[Catalog] Fix locking issues + identify problem in MappingValue

[Tishj]

The test this adds is skipped because it's not entirely fixed by this PR.

The issues fixed by this PR were found through the test, but there is a bigger underlying problem that needs more thought.

To summarize the issues fixed by this PR:
When we read from a catalog, we need to grab the CatalogSet's catalog_lock, even when we already have the Catalog's write_lock.

The issue that isn't fixed is that DeleteMapping is too eager, it deletes mappings too eagerly, I think we need a refcount similar to what we do for EntryValue<->EntryIndex so we can be aware that there are other transactions that make use of the mapping.

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The issue highlighted by the added test is that sometimes this could result in a crash.
When we grab a reference to a CatalogEntry and that entry is subsequently deleted after we release the lock, we're holding random memory.

* thread #23, stop reason = EXC_BAD_ACCESS (code=1, address=0x40)
    frame #0: 0x0000000102bceba8 libduckdb.dylib`duckdb::Binder::Bind(this=0x0000000118f5f9e8, stmt=<unavailable>) at bind_simple.cpp:23:26 [opt]
   20           auto entry = Catalog::GetEntry(context, stmt.info->GetCatalogType(), stmt.info->catalog, stmt.info->schema,
   21                                          stmt.info->name, stmt.info->if_not_found);
   22           if (entry) {
-> 23                   auto &catalog = entry->ParentCatalog();
   24                   if (!entry->temporary) {
   25                           // we can only alter temporary tables/views in read-only mode
   26                           properties.modified_databases.insert(catalog.GetName());

When I comment out the DeleteMapping call I can not reproduce this crash

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I've also tried taking out the DeleteMapping and moving it into CommitState::CommitEntry so it only happens when the transaction is successful, but that still didn't fix it.

[Tishj]

@Mytherin this should be fine to merge, I would like your thoughts on the CatalogEntry getting deleted after it was looked up in Binder::Binder(AlterStatement &)

Just saw my local CI failed on an unrelated error though?
https://github.com/Tishj/duckdb/actions/runs/6698175808/job/18204504822

CMake Error at CMakeLists.txt:607 (add_dependencies):
Error:   The dependency target "postgres_scanner_extension" of target
  "duckdb_local_extension_repo" does not exist.
Call Stack (most recent call first):
  CMakeLists.txt:1080 (add_extension_dependencies)

[carlopi]

duckdb_local_extension_repo has been solved by: #9496, now merged, so that it's not a problem

(I am referring to Tishj's last comment, overall issue I have no idea of)

[Mytherin]

Thanks!