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Books by James D. Watson:


  1. Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science

    Download

  2. DNA: The Secret of Life

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  3. The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA

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  4. A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society

    Download

  5. Dictionary of Media and Communication Studies

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  6. Recombinant DNA

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Books by Enrico Fermi:


  1. Elementary Particles

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  2. Thermodynamics

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  3. Collected Papers: (Note E Memorie)

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  4. Nuclear Physics

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  5. Molecules, Crystals, and Quantum Statistics

    Download


31 of the Best Biology Books of All Time:



List of Nobel Laureates

Year Physics Chemistry Physiology
or Medicine
Literature Peace Economics

(The Sveriges Riksbank Prize)

1901 Wilhelm Röntgen Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff Emil Adolf von Behring Sully Prudhomme Henry Dunant;
Frédéric Passy
1902 Hendrik Lorentz;
Pieter Zeeman
Hermann Emil Fischer Ronald Ross Theodor Mommsen Élie Ducommun;
Charles Albert Gobat
1903 Henri Becquerel;
Pierre Curie;
Marie Curie
Svante Arrhenius Niels Ryberg Finsen Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson Randal Cremer
1904 Lord Rayleigh William Ramsay Ivan Pavlov Frédéric Mistral;
José Echegaray
Institut de Droit International
1905 Philipp Lenard Adolf von Baeyer Robert Koch Henryk Sienkiewicz Bertha von Suttner
1906 J. J. Thomson Henri Moissan Camillo Golgi;
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Giosuè Carducci Theodore Roosevelt
1907 Albert Abraham Michelson Eduard Buchner Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran Rudyard Kipling Ernesto Teodoro Moneta;
Louis Renault
1908 Gabriel Lippmann Ernest Rutherford Élie Metchnikoff;
Paul Ehrlich
Rudolf Christoph Eucken Klas Pontus Arnoldson;
Fredrik Bajer
1909 Karl Ferdinand Braun;
Guglielmo Marconi
Wilhelm Ostwald Emil Theodor Kocher Selma Lagerlöf Auguste Marie François Beernaert;
Paul-Henri-Benjamin d'Estournelles de Constant
1910 Johannes Diderik van der Waals Otto Wallach Albrecht Kossel Paul Heyse International Peace Bureau
1911 Wilhelm Wien Marie Skłodowska-Curie Allvar Gullstrand Maurice Maeterlinck Tobias Asser;
Alfred Hermann Fried
1912 Gustaf Dalén Victor Grignard;
Paul Sabatier
Alexis Carrel Gerhart Hauptmann Elihu Root
1913 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Alfred Werner Charles Richet Rabindranath Tagore Henri La Fontaine
1914 Max von Laue Theodore William Richards Robert Bárány
1915 William Henry Bragg;
William Lawrence Bragg
Richard Willstätter Romain Rolland
1916 Verner von Heidenstam
1917 Charles Glover Barkla Karl Adolph Gjellerup;
