



Produced by Richard Tonsing, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net







                            =DENT'S MODERN
                           LANGUAGE SERIES.=

                 GENERAL EDITOR: WALTER RIPPMANN, M.A.

       *       *       *       *       *

    =SPECIAL NOTE=. A complete descriptive catalogue (32 pp.) of
        the books issued in this Series may be had, post free, on
        application to Messrs. J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., Bedford
        Street, London, W.C. Applicants may have re-issues of this
        List, from time to time, upon furnishing their name and
        address to the publishers.

  All books are Extra Fcap. 8vo. Cloth Bound, unless otherwise noted.

       *       *       *       *       *

                            FRENCH COURSES.

    =DENT'S FRENCH PRIMER.= By W. E. M. LLEWELLYN, B.A., B.Sc. Part
        1, Phonetic Text; Part 2, Transition Spelling. Price 8d.
        each. Designed as an introduction to Alge and Rippmann's
        First French Book.

          _Twenty-second Edition (completing 200,500 copies)._

    =DENT'S FIRST FRENCH BOOK.= By S. ALGE and WALTER RIPPMANN. Cr.
        8vo, 2s.

"We know of no better book to start French on."

                                           --_The Journal of Education._

    The early lessons of the _First French Book_ in the
    transcription of the _International Phonetic Association_ are
    issued separately at 6d. net, for teachers who prefer to begin
    with phonetic script only. For Wall Pictures to accompany the
    First French Book see French Life and Ways.

                 _Fifth Edition, Enlarged and Revised._

    =HINTS ON TEACHING FRENCH.= With a Running Commentary to
        Dent's First French Book and Second French Book. By WALTER
        RIPPMANN. 1s. 6d. net.

              _Ninth Edition (completing 45,000 copies)._

    =DENT'S SECOND FRENCH BOOK.= By S. ALGE and WALTER RIPPMANN. 2s.

                     FRENCH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION.

    =PREMIÈRE GRAMMAIRE FRANÇAISE.= By H. E. BERTHON, Taylorian
        Lecturer in French at the University of Oxford. 2s.
        [_Seventh Edition, Revised._

    =DENT'S FIRST EXERCISES IN FRENCH GRAMMAR.= By Miss F. M. S.
        BATCHELOR. 1s. 4d. [_Fourth Edition._

    =DENT'S FURTHER EXERCISES IN FRENCH GRAMMAR.= By Miss F. M. S.
        BATCHELOR. 1s. 4d. Key 2s. 6d. net.

    =OUTLINES OF FRENCH HISTORICAL GRAMMAR.= With Representative
        French Texts. By Prof. A. T. BAKER, M.A. (Camb.), Ph.D.
        (Heidelberg). 3s. 6d. net.

    =DENT'S SCHOOL GRAMMAR OF MODERN FRENCH.= With Special Sections
        dealing with the Language of the Seventeenth Century. By G.
        H. CLARKE, M.A., and C. J. MURRAY, B.A. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
        net. [_Second Edition._

    =A FRENCH VERB EXERCISE BOOK.= By Miss C. F. SHEARSON, M.A.
        Crown 4to, Wrappered, 9d. net.

    =EASY FREE COMPOSITION IN FRENCH.= By Miss L. M. BULL. 1s. 4d.
        [_Second Edition._

    =FREE COMPOSITION AND ESSAY WRITING IN FRENCH.= By A. PRATT and
        ANTOINE PHILIBERT. 1s. 4d. [_Second Edition._

                               PHONETICS.

    =FRENCH SPEECH AND SPELLING.= By S. A. RICHARDS, B.A. A First
        Guide to French Pronunciation. 8d.

    =ELEMENTS OF FRENCH PRONUNCIATION AND DICTION.= By B. DUMVILLE,
        B.A. 2s. 6d. net.

    =A FRENCH PHONETIC READER.= By S. A. RICHARDS, B.A. 1s. 6d.

    =ELEMENTS OF PHONETICS--ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN.=
        Translated and adapted by WALTER RIPPMANN, from Professor
        VIËTOR's "Kleine Phonetik." 2s. 6d. net. [_Fifth Edition,
        Revised._

    =THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH. LES SONS DU FRANÇAIS. DEUTSCHE LAUTE.=
        Three Charts, size 30 by 30 inches. Unmounted, 1s. net
        each. Mounted on Linen, 2s. 6d. net; Mounted on Linen and
        Rollers, 3s. 6d. net.

Small reproductions of each chart are sold in packets of 30,  price 1s.

    =A SET OF SOUND CHARTS.= Showing Tongue and Lip Positions.
        Designed by D. JONES, M.A. and F. RAUSCH. Per Set of 9
        Charts, 12s. 6d. net.

                         SHORT FRENCH READERS.
                     48 _pp._      4d. _each vol._

    =SECOND YEAR FRENCH READERS=--
        CONTES DE PERRAULT. Vol.  I.  YVON ET FINETTE.
          "    "     "      Vol. II.  POUCINET.
        LA MULE DU PAPE (and Other Stories).
        LES QUATORZE SAINTS.

    =THIRD YEAR FRENCH READERS=--
                    48 _pp._      4d. _per vol._
        L'ÉLÉPHANT BLANC.
        UN ÉPISODE SOUS LA TERREUR.
        DAUDET, CONTES.        LE MONDE OÙ L'ON SE BAT.
        L'AFFAIRE DES CONTREBANDIERS.
        LE TRÉSOR DU VIEUX SEIGNEUR.

    =FOURTH YEAR FRENCH READERS=--
                    64 _pp._      6d. _per vol._
        LE XIXme SIÈCLE.       LA RÉVOLUTION FRANÇAISE.
        UN MERLE BLANC.        TÉLÉMAQUE.
        LE BIENVENU (JEAN VALJEAN).

                         LONGER FRENCH READERS.

    =LES PÈLERINS DE LA TAMISE.= With Notes and Exercises by
        CHRISTINE BOYD. 1s. 6d.

    =POUR LA PATRIE ET AUTRES CONTES.= By JETTA S. WOLFF. 1s. 4d.

    =L'HOMME VERT, et Autres Contes de Fées.= By JETTA S. WOLFF.
        1s. 4d.

    =UNE JOYEUSE NICHÉE.= By Madame DE PRESSENSÉ. Edited, with
        Exercises and a Glossary, by S. ALGE. Illustrated by C. E.
        Brock. 1s. 9d. [_Third Edition_.

    =FABLES DE LA FONTAINE.= With Notes, Exercises, etc., by THOMAS
        KEEN (The High School, Glasgow). 1s. 6d.

    =LES FEUILLES D'AUTOMNE DE VICTOR HUGO.= Edited by H. C.
        NORMAN, B.A. 1s. 4d.

                          DIALOGUES AND PLAYS.

    =FABLES EN ACTION.= By VIOLET PARTINGTON. 1s.

    =TABLEAUX MOUVANTS.= By LILIAN C. PING. 1s. 4d.

    =EPISODES EN ACTION.= With a Phonetic Transcript. By J. STUART
        WALTERS. 1s. 4d.

    =L'ENTENTE CORDIALE À LA CAMPAGNE.= By CLÉMENCE SAUNOIS. 1s. 6d.

    =THREE SHORT PLAYS.= By SOUVESTRE. Edited by MARGUERITE NINET.
        1s. 6d.

        =THE BEST FRENCH PLAYS.= Edited by WALTER
            RIPPMANN, M.A. Fcap. 8vo, cloth.
        SEDAINE: LE PHILOSOPHE SANS LE SAVOIR.  3d.
        MUSSET: OU NE SAURAIT PASSE A TOUT.  3d.
        MME. DE GIRARDIN: LA JOIE FAIT PEUR.  3d.
        LABICHE: LE GRAMMAIRE.  3d.
        LABICHE ET MARTIN: LE VOYAGE DE M. PERRICHON.  3d.
        MARIVAUX: LE JEU DE L'AMOUR ET DU HASARD.  3d.

    =DENT'S LONGER FRENCH TEXTS.=
        LA BRUYERE: CARACTÈRES. Notes by H. O'GRADY. Fcap.
            8vo, cloth, 1s. 6d.
        OCTAVE FEUILLET: LE ROMAN D'UN JEUNE HOMME PAUVRE.
        PROFILS ANGLAIS: SAINTE-BEUVE. Notes by H. O'GRADY.
        DUMAS: LA TULIPE NOIRE. Notes by H. O'GRADY. Fcap.
            8vo, cloth, 2s.

                         FRENCH LIFE AND WAYS.

    =FEATURES OF FRENCH LIFE.= By F. R. ROBERT. Parts I. and II.
        1s. each volume.

    =TONY ET SA SŒUR EN FRANCE.= Récit de Voyage avec notes et
        appendices sur les gens et les choses. By J. DUHAMEL. 2s.
        6d. net.

                  _See end of Book for continuation._

                     =J. M. DENT & SONS, Limited.=

                     Dent's Modern Language Series
                    EDITED BY WALTER RIPPMANN, M.A.

                     THE SOUNDS OF SPOKEN ENGLISH

                         _All rights reserved_

[Illustration: THE ORGANS OF SPEECH.

_Plate III. in A. v. Luschka's 'Der Schlundkopf des Menschen,'
reproduced by permission of the Publishers, Messrs H. Laupp & Co.,
Tübingen._]




THE SOUNDS OF SPOKEN ENGLISH

A MANUAL OF EAR TRAINING FOR ENGLISH STUDENTS


                                  BY

                            WALTER RIPPMANN

                            [Illustration]

                    LONDON: J. M. DENT & SONS, LTD.
                       BEDFORD STREET, W.C. MCMX

  _First Edition (3000 copies), January 1906_
  _Second Edition (2500 copies), November 1907_
  _Third Edition (3000 copies), May 1909_
  _Fourth Edition (4000 copies), December 1910_

          Messrs J. M. DENT & SONS also publish the following
                         Books on Phonetics:--

                      _Extra fcap. 8vo, 1s. net_

                         SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH

                       SPOKEN, READ AND RECITED

This is a companion volume to the _Sounds of Spoken English_. It
contains a carefully graduated selection of passages in prose and
verse, transcribed with the signs of the International Phonetic
Association, and supplied with exercises. These and parallel passages
for practice are also given in ordinary type.

