Operating Systems

Table of Contents

1. Hardware Basics
2. Concepts
3. Multitasking
4. Multitasking Problems
5. Synchronization Objects
- Flag
- Signal
- Event
- Semaphore
- Mutex
- Condition
- Queue
- Mailbox
6. Interrupt Handling
7. Memory Management
8. Best practices
9. References

1. Hardware Basics

2. Concepts

2.1. Features of operating systems

offers a structural approach to develop complex applications (Chapter 2)
offers a scheduler to allocate CPU time to different tasks (Chapter 3)
offers a set of services for intertask communication (Chapter 4, 5)
manages how I/O devices communicate with the application (Chapter 6)
manages how the memory is organized and how it is allocated (Chapter 7)

2.2. Classification of operating systems

The are several differentiation criteria used to classify the operating system. If we take the access to the CPU in cosideration, then the operating systems is be classified as …

A single-task OS that allows a single task to use the CPU
A multi-tasking OS that allows the execution of multiple tasks on a single CPU

Further operating systems might be further differentiated based on the number of users such as …

A single-user OS allows only a single user to use the OS
A multi-user OS allows multiple users to use the OS

And finally based on their use case, the operating systems might be divided in the following categories …

General-purpose OS that ensures the execution of all tasks without blocking (fairness)
Real-time OS that ensures the execution of high priority tasks within a strict time limit (deterministic)

2.3. Layers in an operating system

2.3.1. HAL

Many operating systems such as Linux or Windows are written in such a way that they work without knowledge of the underlying hardware. This is achieved by separating the interface from its implementation. The OS will only use the interface. Depending on the usecase either the OS developer or the hardware producer is responsible to implement the low level code accessed by the HAL API. These might be register mappings, low level drivers, etc.

2.3.2. Kernel

The kernel is the main component of the operating system. It is responsible for the allocation and partition of the sytem memory, the scheduling and switching of the tasks and provides objects and services for taks synchronization and communication. In many cases the kernel also provides device drivers to access common hardware such as memory, UART,

2.3.3. Middleware

The middleware provides some additional features to the operating system, which are very common but not strictly required for the OS to work. These might include networking services, file system and graphics libraries. The middleware can be easily extended by the user providing own interfaces and libraries.

2.3.4. OSAL

The OSAL (OS Abstraction Layer) is considered to be part of the middleware. It allows the users to write applications, which might be ported to other operating systems by separating the interface and the concrete implementation of common kernel services, such as semaphors, mutexes and others. In the UNIX world it is also named POSIX.

2.4. Real-time operating systems

Embedded systems are electronic devices with a microprocessor and usually serve a very specific purpose. Such systems for example are the electronic control unit (ECU) of the car, smart TV, etc.

Embedded systems often use a real-time operating system, which execute critical code within strict time constraints. If the constraints are not met then this would be considered a failure. This systems have the advantage to be predictable (deterministic). This can be especially important in measurement and control, where a small delay can be a safety hazard.

Some time-critical systems are for example the steam turbine control, which require a reaction time in the order of 50 ms, airbag systems with reaction time between 15 ms and 30 ms and autonomous driving with reaction times less than 20 ms.

3. Multitasking

3.1. Task Concept

A task is typically an infinite loop which never terminates. It is a self-contained program which runs as if it had the microprocessor all to itself. Depending on the operating system a task can be understood as a thread or a process. Threads are tasks that share the same address space, while processes have their own address space.

3.2. Task States

The minimum set of states in typical task state model consists of the following states:

Running (takes control of the CPU);
Ready (ready to be executed);
Waiting (blocked until an event occurs ).

The following graphic shows several examples of popular operating systems to illustrate the common and specific tasks states.

3.3. Task Scheduling

Schedulers determine which task to be executed at a given point of time and differ mainly in the way they choose the running task from a list of tasks in the READY state.

The scheduler is one of the core features of the OS kernel. Technically it is a program which is exectuted periodically. The frequency of the scheduler execution depends on the the system tick and determines how quick a task would be run if it becomes ready.

The process of choosing the next task to be run is called a scheduling algorithm. The following illustration gives the most common terms used in the evaluation of scheduling algorithms.

Parameter	Description
Arrival Time (AT)	The point of time in which the task is marked as READY.
Completition Time (CT)	The point of time in which the task completed its execution.
Wait Time (WT)	The amount of time the process stays in the READY queue.
Burst Time (BT)	The amount of time in which the task is in the RUNNING state.
Turnaround Time (TAT)	The total time required by the process, the sum of the wait and burst time.
Priority	The process priority.