Henrik Pontoppidan
International Committee of the Red Cross
1918 Max Planck Fritz Haber
1919 Johannes Stark Jules Bordet Carl Spitteler Woodrow Wilson
1920 Charles Édouard Guillaume Walther Nernst August Krogh Knut Hamsun Léon Bourgeois
1921 Albert Einstein Frederick Soddy Anatole France Hjalmar Branting;
Christian Lous Lange
1922 Niels Bohr Francis William Aston Archibald Hill;
Otto Fritz Meyerhof
Jacinto Benavente Fridtjof Nansen
1923 Robert Andrews Millikan Fritz Pregl Frederick Banting;
John James Rickard Macleod
W. B. Yeats
1924 Manne Siegbahn Willem Einthoven Władysław Reymont
1925 James Franck;
Gustav Ludwig Hertz
Richard Adolf Zsigmondy George Bernard Shaw Austen Chamberlain;
Charles G. Dawes
1926 Jean Baptiste Perrin Theodor Svedberg Johannes Fibiger Grazia Deledda Aristide Briand;
Gustav Stresemann
1927 Arthur Compton;
Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
Heinrich Otto Wieland Julius Wagner-Jauregg Henri Bergson Ferdinand Buisson;
Ludwig Quidde
1928 Owen Willans Richardson Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus Charles Nicolle Sigrid Undset
1929 Louis de Broglie Arthur Harden;
Hans von Euler-Chelpin
Christiaan Eijkman;
Frederick Gowland Hopkins
Thomas Mann Frank B. Kellogg
1930 C. V. Raman Hans Fischer Karl Landsteiner Sinclair Lewis Nathan Söderblom
1931 Carl Bosch;
Friedrich Bergius
Otto Heinrich Warburg Erik Axel Karlfeldt Jane Addams;
Nicholas Murray Butler
1932 Werner Heisenberg Irving Langmuir Charles Scott Sherrington;
Edgar Adrian
John Galsworthy
1933 Erwin Schrödinger;
Paul Dirac
Thomas Hunt Morgan Ivan Bunin Norman Angell
1934 Harold Urey George Whipple;
George Minot;
William P. Murphy
Luigi Pirandello Arthur Henderson
1935 James Chadwick Frédéric Joliot-Curie;
Irène Joliot-Curie
Hans Spemann Carl von Ossietzky
1936 Victor Francis Hess;
Carl David Anderson
Peter Debye Henry Hallett Dale;
Otto Loewi
Eugene O'Neill Carlos Saavedra Lamas
1937 Clinton Davisson;
George Paget Thomson
Norman Haworth;
Paul Karrer
Albert Szent-Györgyi Roger Martin du Gard The Viscount Cecil of Chelwood
1938 Enrico Fermi Richard Kuhn Corneille Heymans Pearl S. Buck Nansen International Office For Refugees
1939 Ernest Lawrence Adolf Butenandt;
Leopold Ružička
Gerhard Domagk Frans Eemil Sillanpää
1940 Cancelled due to World War II
1941
1942
1943 Otto Stern George de Hevesy Henrik Dam;
Edward Adelbert Doisy
1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi Otto Hahn Joseph Erlanger;
Herbert Spencer Gasser
Johannes Vilhelm Jensen International Committee of the Red Cross
1945 Wolfgang Pauli Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Alexander Fleming;
Ernst Boris Chain;
Howard Florey
Gabriela Mistral Cordell Hull
1946 Percy Williams Bridgman James B. Sumner;
John Howard Northrop;
Wendell Meredith Stanley
Hermann Joseph Muller Hermann Hesse Emily Greene Balch;
John Mott
1947 Edward Victor Appleton Robert Robinson Carl Ferdinand Cori;
Gerty Cori;
Bernardo Houssay
André Gide Friends Service Council;
American Friends Service Committee
1948 Patrick Blackett Arne Tiselius Paul Hermann Müller T. S. Eliot

