"{self.msginfo}: Trying to promote any='{any}', "
                               "but an iterator of strings and/or tuples is required.")
        if isinstance(inputs, str):
            raise RuntimeError(f"{self.msginfo}: Trying to promote inputs='{inputs}', "
                               "but an iterator of strings and/or tuples is required.")
        if isinstance(outputs, str):
            raise RuntimeError(f"{self.msginfo}: Trying to promote outputs='{outputs}', "
                               "but an iterator of strings and/or tuples is required.")

        subsys = getattr(self, subsys_name)
        if any:
            subsys._var_promotes['any'].extend(any)
        if inputs:
            subsys._var_promotes['input'].extend(inputs)
        if outputs:
            subsys._var_promotes['output'].extend(outputs)

        if src_indices is not None:
            if outputs:
                raise RuntimeError(f"{self.msginfo}: Trying to promote outputs {outputs} while "
                                   f"specifying src_indices {src_indices} is not meaningful.")
            elif isinstance(src_indices, np.ndarray):
                if not np.issubdtype(src_indices.dtype, np.integer):
                    raise TypeError(f"{self.msginfo}: src_indices must contain integers, but "
                                    f"src_indices for promotes from '{subsys_name}' are type "
                                    f"{src_indices.dtype.type}.")
            elif not isinstance(src_indices, (int, list, tuple, Iterable)):
                raise TypeError(f"{self.msginfo}: The src_indices argument should be an int, "
                                f"list, tuple, ndarray or Iterable, but src_indices for "
                                f"promotes from '{subsys_name}' are {type(src_indices)}.")
            else:
                if any:
                    simple_warning(f"{self.msginfo}: src_indices have been specified with promotes"
                                   " 'any'. Note that src_indices only apply to matching inputs.")

            # src_indices will applied when promotes are resolved
            if inputs is not None:
                for inp in inputs:
                    subsys._var_promotes_src_indices[inp] = (src_indices, flat_src_indices)
            if any is not None:
                for inp in any:
                    subsys._var_promotes_src_indices[inp] = (src_indices, flat_src_indices)

        # check for attempt to promote with different alias
        list_comp = [i if isinstance(i, tuple) else (i, i) for i in subsys._var_promotes['input']]

        for original, new in list_comp:
            for original_inside, new_inside in list_comp:
                if original == original_inside and new != new_inside:
                    raise RuntimeError("%s: Trying to promote '%s' when it has been aliased to "
                                       "'%s'." % (self.msginfo, original_inside, new))

        # if this was called during configure(), mark this group as modified
        if self._problem_meta is not None:
            if self._problem_meta['config_info'] is not None:
                self._problem_meta['config_info']._prom_added(self.pathname, any=any,
                                                              inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)

    def add_subsystem(self, name, subsys, promotes=None,
                      promotes_inputs=None, promotes_outputs=None,
                      min_procs=1, max_procs=None, proc_weight=1.0):
        """
        Add a subsystem.

        Parameters
        ----------
        name : str
            Name of the subsystem being added
        subsys : <System>
            An instantiated, but not-yet-set up system object.
        promotes : iter of (str or tuple), optional
            A list of variable names specifying which subsystem variables
            to 'promote' up to this group. If an entry is a tuple of the
            form (old_name, new_name), this will rename the variable in
            the parent group.
        promotes_inputs : iter of (str or tuple), optional
            A list of input variable names specifying which subsystem input
            variables to 'promote' up to this group. If an entry is a tuple of
            the form (old_name, new_name), this will rename the variable in
            the parent group.
        promotes_outputs : iter of (str or tuple), optional
            A list of output variable names specifying which subsystem output
            variables to 'promote' up to this group. If an entry is a tuple of
            the form (old_name, new_name), this will rename the variable in
            the parent group.
        min_procs : int
            Minimum number of MPI processes usable by the subsystem. Defaults to 1.
        max_procs : int or None
            Maximum number of MPI processes usable by the subsystem.  A value
            of None (the default) indicates there is no maximum limit.
        proc_weight : float
            Weight given to the subsystem when allocating available MPI processes
            to all subsystems.  Default is 1.0.

        Returns
        -------
        <System>
            the subsystem that was passed in. This is returned to
            enable users to instantiate and add a subsystem at the
            same time, and get the reference back.
        """
        if self._setup_procs_finished:
            raise RuntimeError("%s: Cannot call add_subsystem in "
                               "the configure method" % (self.msginfo))

        if inspect.isclass(subsys):
            raise TypeError("%s: Subsystem '%s' should be an instance, but a %s class object was "
                            "found." % (self.msginfo, name, subsys.__name__))

        for sub in chain(self._subsystems_allprocs,
                         self._static_subsystems_allprocs):
            if name == sub.name:
                raise RuntimeError("%s: Subsystem name '%s' is already used." %
                                   (self.msginfo, name))

        if hasattr(self, name) and not isinstance(getattr(self, name), System):
            # replacing a subsystem is ok (e.g. resetup) but no other attribute
            raise RuntimeError("%s: Can't add subsystem '%s' because an attribute with that name "
                               "already exits." % (self.msginfo, name))

        match = namecheck_rgx.match(name)
        if match is None or match.group() != name:
            raise NameError("%s: '%s' is not a valid sub-system name." % (self.msginfo, name))

        subsys.name = subsys.pathname = name

        if isinstance(promotes, str) or \
           isinstance(promotes_inputs, str) or \
           isinstance(promotes_outputs, str):
            raise RuntimeError("%s: promotes must be an iterator of strings and/or tuples."
                               % self.msginfo)
        if promotes:
            subsys._var_promotes['any'] = promotes
        if promotes_inputs:
            subsys._var_promotes['input'] = promotes_inputs
        if promotes_outputs:
            subsys._var_promotes['output'] = promotes_outputs