3.3.1. Round-Robin Scheduling

With round-robin scheduling each task gets a certain amount of time or time slices to use the CPU. After the predefined amount of time passes the scheduler deactivates the running task and activates the next task that is in the READY state. This ensures that each task gets some CPU time.

No starvation effect as all tasks are executed
Best reponse in terms of average reponse time accross all tasks
Low slicing time reudces CPU efficiency due to frequent context switching
Worser control of the timing of critical tasks

3.3.2. Priority Scheduling

With priority scheduling the tasks are executed in order of their assigned priority. Usually lower numbers mean higher priority and thus will be executed more often.

Good for systems with variable time and resource requirements
Precise control of the timing of critical tasks
Starvation effect possible for intensive high priority tasks
Starvation can be mitigated with the aging technique or by adding small delays

3.3.3. First Come First Served Scheduling

With this type of algorithm tasks are executed in order of their arrival. It is the easiest and simplest CPU scheduling algorithm.

Simple implementation
Starvation effect possible if a tasks takes a long time to execute
Higher average wait time compared to other scheduling algorithms

3.3.4. Shortest Job First Scheduling

With SJF tasks with shorter execution time have higher priority when scheduled for execution. This scheduling is mainly used to minimize the waiting time.

Starvation effect possible
Best average waiting time
Needs an estimation of the burst time

3.4. Task Switching

A typical task consists of following parts:

Task Code
Task Variables
Task Stack
Task Control Block (TCB)

The task stack is used as a temorary storage for local variables and some register values before the switching process. The TCB is a data structure assigned to a task when it is created and contains status information about the task. The operating system determines how to efficiently distribute the task state between the task stack and the TCB during the switching process.

Some operating systems allow tasks to be interrupted by other more important tasks. This is called a preemptive context switching and is the dominant mechanism used in RTOS. The other type of switching is called cooperative context switching and in this case the task must explicitly release the CPU before another task can take control.

3.4.1. Multi-threaded model switching

In the multi-threading model predominatly used in RTOS, the task or context switching is simplified the change of one set of CPU register values to another set of CPU register values.

Switching algorithm

Push the CPU registers on the stack of the current task
Save the stack pointer on the TCB of the current task
Restore the stack pointer from the TCB of the new task
Load the registers and variables stored on the new task’s stack

3.4.2. Multi-process model switching

For multiprocessor systems each process has its own address space and cannot address the memory of the other processes. The context switch requires the re-configuration of a special chip called MMU (Memory Management Unit).

The MMU allows the allocation of a portion of the virtual address space. This portion is also called a memory page. The role of the MMU is to map the process address space to the address space of the physical memory by using translation tables. Additionally it protects the task from accessing resources outside its own memory space. An exception will be generated if tries to access resources outside this region.

3.5. Concurrency vs Parallelism

The process of sharing one CPU among many tasks and thus creating the illusion of parallel work is called concurrent execution. The process of running tasks on multiple processors is called parallel executuion.

4. Multitasking Problems

Tasks are a very convinient way to modularize the development process and optimize the CPU utilization using concurrency. But they also come with a price when several tasks have to exchange data. A brief summary of the most common synchronization problems is given below.

4.1. The Task Dependency Problem

The first and most important problem arising when using several tasks to implement a software product is how to control the program flow of a task in case it depends on the state of another tasks, and how to ensure that the data exchanged between the tasks is consistent.

The simplest and fastest way to solve the dependency problem is to dedicate a special region and declared it common for all the tasks using it. This technique is called the shared memory model. It is very convinient for threads, as they have a shared address space by definition.

The shared memory can represent an output device, or a counter to be modified by every task, or a buffer used to store messages exchanged by the tasks. The advantage of the shared memory model is its simplicity and speed, but has the disadvantage of being very difficult to be analyzed formally.

For distributed or multi-processor systems the the message passing model might be better suited. It avoids shared states and uses messages messages to synchronize the tasks execution and to exchange data. Each task will have its local representation of the shared resource. Using this model allows the software to be analyzed formally but at the price of reduced efficieny. This model requires more time to achieve a synchronzied state.

The message passing model is the foundation of many formal process algegras used to analyze concurrent or parallel systems such as the actor modell, pi-calculus, CSP, CCS, ACP, LOTOS, PEPA and others.

The message passing model has two modes of operation: sychronous message passing and asynchronous message passing.