      The _Sounds of Spoken English_ and _Specimens_ can also be
                 obtained in one volume, price 2s. net

                    _Extra fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. net_

                         ELEMENTS OF PHONETICS

                      ENGLISH, FRENCH AND GERMAN

               Translated and Adapted by WALTER RIPPMANN
               from Professor Viëtor's "Kleine Phonetik"

                    _Extra fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. net_

                          ELEMENTS OF FRENCH
                       PRONUNCIATION AND DICTION

                         By B. DUMVILLE, B.A.

                        _Extra fcap. 8vo, 2s._

                       A PHONETIC FRENCH READER

                        By S. A. RICHARDS, B.A.

                        _Extra fcap. 8vo, 8d._

                      FRENCH SPEECH AND SPELLING

                 A First Guide to French Pronunciation

                        By S. A. RICHARDS, B.A.

                        RIPPMANN'S SOUND CHARTS

      THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH--LES SONS DU FRANÇAIS--DEUTSCHE LAUTE

    Size 30 × 30 inches. Price, Unmounted, 1s. net; Mounted on
        Linen, 2s. 6d. net, with Rollers, 3s. 6d. net

    Small reproductions of the charts, with a table of keywords: 30
        copies for 1s.

        _The alphabet of the_ International Phonetic Association
            _adopted in these books is also used in Dent's First
            English Book, First French Book, First German Book,
            First Spanish Book, First Latin Book, and other volumes
            of Dent's Modern Language Series._




NOTE


As the title of this book is ambitious, and the sub-title may not
suffice to indicate its limitations, it is well to warn the reader
that he will find no exhaustive treatment of English speech sounds.
That would have required knowledge greater than mine, and more space
than was at my disposal. The little book is an attempt to gain
fellow-workers in a field which is unduly neglected, yet full of
promise. Fascinating indeed are the problems afforded by the speech of
those around us; perplexing often, stimulating to further inquiry.

It was in teaching the pronunciation of foreign languages that I first
realised how important it is to acquire a knowledge of the sounds of
the mother tongue. Before the learner can acquire the fresh habits of
speech peculiar to the foreign language, his teacher must know clearly
what distinguishes the new sounds from those familiar in the mother
tongue, for only then can the foreign pronunciation be imparted in
a methodical way. It has been shown convincingly that it is vain to
trust altogether to imitation, however correct and clear may be the
pronunciation of the teacher.

The book may therefore be useful to the teacher of foreign languages;
but it is intended also for a larger circle. In our Training Colleges,
noted for earnest work, the importance of the spoken language has long
been felt, and much attention has been devoted to the cultivation of
the voice. My object has not been to write on voice production, though
occasional reference to the subject has been made. It has not been
my aim to say how the language ought to be spoken, to improve upon
the ordinary speech of our day, but to represent it to the best of my
ability, and to enable others to distinguish speech sounds when they
hear them. If it be desirable to improve upon our speech, its present
condition and tendencies must first be determined.

The difficulties of the undertaking have been considerable; I
confess that I have often given my impressions rather than the
well-substantiated results of observation. I am confident that
particularly those who have had no phonetic training will regard as
slipshod some of the pronunciations which I state to be usual. I
can only ask them to put aside all preconceived notions of what is
"correct," and to listen carefully to the unconstrained speech of their
friends. If they still find that the facts do not bear out what is here
stated, they will do me a service by sending me their corrections.

The learned critic who chances to take up this book may feel offended
that I should have treated phonetics in so conversational a tone,
and disappointed at finding little or nothing with which he is not
well acquainted. My endeavour has been to put things very simply,
and to make the beginner in phonetics hear for himself. It is only
a first step; but I am not without hope that some will be induced
to take a second step and a third, until the number of students is
far larger than at present. The teachers in our schools have had
scant opportunities for ear-training, and the mother tongue has sadly
suffered.

I have been much encouraged in my work by the generous help of friends;
to Prof. A. T. Baker, Mr W. Osborne Brigstocke, Principal A. Burrell,
Dr E. R. Edwards, Miss E. Fogerty, Mr W. W. Greg, Dr H. F. Heath, Dr
R. J. Lloyd, Mr R. B. McKerrow, and Prof. G. C. Moore Smith, I am much
indebted for useful and suggestive criticisms.

                                                       _WALTER RIPPMANN_

  LONDON
  _1st November_ 1905

I am glad to say that it has not been necessary to make any
far-reaching changes in the later editions. That the book has aroused
interest is evident; and if its readers have not agreed with it in
every detail, that is what I fully anticipated and even desired, for
its object was to render students more critical in their consideration
of the spoken language. To make a dogmatic pronouncement on all points
would have been misleading.

This book has now been supplemented by a volume of _Specimens of
English_, in which I have given, in the phonetic transcription, a
number of passages ranging in style from the careful and elevated to
the colloquial and familiar.

                                                                 _W. R._

  _December_ 1910.




CONTENTS


  SECT.                                                             PAGE

      INTRODUCTION                                                     1

   1. Purpose of the Book                                              1

   2. Different Ways of Approaching the Subject of
  Spoken English                                                       2

   3. Standard Speech                                                  3


      THE ORGANS OF SPEECH                                             6

   4. Breathing                                                        6

   5. Good Air                                                         7

   6. The Vocal Chords                                                 9

   7. Voice                                                           12

   8. The Velum; Nasalising                                           14

   9. The Mouth Passage; Vowel and Consonant                          16

  10. Continuants                                                     17

  11. Stops                                                           17

  12. Place of Closure or Narrowing                                   18

  13. The Epiglottis                                                  18

  14. Good Hearing                                                    19

  15. Shouting                                                        20

  16. THE REPRESENTATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS                             20

  17. The Inadequacy of the Spelling; its Causes                      21

  18. Spelling Reform                                                 23

  19. The Need of a Phonetic Alphabet                                 24

  20. The Sounds of Standard English                                  24


      THE SOUNDS CONSIDERED SEPARATELY                                28

  21. Stops                                                           28

  22. Lip Stops                                                       29

  23. The Tongue and its Parts                                        30

  24. Teeth Stops                                                     31

  25. Front and Back Stops                                            32

  26. Continuants; Lip Continuants                                    35

  27. Lip Teeth Continuants                                           36

  28. Teeth Continuants                                               37

  29. The Hushing Sounds                                              38

  30. The Hissing Sounds                                              40

  31. The Lisping Sounds                                              42

  32. The Liquids; the _r_ Sounds                                     43

  33. The _l_ Sounds                                                  46

  34. Front and Back Continuants                                      48

  35. The _h_ Sounds                                                  50

  36. Vowels                                                          53

  37. The _a_ Sounds                                                  53

  38. _a_ and _ə_                                                     55

  39. The Front Vowels, æ and ɛ                                       57

  40. _ai_ and _au_                                                   59

  41. Middle and Close _e_                                            60

  42. The _i_ Sounds                                                  61

  43. The Back Vowels; Open _o_                                       63

  44. Middle and Close _o_                                            67

  45. The _u_ Sounds                                                  68

  46. SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH                                      72

  47. Strong and Weak Forms                                           72

  48. Unstressed Lax _i_                                              74

  49. Assimilation                                                    74

  50. Simplification of Consonant Groups                              77

  51. Stress of the Word                                              80

  52. Sonority; the Syllable                                          83

  53. Stress of the Sentence; Scanning                                85

  54. Stress                                                          87

  55. Pitch                                                           88


      CONCLUSION                                                      89

  56. Importance of Ear-Training                                      89

  57. Public Speaking                                                 90

         *       *       *       *       *

  APPENDICES--

        I. Exercises                                                  93

       II. Lists of Words with Phonetic Transcription                 97

             _A_. General                                             98

             _B_. Proper Names                                       111

      III. On the Teaching of Reading                                120

       IV. Diagrams                                                  121




INTRODUCTION


=1.= That a book dealing with English pronunciation in quite a
simple way should yet be intended for English readers rather than
for foreigners may seem to require some explanation. "Have I not
been talking English all my life?" the reader may ask; "why should
I concern myself with the pronunciation of my mother tongue?" If he
is quite satisfied with the way in which he speaks, and needs no
help in teaching others to speak, then this little book is indeed
superfluous--for him; but experience has shown that there are many who
are groping about in darkness, anxious for light on the subject. It is
above all the teacher who is constantly brought face to face with some
difficulty on the part of a pupil. He realises that something is wrong
in the pronunciation of a word, but he cannot clearly tell where the
fault lies; he trusts that improvement will follow if he repeatedly
utters the word correctly pronounced and gets the pupil to say it after
him. To his distress the pupil still says the word in the old way, and
at last the teacher gives up in despair. When a foreign language is
attempted, the difficulties become even more apparent; but these we do
not propose to consider here, except in so far as they throw light on
our immediate subject, the pronunciation of English.

=2.= There are several ways of approaching the question. We may
turn our attention mainly to the requirements of the public
speaker--clergyman, actor, singer, lecturer, reciter, or politician;
this is the province of the teachers of elocution. It must be confessed
that these have rarely had a scientific training; in many cases they
base their teaching on their own experience as reciters and on what
their powers of observation have enabled them to learn from their
pupils; and they frequently hand on traditions obtained from their own
teachers, which may have nothing but old age to recommend them. It is
to be feared that the majority of those professing to teach elocution
are little better than quacks; and by no one is this more readily
acknowledged than by the few who have made an earnest study of the art
of public speaking and singing.

The physicist considers the production of sounds from another point of
view; he measures the waves of sound with delicate instruments. The
physiologist, again, studies the organs of speech in a state of health
and sickness.