 

1949 Hideki Yukawa William Giauque Walter Rudolf Hess;
António Egas Moniz
William Faulkner John Boyd Orr
1950 C. F. Powell Otto Diels;
Kurt Alder
Philip Showalter Hench;
Edward Calvin Kendall;
Tadeus Reichstein
Bertrand Russell Ralph Bunche
1951 John Cockcroft;
Ernest Walton
Edwin McMillan;
Glenn T. Seaborg
Max Theiler Pär Lagerkvist Léon Jouhaux
1952 Felix Bloch;
Edward Mills Purcell
Archer John Porter Martin;
Richard Laurence Millington Synge
Selman Waksman François Mauriac Albert Schweitzer
1953 Frits Zernike Hermann Staudinger Hans Adolf Krebs;
Fritz Albert Lipmann
Winston Churchill George Marshall
1954 Max Born;
Walther Bothe
Linus Pauling John Franklin Enders;
Frederick Chapman Robbins;
Thomas Huckle Weller
Ernest Hemingway United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
1955 Willis Lamb;
Polykarp Kusch
Vincent du Vigneaud Hugo Theorell Halldór Laxness
1956 John Bardeen;
Walter Houser Brattain;
William Shockley
Cyril Norman Hinshelwood;
Nikolay Semyonov
André Frédéric Cournand;
Werner Forssmann;
Dickinson W. Richards
Juan Ramón Jiménez
1957 Chen Ning Yang;
Tsung-Dao Lee
The Lord Todd Daniel Bovet Albert Camus Lester B. Pearson
1958 Pavel Cherenkov;
Ilya Frank;
Igor Tamm
Frederick Sanger George Wells Beadle;
Edward Lawrie Tatum;
Joshua Lederberg
Boris Pasternak[c] Dominique Pire
1959 Emilio G. Segrè;
Owen Chamberlain
Jaroslav Heyrovský Arthur Kornberg;
Severo Ochoa
Salvatore Quasimodo Philip Noel-Baker
1960 Donald A. Glaser Willard Libby Frank Macfarlane Burnet;
Peter Medawar
Saint-John Perse Albert Lutuli
1961 Robert Hofstadter;
Rudolf Mössbauer
Melvin Calvin Georg von Békésy Ivo Andrić Dag Hammarskjöld
1962 Lev Landau Max Perutz;
John Kendrew
Francis Crick;
James D. Watson;
Maurice Wilkins
John Steinbeck Linus Pauling
1963 Eugene Wigner;
Maria Goeppert-Mayer;
J. Hans D. Jensen
Karl Ziegler;
Giulio Natta
John Eccles;
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin;
Andrew Huxley
Giorgos Seferis International Committee of the Red Cross;
League of Red Cross societies
1964 Charles Hard Townes;
Nikolay Basov;
Alexander Prokhorov
Dorothy Hodgkin Konrad Emil Bloch;
Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen
Jean-Paul Sartre[d] Martin Luther King, Jr.
1965 Sin-Itiro Tomonaga;
Julian Schwinger;
Richard Feynman
Robert Burns Woodward François Jacob;
André Michel Lwoff;
Jacques Monod
Mikhail Sholokhov United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
1966 Alfred Kastler Robert S. Mulliken Francis Peyton Rous;
Charles Brenton Huggins
Shmuel Yosef Agnon;
Nelly Sachs
1967 Hans Bethe Manfred Eigen;
Ronald George Wreyford Norrish;
George Porter
Ragnar Granit;
Haldan Keffer Hartline;
George Wald
Miguel Ángel Asturias
1968 Luis Walter Alvarez Lars Onsager Robert W. Holley;
Har Gobind Khorana;
Marshall Warren Nirenberg
Yasunari Kawabata René Cassin
1969 Murray Gell-Mann Derek Barton;
Odd Hassel
Max Delbrück;
Alfred Hershey;
Salvador Luria
Samuel Beckett International Labour Organization Ragnar Frisch;
Jan Tinbergen
1970 Hannes Alfvén;
Louis Néel
Luis Federico Leloir Julius Axelrod;
Ulf von Euler;
Bernard Katz
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Norman Borlaug Paul Samuelson