The synchronous message passing will send a message and wait until the receiver responds with a message yielding the result of the operation.

The asynchronous message passing will not wait for the receiver to return the results. On the receiver side the request message will be saved in a queue and when its processing is done a result message will be stored in an output message queue.

The problems following in this chapter apply to both the shared memory and the message passing model. For simplicity the problem formulation will be based only on tasks using shared memory.

4.2. The Race Condition Problem

Very often a resource must be used by only one task in order to produce the correct result. For example if several tasks require the printer then the result will be often a random sequence of characters depending on the scheduled execution of the tasks.

A similar example can be given with a shared variable instead of a printer. Let’s assume that a task must write a value to a counter variable, which will be shared among several tasks. This variable might be used to count how many symbols were sent to the printer totally and when a certain threshold is reached it will prevent all tasks from printing until the device is serviced. As in the printer scenario, a task might actually produce an invalid value depending on the execution scheduling of the tasks.

The counter is supposed to be incremented 3 times but due to task interleaving the final value is incorrect. The main problem appears to be that several operations are needed to increment the value of the counter and the scheduler is not aware of this. This is a very common problem and the reason why race conditions occur. In the example above the operations are needed to update the value of the counter are read, modify and write.

Another possible context for race conditions is the check-then-act scenario. In the example below the second task will be terminated by an exception as Task B will try to remove an element from the global list, which was already removed by task A in the previous cycle.

4.2.1. Solution with critical section

The first option to avoid race conditions is to ensure that only one task has the shared resource during its usage. The operations which need to executed without interruption are called critical section. Experienced programmes are familiar with several implementations of the critical section such as semaphores or mutexes. The disadvantage of this approach is the impact on the performance as the critical section can be used only by one task.

4.2.2. Solution with state separation

A second option to solve the race conditions would be to refactor the code to use a local resource instead of a shared one. This technique is also called state separation. In this case object oriented programming is very useful as objects can store local data. This will avoid the critical section and this increase the program efficiency.

4.2.3. Solution with message passing

The third option would be to use the message passing technique to avoid race conditions. For example an object might broadcast its state on an event and other objects might act accordingly. Blockchains for example use this technique to distribute work and update the results on the corresponding nodes.

4.2.4. Example

The number Pi might be approximated using random numbers. The more numbers are generated the better the approximation will be. The formula for the approximation is pi = 4 * (i / n), where i is the number of point in the circle with radius 1 and n the total number of points generated.

Solution with shared counters

The first solution to this problem using tasks is to distribute the counter generation accross several tasks and use critical sections to protect the shared variables i and n. This solution is simple but has the disadvantage of reduced performance and in this particular problem it might be even worser than a single threaded solution.

Solution with state separation

A second options would be to change the calculation model. When we look at the formula we see that pi can be split without relying on a shared state. The formula can be changed to pi = 4 * (i1 + … + ik) / (n1 + … + nk). This means that we can create k threads and sum their respective values for i and n to calculate the value of pi. Thread 1 will generate i1 and n1, thread 2 will generate i2 and n2 and so on. When all threads are ready executing the value of pi will be calculated with the new formula above.

Solution with message passing

Her the calculation will be distrubuted among several processors. They might be on the same machine or physically separated. The initiator will send a message to the processors to start the calculation. When a processor finishes its work it will send a message to all the participants to update their counters and that it ended its operations. When all the processors sent messages that indicate end of operation, then the initiator will take the result from the last processor. There are several protocls, which are very suitable for message passing concurrency such as MQTT. A notable framework using this protocl is RabbitMQ.

4.3. The Mutual Exclusion Problem

In the previous section it was mentioned that there are special synchronization objects that define a critical section to solve the race condition problem. The implementation of the critical section, which requires exclusive access to a shared resources is called a mutual exclusion algorithm.

By definition mutual exclusion guarantees that one thread never enters a critical section while another thread is using it. The requirement of mutual exclusion to solve race conditions on shared data was first defined by Dijsktra. He is also the first one to propose a solution called a semaphore.

First the process will enter the non-critical section. At a certain point of time the process will need to access the shared resource and it will call a acquire a semaphore, which will try to claim the exclusive rights.

If the exclusivity can be guaranteed then the process continues to the critical section, where it performs operations on the shared resource. After this the process must leave the critical section and release the resource. In practice it is desirable to implement the critical section to execute as fast as possible.

If the semaphore protecting the critical section cannot be claimed then the process will wait until it is released. Critical sections always implement some kind of busy-waiting technique to ensure that the process will be granted the control after another process releases the semaphore.