From all these the phonetician derives assistance. His concern is
the spoken language generally. He seeks to ascertain how sounds are
produced, and how they are represented in writing; he traces the
changes which sounds undergo according to time and place; he attempts
to determine the standard of speech for his own time and his own
surroundings; he considers how the pronunciation is best imparted to
the young and to foreigners.

When the reader has come to the end of this little book, he will see
how complicated these problems are, and how much yet awaits solution;
he may also have acquired some interest in these problems and desire
to give his help. Such help is urgently needed; the number of serious
students is distressingly small, and real progress can only be made if
their number grows considerably.

=3.= Reference has been made to the question of =standard speech=;
it is convenient to discuss this at once, as the standard selected
naturally affects the way in which the subject of English pronunciation
is treated.

It is generally agreed that there are two principal types of English
speech: Southern English, of which Dr H. Sweet is the best known
exponent; and Northern English, which Dr R. J. Lloyd has described
in an excellent book. Southern English may be defined as the English
spoken in London. The definition will at once strike the reader as
requiring some modification--for what form of English is not spoken in
London? and the dialect (or rather set of dialects) peculiar to London
and known as "cockney" is certainly not to be set up as the standard.

The object of speech is to communicate what is in the mind of the
speaker to others; the more adequately it attains this end, the better
it is. If there is anything in the manner of speech which attracts
attention to itself (for example, "talkin'" in place of "talking," or
"'ot" for "hot"), then our attention is distracted from the subject
discussed; we say that such faulty speech "jars" upon us. The same is
true if the pronunciation is indistinct, or the voice pitched too
high, or if the speaker stammers; we then suffer from the strain of
listening, and again the object of speech, to communicate thought, is
not attained with the least amount of effort. It follows naturally from
what has been said that it is our duty towards our fellows to speak
in such a way that nothing jars on their ear, nothing strains their
attention. To retain certain peculiarities of speech which we know to
differ from general usage is nothing short of rudeness. In a great man
we may overlook it, in acknowledgment of the services he has rendered
to mankind; but we who are in a humbler position must endeavour to
render it as easy and pleasant as possible for others to follow what we
say.

We are now able to give a better definition of standard speech as
considered in this book: it is that form of spoken English which will
appear to the majority of educated Londoners as entirely free from
unusual features. This speech will be acceptable not only in London,
but throughout the south of England; there is reason to believe
that it is spreading and nowhere will it be unintelligible or even
objectionable.

It must be confessed that on some points there is uncertainty,[1] and
these will be discussed later. Language is always changing, and the
younger generation does not speak exactly as the older generation
does. The standard of to-day will no longer be the standard a hundred
years hence. Nevertheless, it is well to inquire what may be regarded
as the best speech of our own day, with a view to conforming to this
speech and teaching its use to our pupils.

The question may here be raised whether we are to rest content with
the standard speech as here defined, or should strive to improve it,
for instance by aiming at simple vowels instead of diphthongs, or by
carefully uttering consonants which are now commonly dropped. Even if
it be desirable, it may well be doubted whether it is possible, so
subtle are the changes in our pronunciation, and so unconsciously are
they performed. There is a deep-seated tendency to economy of effort,
which it would be idle to ignore.

It must always be remembered that the phonetician is primarily
concerned with the question how people actually speak; the
determination of this must needs precede any attempt to decide how
people ought to speak.

In the following pages we shall consider the organs of speech, the
various classes of sounds, and how these are produced. Then we inquire
into their combination to form words, and the combination of words
in sentences. Incidentally we notice colloquial tendencies, the
requirements of public speaking, and other topics arising naturally
from our subject.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] It might be thought that reference to a dictionary would be
sufficient to settle disputed points. However, it may be said that no
dictionary--not even the familiar Webster or the great Oxford English
dictionary, now in course of publication--can be implicitly trusted in
matters of pronunciation.




THE ORGANS OF SPEECH


=4.= For speaking we need breath.

In ordinary breathing we take about the same time to draw the breath
into the lungs as to let it out. In English speech we use only the
breath which is let out; and when we are speaking we accordingly draw
it in quickly and let it out slowly. This requires careful adjustment;
if we are not careful, our breath gives out in the middle of a
sentence. This is one of the things that jar, and must be avoided.

The more breath we can draw in (or inhale) at once, the longer we can
use it for speech as we let it out (or exhale it). It is therefore to
our advantage to grow accustomed to taking deep breaths, and thus to
increase the capacity of the lungs.

"Deep breaths" expresses exactly what is wanted. The lungs are like
two elastic bellows. We may expand them only a little; we _can_ expand
them a great deal. The student should make himself familiar with the
shape of the lungs. They occupy the chest, which is a kind of box with
elastic sides and bottom. The sides are held out by the ribs, and when
the two sets of ribs are drawn apart, the sides of the box are made
larger. The bottom of the box (called the diaphragm) is not flat, but
rounded, bulging upwards when the lungs are empty. When, however, the
diaphragm contracts so that breath is drawn into the lungs to their
full capacity, it becomes practically flat. If at the same time we
extend the ribs, then we have a considerably increased space for the
lungs. Often, however, there is the less satisfactory kind of breathing
in which the ribs are not sufficiently active. The descending diaphragm
then presses on the soft parts underneath, and this in turn leads to a
pushing forward of the abdomen.[2]

Good breathing is essential not only for the singer or the public
speaker; it is essential for every teacher and for every pupil. It
is necessary for good speech, and it is necessary for good health.
The teacher should ascertain as soon as possible whether his pupils
are breathing well; a simple test is to determine how long they can
hold their breath. They should certainly all be able to do so for
forty seconds, and should gradually learn to emit a vowel sound for
at least thirty seconds without a pause, and with uniform pitch and
volume. Breathing exercises should form a regular part of the pupils'
physical training, and the teacher should make a point of drawing
the instructor's special attention to pupils whose breathing appears
defective.

=5.= The teacher should also make sure that =the air breathed= is the
best procurable under the conditions; he must never relax in his
care that the ventilation is good. The results of recent research
have not yet been sufficiently taken to heart, and much weariness and
ill-health are still due to quite avoidable causes. It may be laid
down as an absolute necessity that there should be a pause of at least
five minutes in the winter, and at least ten in the summer between
consecutive periods of teaching, the periods themselves not exceeding
fifty minutes, even in the case of the oldest pupils of school age.
During the interval the doors and windows should be thrown wide open,
and the room flushed with fresh air. The floor should be either of hard
wood treated with "dustless oil" or of cork linoleum. The blackboard
should be wiped with a damp cloth, in order to prevent the chalk from
vitiating the air. In this way the microbes and particles of dust will
be sensibly reduced in number, and the proportion of oxygen in the air
will remain satisfactory.

The seats and desks must be of such a kind that the pupils will
naturally assume =positions favourable for good breathing.= They must
be graduated in size; the seats must have suitably curved backs; and
there must be some adjustment by which the edge of the desk will
overhang the edge of the seat when the pupils are writing, whereas
there is a clear space between them when the pupil stands. This may
be obtained either by making the desk as a whole, or the lid of
it, move forward and backward; or by making the seat movable. It
is not the place here to enter into further details with regard to
these important matters; it must suffice to remind the teacher that
unceasing perseverance is required. Gently, but firmly, he must insist
that his pupils hold themselves well; not stiffly, of course, nor
without variety of position. To sit rigidly means a great strain for
a child[3]; and it is very desirable that pupils should have frequent
opportunities of changing their posture, and especially of resting
against the back of the seat.

=6.= It will often be found that a few minutes given to =breathing
exercises= in the middle of a lesson will serve to freshen the pupils.
An excellent set of exercises is given in Dr Hulbert's _Breathing for
Voice Production_ (publ. by Novello), which teachers will do well to
read and to put into practice.[4] Many of the throat troubles of which
teachers complain are directly due to bad breathing and bad ventilation.

Singing and speaking in chorus, if heartily done by all, may be
regarded as admirable breathing exercises, apart from their use in
other respects.

A few words with regard to chorus work may be useful to the teacher.
If well carried out, it can be of great service. The individual
is encouraged to speak up well; it is often found that the class
speaking in chorus is better in pronunciation than the majority of
those composing it. When a child speaks alone, self-consciousness may
make it hesitate or prevent it from raising its voice. But the chorus
work must be guided with care and used with moderation. Nothing could
surely be more objectionable than the monotonous sing-song into which
the reading of a class is almost sure to degenerate if all or nearly
all their reading is in chorus. The teacher will guard against this
by making the pupils _feel_ what they read, and thus insisting on
expressive and therefore interesting speech.

[Illustration: This diagram represents a vertical section through the
larynx, the hinder part of which is removed, showing the narrowing
through which the breath has to pass.]

Epiglottis.

Left vocal chord.

Right vocal chord.

Cases of mouth-breathing, usually due to adenoid growths, cannot be
cured by the teacher; but it is his duty to take the earliest possible
notice of such a case, and to ensure that those in charge of the child
are warned of the danger incurred by delay in consulting a medical man.

The breath on leaving the lungs passes through the windpipe--and in
ordinary breathing there is nothing in its way. In speaking, however,
there is often something in its way: a beautiful contrivance, capable
of the most varied and delicate adjustment, and known as the =vocal
chords.= They are situated where, in a man, we see the "Adam's apple."

[Illustration: View of the vocal chords opened to their widest extent,
showing the windpipe to its bifurcation.]

The accompanying illustration will serve to explain their nature.
It will be seen that the vocal chords spring from both sides of the
windpipe. They are really rather of the nature of flexible ridges
or shallow flaps than cords. By means of muscles acting on certain
cartilages they can be brought closely or lightly together. They
consist of a soft fleshy part at one end, and a harder cartilaginous
part at the other.

The position of the vocal chords, in other words the nature of the
_glottis_ (_i.e._ the opening between the vocal chords), modifies the
breath in many ways.