        if self._static_mode:
            subsystems_allprocs = self._static_subsystems_allprocs
        else:
            subsystems_allprocs = self._subsystems_allprocs

        subsystems_allprocs.append(subsys)

        if not isinstance(min_procs, int) or min_procs < 1:
            raise TypeError("%s: min_procs must be an int > 0 but (%s) was given." %
                            (self.msginfo, min_procs))
        if max_procs is not None and (not isinstance(max_procs, int) or max_procs < min_procs):
            raise TypeError("%s: max_procs must be None or an int >= min_procs but (%s) was given."
                            % (self.msginfo, max_procs))
        if isinstance(proc_weight, Number) and proc_weight < 0:
            raise TypeError("%s: proc_weight must be a float > 0. but (%s) was given." %
                            (self.msginfo, proc_weight))

        self._proc_info[name] = (min_procs, max_procs, proc_weight)

        setattr(self, name, subsys)

        return subsys

    def connect(self, src_name, tgt_name, src_indices=None, flat_src_indices=False):
        """
        Connect source src_name to target tgt_name in this namespace.

        Parameters
        ----------
        src_name : str
            name of the source variable to connect
        tgt_name : str or [str, ... ] or (str, ...)
            name of the target variable(s) to connect
        src_indices : int or list of ints or tuple of ints or int ndarray or Iterable or None
            The global indices of the source variable to transfer data from.
            The shapes of the target and src_indices must match, and form of the
            entries within is determined by the value of 'flat_src_indices'.
        flat_src_indices : bool
            If True, each entry of src_indices is assumed to be an index into the
            flattened source.  Otherwise it must be a tuple or list of size equal
            to the number of dimensions of the source.
        """
        # if src_indices argument is given, it should be valid
        if isinstance(src_indices, str):
            if isinstance(tgt_name, str):
                tgt_name = [tgt_name]
            tgt_name.append(src_indices)
            raise TypeError("%s: src_indices must be an index array, did you mean"
                            " connect('%s', %s)?" % (self.msginfo, src_name, tgt_name))

        if isinstance(src_indices, tuple):
            if not _is_slicer_op(src_indices):
                src_indices = np.atleast_1d(src_indices)

        elif isinstance(src_indices, list):
            src_indices = np.atleast_1d(src_indices)

        if isinstance(src_indices, np.ndarray):
            if not np.issubdtype(src_indices.dtype, np.integer) and not \
                    any(i == ... for i in src_indices):

                raise TypeError("%s: src_indices must contain integers, but src_indices for "
                                "connection from '%s' to '%s' is %s." %
                                (self.msginfo, src_name, tgt_name, src_indices.dtype.type))

        # if multiple targets are given, recursively connect to each
        if not isinstance(tgt_name, str) and isinstance(tgt_name, Iterable):
            for name in tgt_name:
                self.connect(src_name, name, src_indices, flat_src_indices=flat_src_indices)
            return

        # target should not already be connected
        for manual_connections in [self._manual_connections, self._static_manual_connections]:
            if tgt_name in manual_connections:
                srcname = manual_connections[tgt_name][0]
                raise RuntimeError("%s: Input '%s' is already connected to '%s'." %
                                   (self.msginfo, tgt_name, srcname))

        # source and target should not be in the same system
        if src_name.rsplit('.', 1)[0] == tgt_name.rsplit('.', 1)[0]:
            raise RuntimeError("{}: Output and input are in the same System for "
                               "connection from '{}' to '{}'.".format(self.msginfo,
                                                                      src_name, tgt_name))

        if self._static_mode:
            manual_connections = self._static_manual_connections
        else:
            manual_connections = self._manual_connections

        manual_connections[tgt_name] = (src_name, src_indices, flat_src_indices)

    def set_order(self, new_order):
        """
        Specify a new execution order for this system.

        Parameters
        ----------
        new_order : list of str
            List of system names in desired new execution order.
        """
        if self._problem_meta is not None and \
                self._problem_meta['setup_status'] == _SetupStatus.POST_CONFIGURE:
            raise RuntimeError("%s: Cannot call set_order in the configure method" % (self.msginfo))

        # Make sure the new_order is valid. It must contain all subsystems
        # in this model.
        newset = set(new_order)
        if self._static_mode:
            subsystems = self._static_subsystems_allprocs
        else:
            subsystems = self._subsystems_allprocs
        olddict = {s.name: s for s in subsystems}
        oldset = set(olddict)

        if oldset != newset:
            msg = []

            missing = oldset - newset
            if missing:
                msg.append("%s: %s expected in subsystem order and not found." %
                           (self.msginfo, sorted(missing)))

            extra = newset - oldset
            if extra:
                msg.append("%s: subsystem(s) %s found in subsystem order but don't exist." %
                           (self.msginfo, sorted(extra)))

            raise ValueError('\n'.join(msg))

        # Don't allow duplicates either.
        if len(newset) < len(new_order):
            dupes = [key for key, val in Counter(new_order).items() if val > 1]
            raise ValueError("%s: Duplicate name(s) found in subsystem order list: %s" %
                             (self.msginfo, sorted(dupes)))

        subsystems[:] = [olddict[name] for name in new_order]

        self._order_set = True
        if self._problem_meta is not None:
            self._problem_meta['setup_status'] = _SetupStatus.PRE_SETUP

    def _get_subsystem(self, name):
        """
        Return the system called 'name' in the current namespace.

        Parameters
        ----------
        name : str
            name of the desired system in the current namespace.