4.3.1. Mutual exclusion with interrupt masking

The simplest solution of the mutual exclusion problem is to disable all interupts for the duration of the critical section. This can be only applied on single processor systems and has the disadvantage of introducing non-determinism in the form of clock jittering, which can be a serious issue for real-time operating systems.

4.3.2. Mutual exclusion with atomic instructions

The next best implementation is based on the busy-waiting combined with special atomic processor instructions. These instructions cannot be interrupted and usually require one processor cycle to be executed. This is a hardware based implementation and depends on the operating system.

4.3.3. Mutual exclusion with dedicated algorithms

There are also abstract software algorithms solving the mutual exclusion problem, which also use the busy-waiting technique. The follwing algorithms are recommended for further reading:

Dekker’s Algorithm (shared memory)
Peterson’s Algorithm (shared memory)
Lamport’s Bakery Algorithm (shared memory)
Szymanski’s Algorithm (shared memory)
Lambort’s Distributed (message passing)
Maekawa’s Algorithm (message passing)
Raymond’s Algorithm (message passing)
Morris’s Algorithm (message passing)

Synchronization primitives are tightly coupled with the underlying hardware and not every solution might be appropriate. Developers will typically use the optimized solutions provided by the operating system.

4.4. The Deadlock Problem

After solving the problem with race conditions and mutual exclusion, another problem might arise when using synchroinziation objects such as mutexes or semaphores. In some special instances when multiple tasks lock multiple shared resources and form a lock loop waiting for each. In real life these problems are often know as the chicken or the egg problem.

The illustration below demonstrates a typical deadlock scenario. We have an elevator, which for simplicity can be used only with two buttons. To start the elevator a person must first press the desired direction and then stop the elevator by pressing the opposite direction.

Let’s suppose the two person enter the elevator at the same time and behave selfishly. The person called Branko will press the up button to start the elevator. Mitko wants to go in the opposite direction and being selfish presses the down button. Neither of them will release a button, because they both think they have the highest personal importance. In this scenario the elevator will not move and both will wait forever. In a deadlock scenario two processes wait indefinitely for a resource to be released.

Deadlocks require very specific conditions to be met. These conditions are also called Coffman conditions:

Mutual exclusion:

At least one process holds a resource using a mutual exclusion algorithm
to blocks other processes from using it.

Hold and wait:

A process is holding a resource and waiting for a resource from another
process.

No preemption:

The mutual exclusion can be released only by its owner and cannot be
preempted.

Circular wait:

Each process must be waiting for a resource being held by another process.

4.4.1. Solution with deadlock prevention

One way to solve the deadlock scenario is to break one of the Coffman conditions. To illustrate this let’s suppose that Branko, Mitko or both are friendlier and one of them will give up after a certain amount of time. This is the equivalent of breaking hold and wait (2) from the Coffman conditions.

As a programming practice the process of giving up after a certain amount of time is called a timeout. It is usually recommended always to use timeouts if the operatings system supports it.

A second solution is to put rules how to use the buttons and each person is obliged to follow these rules. One solution is to say that the up button is with higher priority. Whoever presses the up button first will also press the down button. This scenario breaks the circular wait (4) condition. It is also a form of a resource hierarchy protocol.

A third solution would be an intermediate person to operate the elevator. For simplicity it will service the persons based on their arrival time. If in the example Branko arrives first and then Mitko, then the operator will first go to the floor required by Branko and then sevice Mitko. The elevator operator is formally known as the arbitrator. It also breaks the circular wait condition (4).

Every solution breaking one or more of the Coffman conditions is called a deadlock prevention algorithm. There is also a solid fundamental research on this topic using a more generalized example called the dining philosophers problem.

In the example above the forks are the shared resource and the plate in front of the philisophers is the critical section. The philosophers can either think or eat. Edger Dijkstra, William Stallings and Chandy and Misra proposed effective solutions based on either resource hierarchy or message passing.

4.4.2. Solutuion with deadlock avoidance

Another way eliminate a deadlock is to ensure that resources are allocated in such a way that a deadlock cannot occur. In this case the operating system must continuously monitor the current system state and determine whether with the next resource allocation a deadlock is imminent. This process is called deadlock detection and avoidance.

Notable tools here are the Resource Allocation Graph (RAG) and Banker’s algorithm. The disadvantage of this solutions is that the process must communicate its resource requirements in advance. The Abassi RTOS offers this kind of protection.