When they are apart, in what we may call the rest position, the breath
passes through unhindered. When we want a particularly large supply
of breath, as in blowing, we keep them still more apart. When we wish
to "hold our breath," we close them firmly. When we wish to "clear our
throat," we press them together and then let the breath come out in
jerks; if this is done violently and (as a rule) unintentionally, a
cough is produced; sometimes we do it slightly before the opening vowel
of a word spoken emphatically (this is commonly the case in German, and
is known as the "glottal stop").

We may also close only the fleshy ends, and leave the cartilaginous
ends open; then we speak in a whisper.

=7.= If we neither leave the vocal chords apart nor bring them together
quite closely, but let them touch lightly, then the air as it passes
out will make them vibrate; and breath accompanied by this vibration
is =voice=[5] in the narrower application of the word. In ordinary
speech this vibration is an essential part of all vowels and of many
consonants. They are accordingly called =voiced=[6] sounds; those
produced without vibration of the vocal chords are =voiceless.=[7]

The vibration can be felt in several ways. Utter a long _s_ and
then a long _z_ (the sounds at the beginning of _seal_ and _zeal_
respectively), again long _s_, again long _z_, and so on; at the same
time put your fingers to your throat, or put your hands to both ears,
or lay your hand on the top of your head, and you cannot fail to
notice the vibration every time you utter _z_. Try it also with _f v
f v f v_, etc., and with the sounds written _s_ in _sure_ and _z_ in
_azure_, and the sounds written _th_ in _thistle_ and _th_ in _this_.
Then proceed to _p_ and _b_, _t_ and _d_, _k_ and _g_ (as in _go_).
Lastly, utter a long _ah_ with full voice, and then whisper the same
sound softly. Ascertain in each case which sound is accompanied by
vibration of the vocal chords.

Utter a long _f_ and suddenly separate the lower lip from the upper
teeth, and nothing more will be heard; but utter a long _v_ and again
suddenly separate the lip from the teeth, and you will hear the
"voice," with a sound like the [ə] described in § 38. (It is the sound
uttered when we hesitate in our speech, and is usually represented in
writing by "er ... er.")

It is important that the vibration should be good. If it is slow, the
pitch will be low; if it is quick, the pitch will be high. But whatever
the pitch, the vibration must be uniform. To practise this, dwell on
various voiced sounds for a long time, emitting the breath slowly and
regularly.

Only the voiced sounds can be produced with varying pitch; they are
musical, the rest are noises. Notice, in church for instance, how the
tune is carried by the voiced sounds; the voiceless ones seem to break
the course of the tune.

When the vocal chords are short they vibrate more quickly than when
they are long, and quicker vibrations give a higher pitch. This
explains why the average pitch of a woman's voice is higher than that
of a man. When a boy's voice "breaks," this is due to certain changes
affecting his vocal chords; it is important that the voice should not
be subjected to any excessive strain when it is in this stage.

Certain affections of the throat interfere with the action of the
vocal chords, and they become incapable of vibrating; then we "lose
our voice." When we "lower the voice," we make the vibrations slower,
and lower the pitch. When we "drop the voice to a whisper," we are
intentionally preventing them from vibrating. This much diminishes the
carrying power of the voice, and we thereby ensure that our words are
heard only by those who are quite close. A peculiar variety is the
"stage aside," when the actor tries to convey the impression that his
words are not heard by those near him, yet desires them to be heard by
the spectators, many of whom are much farther away. This is a very loud
whisper; it naturally requires a considerable effort and is very tiring.

=8.= The breath which has passed between the vocal chords and issues
from the windpipe passes through the mouth, or through the nose, or
through both. This is rendered possible by a soft movable flap which
can at will be made to close the way through the nose, or--hanging
loosely--to leave both passages open. Take a small mirror and look at
the inside of your mouth, standing so that as much light as possible
falls into it; you will see this flap, the =velum=, hanging down with
a kind of ᐯ in the centre, the lower extremity of which is known as
the _uvula_. Still watching your mouth, inhale through the nose and
exhale through the mouth; see how the velum moves as you do this. After
a little while try to move the velum, closing and opening the nose
passage, without uttering a sound and without breathing.

In French there are four =nasal vowels= (occurring in _un bon vin
blanc_) in which the velum hangs loose, and breath passes through nose
and mouth. In standard English such vowels do not exist, but another
form of nasal vowel, producing a "twang," is sometimes heard in many
forms of what may be called dialect speech. The Londoner is often
careless about closing the nose passage, and some breath is allowed to
pass out by that way so as to be perceptible to the ear in the form of
friction, and to impair the quality of the vowels. The "nasal twang" is
very noticeable in some forms of American English.

The nasalising tendency may also be observed in untrained singers and
public speakers; it is undoubtedly a means of increasing the carrying
power of the voice, and of reducing the effort of making oneself
understood by a large audience. The same effect can, however, be
produced by training the muscles of the chest by means of breathing
exercises, and with more agreeable results to the ear.

Pupils who show a tendency to nasalising can be cured by frequent
exercises in uttering the mouth (or oral) vowels.

    It is, however, maintained by some teachers of voice production
    that the best vowel sounds are produced when the velum does not
    quite prevent the passage of air through the nose.

In producing a =nasal consonant= (such as _m_), we stop the breath
somewhere in the mouth (_e.g._ at the lips when we utter _m_), and let
it pass out through the nose.

A cold in the nose often prevents the breath from passing through
it; and this renders it impossible to produce the nasal consonants
_m_, _n_, and _ng_ (as in _sing_), the kindred sounds _b_, _d_, and
_g_ being substituted for them. A similar difficulty is experienced
by children with adenoid growths. This is commonly called "speaking
through the nose"; it is just the reverse.

=9.= In speaking, as a rule, the passage to the nose is closed and the
breath finds its passage through the mouth. The shape of this passage
can be modified in many ways, because several =organs of speech= are
movable.

The lower jaw can be moved up and down.

The lips can be closed, or kept lightly touching, or the lower lip
may touch the upper teeth; or the lips may be apart, assuming various
shapes, from a narrow slit to a large or small circle. They may also be
thrust forward, protruded.

The tongue is capable of an even greater variety of position. Again
watch the inside of your mouth by means of your little mirror. Say _e_
(as in _he_), _a_ (as in _father_), _o_ (as in _who_), and observe the
movements of your tongue; then make the same movements, but without
uttering the sounds. You will soon feel how your tongue moves, without
needing to look at it. This consciousness of the muscular action of
your tongue is valuable, and you must take pains to develop it. Watch
the movements of your tongue as you utter other vowel sounds; they will
be treated systematically in due course.

By means of these movable organs of speech the mouth passage assumes
various forms; it may still be wide enough to leave a free course for
the breath, or it may be quite narrow, or it may be closed at some
point.

If the passage is free, the result is a =vowel=; if not, it is a
=consonant=.[8]

=10.= If the passage is so narrow at some point that the breath cannot
pass through without rubbing or brushing, we have a =continuant=
(sometimes called a fricative). Thus when we say _f_ or _v_, the breath
passes out through the teeth; the only difference between the two
sounds being that in saying _v_, the breath is also engaged in setting
the vocal chords vibrating. Say _e_ (as in _he_) and gradually raise
the tongue still further, thus narrowing the passage; you will reach
a point when you no longer produce a vowel, but a continuant, namely
the sound heard at the beginning of _yes_. These sounds are called
continuants, because we can prolong them at will; indeed, we can dwell
on them until no more breath is left in the lungs.

=11.= If the passage is closed altogether at some point, we have a
=stop=; the breath is stopped. Say _hope_ or _wit_ or _luck_ and notice
how in each case there is a closure at the end. Stops consist of two
parts: the closing of the passage, and the subsequent opening of it;
this opening resembles a little explosion, and stops are accordingly
sometimes called plosives or explosives. Observe that the ear does not
require to perceive both the closure and the opening; one is enough
to give the impression of the sound. When you say _hope_ or _wit_ or
_luck_, you need only hear the closing of the passage; you can leave
your mouth shut, yet to the ear the word will seem complete. (The
sound will, however, carry further if you open the passage again; and
in public speaking it is therefore to be recommended.) Similarly, in
uttering the words _pain_, _tell_, _come_, only the opening of the
passage is audible; yet the ear is satisfied. In the middle of a word
like _night-time_, carefully pronounced, we hear both the closure
and the opening; and the interval between the two gives our ear the
impression that there are two _t_'s.[9] In quick speech, however, the
closure is usually inaudible in such words or, more correctly, the
sounds overlap.

=12.= The narrowing or closing of the passage may be effected at
various points. The lips may be partially or completely closed; the
lower lip may be pressed against the upper teeth; different parts
of the tongue may be pressed against the teeth, or the gums, or the
palate. Pass your finger along the roof of your mouth, and notice that
only the front of it is hard; we distinguish the hard palate and the
soft palate.

=13.= When we are eating or drinking, the food passes down the gullet,
behind the windpipe. To prevent food entering the windpipe, which
causes a choking sensation and coughing, there is the _epiglottis_ (see
the diagram on p. 10), a cartilaginous flap which covers the top of
it; this flap is raised when we are breathing. Hence the wisdom of the
rule, not to speak while you are eating.

=14.= In order that speech may have its full effect, it is necessary
that the hearer should hear well; this is by no means so common as
is generally supposed. The importance of testing the eyesight is now
recognised; but the =hearing= is usually neglected. Attention must be
drawn to this matter, as teachers often regard pupils as inattentive
and dull and reprimand them, when they are really hard of hearing. The
teacher's mistake is to some extent pardonable, because the defect is
easily overlooked, especially as a pupil may hear badly in one ear
and not in the other, and thus seem inattentive only when the teacher
happens to be standing on the side of his defective ear. Further, it
is a defect which often varies in intensity from day to day, according
to the pupil's general condition of health. These considerations point
to the urgent necessity of instituting an inspection of the hearing in
our schools. The teacher can himself apply the simple test of seeing at
what distance the pupil is able to hear whispered double numbers, such
as 35, 81; each ear should be tested separately, a cloth being pressed
against the other. The teacher will note down the two distances for
each pupil, and will probably be surprised at the variations observed.
It is clear that defective hearing should constitute a strong claim for
a front seat in the class-room, more so than defective eyesight, which
can usually be rectified by the use of suitable spectacles.