        Returns
        -------
        System or None
            System if found else None.
        """
        if name == '':
            return self

        system = self
        for subname in name.split('.'):
            for sub in chain(system._static_subsystems_allprocs,
                             system._subsystems_allprocs):
                if sub.name == subname:
                    system = sub
                    break
            else:
                return None
        return system

    def _apply_nonlinear(self):
        """
        Compute residuals. The model is assumed to be in a scaled state.
        """
        name = self.pathname if self.pathname else 'root'

        self._transfer('nonlinear', 'fwd')
        # Apply recursion
        with Recording(name + '._apply_nonlinear', self.iter_count, self):
            for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
                subsys._apply_nonlinear()

    def _solve_nonlinear(self):
        """
        Compute outputs. The model is assumed to be in a scaled state.
        """
        name = self.pathname if self.pathname else 'root'

        with Recording(name + '._solve_nonlinear', self.iter_count, self):
            self._nonlinear_solver.solve()

    def _guess_nonlinear(self):
        """
        Provide initial guess for states.
        """
        # let any lower level systems do their guessing first
        if self._has_guess:
            for isub, sub in enumerate(self._subsystems_allprocs):
                # TODO: could gather 'has_guess' information during setup and be able to
                # skip transfer for subs that don't have guesses...
                self._transfer('nonlinear', 'fwd', isub)
                if sub._is_local and sub._has_guess:
                    sub._guess_nonlinear()

        # call our own guess_nonlinear method, after the recursion is done to
        # all the lower level systems and the data transfers have happened
        complex_step = self._inputs._under_complex_step

        if complex_step:
            self._inputs.set_complex_step_mode(False, keep_real=True)
            self._residuals.set_complex_step_mode(False, keep_real=True)

            # The Group outputs vector contains imaginary numbers from other components, so we need
            # to save a cache and restore it later.
            imag_cache = np.empty(len(self._outputs._data))
            imag_cache[:] = self._outputs._data.imag
            self._outputs.set_complex_step_mode(False, keep_real=True)

        if self._discrete_inputs or self._discrete_outputs:
            self.guess_nonlinear(self._inputs, self._outputs, self._residuals,
                                 self._discrete_inputs, self._discrete_outputs)
        else:
            self.guess_nonlinear(self._inputs, self._outputs, self._residuals)

        if complex_step:
            # Note: passing in False swaps back to the complex vector, which is valid since
            # the inputs and residuals value cannot be edited by guess_nonlinear.
            self._inputs.set_complex_step_mode(False)
            self._residuals.set_complex_step_mode(False)
            self._inputs._under_complex_step = True
            self._residuals._under_complex_step = True

            self._outputs.set_complex_step_mode(True)
            self._outputs.iadd(imag_cache * 1j)

    def guess_nonlinear(self, inputs, outputs, residuals,
                        discrete_inputs=None, discrete_outputs=None):
        """
        Provide initial guess for states.

        Override this method to set the initial guess for states.

        Parameters
        ----------
        inputs : Vector
            unscaled, dimensional input variables read via inputs[key]
        outputs : Vector
            unscaled, dimensional output variables read via outputs[key]
        residuals : Vector
            unscaled, dimensional residuals written to via residuals[key]
        discrete_inputs : dict or None
            If not None, dict containing discrete input values.
        discrete_outputs : dict or None
            If not None, dict containing discrete output values.
        """
        pass

    def _apply_linear(self, jac, vec_names, rel_systems, mode, scope_out=None, scope_in=None):
        """
        Compute jac-vec product. The model is assumed to be in a scaled state.

        Parameters
        ----------
        jac : Jacobian or None
            If None, use local jacobian, else use assembled jacobian jac.
        vec_names : [str, ...]
            list of names of the right-hand-side vectors.
        rel_systems : set of str
            Set of names of relevant systems based on the current linear solve.
        mode : str
            'fwd' or 'rev'.
        scope_out : set or None
            Set of absolute output names in the scope of this mat-vec product.
            If None, all are in the scope.
        scope_in : set or None
            Set of absolute input names in the scope of this mat-vec product.
            If None, all are in the scope.
        """
        vec_names = [v for v in vec_names if v in self._rel_vec_names]

        if self._owns_approx_jac:
            jac = self._jacobian
        elif jac is None and self._assembled_jac is not None:
            jac = self._assembled_jac

        if jac is not None:
            for vec_name in vec_names:
                with self._matvec_context(vec_name, scope_out, scope_in, mode) as vecs:
                    d_inputs, d_outputs, d_residuals = vecs
                    jac._apply(self, d_inputs, d_outputs, d_residuals, mode)
        # Apply recursion
        else:
            if rel_systems is not None:
                irrelevant_subs = [s for s in self._subsystems_myproc
                                   if s.pathname not in rel_systems]
            if mode == 'fwd':
                for vec_name in vec_names:
                    self._transfer(vec_name, mode)
                if rel_systems is not None:
                    for s in irrelevant_subs:
                        # zero out dvecs of irrelevant subsystems
                        s._vectors['residual']['linear'].set_val(0.0)

            for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
                if rel_systems is None or subsys.pathname in rel_systems:
                    subsys._apply_linear(jac, vec_names, rel_systems, mode,
                                         scope_out, scope_in)

            if mode == 'rev':
                for vec_name in vec_names:
                    self._transfer(vec_name, mode)
                    if rel_systems is not None:
                        for s in irrelevant_subs:
                            # zero out dvecs of irrelevant subsystems
                            s._vectors['output']['linear'].set_val(0.0)

    def _solve_linear(self, vec_names, mode, rel_systems):
        """
        Apply inverse jac product. The model is assumed to be in a scaled state.