1971 Dennis Gabor Gerhard Herzberg Earl Wilbur Sutherland, Jr. Pablo Neruda Willy Brandt Simon Kuznets
1972 John Bardeen;
Leon Cooper;
John Robert Schrieffer
Christian B. Anfinsen;
Stanford Moore;
William Howard Stein
Gerald Edelman;
Rodney Robert Porter
Heinrich Böll John Hicks;
Kenneth Arrow
1973 Leo Esaki;
Ivar Giaever;
Brian David Josephson
Ernst Otto Fischer;
Geoffrey Wilkinson
Karl von Frisch;
Konrad Lorenz;
Nikolaas Tinbergen
Patrick White Henry Kissinger;
Le Duc Tho[e]
Wassily Leontief
1974 Martin Ryle;
Antony Hewish
Paul Flory Albert Claude;
Christian de Duve;
George Emil Palade
Eyvind Johnson;
Harry Martinson
Seán MacBride;
Eisaku Satō
Gunnar Myrdal;
Friedrich Hayek
1975 Aage Bohr;
Ben Roy Mottelson;
James Rainwater
John Cornforth;
Vladimir Prelog
David Baltimore;
Renato Dulbecco;
Howard Martin Temin
Eugenio Montale Andrei Sakharov Leonid Kantorovich;
Tjalling Koopmans
1976 Burton Richter;
Samuel C. C. Ting
William Lipscomb Baruch Samuel Blumberg;
Daniel Carleton Gajdusek
Saul Bellow Betty Williams;
Mairead Maguire
Milton Friedman
1977 Philip Warren Anderson;
Nevill Francis Mott;
John Hasbrouck Van Vleck
Ilya Prigogine Roger Guillemin;
Andrew Schally;
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
Vicente Aleixandre Amnesty International Bertil Ohlin;
James Meade
1978 Pyotr Kapitsa;
Arno Allan Penzias;
Robert Woodrow Wilson
Peter D. Mitchell Werner Arber;
Daniel Nathans;
Hamilton O. Smith
Isaac Bashevis Singer Anwar Sadat;
Menachem Begin
Herbert A. Simon
1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow;
Abdus Salam;
Steven Weinberg
Herbert C. Brown;
Georg Wittig
Allan McLeod Cormack;
Godfrey Hounsfield
Odysseas Elytis Mother Teresa Theodore Schultz;
Arthur Lewis
1980 James Cronin;
Val Logsdon Fitch
Paul Berg;
Walter Gilbert;
Frederick Sanger
Baruj Benacerraf;
Jean Dausset;
George Davis Snell
Czesław Miłosz Adolfo Pérez Esquivel Lawrence Klein
1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen
Arthur Leonard Schawlow
Kai Siegbahn
Kenichi Fukui
Roald Hoffmann
Roger Wolcott Sperry
David H. Hubel
Torsten Wiesel
Elias Canetti United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees James Tobin
1982 Kenneth G. Wilson Aaron Klug Sune Bergström
Bengt I. Samuelsson
John Vane
Gabriel García Márquez Alva Myrdal
Alfonso García Robles
George Stigler
1983 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
William Alfred Fowler
Henry Taube Barbara McClintock William Golding Lech Wałęsa Gérard Debreu
1984 Carlo Rubbia
Simon van der Meer
Robert Bruce Merrifield Niels Kaj Jerne
Georges J. F. Köhler
César Milstein
Jaroslav Seifert Desmond Tutu Richard Stone
1985 Klaus von Klitzing Herbert A. Hauptman
Jerome Karle
Michael Stuart Brown
Joseph L. Goldstein
Claude Simon International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War Franco Modigliani
1986 Ernst Ruska
Gerd Binnig
Heinrich Rohrer
Dudley R. Herschbach
Yuan T. Lee
John Polanyi
Stanley Cohen
Rita Levi-Montalcini
Wole Soyinka Elie Wiesel James M. Buchanan
1987 Johannes Georg Bednorz
Karl Alexander Müller
Donald J. Cram
Jean-Marie Lehn
Charles J. Pedersen
Susumu Tonegawa Joseph Brodsky Óscar Arias Robert Solow
1988 Leon M. Lederman
Melvin Schwartz
Jack Steinberger
Johann Deisenhofer
Robert Huber
Hartmut Michel
James W. Black
