Merge pull request #238 from TitusNemeth/gh-pages

Further rewriting of the Writing Styles section

index.html

@@ -378,17 +378,17 @@ <h4>Writing Styles</h4>
 <p>Kūfī is best understood as an umbrella term containing numerous variants, including widely diverging styles such as ornamental Kūfī, square Kūfī, and the so-called Eastern Kūfī, making the term highly ambiguous. The earliest forms of Kūfī are attested from the 7th century CE, making it one of the oldest Arabic writing styles. The Kūfī style that gained prominence in the production of Qur’ān manuscripts from the 7th century CE, also known as ‘Abbassīd style, is characterized by angular forms, with pronounced emphasis of horizontal strokes, very small or closed counter shapes, and uniformity of spacing.</p>
 </dd>
 
-<dt>Maghribi (مغربي)</dt>
+<dt>Maghribī (مغربي)</dt>
 
 <dd class="flexContainer">
 <figure class="floatedFigure" id="fig_maghribi_style">
 <img style="width: 170px; height: 177px;" src="images/maghribi2.jpg" alt=
 "Maghribi script">
-<figcaption>Maghribi example [<a href=
+<figcaption>Maghribī example [<a href=
 "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maghribi_script_sura_5.jpg">Source</a>].</figcaption>
 </figure>
 
-<p>The Maghribi (western) style probably evolved from the ‘Abbassīd style when Islamic conquests advanced through North Africa and into the Iberian peninsula in the 8th century CE. It maintained some structural characteristics from the ‘Abbassīd style and evolved further into a distinct regional hand. Used for writing the Korʼan as well as other scientific, legal and religious
+<p>Like Kūfī, the denomination Maghribī (western) is a generic name that encompasses numerous variants. This class of styles probably evolved from the ‘Abbassīd style when Islamic conquests advanced through North Africa and into the Iberian peninsula in the 8th century CE. It maintained some structural characteristics from the ‘Abbassīd style and evolved further into a distinct regional hand. Used for writing the Qur’ān as well as other scientific, legal and religious
 manuscripts. <em>Rabat</em>, a <em><a href="#def_mabsut">mabsut</a></em> version of it, is widely used in some official printings in Morocco.</p>
 </dd>
 
@@ -402,10 +402,7 @@ <h4>Writing Styles</h4>
 "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basmalah-1wm.png">Source</a>].</figcaption>
 </figure>
 
-<p>(The third.) Recognizable by the fact that the letters and words are highly
-interleaved in its complex form. May be the most difficult style to write (requiring a
-significant amount of skill), both in terms of its letters and in terms of its
-structure and composition.</p>
+<p><em>Thuluth</em> is one of the first rounded styles and can be traced back to the late 10th century. Its name probably refers to the width of the pen, which was a third of the pen used for the ancient <em>Ṭūmār</em> style. Canonised as one of the six pens, over time <em>Thuluth</em> acquired preeminence in the Islamic calligraphic arts. It was mainly used for large, decorative applications such as titles, chapters headers, or monumental inscriptions.</p>
 </dd>
 
 <dt>Naskh (نسخ)</dt>
@@ -418,10 +415,7 @@ <h4>Writing Styles</h4>
 "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FirstSurahKoran_%28fragment%29.jpg">Source</a>].</figcaption>
 </figure>
 
-<p>One of the clearest styles of all, with clearly distinguished letters which
-facilitate reading and pronunciation. Can be written at small sizes (traditionally
-using pens made of reeds and ink), which suits the production of longer texts used for
-boards and books intended for the general population, especially the Korʼan.</p>
+<p><em>Naskh</em> means ‘copying’, and it is the bookhand par excellence of the Arabic manuscript tradition. It emerged at the end of the 10th century, and developed into distinct regional schools from the 13th century. Over time Naskh became the predominant writing style for continuous text and superseded most earlier styles. When typography was adopted in the Arabic script world, <em>Naskh</em> formed the basis for most types intended for continuous reading.</p>
 </dd>
 
 <dt>Taʻlīq (تعليق)</dt>
@@ -433,9 +427,7 @@ <h4>Writing Styles</h4>
 "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ta'liq_script_1.jpg/389px-Ta'liq_script_1.jpg">Source</a>].</figcaption>
 </figure>
 
-<p><em>Taʻlīq</em> (hanging) is a beautiful script characterized by the precision and
-stretch of its letters, its clarity, and its lack of complexity. Designed for Persian
-language, until replaced by <em>Nastaʻlīq</em>.</p>
+<p><em>Taʻlīq</em> (hanging) is a Persian chancery style. It probably emerged from the older <em>tawqī‘</em> and its definitive form was established by the 13th century. As the name indicates, and owing to the pronounced inclination, it gives the impression of being suspended from above.</p>
 </dd>
 
 <dt>Nastaʻlīq (نستعلیق)</dt>
@@ -448,10 +440,7 @@ <h4>Writing Styles</h4>
 "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Khatt-e_Nastaliq.jpg">Source</a>].</figcaption>
 </figure>
 
-<p>Persian version of <em>Taʻlīq</em>, derived from <em>Naskh</em> and <em>Taʻlīq</em>
-and developed in the 8th and 9th centuries. It is like a <em>Taʻlīq</em> but easier to
-write and read. <em>Shekasteh Nastaʻlīq</em> (literally means "broken Nastaʻlīq") is
-also another derivation of those two, developed in the 15th century.</p>
+<p>The name <em>nastaʻlīq</em> combines <em>naskh</em> and <em>taʻlīq</em>, which may indicate the two influences of this style. <em>Nastaʻlīq</em> became the archetypal writing style of the Persianate world, and attained its definitive form by the late 14th century, although earlier forms are attested. Like taʻlīq it gives a ‘hanging’ impression, and is marked by smooth, flowing curves. Although not widely used for continuous text, nastaʻlīq also found some use for short texts in Arabic.</p>
 </dd>
 
 <dt>Dīwānī (ديواني)</dt>
@@ -465,9 +454,7 @@ <h4>Writing Styles</h4>
 "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Izzet_44.png">Source</a>].</figcaption>
 </figure>
 
-<p>Used by the Ottoman court (<em>Diwan</em>) to write official documents. Some
-variations of it are still in use today (e.g. hand written documents by some religious
-officials).</p>
+<p><em>Dīwānī</em> was used at the Ottoman court (Dīwān) for official documents, making it a typical chancery script. It developed from the Persian <em>taʻlīq</em> and found use from the late 15th century. Its considerable complexity was intended to preclude forgeries of official documents.</p>
 </dd>
 
 
@@ -481,7 +468,7 @@ <h4>Writing Styles</h4>
 "https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87:Ruq_ah.gif">Source</a>].</figcaption>
 </figure>
 
-<p>A handwritten style still commonly used in Arabic countries, and recognisable by its bold-like letters written above the writing line. Designed to be used for education, for everyday writing and adopted in the offices (<em>Diwan</em>) of the Ottoman Empire. One of it's feature is that calligraphers have kept it and did not derived variations from it.</p>
+<p>The <em>Ruq’ah</em> style evolved from <em>Dīwānī</em> in the 18th century as a fast chancery hand in the Ottoman Empire. It should not be confused with the older <em>Riqā‘</em> that is wholly different. <em>Ruq’ah</em> is still commonly used in the region of the fertile crescent as the preferred hand for everyday use. Its compact proportions give it a dark appearance, and its origins as a small, fast hand lend the shapes a graphic simplicity when enlarged, a feature that makes it popular in contemporary lettering. </p>
 </dd>
 </dl>
 </section>