TODO: Detailed description, graphics, examples

4.4.3. Solution with deadlock recovery

The third option is to allow deadlocks, detect them and implement a recovery strategy. This process is called deadlock detection and recovery. The most common detection algrorithms are the Wait-For-Graph and the Safety Algorithm. The deadlock recovery can be optimistic where one or more resource will be preempted and allocated to other processes or pessimistic where the OS will terminate one or in the worst case all tasks.

TODO: Detailed description, graphics, examples

4.5. The Starvation Problem

Starvation is a problem encountered in concurrent computing where a process is perpetually denied necessary resources to process its work. The priority scheduling is a typical scenario where this situation might occur. It involves one or more high priority tasks which run frequently and hinder other low priority to run. The difference between starvation and deadlock is that starvation usually means gaining control after a long time but not indefinite.

4.5.1. Solution with minimal delay

The solution to the starvation problem is pretty straightforward. For one a a minimal delay in the high priority tasks will allow other tasks to regain control sooner.

It is not always possible to apply this solutuon especially in high priority tasks as this might lead to a loss of critical events or cause the task to operate outside the time constraints.

4.5.2. Solution with task aging

Another solution is to use the so called task aging technique. The OS queues all tasks requiring access to the resource. The longer the tasks stays in the queue the higher its priority will become until it takes control.

4.5.3. Solution with event buffering

A recommended technique to avoid starvation is to run the high priority task on events and place the events in a buffer. When the event buffer is full then the task will copy the contents, do some calculates and empty the buffer. This way the calls to the task might be reduced significantly.

The event capture and the processing take each one cycles. In the picture above the low priority tasks is starved until there are no high priority events to be processed. The event buffering allows the low priority tasks to be run without adding much delay from the time of capturing an event to its processing. In the example above a medium priority processing task is run on every 3 captured events.

4.6. The Priority Inversion Problem

Priority inversion is a scenario in scheduling in which a high priority task is indirectly superseeded by a lower priority task effectively inverting the assigned priorities. The illustration below exemplifies a typical situation with priority inversion.

A Low Priority Task (LP Task) owns a resource
A High Prioriy Task (HP Task) waits for the resource taken the the LP task
A Medium Priority Task (MP Task) becomes ready and preempts the LP Task.
The MP Task completes execution.
The LP Task resumes
The LP Task finishes using the resouce and releases the semaphore
The HP Task acquires the semaphore and resumes
The HP Task completes execution

In this scenario two types of priority inversions are observed. One is the so called bound inversion which is caused by the lower priority task holding the resource for the time of the execution of the critical section. The next problem, the unbound inversion is much more serious and might lead to a completely non-deterministic behavior of the system. It happens when a lower priority task is holding a resource required by a high priority task. The lower priority task can be preempted by other medium priority tasks for an indefinite time.

4.6.1. Priority inheritance

There are several solutions of the problems described above. For example some operating systems implement the priority inheritance technique.

A Low Priority Task (LP Task) acquires a resource
A High Prioriy Task (HP Task) waits for the resource from the LP task
A Medium Priority Task (MP Task) becomes ready
The priority of the LP task is elevated to that of the HP task
The LP Task is temporary with higher priority and resumes
The LP Task finishes using the resource and release the mutex
The LP Taks has its original priority restored
The HP Task acquires the resource and resumes
The HP Task finishes using the resource and releases the mutex
The MP Task is scheduled for execution

4.6.2. Priority ceiling

Another solution is the priority ceiling protocol. It is very similar to the priority inheritance, but instead of boosting the priority to that of the requesting tasks, it sets the priority to the maximum of all tasks which will have access to the resource. This solution is not always easy to implement, as it requires knowledge a priori about all the tasks using the shared resource.

TODO: Add graphic to demonstrate the priority ceiling protocol

4.6. Classical Synchronization Problems

4.6.1. The Dining Philosophers Problem

The dining philosopher’s problem is the classical problem of synchronization which says that five philosophers are sitting around a circular table and their job is to think and eat alternatively.

A bowl of noodles is placed at the center of the table along with five chopsticks for each of the philosophers. A philosopher can only eat if both left and right chopsticks of the philosopher are available. The chopsticks are randomly picked.

4.6.2. The Producer-Consumer Problem

In the starvation problem it was mentioned that a buffer might be used to store high priority events in a buffer and then call a lower priority task to process them. Depending on the capacity of the buffer we have two distinct problem definitions: unbounded buffer and bounded buffer.