        Parameters
        ----------
        vec_names : [str, ...]
            list of names of the right-hand-side vectors.
        mode : str
            'fwd' or 'rev'.
        rel_systems : set of str
            Set of names of relevant systems based on the current linear solve.
        """
        if self._owns_approx_jac:
            # No subsolves if we are approximating our jacobian. Instead, we behave like an
            # ExplicitComponent and pass on the values in the derivatives vectors.
            for vec_name in vec_names:
                if vec_name in self._rel_vec_names:
                    d_outputs = self._vectors['output'][vec_name]
                    d_residuals = self._vectors['residual'][vec_name]

                    if mode == 'fwd':
                        if self._has_resid_scaling:
                            with self._unscaled_context(outputs=[d_outputs],
                                                        residuals=[d_residuals]):
                                d_outputs.set_vec(d_residuals)
                        else:
                            d_outputs.set_vec(d_residuals)

                        # ExplicitComponent jacobian defined with -1 on diagonal.
                        d_outputs *= -1.0

                    else:  # rev
                        if self._has_resid_scaling:
                            with self._unscaled_context(outputs=[d_outputs],
                                                        residuals=[d_residuals]):
                                d_residuals.set_vec(d_outputs)
                        else:
                            d_residuals.set_vec(d_outputs)

                        # ExplicitComponent jacobian defined with -1 on diagonal.
                        d_residuals *= -1.0

        else:
            vec_names = [v for v in vec_names if v in self._rel_vec_names]
            self._linear_solver.solve(vec_names, mode, rel_systems)

    def _linearize(self, jac, sub_do_ln=True):
        """
        Compute jacobian / factorization. The model is assumed to be in a scaled state.

        Parameters
        ----------
        jac : Jacobian or None
            If None, use local jacobian, else use assembled jacobian jac.
        sub_do_ln : boolean
            Flag indicating if the children should call linearize on their linear solvers.
        """
        if self._jacobian is None:
            self._jacobian = DictionaryJacobian(self)

        self._check_first_linearize()

        # Group finite difference
        if self._owns_approx_jac:

            jac = self._jacobian
            if self.pathname == "":
                for approximation in self._approx_schemes.values():
                    approximation.compute_approximations(self, jac=jac, total=True)
            else:
                # When an approximation exists in a submodel (instead of in root), the model is
                # in a scaled state.
                with self._unscaled_context(outputs=[self._outputs]):
                    for approximation in self._approx_schemes.values():
                        approximation.compute_approximations(self, jac=jac, total=True)

        else:
            if self._assembled_jac is not None:
                jac = self._assembled_jac

            # Only linearize subsystems if we aren't approximating the derivs at this level.
            for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
                do_ln = sub_do_ln and (subsys._linear_solver is not None and
                                       subsys._linear_solver._linearize_children())
                subsys._linearize(jac, sub_do_ln=do_ln)

            # Update jacobian
            if self._assembled_jac is not None:
                self._assembled_jac._update(self)

            if sub_do_ln:
                for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
                    if subsys._linear_solver is not None:
                        subsys._linear_solver._linearize()

    def _check_first_linearize(self):
        if self._first_call_to_linearize:
            self._first_call_to_linearize = False  # only do this once
            coloring = self._get_coloring() if coloring_mod._use_partial_sparsity else None

            if coloring is not None:
                if not self._coloring_info['dynamic']:
                    coloring._check_config_partial(self)
                self._setup_approx_coloring()
            # TODO: for top level FD, call below is unnecessary, but we need this
            # for some tests that just call run_linearize directily without calling
            # compute_totals.
            elif self._approx_schemes:
                self._setup_approx_partials()

    def approx_totals(self, method='fd', step=None, form=None, step_calc=None):
        """
        Approximate derivatives for a Group using the specified approximation method.

        Parameters
        ----------
        method : str
            The type of approximation that should be used. Valid options include:
            'fd': Finite Difference, 'cs': Complex Step
        step : float
            Step size for approximation. Defaults to None, in which case, the approximation
            method provides its default value.
        form : string
            Form for finite difference, can be 'forward', 'backward', or 'central'. Defaults to
            None, in which case, the approximation method provides its default value.
        step_calc : string
            Step type for finite difference, can be 'abs' for absolute', or 'rel' for
            relative. Defaults to None, in which case, the approximation method
            provides its default value.
        """
        self._has_approx = True
        self._approx_schemes = OrderedDict()
        approx_scheme = self._get_approx_scheme(method)

        default_opts = approx_scheme.DEFAULT_OPTIONS

        kwargs = {}
        for name, attr in (('step', step), ('form', form), ('step_calc', step_calc)):
            if attr is not None:
                if name in default_opts:
                    kwargs[name] = attr
                else:
                    raise RuntimeError("%s: '%s' is not a valid option for '%s'" % (self.msginfo,
                                                                                    name, method))

        self._owns_approx_jac = True
        self._owns_approx_jac_meta = kwargs

    def _setup_partials(self):
        """
        Call setup_partials in components.
        """
        self._subjacs_info = info = {}

        for subsys in self._subsystems_myproc:
            subsys._setup_partials()
            info.update(subsys._subjacs_info)

        if self._has_distrib_vars and self._owns_approx_jac:
            # We current cannot approximate across a group with a distributed component if the
            # inputs are distributed via src_indices.
            abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta
            for iname in self._var_allprocs_abs_names['input']:
                if abs2meta[iname]['src_indices'] is not None and \
                   abs2meta[iname]['distributed'] and \
                   iname not in self._conn_abs_in2out:
                    msg = "{} : Approx_totals is not supported on a group with a distributed "
                    msg += "component whose input '{}' is distributed using src_indices. "
                    raise RuntimeError(msg.format(self.msginfo, iname))

    def _get_approx_subjac_keys(self):
        """
        Return a list of (of, wrt) keys needed for approx derivs for this group.

