Semanticate

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 			<p>Some writers assume that Epictetus was manumitted by his master, but I can find no evidence for this statement. Epaphroditus accompanied Nero when he fled from Rome before his enemies, and he aided the miserable tyrant in killing himself. Domitian (Suetonius, <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Domitian</i> 14) afterwards put Epaphroditus to death for this service to Nero. We may conclude that Epictetus in some way obtained his freedom, and that he began to teach at Rome; but after the expulsion of the philosophers from Rome by Domitian, 89 <abbr epub:type="se:era">AD</abbr>, he retired to Nicopolis in Epirus, a city built by Augustus to commemorate the victory at Actium. Epictetus opened a school or lecture room at Nicopolis, where he taught till he was an old man. The time of his death is unknown. Epictetus was never married, as we learn from Lucian (<i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Life of the Philosopher Demonax</i>, note by Tiberius Hemsterhusius). When Epictetus was finding fault with Demonax and advising him to take a wife and beget children, for this also, as Epictetus said, was a philosopher’s duty, to leave in place of himself another in the Universe, Denionax refuted the doctrine by answering, Give me then, Epictetus, one of your own daughters. Simplicius says (<i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Commentary on Epictetus’s Enchiridion</i>, chapter 46, page 432, Schweighäuser edition) that Epictetus lived alone a long time. At last he took a woman into his house as a nurse for a child, which one of Epictetus’ friends was going to expose on account of his poverty, but Epictetus took the child and brought it up.</p>
 			<p>Epictetus wrote nothing, and all that we have under his name was written by an affectionate pupil, Arrian, afterwards the historian of Alexander the Great, who, as he tells us, took down in writing the philosopher’s discourses (the <a href="preface.xhtml">Epistle of Arrian to Lucius Gellius</a>). These discourses formed eight books, but only four are extant under the title of <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπικτήτου διατριβαί</i>. Simplicius in his commentary on the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book" xml:lang="grc">Ἐγχειρίδιον</i> or Manual, states that this work also was put together by Arrian, who selected from the discourses of Epictetus what he considered to be most useful, and most necessary, and most adapted to move men’s minds. Simplicius also says that the contents of the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Encheiridion</i> are found nearly altogether and in the same words in various parts of the Discourses. Arrian also wrote a work on the life and death of Epictetus. The events of the philosopher’s studious life were probably not many nor remarkable; but we should have been glad if this work had been preserved, which told, as Simplicius says, what kind of man Epictetus was.</p>
 			<p>Photius (<i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Bibliotheca</i> 58) mentions among Arrian’s works <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Conversations with Epictetus</i>, <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book" xml:lang="grc">Ὁμιλίαι Ἐπικτήτου</i> in twelve books, Upton thinks that this work is only another name for the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Discourses</i>, and that Photius has made the mistake of taking the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Conversations</i> to be a different work from the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Discourses</i>. Yet Photius has enumerated eight books of the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Discourses</i> and twelve books of the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Conversations</i>, Schweighäuser observes that Photius had not seen these works of Arrian on Epictetus, for so he concludes from the brief notice of these works by Photius. The fact is that Photius does not say that he had read these books, as he generally does when he is speaking of the books, which he enumerates in his <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Bibliotheca</i>. The conclusion is that we are not certain that there was a work of Arrian, entitled the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Conversations of Epictetus</i>.</p>
-			<p>The <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Discourses of Epictetus</i> with the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Encheiridion</i> and fragments were translated into English by the learned lady <abbr>Mrs.</abbr> Elizabeth Carter; who is said to have lived to the age of eighty-nine. The fourth edition (1807) contains the translator’s last additions and alterations. There is an Introduction to this translation which contains a summary view of the Stoic philosophy for the purpose of explaining Epictetus; and also there are notes to the translation. The editor of this fourth edition says that “the Introduction and notes of the Christian translator of Epictetus are, in the estimation of most readers, not the least valuable parts of the work,” and he adds “this was also the opinion of the late Archbishop Seeker, who though he thought very highly of the philosophy of Epictetus, considered the Introduction and notes as admirably calculated to prevent any mistake concerning it, as well as to amend and instruct the world.” The Introduction is certainly useful, though it is not free from errors. I do not think that the notes are valuable. I have used some of them without any remarks; and I have used others and made some remarks on them where I thought that <abbr>Mrs.</abbr> Carter was mistaken in her opinion of the original text, or on other matters.</p>
-			<p>The translation of <abbr>Mrs.</abbr> Carter is good, and perhaps no Englishman at that time would have made a better translation. I intended at first to revise <abbr>Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s translation, and to correct any errors that I might discover. I had revised about half of it, when I found that I was not satisfied with my work; and I was advised by a learned friend to translate the whole myself. This was rather a great undertaking for an old man, who is now past seventy-six. I have however done the work with great care, and as well as I could. I have always compared my translation with the Latin version and with <abbr>Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s; and I think that this is the best way of avoiding errors such as any translator may make. A man who has not attempted to translate a Greek or Latin author does not know the difficulty of the undertaking. That which may appear plain when he reads, often becomes very difficult when he tries to express it in another language. It is true that Epictetus is generally intelligible; but the style or manner of the author, or we may say of Arrian, who attempted to produce what he heard, is sometimes made obscure by the continual use of questions and answers to them, and for other reasons.</p>