It is hardly necessary to point out that lack of cleanliness in the
ears may interfere with the hearing, and that carelessness with regard
to the teeth may lead to their loss and to defects of speech, apart
from other unpleasant consequences. It is clear that anything in the
nature of tight-lacing renders good breathing impossible; and the
fashion of letting the hair cover the ears is also to be discouraged,
as rendering the hearing more difficult. In men, tight collars and
belts often interfere with the breathing.

=15.= Lastly, teachers (particularly male teachers) require to be
warned against =shouting=; this only tires them and irritates the
nerves of their pupils, while the same object can be achieved by
careful articulation. Where it is used "to keep the class in order,"
the teacher should earnestly consider how it is that others can keep
order without shouting; usually his difficulties in maintaining
discipline are due to ill-health, overstrain, or general incapacity.

When the throat is relaxed, a gargle with some astringent will be found
a simple remedy; a solution of alum in water may be recommended for
this purpose, or a bit of borax may be held in the cheek.

=16.= From a very early time the attempt has been made =to represent
the spoken language by means of signs.= Picture writing is a primitive
and clumsy expedient. It was a great step forward when signs were used
to represent syllables, a still further improvement when a separate
sign was used for each separate sound.

At first writing was roughly phonetic, in other words, one sign was
intended to represent one sound (or set of sounds), and one only;
and this is still what is required of an ideal alphabet. It is a
commonplace remark that =the English alphabet= largely fails to
fulfil this requirement. The same sign represents different sounds
(_s_ign, _s_ure, ea_s_y); the same sound is represented by different
signs (_c_atch, _k_ill, _q_ueen, la_ck_). Some signs are superfluous
(_c_, _x_); sometimes a sound is written, but not pronounced (lam_b_,
_k_nee); sometimes two signs, which separately express two sounds, when
used together designate a third sound altogether different from these
two (_ch_ in _ch_at and ri_ch_).

=17.= How are we to explain this bewildering state of things?

It is due to two causes--the natural development of the language, and
the pedantic interference of the learned.

Language is constantly changing. The rate of change is not perhaps
always the same, but change there always is. As we have seen above, the
older generation and the younger do not speak exactly alike. Now the
changes in the spoken language are gradual, and quite unconscious; but
a change in the recognised spelling of words is something tangible. It
conflicts with a habit we have acquired.

In mediæval times, when there was no printing, no daily paper, no
universal compulsory education, there was a good deal of freedom in the
spelling, and people wrote very much as they pleased--phonetically,
if they were not spoilt by "a little knowledge." But the invention
of printing and the dissemination of learning changed all this. A
uniform spelling came to be recognised; the nation acquired the habit
of regarding it as correct, and would tolerate no deviation from it.
Though it represents the pronunciation of a former age, we still
use it; and we are quite upset when we read the spellings _labor_,
_center_, _therefor_, nay even when two words are, contrary to our
usage, run together, as in _forever_.

When our spelling received its present form not only was the language
very differently pronounced, but the pedantic had already been able
to wreak their wicked will on it. Thus the "learned" men of mediæval
France spelled _parfaict_, though the _c_ of Latin _perfectum_ had
developed into the _i_ of _parfait_, and they did not pronounce the
_c_ which they introduced into the spelling. The word passed into
English, and here also the _c_ was at first only written; later on it
came to be pronounced. The "learned" similarly introduced a _b_ into
the French words _douter_ and _dette_ (because of the Latin _dubitare_
and _debita_), but had the good sense to drop it; we have it still in
_doubt_ and _debt_, though we leave it unpronounced. In later times
we find something similar: the learned force us to spell _philosophy_
with _ph_ and not _f_. The word comes from Greek through Latin; the
Greeks pronounced the _ph_ actually as _p_ plus _h_ at the time when
the Romans took to spelling Greek words in their language, and these
continued to spell _ph_ even when the Greeks no longer pronounced _p_
plus _h_, but _f_, as we do now.

=18.= The subject of =spelling reform= is not within the scope of this
book; but it presents itself naturally to all who take an intelligent
interest in the language. It seems probable that much good will be
achieved by the Simplified Spelling Society (44 Great Russell Street,
London, W.C.; annual subscription from 1s.), which has been recently
established and will undoubtedly profit by the experience of the sister
society in the United States. Such spellings as _wel_, _ful_, _tho_,
_thoro_, _bred_, _plesure_, will surely commend themselves as soon as
the eye of the man in the street has been made familiar with them and
the etymological sentimentalist has realised the astounding weakness of
his arguments.

However distant may be a complete reform, it is certainly helpful to
be conscious of the evil; only thus can we neutralize some of its bad
effects. The most obvious of these is the lack of =ear training= in
our schools, where the mother tongue has been learnt on the basis of
the written and not the spoken language. The only method for teaching
English reading and writing which can commend itself to the student of
the language no less than to the student of childhood is the method
identified with the name of Miss Dale. Apart from the sympathy and love
of children pervading all her work, it is of unusual importance because
she has solved the problem of starting from the spoken language, while
avoiding all phonetic symbols.

=19.= It is, however, convenient for the student of phonetics to
have a set of generally accepted signs; otherwise he would be unable
to express in writing the pronunciation in such a way that other
students could understand what he meant. Without phonetic symbols the
designation of sounds becomes awkward. It was one of Miss Dale's many
happy thoughts to connect sounds and their written form with definite
words, for instance the "moon oo" and the "fern er"; but however
suitable that is for the little ones, it is inconvenient for the
grown-up student.

There are many phonetic alphabets; all else being equal, the one most
widely used is clearly the most valuable. We have therefore chosen for
this book =the alphabet of the Association phonétique internationale,=
which is already well known in England owing to its use in a number of
books for elementary instruction in French, German, and even Latin. It
will commend itself to the student by its great simplicity. What will
really present difficulty is rather the determination of the actual
nature of the spoken word, than the representation of the sounds when
once determined.

=20.= We now give the sounds occurring normally in standard English,
and their phonetic signs; the signs for consonants which are likely to
be unfamiliar are enclosed.

=Consonants.=

  =b=      as in   _bat_      _rabble_   _tab_
  =p=      as in   _pat_      _apple_    _tap_
  =m=      as in   _man_      _hammer_   _lamb_

  =d=      as in   _dab_      _bidden_   _bad_
  =t=      as in   _tap_      _bitten_   _pat_
  =n=      as in   _nut_      _winner_   _tun_

  =g=      as in   _gut_      _waggle_   _tug_
  =k=      as in   _cat_      _tackle_   _tack_

  =ŋ=      as in              _singer_   _sing_

  =w=      as in   _wit_

  [10]=ʍ=  as in   _when_

  =v=      as in   _van_      _never_    _leave_
  =f=      as in   _fan_      _stiffer_  _leaf_

  =ð=      as in   _this_     _leather_  _clothe_

  =θ=      as in   _thistle_  _Ethel_    _cloth_

  =z=      as in   _zeal_     _easel_    _lose_
  =s=      as in   _seal_     _lesson_   _lease_

  =ʒ=      as in   _leisure_  _rouge_

  =ʃ=      as in   _shed_     _ashes_    _dash_

  =j=      as in   _yes_

  =r=      as in   _red_      _very_
  =l=      as in   _lip_      _pallor_   _pill_
  =h=      as in   _hot_

=Vowels.=

_Attention should be paid to the signs for these, as many are
unfamiliar. The examples given will convey only a general idea of the
sounds, which are discussed in detail in § 36 and foll. The sign ː
indicates length, and ˑ half length_.

  =iː=  is the first vowel sound[11]  in _bead_.

  =ɪ=   is the vowel sound in _bit_.

  =eː=  is the first vowel sound[11] in _braid_.

  =e=   is the vowel sound in _bet_.

  =ɛː=  is the first vowel sound in _fairy_.

  =æ=   is the vowel sound in _bat_.

  =a=   is the first vowel sound[11] in _bout_, _bite_.

  =ɑː=  is the first vowel sound in _father_.

  =ɔː=  is the first vowel sound in _glory_.

  =ɔ=   is the vowel sound in _pot_.

  =o=   is the first vowel sound[11] in _boat_.

  =uː=  is the first vowel sound[11] in _rude_.

  =ᴜ=   is the vowel sound in _put_.

  =əː=  is the vowel sound in _burn_.

  =ə=   is the second vowel sound in _better_.

  =ʌ=   is the vowel sound in _but_.

The following sentences written in the conventional and the phonetic
spelling will give some idea of the use of this alphabet for
representing connected speech as spoken (_a_) very carefully, (_b_)
quite colloquially.

    For purposes of convenience the ɪ and ᴜ are not used in
    ordinary transcript, as there is no danger of confusion.

  (_a_)  The  seriou  student       of  phonetics      soon  grows
         ðə   siᵊrjəs  stjuwdənt[12]  əv  fo´netiks[13]  suwn  grouz

  interested  in  the  subject,  and  every  fresh  speaker
  intərestid  in  ðə   sʌbdʒikt,  ænd  evri  freʃ   spijkə[12]

  presents   new   materials     for  study.
  pri´zents  njuw  mə´tiːᵊriəlz  fə   stʌdi.

  (_b_)  Did  you  hear  what  he  told  me  last  night?
           dʒu     hiə   wɔt   i   toul  mi  lɑːs  nait?

FOOTNOTES:

[2] Another defective method of breathing consists in raising the
shoulders for the purpose of increasing the capacity of the lungs. The
shoulders should, however, not be moved at all in breathing.