Gertrude B. Elion
George H. Hitchings
Naguib Mahfouz United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces Maurice Allais
1989 Norman Foster Ramsey, Jr.
Hans Georg Dehmelt
Wolfgang Paul
Sidney Altman
Thomas Cech
J. Michael Bishop
Harold E. Varmus
Camilo José Cela Tenzin Gyatso (The 14th Dalai Lama) Trygve Haavelmo
1990 Jerome Isaac Friedman
Henry Way Kendall
Richard E. Taylor
Elias James Corey Joseph Murray
E. Donnall Thomas
Octavio Paz Mikhail Gorbachev Harry Markowitz
Merton Miller
William F. Sharpe
1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes Richard R. Ernst Erwin Neher
Bert Sakmann
Nadine Gordimer Aung San Suu Kyi Ronald Coase
1992 Georges Charpak Rudolph A. Marcus Edmond H. Fischer
Edwin G. Krebs
Derek Walcott Rigoberta Menchú Gary Becker
1993 Russell Alan Hulse
Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr.
Kary Mullis
Michael Smith
Richard J. Roberts
Phillip Allen Sharp
Toni Morrison Nelson Mandela
F. W. de Klerk
Robert Fogel
Douglass North
1994 Bertram Brockhouse
Clifford Shull
George Andrew Olah Alfred G. Gilman
Martin Rodbell
Kenzaburō Ōe Yasser Arafat
Shimon Peres
Yitzhak Rabin
John Harsanyi
John Forbes Nash, Jr.
Reinhard Selten
1995 Martin Lewis Perl
Frederick Reines
Paul J. Crutzen
Mario J. Molina
Frank Sherwood Rowland
Edward B. Lewis
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
Eric F. Wieschaus
Seamus Heaney Joseph Rotblat
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
Robert Lucas, Jr.
1996 David Lee
Douglas Osheroff
Robert Coleman Richardson
Robert F. Curl Jr.
Harry Kroto
Richard Smalley
Peter C. Doherty
Rolf M. Zinkernagel
Wisława Szymborska Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo
José Ramos-Horta
James Mirrlees
William Vickrey
1997 Steven Chu
Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
William Daniel Phillips
Paul D. Boyer
John E. Walker
Jens Christian Skou
Stanley B. Prusiner Dario Fo International Campaign to Ban Landmines;
Jody Williams
Robert C. Merton
Myron Scholes
1998 Robert B. Laughlin
Horst Ludwig Störmer
Daniel C. Tsui
Walter Kohn
John Pople
Robert F. Furchgott
Louis Ignarro
Ferid Murad
José Saramago John Hume
David Trimble
Amartya Sen
1999 Gerard 't Hooft
Martinus J. G. Veltman
Ahmed Zewail Günter Blobel Günter Grass Médecins Sans Frontières Robert Mundell
2000 Zhores Alferov
Herbert Kroemer
Jack Kilby
Alan J. Heeger
Alan MacDiarmid
Hideki Shirakawa
Arvid Carlsson
Paul Greengard
Eric Kandel
Gao Xingjian Kim Dae-jung James Heckman
Daniel McFadden
2001 Eric Allin Cornell
Wolfgang Ketterle
Carl Wieman
William Standish Knowles
Ryōji Noyori
Karl Barry Sharpless
Leland H. Hartwell
Tim Hunt
Paul Nurse
V. S. Naipaul United Nations
Kofi Annan
George Akerlof
Michael Spence
Joseph Stiglitz
2002 Raymond Davis, Jr.
Masatoshi Koshiba
Riccardo Giacconi
John Fenn
Koichi Tanaka
Kurt Wüthrich
Sydney Brenner
H. Robert Horvitz
John Sulston
Imre Kertész Jimmy Carter Daniel Kahneman
Vernon L. Smith
2003 Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov
Vitaly Ginzburg
Anthony James Leggett
Peter Agre
Roderick MacKinnon
Paul Lauterbur
Peter Mansfield
J. M. Coetzee Shirin Ebadi Robert F. Engle
Clive Granger
2004 David Gross
Hugh David Politzer
Frank Wilczek
Aaron Ciechanover
Avram Hershko