4.6.3. The Reader-Writer Problem

The reader-writer problem is an optimization problem solving multiple access to a shared resource. The participants may be readers or writers.

4.6.4. The Sleeping Barber Problem

A barbershop consists of a waiting room with n chairs, and the barber room containing the barber chair. If there are no customers to be served, the barber goes to sleep. If a customer enters the barbershop and all chairs are occupied, then the customer leaves the shop. If the barber is busy, but chairs are available, then the customer sits in one of the free chairs. If the barber is asleep, the customer wakes up the barber. Write a program to coordinate the barber and the customers.

Keywords: classical, fifo, hilzer

4.6.5. The Cigarette Smokers Problem

Four threads are involved: an agent and three smokers. The smokers loop forever, first waiting for ingredients, then making and smoking cigarettes. The ingredients are tobacco, paper, and matches.

We assume that the agent has an infinite supply of all three ingredients, and each smoker has an infinite supply of one of the ingredients; that is, one smoker has matches, another has paper, and the third has tobacco.

The agent repeatedly chooses two different ingredients at random and makes them available to the smokers. Depending on which ingredients are chosen, the smoker with the complementary ingredient should pick up both resources and proceed.

For example, if the agent puts out tobacco and paper, the smoker with the matches should pick up both ingredients, make a cigarette, and then signal the agent.

To explain the premise, the agent represents an operating system that allocates resources, and the smokers represent applications that need resources. The problem is to make sure that if resources are available that would allow one more applications to proceed, those applications should be woken up. we want to avoid waking an application if it cannot proceed.

4.7. Other Theoretical Problems

4.7.1. The Dining Savages Problem

A tribe of savages eats communal dinners from a large pot that can hold M servings of stewed missionary1. When a savage wants to eat, he helps himself from the pot, unless it is empty. If the pot is empty, the savage wakes up the cook and then waits until the cook has refilled the pot.

4.7.2. The Santa Claus Problem

Stand Claus sleeps in his shop at the North Pole and can only be awakened by either (1) all nine reindeer being back from their vacation in the South Pacific, or (2) some of the elves having difficulty making toys; to allow Santa to get some sleep, the elves can only wake him when three of them have problems. When three elves are having their problems solved, any other elves wishing to visit Santa must wait for those elves to return. If Santa wakes up to find three elves waiting at his shop’s door, along with the last reindeer having come back from the tropics, Santa has decided that the elves can wait until after Christmas, because it is more important to get his sleigh ready. (It is assumed that the reindeer do not want to leave the tropics, and therefore they stay there until the last possible moment.) The last reindeer to arrive must get Santa while the others wait in a warming hut before being harnessed to the sleigh. Here are some addition specifications:

After the ninth reindeer arrives, Santa must invoke prepareSleigh, and then all nine reindeer must invoke getHitched.
After the third elf arrives, Santa must invoke helpElves. Concurrently, all three elves should invoke getHelp.
All three elves must invoke getHelp before any additional elves enter (increment the elf counter)

4.7.3. The Building H2O Problem

There are two kinds of threads, oxygen and hydrogen. In order to assemble these threads into water molecules, we have to create a barrier that makes each thread wait until a complete molecule is ready to proceed.

As each thread passes the barrier, it should invoke bond. You must guarantee that all the threads from one molecule invoke bond before any of the threads from the next molecule do. In other words:

If an oxygen thread arrives at the barrier when no hydrogen threads are present, it has to wait for two hydrogen threads.
If a hydrogen thread arrives at the barrier when no other threads are present, it has to wait for an oxygen thread and another hydrogen thread.

We don’t have to worry about matching the threads up explicitly; that is, the threads do not necessarily know which other threads they are paired up with. The key is just that threads pass the barrier in complete sets; thus, if we examine the sequence of threads that invoke bond and divide them into groups of three, each group should contain one oxygen and two hydrogen threads.

4.7.4. The River Crossing Problem

Somewhere near Redmond, Washington there is a rowboat that is used by both Linux hackers and Microsoft employees (serfs) to cross a river. The ferry can hold exactly four people; it won’t leave the shore with more or fewer. To guarantee the safety of the passengers, it is not permissible to put one hacker in the boat with three serfs, or to put one serf with three hackers. Any other combination is safe.

As each thread boards the boat it should invoke a function called board. You must guarantee that all four threads from each boatload invoke board before any of the threads from the next boatload do.