[3] The custom of insisting on tightly-folded arms is not to be
encouraged.

[4] The exercises suggested by Mr Burrell in _Clear Speaking and Good
Reading_ (p. 16 and foll.) are also recommended.

[5] Also called tone.

[6] Or, toned.

[7] Or, untoned, breathed.

[8] This definition has its drawbacks, as will be seen later.

[9] Consider what happens in the case of such words as _vintner_,
_lampman_.

[10] It is doubtful whether this can be called a sound of standard
English; see § 31.

[11] It is most important that you should not confuse _sound_ with
_letter_. Thus in bead we have the letters _e_ and _a_, which represent
vowels in _bed_ and _bad_; but the _e_ in _bead_ has quite a different
value from the _e_ in _bed_. The two letters _ea_ in _bead_ together
represent two sounds which are described in § 42.

[12] In the _Specimens of English_ the diphthongs here represented by
[uw] and [ij] are simply printed [uː] and [iː].

[13] Observe that the accent [´] _precedes_ the stressed syllable.
In the _Specimens of English_ the vowel of the stressed syllable is
printed in =this type=.




THE SOUNDS CONSIDERED SEPARATELY


=Consonants--stops.=

=21.= The sounds which present least difficulty to the student are the
stops, in producing which the flow of breath is completely checked. We
have already seen in § 11 that every stop, strictly speaking, consists
of three parts, the closing and the opening of the passage and the
pause between, and that only the closing or only the opening need be
heard for the ear to distinguish the sound. The interval between the
closure and the opening may be noticeable, in which case we call the
consonant double.

Stops may be voiced or voiceless, that is, they may be produced with or
without vibration of the vocal chords (see § 7).

Stops may be produced by stopping the breath at some point in the mouth
and then letting it burst through the obstacle; these are =oral= stops.

The breath, stopped at some point in the mouth, may be allowed to pass
out through the nose; the sounds thus produced are called =nasal=.[14]

Utter the following sounds, and determine whether they are voiced or
voiceless, oral or nasal:

  [p, g, n, t, b, k, m, d, ŋ.][15]

According to the place of articulation we distinguish lip[16] stops,
point[17] stops, front (palate)[18] stops and back (palate)[19] stops.

=22. Lip stops.=--When the breath is stopped at the lips, three
different sounds may be produced.

1. [p], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.

In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h][20]; thus _Pay,
pay!_[21] [pͪei, pͪei]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and
sometimes finally[22]: _I hope_ [ai houpͪ].[23]

[p] is written _p_ or _pp_; rarely _ph_ (as in a common pronunciation
of _diphtheria_ [dipθiːᵊriə], for which see § 27).

Notice the spelling of _hiccough_ [hikʌp].

2. [b], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.

[b] is written _b_ or _bb_.

3. [m], when the velum is lowered and part of the breath passes out
through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when
it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be partly
voiced, then voiceless (phonetic sign: mˑ). Then _lamp_ is strictly
[læmmˑp]. We may say: [m] is =unvoiced= or =devocalized= before a
voiceless stop.) Notice the difference in length of [m] in _lamb,
hammer, glum, moon_; in which of these words is it short?

In _comfort, triumph_ the [m] is often labiodental: the breath is
stopped by the upper teeth and lower lip, not by both lips.

In _prism, schism_ the _m_ may have =syllabic= value; it then does the
work usually performed by a vowel. We say [prizəm] or [prizm̩], where
[m̩] is the sign for syllabic _m_.

[m] is written _m_ or _mm_.

=23.= In the production of the lip stops the tongue plays no part,
except by leaving a free passage; but it is active in the production
of the stops we next have to consider. This is therefore the right
place to give the names by which we designate the various =parts of the
tongue=. We distinguish

the _point_,

the _blade_ (above and behind the point when the tongue lies flat),

the _front_ (yet further behind), and

the _back_; also

the _ridge_ or _dorsum_ (an imaginary line drawn along the middle of
the top of the tongue from end to end), and

the _rim_ (running all round the edge of the tongue when it lies flat).

When the narrowing or closure of the passage is made by the front rim
of the tongue, we say it is of _apical_ formation; when it is made
by the surface of the tongue behind the front rim, we say it is of
_dorsal_ formation.

24. =Point stops=.[24]--The breath is stopped by the action of the
point of the tongue touching the teeth (in which case we have true
dentals) or the upper gums (this is known as _alveolar_ articulation,
"alveoli" being the learned word for the gums). In English the point of
the tongue rarely touches the teeth; usually it touches the upper gums,
sometimes the hard palate (this should be avoided), in which case it
approaches [k]. See the diagram on p. 126.

Hence in careless speech _at last_ sometimes becomes [ə´klɑːst].[25]
Little children are heard to say [ikl] for _little_; compare also the
change from Latin _tremere_ to French _craindre_.

Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage:

1. [t], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.

In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _take it!_
[tʰeik it]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and sometimes
finally; _he sent me such a charming note_ [hi sent mi sʌtʃ ə tʃɑːmiŋ
noutʰ].[26]

In certain kinds of uneducated southern English speech [t] is
occasionally dropped between vowels, in such words as _water_, _butter_.

[t] is written _t_ or _tt_; _d_ in the _ed_ of verbs after voiceless
sounds, as in _stopped_ [stɔpt]; rarely _th_, in words of foreign
origin.

2. [d], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.

[d] is written _d_ or _dd_.

3. [n], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through
the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is
immediately preceded or followed by a voiceless sound, it may become
voiceless (n̥) in part. Then _sneer_ is strictly [sn̥niə], _hint_
[hinn̥t].) Notice the difference in length of [n] in _mine_, _own_,
_manner_, _an_, _name_; in which of these words is it long?

In _month_, _anthem_ the [n] is a true dental: the tongue touches the
teeth.

In _listen_, _open_ we may have syllabic _n_ [n̩]. Compare what was
said about syllabic _m_ in § 22.

[n] is written _n_ or _nn_.

=25. Front and back stops.=--The breath is stopped by some part of the
ridge of the tongue meeting

  the front or hard palate, giving _front stops_; or
  the back or soft palate, giving _back stops_.

Say [ku] and then [ki]; now whisper them. In which case is the closure
more forward in the mouth? Compare with these the place of closure when
you say [kɑ].

From these examples it will be seen that the effect for the ear is very
much the same, and we shall here make use of the same signs for front
and back stops.

In cockney speech there is a distinct tendency to make the closure
so far forward that the [k, g] are perceptibly modified. (This
pronunciation is suggested by the spelling _gyarden_, _kyind_, employed
by those who try to represent cockney speech.) The "palatalizing"
tendency is not to be encouraged; a more effective [k] is produced by
distinctly backward articulation. Slight variations in the place of
closure due to the place of articulation of neighbouring sounds in a
word are inevitable.

Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage.

1. [k], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.

In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the
opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus _come, come!_
[kʰʌm, kʰʌm]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, sometimes
finally, _give him a good shake!_ [giv im ə gud ʃeikʰ].[27]

[k] is written _c_, _k_, _ck_, _cc_ (as in _accuse_ [ə´kjuwz]), _ch_
(as in _chord_ [kɔːd]), _q_ (as in _queen_ [kwijn]); [ks] as _ks_,
_cc_, _x_, _xc_.

2. [g], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.

Sometimes [g] is pronounced with the tip of the tongue so that it
sounds like [d]; thus _glory_ becomes _dlory_ [dlɔːri]. The way in
which [l] is produced (see § 33) explains this.

[g] is written _g_ and _gg_; rarely _gh_ (as in _ghost_ [goust]). For
[ks] and [gz] written x see § 30.

3. [ŋ], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through
the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is
immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be at first voiced,
then voiceless [̇ŋ̇]; the [ŋ] may be unvoiced (see § 23, 3) before
a voiceless stop. Then _length_ is strictly [leŋŋ̇θ] or [leŋŋ̇kθ].)
Notice the difference in length of [ŋ] in _sing, singer, drink, bang_;
in which of these words is it short?

[ŋ] is written _ng_, as in _long_ [lɔŋ], and _n_ before _g_, _k_, or
_x_, as in _longer_ [lɔŋgə], _lank_ [læŋk], _lynx_ [liŋks]. What does
ng represent in _singer_? in _finger_? in _English_?

The "dropping of g" is really an incorrect term. There is no [g] in
the ending-_ing_ [iŋ];[28] what does take place is the substitution of
[n] for [ŋ]. This occurs in baby speech, in vulgar speech, and in the
speech of some sections of society. It is on no account to be tolerated.

The opposite mistake is made only by the uneducated, who pronounce
_kitchen_ as [kitʃiŋ], _chicken_ as [tʃikiŋ], and _sudden_ as [sʌdiŋ].

Notice the substitution of this sound by the uneducated for the
unfamiliar palatal nasal [ɲ] in _Boulogne_ [bulɔɲ], the uneducated
[bulɔŋ],[29] and for the equally unfamiliar nasal vowel [ɑ̃] in the
French word _continent_ [kɔ̃tinɑ̃], the uneducated [kɔntinɔŋ].

For [n] becoming [m] or [ŋ] by assimilation, see § 49.

=26. Consonants--continuants.=

It will be seen that the articulations of these sounds are more
difficult to analyse than those of the stops. There is, roughly
speaking, only one way of closing a passage entirely; but there are
various ways of closing it partially.

The continuants usually go in pairs, one being voiceless, the other
voiced.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Lip continuants.=--The breath passes between the two lips (hence the
term _bilabials_); the tongue is in a position somewhat closer than
the [u] position, _i.e._ bunched up at the back (see § 43), and we may
therefore call these sounds lip-velar continuants.

The voiced sound [w] is that commonly used in standard English, whether
the spelling be _w_ or _wh_. In northern English and in Scotch the
voiceless [ʍ] is used where the ordinary spelling has _wh_.