        Returns
        -------
        list
            List of approx derivative subjacobian keys.
        """
        if self._approx_subjac_keys is None:
            self._approx_subjac_keys = list(self._approx_subjac_keys_iter())

        return self._approx_subjac_keys

    def _approx_subjac_keys_iter(self):
        pro2abs = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list

        if self._owns_approx_wrt and not self.pathname:
            candidate_wrt = self._owns_approx_wrt
        else:
            candidate_wrt = list(var[0] for var in pro2abs['input'].values())

        from openmdao.core.indepvarcomp import IndepVarComp
        wrt = set()
        ivc = set()
        if self.pathname:  # get rid of any old stuff in here
            self._owns_approx_of = self._owns_approx_wrt = None

        for var in candidate_wrt:

            # Weed out inputs connected to anything inside our system unless the source is an
            # indepvarcomp.
            if var in self._conn_abs_in2out:
                src = self._conn_abs_in2out[var]
                compname = src.rsplit('.', 1)[0]
                comp = self._get_subsystem(compname)
                if isinstance(comp, IndepVarComp):
                    wrt.add(src)
                    ivc.add(src)
            else:
                wrt.add(var)

        if self._owns_approx_of:
            of = set(self._owns_approx_of)
        else:
            of = set(var[0] for var in pro2abs['output'].values())
            # Skip indepvarcomp res wrt other srcs
            of -= ivc

        for key in product(of, wrt.union(of)):
            # Create approximations for the ones we need.

            # Skip explicit res wrt outputs
            if key[1] in of and key[1] not in ivc:

                # Support for specifying a desvar as an obj/con.
                if key[1] not in wrt or key[0] == key[1]:
                    continue

            yield key

    def _jacobian_of_iter(self):
        """
        Iterate over (name, offset, end, idxs) for each row var in the systems's jacobian.

        idxs will usually be a full slice, except in cases where _owns_approx__idx has
        a value for that variable.
        """
        abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        approx_of_idx = self._owns_approx_of_idx

        if self._owns_approx_of:
            # we're computing totals/semi-totals
            offset = end = 0
            for of in self._owns_approx_of:
                if of in approx_of_idx:
                    sub_of_idx = approx_of_idx[of]
                    size = len(sub_of_idx)
                else:
                    size = abs2meta[of]['size']
                    sub_of_idx = _full_slice
                end += size
                yield of, offset, end, sub_of_idx
                offset = end
        else:
            for tup in super(Group, self)._jacobian_of_iter():
                yield tup

    def _jacobian_wrt_iter(self, wrt_matches=None):
        """
        Iterate over (name, offset, end, idxs) for each column var in the systems's jacobian.

        idxs will usually be a full slice, except in cases where _owns_approx_wrt_idx has
        a value for that variable.

        Parameters
        ----------
        wrt_matches : set or None
            Only include row vars that are contained in this set.  This will determine what
            the actual offsets are, i.e. the offsets will be into a reduced jacobian
            containing only the matching columns.
        """
        if self._owns_approx_wrt:
            if wrt_matches is None:
                wrt_matches = ContainsAll()
            abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
            approx_of_idx = self._owns_approx_of_idx
            approx_wrt_idx = self._owns_approx_wrt_idx

            offset = end = 0
            if self.pathname:  # doing semitotals, so include output columns
                for of, _offset, _end, sub_of_idx in self._jacobian_of_iter():
                    if of in wrt_matches:
                        end += (_end - _offset)
                        yield of, offset, end, sub_of_idx
                        offset = end

            for wrt in self._owns_approx_wrt:
                if wrt in wrt_matches:
                    if wrt in approx_wrt_idx:
                        sub_wrt_idx = approx_wrt_idx[wrt]
                        size = len(sub_wrt_idx)
                    else:
                        size = abs2meta[wrt]['size']
                        sub_wrt_idx = _full_slice
                    end += size
                    yield wrt, offset, end, sub_wrt_idx
                    offset = end
        else:
            yield from super(Group, self)._jacobian_wrt_iter(wrt_matches)

    def _update_wrt_matches(self, info):
        """
        Determine the list of wrt variables that match the wildcard(s) given in declare_coloring.

        Parameters
        ----------
        info : dict
            Coloring metadata dict.
        """
        if not (self._owns_approx_of or self.pathname):
            return

        abs2prom = self._var_allprocs_abs2prom
        abs_outs = self._var_allprocs_abs_names['output']
        abs_ins = self._var_allprocs_abs_names['input']

        info['wrt_matches'] = wrt_colors_matched = set()

        wrt_color_patterns = info['wrt_patterns']

        for key in self._get_approx_subjac_keys():
            if wrt_color_patterns:
                if key[1] in abs2prom['output']:
                    wrtprom = abs2prom['output'][key[1]]
                else:
                    wrtprom = abs2prom['input'][key[1]]

                for patt in wrt_color_patterns:
                    if patt == '*' or fnmatchcase(wrtprom, patt):
                        wrt_colors_matched.add(key[1])
                        break

        baselen = len(self.pathname) + 1 if self.pathname else 0
        info['wrt_matches_prom'] = [n[baselen:] for n in wrt_colors_matched]

        if info.get('dynamic') and info['coloring'] is None and self._owns_approx_of:
            if not wrt_colors_matched:
                raise ValueError("{}: Invalid 'wrt' variable(s) specified for colored approx "
                                 "partial options: {}.".format(self.msginfo, wrt_color_patterns))

    def _setup_approx_partials(self):
        """
        Add approximations for all approx derivs.
        """
        self._jacobian = DictionaryJacobian(system=self)

        abs2prom = self._var_allprocs_abs2prom
        abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        abs_outs = self._var_allprocs_abs_names['output']
        abs_ins = self._var_allprocs_abs_names['input']
        info = self._coloring_info

        if info['coloring'] is not None and (self._owns_approx_of is None or
                                             self._owns_approx_wrt is None):
            method = info['method']
        else:
            method = list(self._approx_schemes)[0]

        wrt_matches = self._get_static_wrt_matches()

        approx = self._get_approx_scheme(method)
        # reset the approx if necessary
        approx._exec_dict = defaultdict(list)
        approx._reset()