After all four threads have invoked board, exactly one of them should call a function named rowBoat, indicating that that thread will take the oars. It doesn’t matter which thread calls the function, as long as one does. Don’t worry about the direction of travel. Assume we are only interested in traffic going in one of the directions.

4.7.5. The Roller Coaster Problem

Suppose there are n passenger threads and a car thread. The passengers repeatedly wait to take rides in the car, which can hold C passengers, where C < n. The car can go around the tracks only when it is full. Here are some additional details:

Passengers should invoke board and unboard.
The car should invoke load, run and unload.
Passengers cannot board until the car has invoked load
The car cannot depart until C passengers have boarded.
Passengers cannot unboard until the car has invoked unload.

4.7.6. The Search-Insert-Delete Problem

Three kinds of threads share access to a singly-linked list: searchers, inserters and deleters.

Searchers merely examine the list; hence they can execute concurrently with each other.

Inserters add new items to the end of the list; insertions must be mutually exclusive to preclude two inserters from inserting new items at about the same time. However, one insert can proceed in parallel with any number of searches.

Finally, deleters remove items from anywhere in the list. At most one deleter process can access the list at a time, and deletion must also be mutually exclusive with searches and insertions.

4.7.7. The Unisex Bathroom Problem

The following synchronization constraints can be maintained: • There cannot be men and women in the bathroom at the same time. • There should never be more than three employees squandering company time in the bathroom.

4.7.8. The Baboon Crossing Problem

There is a deep canyon somewhere in Kruger National Park, South Africa, and a single rope that spans the canyon. Baboons can cross the canyon by swinging hand-over-hand on the rope, but if two baboons going in opposite directions meet in the middle, they will fight and drop to their deaths. Furthermore, the rope is only strong enough to hold 5 baboons. If there are more baboons on the rope at the same time, it will break.

Assuming that we can teach the baboons to use semaphores, we would like to design a synchronization scheme with the following properties:

Once a baboon has begun to cross, it is guaranteed to get to the other side without running into a baboon going the other way.
There are never more than 5 baboons on the rope.
A continuing stream of baboons crossing in one direction should not bar baboons going the other way indefinitely (no starvation).

4.7.9. The Modus Hall Problem

After a particularly heavy snowfall this winter, the denizens of Modus Hall created a trench-like path between their cardboard shantytown and the rest of campus. Every day some of the residents walk to and from class, food and civilization via the path; we will ignorethe indolent students who chose daily to drive to Tier 3. We will also ignore the direction in which pedestrians are traveling. For some unknown reason, students living in West Hall would occasionally find it necessary to venture to the Mods.

Unfortunately, the path is not wide enough to allow two people to walk side-by-side. If two Mods persons meet at some point on the path, one will gladly step aside into the neck high drift to accommodate the other. A similar situation will occur if two ResHall inhabitants cross paths. If a Mods heathen and a ResHall prude meet, however, a violent skirmish will ensue with the victors determined solely by strength of numbers; that is, the faction with the larger population will force the other to wait

4.7.10. The Sushi Bar Problem

Imagine a sushi bar with 5 seats. If you arrive while there is an empty seat, you can take a seat immediately. But if you arrive when all 5 seats are full, that means that all of them are dining together, and you will have to wait for the entire party to leave before you sit down.

4.7.11. The Child Care Problem

At a child care center, state regulations require that there is always one adult present for every three children.

4.7.12. The Room Party Problem

The following synchronization constraints apply to students and the Dean of Students:

Any number of students can be in a room at the same time.
The Dean of Students can only enter a room if there are no students in the room (to conduct a search) or if there are more than 50 students in the room (to break up the party).
While the Dean of Students is in the room, no additional students may enter, but students may leave.
The Dean of Students may not leave the room until all students have left.
There is only one Dean of Students, so you do not have to enforce exclusion among multiple deans.

4.7.13. The Senate Bus Problem

Riders come to a bus stop and wait for a bus. When the bus arrives, all the waiting riders invoke boardBus, but anyone who arrives while the bus is boarding has to wait for the next bus. The capacity of the bus is 50 people; if there are more than 50 people waiting, some will have to wait for the next bus. When all the waiting riders have boarded, the bus can invoke depart. If the bus arrives when there are no riders, it should depart immediately.

4.7.14. The Faneuil Hall Problem

There are three kinds of threads: immigrants, spectators, and a one judge. Immigrants must wait in line, check in, and then sit down. At some point, the judge enters the building. When the judge is in the building, no one may enter, and the immigrants may not leave. Spectators may leave. Once all immigrants check in, the judge can confirm the naturalization. After the confirmation, the immigrants pick up their certificates of U.S. Citizenship. The judge leaves at some point after the confirmation. Spectators may now enter as before. After immigrants get their certificates, they may leave.