It is very doubtful whether [ʍ] has a right to be regarded as a normal
sound in standard English. It is taught by professors of elocution,
and is therefore commonly heard at recitals and also at amateur
theatricals. On the regular stage it is by no means the rule, and
in the pulpit it is probably the exception. If it comes naturally
to pupils, who bring it with them from the North, they need not be
interfered with; there is certainly no good reason why it should be
forced on speakers of southern English, who generally produce a grossly
exaggerated and quite ludicrous travesty of the northern sound. Which
do you use yourself? If [ʍ], is it natural to you, or acquired? Do the
rest of your family use it? Any of your friends? What proportion of
children in your class?

It may be noted that after voiceless sounds [ʍ] sometimes takes the
place of [w], even in standard English; _twenty_ is pronounced [twenti]
or [tʍenti] and _swim_ [swim] or [sʍim]. Sometimes also the sound [ʍ]
is heard in _where_ pronounced with great emphasis, in the case of
speakers who do not ordinarily use it.

It should be noted that these sounds are not continuants in the
strict sense of the term, for the lips are gradually brought nearer
and gradually drawn apart. The sounds do not _continue_ in the same
position at all; hence they have been described as "gliding," not
"held."

The word _conquer_ is sometimes pedantically pronounced [kɔŋkwə]
instead of [kɔŋkə]; but it is the rule to sound the [w] in _conquest_.
Compare _liquor_ [likə], _exchequer_ [eks´tʃekə].

A _w_ has often influenced a following _a_. Consider the following
cases:

_was_, _warm_, _squabble_, _quality_, _quack_, _quarrel_, _quaff_,
_wasp_, _water_, _waft_, _walk_, _swallow_.

=27. Lip teeth continuants.=--The breath passes between the lower lip
and the upper teeth (also between the interstices of the upper teeth);
the sounds produced in this way are also called _labiodentals_.

       *       *       *       *       *

The voiceless sound [f] is usually written _f_ or _ff_, also _ph_ (in
words taken from Greek); note also the _gh_ in _laugh_, etc.

Notice our reluctance to pronounce _phth_ [fθ], as shown in the
dropping of _ph_ in _phthisis_, and the frequent substitution of _p_
for _ph_ in _diphtheria_, _diphthong_, _naphtha_, _ophthalmia_, which
is, however, avoided by careful speakers.

       *       *       *       *       *

The voiced sound [v] is usually written _v_.

Sounds very like [f, v] can be produced with both lips. Though they do
not ordinarily occur in English, it will be good practice for you to
produce them.

When [v] is final, it is not voiced to the end, but passes into
whispered [v] (symbol v̥), which sounds very much like voiceless [f];
in other words, the vocal chords cease to vibrate before the breath
ceases to pass between the lower lip and the upper teeth. We may say:
final [v] is devocalised.

Observe _thief_, but _thieves_ and _to thieve_; _loaf_, but _loaves_;
_shelf_, but _shelves_ and _to shelve_.

The _ph_ in _nephew_ is pronounced [v], but [f] is heard in dialects.

=28. Point continuants.=--We have seen above (§ 24) that in English
the tongue, as a matter of fact, rarely touches the teeth in the case
of point stops. Similarly the narrowing of the passage which leads to
the production of point continuants (except [θ,ð]) is not necessarily
between the tongue and the teeth; in some cases it is indeed a good
deal farther back.

The point continuants include:

1. The hushing, hissing,[30] and lisping sounds, and the _r_ sounds, in
which the place of articulation is along the middle line of the mouth
(_medial_ formation); and

2. The _l_ sounds, the narrowing for which is between the side rim or
rims of the tongue and the side teeth (_lateral_ formation).

The _r_ sounds and the _l_ sounds are sometimes called =liquids=.

=29. The hushing sounds.=--For the production of the _sh_ sounds the
passage is narrowed between the blade (see § 23) of the tongue and the
hard palate. A broad current of air is broken against the edge of the
teeth. There is some friction between the tongue and the gums, but that
against the front teeth is more noticeable.

Watch a Frenchman uttering these sounds, and see what he does with his
lips. Do you use your lips in the same way?

       *       *       *       *       *

The voiceless [ʃ] is usually written _sh_; also _s_ after consonants
(as in _tension_ [tenʃən], _censure_ [senʃə]). It is written _ss_, _c_
or _t_ before a front vowel (_e_ or _i_), (as in _passion_ [pæʃən],
_capricious_ [kə´priʃəs], _station_ [steiʃən]). In all these cases [ʃ]
arose from [sj].

Observe the colloquial pronunciation of _this year_ as [ðiʃ jəː]; _six
years_ [sikʃ jəːz].

The combination [tʃ] is very common, and is usually written _ch_ or
_tch_. In some cases it arises from [tj], when _t_ follows the chief
accent of the word and precedes either a front vowel (_e_ or _i_)
or _u_[31] which goes back to [juː] (as in _righteous_ [raitʃəs],
_nature_ [neitʃə]). The combination [kʃ] similarly goes back to [ksj]
in _anxious_ [æŋkʃəs] (notice _anxiety_ [æŋ(g)´zaiəti]). _Luxury_
is [lʌkʃəri], but _luxurious_ is [ləg´zuːriəs] or [ləg´zjuːriəs],
sometimes [ləg´ʒuːriəs].

The pronunciation of _associate_ as [ə´sousieit],[32] _officiate_
as [o´fisieit], instead of [ə´souʃieit, o´fiʃieit], is pedantic;
[pro´pisieit] is also faulty for [pro´piʃieit].

       *       *       *       *       *

The voiced [ʒ] standing alone between vowels is not common in English,
being found only where _s_ is followed by a front vowel, or by _u_
which goes back to [juː]. Here the development is from [sj] to [zj]
and then to [ʒ]. Examples are _vision_ [viʒən], _measure_ [meʒə]. The
spelling _z_ is found only in _azure_ [æʒə] or [eiʒjə], sometimes
[æʒjuə].

Observe the careless pronunciation of _as usual_ as [æʒ juwʒuəl],
_praise ye the Lord_ as [preiʒ jij ðə lɔːd]. _India rubber_ is
generally pronounced [indʒə rʌbə].

On the other hand, the combination [dʒ] is quite common. This is
written _j_ (as in _jet_ [dʒet]), _g_ before _e_ or _i_. (as in _gem_
[dʒem], _gin_ [dʒin], _age_ [eidʒ]; observe also _gaol_ [dʒeil]), and
sometimes _dg_ (as in _edge_ [edʒ]). It is spelled _ch_ in _ostrich_,
_sandwich_, _Greenwich_, _Harwich_, _Woolwich_, and in _spinach_.

What is the value of _ng_ in the following words:--_hang_, _longing_,
_lounging_, _language_, _engage_, _hunger_, _hinge_, _ungraceful_?

=30. The hissing sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [s] as
in _seal_ and the voiced [z] as in _zeal_. Compare the manner of
production of the hissing and the hushing sounds: utter [ʃ] and [s].
(Why will these show the distinction more clearly than [ʒ] and [z]?)
You will find that the breath is more widely diffused when you utter
[ʃ]; in producing [s] your tongue forms a narrow channel and the breath
is thus directed against a point. See the diagram on p. 126.

The usual spelling of both voiceless [s] and voiced [z] is _s_. Notice
that

    1. The _s_ of inflections is [z] after a voiced sound: compare
    _fills_ [filz], _glances_ [glɑːnsiz], _dogs_ [dɔgz], _faces_
    [feisiz], but _hits_ [hits], _cats_ [kæts].

    2. The final _s_ of some words of one syllable is [z]: _as_,
    _has_, _is_, _his_, _was_; but _this_, _us_.

    3. Sometimes the verb has [z], the substantive or adjective [s]:

  _use_ [juwz]            _use_ [juws]
  _diffuse_ [di´fjuwz]    _diffuse_ [di´fjuws]
  _close_ [klouz]         _close_ [klous]
  _lose_ [luwz]           _loose_ [luws]

    (Notice the difference in the length of the vowel.)

    4. Notice also that we have

        [z]                   [s]
  in _reserve_          in _research_
     _disease_             _disobey_
     _dissolve_            _dissolvent_, _dissolute_
     _presumption_         _presuppose_

    Find other examples (there are many). How do you pronounce
    _disarm_?

    5. _x_ represents [ks] in _exercise_, _excellent_, and in
    _extra_, _exceed_, _express_, _extol_, but [gz] in _exert_,
    _examine_, _anxiety_, _exult_, _exonerate_, _exorbitant_,
    _exotic_.

    Do you agree with this statement?

    Try to find a rule for the pronunciation of _x_.

    In _exile_ both pronunciations of _x_ may be heard, [ks] being
    perhaps the more common.

    For the dropping of _h_ in compounds with _ex-_ see § 47.

The voiceless [s] is usually written _s_, but also _ss_, and _c_ or
_sc_ before _e_ and _i_ (as in _city_, _scene_, but not in _sceptic_
[skeptik]).

Say which of the sounds [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, s, z] occur in the following
words:

_church_, _machine_, _ledger_, _leisure_, _seizure_, _cease_, _ease_,
_scissors_, _chisel_, _lesion_, _legion_, _singe_, _excessive_,
_example_.

Notice that final [z] is unvoiced towards the end; thus _is_ is
strictly [izz̥]; compare what was said about final [v] in § 27.

       *       *       *       *       *

The term lisping is given to various mispronunciations of the _s_
sounds. It may be due to a lasting or a passing malformation of the
teeth, palate, or tongue,[33] or it may be simply a bad habit. A
slight habitual lisp is often heard, and parents and friends have been
known foolishly to encourage a child in the belief that the lisp is
"pretty"; it is important to drive this idea out of the child's head.
The treatment of lispers is varied; generally they can produce the
right sound after some experimenting. When the right sound has been
found and distinguished by the child, the rest is entirely a matter of
perseverance. There must be frequent repetition in many combinations.
The exercises should be practised sparingly at first, and gradually
increased, otherwise the strain may be too great and interfere with the
child's regular work.