        approx_keys = self._get_approx_subjac_keys()
        for key in approx_keys:
            if key in self._subjacs_info:
                meta = self._subjacs_info[key]
            else:
                meta = SUBJAC_META_DEFAULTS.copy()
                if key[0] == key[1]:
                    size = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta[key[0]]['size']
                    meta['rows'] = meta['cols'] = np.arange(size)
                    # All group approximations are treated as explicit components, so we
                    # have a -1 on the diagonal.
                    meta['value'] = np.full(size, -1.0)
                self._subjacs_info[key] = meta

            meta['method'] = method

            meta.update(self._owns_approx_jac_meta)

            if key[1] in wrt_matches:
                self._update_approx_coloring_meta(meta)

            if meta['value'] is None:
                shape = (abs2meta[key[0]]['size'], abs2meta[key[1]]['size'])
                meta['shape'] = shape
                meta['value'] = np.zeros(shape)

            approx.add_approximation(key, self, meta)

        if self.pathname:
            # we're taking semi-total derivs for this group. Update _owns_approx_of
            # and _owns_approx_wrt so we can use the same approx code for totals and
            # semi-totals.  Also, the order must match order of vars in the output and
            # input vectors.
            wrtset = set([k[1] for k in approx_keys])
            self._owns_approx_of = list(abs_outs)
            self._owns_approx_wrt = [n for n in chain(abs_outs, abs_ins) if n in wrtset]

    def _setup_approx_coloring(self):
        """
        Ensure that if coloring is declared, approximations will be set up.
        """
        if self._coloring_info['coloring'] is not None:
            meta = self._coloring_info
            self.approx_totals(meta['method'], meta.get('step'), meta.get('form'))
        self._setup_approx_partials()

    def _update_approx_coloring_meta(self, meta):
        """
        Update metadata for a subjac based on coloring metadata.

        Parameters
        ----------
        meta : dict
            Metadata for a subjac.
        """
        info = self._coloring_info
        meta['coloring'] = True
        for name in ('method', 'step', 'form'):
            if name in info:
                meta[name] = info[name]

    def compute_sys_graph(self, comps_only=False):
        """
        Compute a dependency graph for subsystems in this group.

        Variable connection information is stored in each edge of
        the system graph.

        Parameters
        ----------
        comps_only : bool (False)
            If True, return a graph of all components within this group
            or any of its descendants. No sub-groups will be included. Otherwise,
            a graph containing only direct children (both Components and Groups)
            of this group will be returned.

        Returns
        -------
        DiGraph
            A directed graph containing names of subsystems and their connections.
        """
        input_srcs = self._conn_global_abs_in2out
        glen = len(self.pathname.split('.')) if self.pathname else 0
        graph = nx.DiGraph()

        # add all systems as nodes in the graph so they'll be there even if
        # unconnected.
        if comps_only:
            systems = [s.pathname for s in self.system_iter(recurse=True, typ=Component)]
        else:
            systems = [s.name for s in self._subsystems_myproc]

        if MPI:
            sysbyproc = self.comm.allgather(systems)

            systems = set()
            for slist in sysbyproc:
                systems.update(slist)

        graph.add_nodes_from(systems)

        edge_data = defaultdict(lambda: defaultdict(list))

        for in_abs, src_abs in input_srcs.items():
            if src_abs is not None:
                if comps_only:
                    src = src_abs.rsplit('.', 1)[0]
                    tgt = in_abs.rsplit('.', 1)[0]
                else:
                    src = src_abs.split('.')[glen]
                    tgt = in_abs.split('.')[glen]

                # store var connection data in each system to system edge for later
                # use in relevance calculation.
                edge_data[(src, tgt)][src_abs].append(in_abs)

        for key in edge_data:
            src_sys, tgt_sys = key
            if comps_only or src_sys != tgt_sys:
                graph.add_edge(src_sys, tgt_sys, conns=edge_data[key])

        return graph

    def _find_remote_sys_owners(self):
        """
        Return a mapping of system pathname to owning rank.

        The mapping will contain ONLY systems that are remote on at least one proc.
        Distributed systems are not included.

        Returns
        -------
        dict
            The mapping of system pathname to owning rank.
        """
        if self.comm.size > 1:
            loc_sys = set(s.pathname for s in self.system_iter(recurse=True))
            # use the allprocs variable dicts to find any remote systems
            remote_sys = set()
            seen = set()
            for typ in ('input', 'output'):
                for abspath in self._var_allprocs_abs2prom[typ]:  # includes real and discrete vars
                    sname, vname = abspath.rsplit('.', 1)
                    if sname not in seen:
                        seen.add(sname)
                        for path in all_ancestors(sname):
                            if path not in loc_sys:
                                remote_sys.add(path)

            # Find systems that are remote in at least one proc and the owning rank for each.
            gathered = self.comm.gather(remote_sys, root=0)
            if self.comm.rank == 0:
                remote_systems = {}
                remaining_remotes = set()
                for remotes in gathered:
                    remaining_remotes.update(remotes)

                for rank, remotes in enumerate(gathered):
                    if not remaining_remotes:
                        break
                    diff = remaining_remotes - remotes
                    for name in diff:
                        remote_systems[name] = rank

                    remaining_remotes -= diff

                self.comm.bcast(remote_systems, root=0)
            else:
                remote_systems = self.comm.bcast(None, root=0)
        else:
            remote_systems = {}

        return remote_systems

    def _find_remote_var_owners(self, sys_owners):
        """
        Return a mapping of abs var name to owning rank.

        The mapping contains only non-distributed variables that are
        remote on at least one proc.

        Parameters
        ----------
        sys_owners : dict
            Mapping of system pathname to owning rank. Contains remote systems only.