+			<p>The <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Discourses of Epictetus</i> with the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Encheiridion</i> and fragments were translated into English by the learned lady <abbr epub:type="z3998:name-title">Mrs.</abbr> Elizabeth Carter; who is said to have lived to the age of eighty-nine. The fourth edition (1807) contains the translator’s last additions and alterations. There is an Introduction to this translation which contains a summary view of the Stoic philosophy for the purpose of explaining Epictetus; and also there are notes to the translation. The editor of this fourth edition says that “the Introduction and notes of the Christian translator of Epictetus are, in the estimation of most readers, not the least valuable parts of the work,” and he adds “this was also the opinion of the late Archbishop Seeker, who though he thought very highly of the philosophy of Epictetus, considered the Introduction and notes as admirably calculated to prevent any mistake concerning it, as well as to amend and instruct the world.” The Introduction is certainly useful, though it is not free from errors. I do not think that the notes are valuable. I have used some of them without any remarks; and I have used others and made some remarks on them where I thought that <abbr epub:type="z3998:name-title">Mrs.</abbr> Carter was mistaken in her opinion of the original text, or on other matters.</p>
+			<p>The translation of <abbr epub:type="z3998:name-title">Mrs.</abbr> Carter is good, and perhaps no Englishman at that time would have made a better translation. I intended at first to revise <abbr epub:type="z3998:name-title">Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s translation, and to correct any errors that I might discover. I had revised about half of it, when I found that I was not satisfied with my work; and I was advised by a learned friend to translate the whole myself. This was rather a great undertaking for an old man, who is now past seventy-six. I have however done the work with great care, and as well as I could. I have always compared my translation with the Latin version and with <abbr epub:type="z3998:name-title">Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s; and I think that this is the best way of avoiding errors such as any translator may make. A man who has not attempted to translate a Greek or Latin author does not know the difficulty of the undertaking. That which may appear plain when he reads, often becomes very difficult when he tries to express it in another language. It is true that Epictetus is generally intelligible; but the style or manner of the author, or we may say of Arrian, who attempted to produce what he heard, is sometimes made obscure by the continual use of questions and answers to them, and for other reasons.</p>
 			<p>Upton remarks in a note on <a href="book-3.xhtml#chapter-3-23">book <span epub:type="z3998:roman">III</span>, chapter 23</a>, that “there are many passages in these dissertations which are ambiguous or rather confused on account of the small questions, and because the matter is not expanded by oratorical copiousness, not to mention other causes.” The discourses of Epictetus, it is supposed, were spoken extempore, and so one thing after another would come into the thoughts of the speaker (Wolf). Schweighaeuser also observes in a note (volume 2, page 336 of his edition) that the connection of the discourse is sometimes obscure through the omission of some words which are necessary to indicate the connection of the thoughts. The reader then will find that he cannot always understand Epictetus, if he does not read him very carefully, and some passages more than once. He must also think and reflect, or he will miss the meaning. I do not say that the book is worth all this trouble. Every man must judge for himself. But I should not have translated the book, if I had not thought it worth study; and I think that all books of this kind require careful reading, if they are worth reading at all.</p>
-			<p>The text of Epictetus is sometimes corrupted, and this corruption causes a few difficulties. However, these difficulties are not numerous enough to cause or to admit much variety or diversity in the translations of the text. This remark will explain why many parts of my translation are the same or nearly the same as <abbr>Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s. When this happened, I did not think it necessary to alter my translation in order that it might not be the same as hers. I made my translation first, and then compared it with <abbr>Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s and the Latin version. I hope that I have not made many blunders. I do not suppose that I have made none.</p>
+			<p>The text of Epictetus is sometimes corrupted, and this corruption causes a few difficulties. However, these difficulties are not numerous enough to cause or to admit much variety or diversity in the translations of the text. This remark will explain why many parts of my translation are the same or nearly the same as <abbr epub:type="z3998:name-title">Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s. When this happened, I did not think it necessary to alter my translation in order that it might not be the same as hers. I made my translation first, and then compared it with <abbr epub:type="z3998:name-title">Mrs.</abbr> Carter’s and the Latin version. I hope that I have not made many blunders. I do not suppose that I have made none.</p>
 			<p>The last and best edition of the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Discourses</i>, the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Encheiridion</i>, and the fragments is by Johann Johann Schweighäuser in 6 volums octavo. This edition contains the commentary of Simplicius on the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Encheiridion</i>, and two volumes of useful notes on the <i epub:type="se:name.publication.book">Discourses</i>. These notes are selected from those of Wolf, Upton, and a few from other commentators; but a large part are by Schweighäuser himself, who was an excellent scholar and a very sensible man. I have read all these notes, and I have used them. Many of the notes to the translation are my own.</p>
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