Irwin Rose
Richard Axel
Linda B. Buck
Elfriede Jelinek Wangari Maathai Finn E. Kydland
Edward C. Prescott
2005 Roy J. Glauber
John L. Hall
Theodor W. Hänsch
Yves Chauvin
Robert H. Grubbs
Richard R. Schrock
Barry Marshall
Robin Warren
Harold Pinter International Atomic Energy Agency
Mohamed ElBaradei
Robert Aumann
Thomas Schelling
2006 John C. Mather
George Smoot
Roger D. Kornberg Andrew Fire
Craig Mello
Orhan Pamuk Muhammad Yunus
Grameen Bank
Edmund Phelps
2007 Albert Fert
Peter Grünberg
Gerhard Ertl Mario Capecchi
Martin Evans
Oliver Smithies
Doris Lessing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Al Gore
Leonid Hurwicz
Eric Maskin
Roger Myerson
2008 Yoichiro Nambu
Makoto Kobayashi
Toshihide Maskawa
Osamu Shimomura
Martin Chalfie
Roger Y. Tsien
Harald zur Hausen
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
Luc Montagnier
J. M. G. Le Clézio Martti Ahtisaari Paul Krugman
2009 Charles K. Kao
Willard S. Boyle
George E. Smith
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan
Thomas A. Steitz
Ada Yonath
Elizabeth Blackburn
Carol W. Greider
Jack W. Szostak
Herta Müller Barack Obama Elinor Ostrom
Oliver E. Williamson
2010 Andre Geim
Konstantin Novoselov
Richard F. Heck
Ei-ichi Negishi
Akira Suzuki
Robert G. Edwards Mario Vargas Llosa Liu Xiaobo Peter A. Diamond
Dale T. Mortensen
Christopher A. Pissarides
2011 Saul Perlmutter
Adam G. Riess
Brian Schmidt
Dan Shechtman Bruce Beutler
Jules A. Hoffmann
Ralph M. Steinman
Tomas Tranströmer Ellen Johnson Sirleaf
Leymah Gbowee
Tawakel Karman
Thomas J. Sargent
Christopher A. Sims
2012 Serge Haroche
David J. Wineland
Brian K. Kobilka
Robert J. Lefkowitz
John B. Gurdon
Shinya Yamanaka
Mo Yan European Union Alvin E. Roth
Lloyd S. Shapley
2013 François Englert
Peter W. Higgs
Martin Karplus
Michael Levitt
Arieh Warshel
James E. Rothman
Randy W. Schekman
Thomas C. Südhof
Alice Munro Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Eugene F. Fama
Lars Peter Hansen
Robert J. Shiller
2014 Isamu Akasaki
Hiroshi Amano
Shuji Nakamura
Eric Betzig
Stefan Hell
William Moerner
John O'Keefe
May-Britt Moser
Edvard Moser
Patrick Modiano Kailash Satyarthi
Malala Yousafzai
Jean Tirole
2015 Takaaki Kajita
Arthur B. McDonald
Tomas Lindahl
Paul L. Modrich
Aziz Sancar
William C. Campbell
Satoshi Ōmura
Tu Youyou
Svetlana Alexievich Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet Angus Deaton
2016[14] David J. Thouless
Duncan Haldane
John M. Kosterlitz
Jean-Pierre Sauvage
Fraser Stoddart
Ben Feringa
Yoshinori Ohsumi Bob Dylan Juan Manuel Santos Oliver Hart
Bengt R. Holmström
2017 Rainer Weiss
Barry Barish
Kip Thorne
Jacques Dubochet
Joachim Frank
Richard Henderson
Jeffrey C. Hall
Michael Rosbash
Michael W. Young
Kazuo Ishiguro International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons Richard Thaler
2018 Arthur Ashkin
Gérard Mourou
Donna Strickland
Frances H. Arnold
George P. Smith
Greg Winter
James P. Allison
Tasuku Honjo
Olga Tokarczuk Denis Mukwege
Nadia Murad
William Nordhaus
Paul Romer
2019 James Peebles
Michel Mayor
Didier Queloz
John B. Goodenough
M. Stanley Whittingham
Akira Yoshino
William Kaelin Jr.
Peter J. Ratcliffe
Gregg L. Semenza
Peter Handke Abiy Ahmed Abhijit Banerjee
Esther Duflo
Michael Kremer