        Returns
        -------
        dict
            The mapping of variable pathname to owning rank.
        """
        owners = {}
        all_abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        for typ in ('input', 'output'):
            for abs_name in self._var_allprocs_abs2prom[typ]:
                sname, vname = abs_name.rsplit('.', 1)
                dist = abs_name in all_abs2meta and all_abs2meta[abs_name]['distributed']
                if not dist and sname in sys_owners:
                    owners[abs_name] = sys_owners[sname]
        return owners

    def _get_auto_ivc_out_val(self, tgts, remote_vars, all_abs2meta, abs2meta):
        info = []
        src_idx_found = []
        for tgt in tgts:
            all_meta = all_abs2meta[tgt]
            dist = all_meta['distributed']
            has_src_inds = all_meta['has_src_indices']

            if tgt in remote_vars:  # remote somewhere
                if self.comm.rank == remote_vars[tgt]:
                    meta = abs2meta[tgt]
                    val = meta['value']
                    if has_src_inds:
                        src_idx_found.append(tgt)
                    else:
                        info.append((tgt, meta['size'], val, False))
                else:
                    info.append((tgt, 0, np.zeros(0), True))

            elif dist:  # distributed and local everywhere
                # OpenMDAO currently can't create an automatic IndepVarComp for inputs on
                # distributed components.
                msg = 'Distributed component input "{}" requires an IndepVarComp.'
                raise RuntimeError(msg.format(tgt))

            elif has_src_inds:  # local with non-distrib src_indices
                src_idx_found.append(tgt)

            else:  # duplicated variable with no src_indices.  Overrides any other conn sizing.
                return tgt, abs2meta[tgt]['size'], abs2meta[tgt]['value'], False

        if src_idx_found:  # auto_ivc connected to local vars with src_indices
            tgts = ', '.join(src_idx_found)
            msg = 'The following inputs [{}] are defined using src_indices but the total source '
            msg += 'size is undetermined.  Please add an IndepVarComp as the source.'
            raise RuntimeError(msg.format(tgts))

        # return max sized tgt, size, value
        return sorted(info, key=lambda x: x[1])[-1]

    def _setup_auto_ivcs(self, mode):
        from openmdao.core.indepvarcomp import _AutoIndepVarComp

        if self.comm.size > 1 and self._mpi_proc_allocator.parallel:
            raise RuntimeError("The top level system must not be a ParallelGroup.")

        # create the IndepVarComp that will contain all auto-ivc outputs
        self._auto_ivc = auto_ivc = _AutoIndepVarComp()
        auto_ivc.name = '_auto_ivc'
        auto_ivc.pathname = auto_ivc.name

        # NOTE: remote_vars does NOT include distributed inputs.
        # NOTE: some distributed inputs do not have src_indices yet
        remote_vars = self._problem_meta['remote_vars']

        prom2auto = {}
        count = 0
        auto2tgt = defaultdict(list)
        abs2prom = self._var_allprocs_abs2prom['input']
        abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta
        all_abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        conns = self._problem_meta['connections']
        auto_tgts = [n for n in self._var_allprocs_abs_names['input'] if n not in conns]
        for tgt in auto_tgts:
            prom = abs2prom[tgt]
            if prom in prom2auto:
                # multiple connected inputs w/o a src. Connect them to the same IVC
                src = prom2auto[prom][0]
                conns[tgt] = src
            else:
                src = f"_auto_ivc.v{count}"
                count += 1
                prom2auto[prom] = (src, tgt)
                conns[tgt] = src

            auto2tgt[src].append(tgt)

        myrank = self.comm.rank
        with multi_proc_exception_check(self.comm):
            for src, tgts in auto2tgt.items():
                tgt, sz, val, remote = self._get_auto_ivc_out_val(tgts, remote_vars, all_abs2meta,
                                                                  abs2meta)
                prom = abs2prom[tgt]
                if prom not in self._group_inputs:
                    self._group_inputs[prom] = [{'use_tgt': tgt}]
                else:
                    self._group_inputs[prom][0]['use_tgt'] = tgt
                gmeta = self._group_inputs[prom][0]

                if 'units' in gmeta:
                    units = gmeta['units']
                else:
                    units = all_abs2meta[tgt]['units']
                if not remote and 'value' in gmeta:
                    val = gmeta['value']
                auto_ivc.add_output(src.rsplit('.', 1)[-1], val=val, units=units)
                if remote:
                    auto_ivc._add_remote(src)

        # have to sort to keep vars in sync because we may be doing bcasts
        for abs_in in sorted(self._var_allprocs_discrete['input']):
            if abs_in not in conns:  # unconnected, so connect the input to an _auto_ivc output
                prom = abs2prom[abs_in]
                val = _UNDEFINED

                if prom in prom2auto:
                    # multiple connected inputs w/o a src. Connect them to the same IVC
                    # check if they have different metadata, and if they do, there must be
                    # a group input defined that sets the default, else it's an error
                    conns[abs_in] = prom2auto[prom][0]
                else:
                    ivc_name = f"_auto_ivc.v{count}"
                    loc_out_name = ivc_name.rsplit('.', 1)[-1]
                    count += 1
                    prom2auto[prom] = (ivc_name, abs_in)
                    conns[abs_in] = ivc_name

                    if abs_in in self._var_abs2prom['input']:  # var is local
                        val = self._var_discrete['input'][abs_in]['value']
                    else:
                        val = None
                    if abs_in in remote_vars:
                        if remote_vars[abs_in] == self.comm.rank:
                            self.comm.bcast(val, root=remote_vars[abs_in])
                        else:
                            val = self.comm.bcast(None, root=remote_vars[abs_in])
                    auto_ivc.add_discrete_output(loc_out_name, val=val)

        if not prom2auto:
            return auto_ivc

        auto_ivc._setup_procs(auto_ivc.pathname, self.comm, mode, self._problem_meta)
        auto_ivc._configure()
        auto_ivc._configure_check()
        auto_ivc._setup_var_data()