4.7.15. The Dining Hall Problem

Students in the dining hall invoke dine and then leave. After invoking dine and before invoking leave a student is considered “ready to leave”. The synchronization constraint that applies to students is that, in order to maintain the illusion of social suave, a student may never sit at a table alone. A student is considered to be sitting alone if everyone else who has invoked dine invokes leave before she has finished dine.

4.7.16. The ABA Problem

In multithreaded computing, the ABA problem occurs during synchronization, when a location is read twice, has the same value for both reads, and "value is the same" is used to indicate "nothing has changed". However, another thread can execute between the two reads and change the value, do other work, then change the value back, thus fooling the first thread into thinking "nothing has changed" even though the second thread did work that violates that assumption.

5. Synchronization Objects

Flag

Signal

Event

Flags, signal or events are used to control the program flow and do not define critical sections. They represent just a simple way of intertask synchronizing the tasks program flow.

Semaphore

Semaphore is an integer variable which is used as a signaling mechanism to allow a process to access the critical section of the code or certain other resources. A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each acquire() call and incremented by each release() call. The counter of the semaphore can never go below zero and when acquire() finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other task calls release().

The semaphores are typically acquired by the priority ordering of the tasks. Upon releasing the semaphore the kernel determines the highest priority task waiting for the semaphore and passes it to the task. If the task releasing the semaphore is of higher priority than the task waiting for the semaphore, then the releasing task continues executing with its non-critical section. Otherwise the releasing task is preempted and the kernel switches to the waiting task.

Often semaphores are categorized by the value of the integer variable in the semaphore. Binary semaphores are used to access a single resource, while counting semaphroes stores the number of free instances of a said resource and blocks until an instance becomes available.

Mutex

A mutex or the mutual exclusion service is a special type of locking mechanism which is based on the binary semaphore. Instead of using the priority of the task the mutex will queue the order of the access to the mutex object. The first to request the mutex will also gain it independent of its priority.

It also implements an algorithm called priority inheritance to solve a common problem of semaphores called priority inversion.

Condition

Condition variables will usually wait until something is true and then gain exclusive access to a shared resource. It can be tought as a combination of a flag and a mutex object. It is usually used to synchronize access to a shared queue and thus solving the reader-writer problem.

Queue

Queues are message buffers
Queues accept messages of different lengths.
The message size must be passed as a parameter along with the message.
Tasks can send and retrieve messages to/from the queue
If the queue is empty the reading task be blocked for a specified amount of time or until a message arrives.
When a message arrives the kernel notifies the waiting task and the scheduler determines if a task switching must be done, according to the priority of the running task and the task waiting for a message

Mailbox

A mailbox is a message buffer managed by the RTOS.
The messages have fixed data size and are usually small.
Mailboxes work as FIFO (first in, first out)
Tasks can send and retrieve messages to/from the mailbox
If the mailbox is empty the reading task be blocked for a specified amount of time or until a message arrives.
When a message arrives the kernel notifies the waiting task and the scheduler determines if a task switching must be done, according to the priority of the running task and the task waiting for a message

6. Interrupt Handling

7. Memory Management

8. Best practices

Each task is to be considered an application of its own
Initialize shared resources before task creation
Separate system diagnostics and fault detection into a separate task
Use RTOS to monitor task health
Evaluate potential system failures and recovery strategies
Use design patterns to improve maintenance and development

Optimization of functions (3 parameters, 4 bytes)
Semaphore is a check, Mutex blocks

The main() function will not be interrupted by any of the created tasks because those tasks execute only following the call to OS_Start(). It is therefore usually recommended to create all or most of your tasks here, as well as your control structures such as mailboxes and semaphores. Good practice is to write software in the form of modules which are (up to a point) reusable. These modules usually have an initialization routine, which creates any required task(s) and control structures. A typical main() function looks similar to the following example:

void main(void) {

  // Initialize embOS (must be first)
  OS_Init();

  // Initialize hardware for embOS (in RTOSInit.c)
  OS_InitHW();

  // Call Init routines of all program modules which in turn will create
  // the tasks they need ... (Order of creation may be important)
  MODULE1_Init();
  MODULE2_Init();
  MODULE3_Init();
  MODULE4_Init();
  MODULE5_Init();

  // Start multitasking
  OS_Start();
}

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