Background  
By era
By culture
Natural sciences
Mathematics
Social sciences
Technology
Medicine

Planetary attributes

  Name

Equatorial
diameter

[Measured relative to Earth]

Mass

[Measured relative to Earth]

Semi-major axis (AU)

Orbital period
(years) 

[Measured relative to Earth]

Inclination
to Sun's equator
 (°)
Orbital
eccentricity
Rotation period
(days)
Confirmed
moons
Axial tilt (°) Rings Atmosphere
1. Mercury 0.382 0.06 0.39 0.24 3.38 0.206 58.64 0 0.04 no minimal
2. Venus 0.949 0.82 0.72 0.62 3.86 0.007 −243.02 0 177.36 no CO2N2
3. Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 7.25 0.017 1.00 1 23.44 no N2O2Ar
4. Mars 0.532 0.11 1.52 1.88 5.65 0.093 1.03 2 25.19 no CO2, N2, Ar
5. Jupiter 11.209 317.8 5.20 11.86 6.09 0.048 0.41 79 3.13 yes H2He
6. Saturn 9.449 95.2 9.54 29.46 5.51 0.054 0.43 82 26.73 yes H2, He
7. Uranus 4.007 14.6 19.22 84.01 6.48 0.047 −0.72 27 97.77 yes H2, He, CH4
8. Neptune 3.883 17.2 30.06 164.8 6.43 0.009 0.67 14 28.32 yes H2, He, CH4

Glossary of computer programming

abstract class

A class that cannot be directly constructed, one that can be constructed only through construction of some of its subclasses.

abstract type

A type in a nominative type system that cannot be instantiated.

actual argument

A value, or reference to a value, passed to a function.

app

An application that executes on a small, handheld device.

application

A program or integrated suite of programs that has a defined function.

argument

A value, or reference to a value, passed to a function; an actual argument.

argument

A parameter in a function definition; a formal argument.

array

An ordered sequence of same-typed values whose elements are fast to access by their numerical index in the array.

Boolean

A data type for yes or no, true or false values.

class

A set of objects having the same behavior (but typically differing in state), or a template defining such a set.

compiler

A computer program which transforms source code into object code.

constant

An identifier that is bound to an invariant value.

constructor

A class method (in object-oriented programming) that creates and initializes each instance of an object.

data type

A classification or category of various types of data, that states the possible values that can be taken, how they are stored, and what range of operations are allowed on them.

destructor

In object-oriented programming, the command sequence that is launched when the execution of an object is finished.

dump

A formatted listing of the contents of program storage, especially when produced automatically by a failing program

enumeration

A data type whose values are a set of mutually exclusive named constants.

exception

An interruption in normal processing, especially as caused by an error condition.

floating point

A method of representing real numbers as a pair of integers (the mantissa and characteristic)

flow chart

A schematic representation of the logic that defines the flow of control through a program

formal argument

A parameter in a function definition.

function

A routine that receives zero or more arguments and may return a result.

functional programming

A programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions, avoids state and mutable data, and makes it easy to construct functions as if they were data objects.

goto / go to

A statement (in source code) that transfers control unconditionally to another part of a program

heap

An area of memory reserved for dynamically allocated data objects, contrasted to the stack.

identifier

A formal name used in source code to refer to a variable, function, procedure, package, etc.

integer

A data type for integer values.

interpreter

A program which executes another program written in a programming language other than machine code.

linker / link editor

A computer program that takes one or more objects generated by compilers and assembles them into a single executable program.