        # now update our own data structures based on the new auto_ivc component variables
        self._loc_subsys_map[auto_ivc.name] = auto_ivc
        self._subsystems_allprocs = [auto_ivc] + self._subsystems_allprocs
        self._subsystems_myproc = [auto_ivc] + self._subsystems_myproc
        self._subsystems_proc_range = [(0, self.comm.size)] + self._subsystems_proc_range
        self._subsystems_inds = {s.name: i for i, s in enumerate(self._subsystems_allprocs)}
        for typ in ('input', 'output'):
            self._var_abs_names[typ] = auto_ivc._var_abs_names[typ] + self._var_abs_names[typ]
            self._var_allprocs_abs_names[typ] = (auto_ivc._var_allprocs_abs_names[typ] +
                                                 self._var_allprocs_abs_names[typ])
            old = self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list[typ]
            p2abs = OrderedDict()
            for name in auto_ivc._var_allprocs_abs_names[typ]:
                p2abs[name] = [name]
            p2abs.update(old)
            self._var_allprocs_prom2abs_list[typ] = p2abs

            # auto_ivc never promotes anything
            self._var_abs2prom[typ].update({n: n for n in auto_ivc._var_abs2prom[typ]})
            self._var_allprocs_abs2prom[typ].update({n: n for n in
                                                     auto_ivc._var_allprocs_abs2prom[typ]})

            self._var_allprocs_abs_names_discrete[typ] = (
                auto_ivc._var_allprocs_abs_names_discrete[typ] +
                self._var_allprocs_abs_names_discrete[typ])
            self._var_abs_names_discrete[typ] = (auto_ivc._var_abs_names_discrete[typ] +
                                                 self._var_abs_names_discrete[typ])
            self._var_discrete[typ].update({'_auto_ivc.' + k: v for k, v in
                                            auto_ivc._var_discrete[typ].items()})
            self._var_allprocs_discrete[typ].update(auto_ivc._var_allprocs_discrete[typ])

        self._var_abs2meta.update(auto_ivc._var_abs2meta)
        self._var_allprocs_abs2meta.update(auto_ivc._var_allprocs_abs2meta)

        self._approx_subjac_keys = None  # this will force re-initialization
        self._setup_procs_finished = True

        return auto_ivc

    def _resolve_ambiguous_input_meta(self):
        # This should only be called on the top level Group.

        srcconns = defaultdict(list)
        for tgt, src in self._problem_meta['connections'].items():
            if src.startswith('_auto_ivc.'):
                srcconns[src].append(tgt)

        abs2prom = self._var_allprocs_abs2prom['input']
        all_abs2meta = self._var_allprocs_abs2meta
        abs2meta = self._var_abs2meta
        all_discrete_outs = self._var_allprocs_discrete['output']
        all_discrete_ins = self._var_allprocs_discrete['input']

        for src, tgts in srcconns.items():
            if len(tgts) < 2:
                continue
            if src not in all_discrete_outs:
                smeta = abs2meta[src] if src in abs2meta else all_abs2meta[src]
                sunits = smeta['units'] if 'units' in smeta else None

            sval = self.get_val(src, kind='output', get_remote=True, from_src=False)
            errs = set()
            metadata = set()

            prom = abs2prom[tgts[0]]
            if prom not in self._group_inputs:
                self._group_inputs[prom] = [{}]

            gmeta = self._group_inputs[prom][0]

            for tgt in tgts:
                tval = self.get_val(tgt, kind='input', get_remote=True, from_src=False)

                if tgt in all_discrete_ins:
                    if 'value' not in gmeta and sval != tval:
                        errs.add('val')
                        metadata.add('value')
                else:
                    tmeta = abs2meta[tgt] if tgt in abs2meta else all_abs2meta[tgt]
                    tunits = tmeta['units'] if 'units' in tmeta else None
                    if 'units' not in gmeta and sunits != tunits:
                        errs.add('units')
                        metadata.add('units')
                    if 'value' not in gmeta:
                        if tval.shape == sval.shape:
                            if _has_val_mismatch(tunits, tval, sunits, sval):
                                errs.add('val')
                                metadata.add('value')
                        else:
                            if all_abs2meta[tgt]['has_src_indices'] and tgt in abs2meta:
                                srcpart = sval[abs2meta[tgt]['src_indices']]
                                if _has_val_mismatch(tunits, tval, sunits, srcpart):
                                    errs.add('val')
                                    metadata.add('value')

            if errs:
                self._show_ambiguity_msg(prom, errs, tgts, metadata)
            elif src not in all_discrete_outs:
                gmeta['units'] = sunits

    def _show_ambiguity_msg(self, prom, metavars, tgts, metadata=None):
        errs = sorted(metavars)
        if metadata is None:
            meta = errs
        else:
            meta = sorted(metadata)
        inputs = sorted(tgts)
        gpath = common_subpath(tgts)
        if gpath == self.pathname:
            g = self
        else:
            g = self._get_subsystem(gpath)
        gprom = None

        # get promoted name relative to g
        if MPI is not None and self.comm.size > 1:
            if g is not None and not g._is_local:
                g = None
            if self.comm.allreduce(int(g is not None)) < self.comm.size:
                # some procs have remote g
                if g is not None:
                    gprom = g._var_allprocs_abs2prom['input'][inputs[0]]
                proms = self.comm.allgather(gprom)
                for p in proms:
                    if p is not None:
                        gprom = p
                        break
        if gprom is None:
            gprom = g._var_allprocs_abs2prom['input'][inputs[0]]

        gname = f"Group named '{gpath}'" if gpath else 'model'
        args = ', '.join([f'{n}=?' for n in errs])
        conditional_error(f"{self.msginfo}: The following inputs, {inputs}, promoted "
                          f"to '{prom}', are connected but their metadata entries {meta}"
                          f" differ. Call <group>.set_input_defaults('{gprom}', {args}), "
                          f"where <group> is the {gname} to remove the ambiguity.")