logic programming

A style or paradigm of computer programming exemplified by the language Prolog.

machine code

System of instructions and data directly understandable by a computer's central processing unit.

method

In object-oriented languages, a subroutine or function belonging to a class or object.

module

A program that is linked with others to form a functioning application; one method of implementing a subroutine

object

An instance of a class.

object code

The output of a compiler or assembler, not necessarily executable directly without linking to other modules.

object-oriented

Using entities called objects that can process data and exchange messages with other objects.

paradigm

A fundamental style of computer programming to which the design of a programming language typically has to cater, such as imperative programming, declarative programming, or, on a finer level, functional programming, logic programming or object-oriented programming.

parameter

A name in a function or subroutine definition that is replaced by, or bound to, the corresponding actual argument when the function or subroutine is called.

procedure

A subroutine or function coded to perform a specific task.

program

A software application, or a collection of software applications, designed to perform a specific task.

real

a number containing a decimal point, e.g. the number pi is a real number with a value of approximately 3.14159268

run time

The time during which a program is executing, as oppose to the compile time.

source code

Human-readable instructions in a programming language, to be transformed into machine instructions by a compiler, interpreter, assembler or other such system.

stack

The portion of the computer memory used to keep track of called procedures or call instructions.

string

A data type for a sequence of characters such as letters of English alphabet.

subclass

In object-oriented programming, an object class derived from another class (its superclass) from which it inherits a base set of properties and methods.

subprogram

A program contained within a larger program.

subroutine

A section of code that implements a task. While it may be used at more than one point in a program, it need not be.

superclass

A class that passes attributes and methods down the hierarchy to subclasses.

type

A tag attached to variables and values used in determining what values may be assigned to what variables.

variable

A named memory location in which a program can store intermediate results and from which it can read them.


Selected History of Contributions to Genetics

Year Researcher Contribution/Discovery
1865 Mendel Mendelian laws
1900 Correns, DeVries, Tschermak Rediscovery of Mendelian laws
1900 Landsteiner ABO blood group system
1908 Hardy & Weinburg Hardy-Weinburg law
1910-1920 Morgan Chromosome mapping in fruit flies
1941 Beadle & Tatum One gene, one enzyme
1942 Ford Genetic polymorphism
1949 Barr & Bertram Sex chromatin
1953 Watson & Crick Structure of DNA
1961 Lyon X-chromosome inactivation
1968-1970 Linn, Arber & Smith Restriction endonucleases (RE)
1971-1975 Nathans & Smith DNA characterization with RE
1975 Southern DNA blotting
1975-1977 Sanger & Gilbert DNA sequencing
1976 Tonegawa, et al. Somatic recombination in immunoglobulin genes
1984 Bishop & Varmus Oncogenes
1984 Gitschier, Toole, et al. Cloning of Factor VIII gene
1984-1985 Mullis, Saiki, et al. Polymerase chain reaction
1989 Collins, Riordan, Tsui, et al. Isolation of cystic fibrosis gene
1990 Yamamoto, et al. Cloning of the ABO genes

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Year

Discovery

Scientist Name

1905 Photon Albert Einstein
1897 Electron J.J. Thomson
1919 Proton Ernest Rutherford
1808 Atom John Dalton
1932 Neutron James Chadwick
1687 Law of Motion Isaac Newton
1779 Coulomb Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
1827 Ohm’s Law Georg Simon Ohm
1831 Electromagnetic Induction Michael Faraday
1880 Thermionic Emission Thomas Edison
1896 Radioactivity Henri Becquerel
1898 Radium Marie Sklodowska-Curie
1900 Quantum theory Max Planck
1905 Photoelectric Effect Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
1895 X-Ray Röntgen
1905 Relativity Albert Einstein
1913 Atomic Structure Neils Bohr and Rutherford
1942 Nuclear Reactor Enrico Fermi

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"The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science." ― Albert Einstein

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