=31. The lisping sounds.=--Distinguish clearly the voiceless [θ] as
in _thistle_, and the voiced [ð] as in _this_. Compare the manner of
production of the lisping and the hissing sounds: utter [θ] and [s].
You will find that in the case of [θ] the breath is not passing through
a narrow channel, and issues between the tips of the upper teeth and
of the tongue. The tongue may be between the teeth, and the sounds
are accordingly sometimes called interdental; but this is by no means
essential. Our English lisping sounds are usually formed between the
point of the tongue and the back of the front upper teeth; part of the
tongue fills up the small gap between the teeth, without advancing
beyond their back surface.

Which of the following words have [θ] and which have [ð]?

_thorn_, _thou_, _bath_*, _baths_*, _bathe_*, _then_, _think_,
_clothe_*, _cloth_*, _with_, _father_, _thump_, _lethal_, _leather_,
_lath_, _lathe_, _lithe_, _loath_*, _loathe_*, _breath_*, _breathe_*,
_heathen_, _heath_, _heaths_, _wreathe_*, _wreath_*, _wreaths_*,
_seethe_, _truth_*, _truths_*.

What do you notice with regard to the words marked with an asterisk? Of
what does it remind you in connection with the hissing sounds?

Notice that final [ð] is unvoiced or whispered towards the end; compare
what has been said about final [v] and final [z].

       *       *       *       *       *

A fault, common especially in bad southern English, and found almost
invariably in baby speech, is the substitution of [v, f] for [ð, θ].
The baby says [fʌm] for [θʌm], the cockney [nafiŋk] for [nʌθiŋ], [fevə]
for [feðə]. This fault should on no account be tolerated; the child (we
are of course not referring to the baby) can produce the lisping sounds
without difficulty. It need only be told to place the tongue between
the teeth. When once the difference in the manner of production of [f]
and [θ] is known, the child can also _hear_ the difference; all that is
now required is perseverance.

In careless speech [h] is sometimes substituted for [θ], thus _I think
so_ becomes [ai hiŋk sou]. This also has its parallel in baby speech,
e.g. [hugə] for _sugar_.

=32. The liquids.=--This designation comprises the _r_ sounds and the
_l_ sounds.

The sounds written _r_ are extremely varied, and are likely to give
some trouble to the student. He should in the first place ascertain
from his friends (we are assuming that these speak standard English)
whether they notice anything peculiar about his _r_. If they do not, it
is probable that he uses the untrilled _r_. (The phonetic sign for this
is [ɹ], but it is customary to use [r], unless exceptional accuracy be
desired.)

This sound is produced by allowing the breath to pass between the
raised point of the tongue and the ridge of the upper gums.[34] When
the breath makes the tip of the tongue vibrate, we have the trilled or
rolled [r]. Can you roll your _r_? Does anyone you know habitually do
so? Have you noticed whether Frenchmen or Germans ever do it?

Another kind of _r_ is that produced at the back of the mouth, by the
help of the uvula (see § 8), and called the throat _r_ or uvular _r_
(phonetic sign: [R]), as distinguished from the tongue or teeth _r_
(lingual or dental _r_). It is not a normal sound in standard English,
but is occasionally found. It used to be frequent in Durham and
Northumberland (the "Northumbrian burr"), but is dying out there now.

Notice that after [t] and [d] the narrowing for [r] is particularly
small, and therefore the friction of the breath particularly
noticeable. Say such words as _dry_, _drink_, _droll_, _try_, _trill_,
_trap_, and carefully observe the nature of the [r]. Notice also that
after voiceless sounds the [r] often becomes voiceless [r̥], as in
_praise_, _try_, _increase_. Sometimes _tried_ almost sounds like
_chide_, because the passage of the breath is not stopped and the vocal
chords have not begun to vibrate. Try to utter a voiceless [r̥] by
itself; practise the series [r r̥ r r̥ r].

There is also a peculiar variety of _r_ found after _g_, as in _great_,
_green_, _grass_. This _r_ is a kind of palatal blade continuant, and
its use should be avoided, as it is generally held to be affected.

       *       *       *       *       *

In standard English the written _r_ is only pronounced initially (as in
_red_), between a consonant and a vowel (as in _bread_, _angry_), and
between vowels, the second of which is not only written, but actually
pronounced (as in _very_).[35]

It is not pronounced between a vowel and a consonant (as in _arm_,
_lord_), nor when it is final in the spelling or followed by a vowel
which is only written and not actually pronounced (as in _bar_,
_bare_). Its place is in many cases taken by the neutral vowel [ə] (see
§ 38).

Observe that a final _r_ is pronounced when the next word begins with
a vowel. (Is there anything like this in French?) Thus we say _better_
[betə], but [betər ən betə]; _ever_ [evə], but [fər evər ənd evə];
_here_ [hiə], but [hiᵊr ən ðɛːə]; _stir up_ [stəːr ʌp], but [stəː ðə
faiə]. There is, however, nowadays a tendency to leave even this _r_
unpronounced.

The fact that such words as _better_ have two forms, with and without
[r], has led to the addition of [r] when there is no justification for
it. Even educated people are often heard to pronounce _the idea of it_
as [ði aidiər əv it]; _The India Office_ sometimes becomes [ði indjər
ɔfis]; _china ornaments_ becomes [tʃainər ɔːnəmənts]; and clergymen
have been known to say [vik´tɔːjər auə kwijn]. Similarly, in vulgar
speech [ðə windər iz oupən], [pə´pɑːr əz gɔn aut], etc., are quite
common.

There is an affected pronunciation of this [ə] which makes it
approximate to a deep [ɑ]; the comic papers represent _my dear fellow_
as "my deah fellah" to indicate the speech of a swell.

The substitution of [w] for [r] is a mannerism which should not be
tolerated; it is the result of a bad habit, not of any defect of the
organs of speech.

When a word contains the letter _r_ twice, careless speakers incline
to drop one of them; _February_ becomes [febjuəri], _temporarily_
[tempərili], _library_ [laibri], _literary_ [litəri], _supernumerary_
[sjuwpənjuwməri], _contemporary_ [kəntempəri]. _Veterinary_ usually
becomes [vetənri] or [vetnəri].

=33.= In order to produce the sound of [l], we let the breath pass out
between the side rims of the tongue and the side gums and teeth; the
point of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth somewhere along the
middle line.

Utter [l] with the point of the tongue drawn back as far as possible;
then utter [l] several times, gradually bringing the point of the
tongue forward, until it eventually touches the teeth. You will notice
a difference in the quality of the sound: the sound is "dark"[36] when
the tongue is farther back, "clear" when it is forward in the mouth.
Notice that when the tongue is drawn back, it is bunched up behind.
In standard English the [l] is frequently pronounced with the tongue
fairly back in the mouth; the "darkness" of the [l] is particularly
noticeable when it comes at the end of a word.[37]

Excessive withdrawal of the tongue tip is not to be encouraged in
children; they should rather practise the "clear" [l], though they need
not go so far as actually to "let the tongue touch the teeth." This
is, however, a good rule, and if instilled in the children will do
something to counteract any tendency to "darkness" of the [l]. It is
not likely that they will acquire the habit of actually touching the
teeth when they say [l]; but a sufficiently "clear" [l] can be obtained
if the point of contact is at the upper gums, and even a little farther
back than that. It should be noted that the [l] may be "dark," even
when the point of the tongue touches the teeth, if the back of the
tongue is raised.

In cockney speech the [l] is sometimes lost, through no contact taking
place; _tail_ is pronounced [tæjɔ] or something similar, with a very
open [ɔ] (see § 43) in place of [l], and after consonants also the final
_l_, as in _giggle_, is very liable to disappear. This recalls the
treatment of final _r_ in standard English. In careless speech the [l]
also disappears in _only_ and in _all right_.

_Colonel_ is pronounced [kəːnəl]; the older spelling _coronel_
explains this.

Notice that when [l] comes next to a voiceless sound, it may become
partly or wholly voiceless [l̥]. Thus _clear_ becomes [kl̥iːə], _halt_
[hɔl̥t]. The friction becomes noticeable then; try to utter [l̥] and
observe this. The voiceless sound is the familiar Welsh _ll_.

In _bubble_, _riddle_, etc., we may have syllabic _l_ [l̩]. Compare
what was said about syllabic _m_ in § 22, and about syllabic _n_ in § 24.

The _l_ is not pronounced in _calf_, _half_, _salve_,[38] _balk_,
_caulk_, _chalk_, _falcon_,[39] _folk_, _stalk_, _talk_, _walk_,
_yolk_, _almond_, _alms_, _balm_, _calm_, _palm_, _psalm_, _qualm_,
_salmon_, _solder_, _should_, _would_, _could_ (where it is not
etymologically justified); _golf_ is usually [gɔlf], but also [gɔf][3],
and rarely [gɔːf].[40]

It was said above that for [l] we let the breath pass out at both sides
of the mouth; but, as a matter of fact, most people let it out only on
one side. On which side does it pass out in your own case? Is the same
true of your whole family? Ascertain which is the usual side in the
case of friends.

=34. Front continuants.=--Watch with your mirror what the tongue does
when you utter the word _he_. You see that it rises in front. Raise it
a little more, until the passage becomes quite narrow; the vowel will
pass into the sound which we have at the beginning of _yes_ [jes], and
which we also have in _sue_ [sjuːw], for which see § 45. As a rule the
friction is very slight, and indeed hardly perceptible to the ear;
but in the slowly uttered, deliberate _yes_ the friction can often be
heard very distinctly. The sound is also noteworthy as being, like [w]
and [ɹ], "gliding," not "held" (see §§ 26, 32). In careless speech it
sometimes passes into [ʒ] after [d]; _during_ is pronounced [dʒuwriŋ]
instead of [djuwriŋ], the _dew_ becomes [dʒuw], _it made you start_
[it mei dʒu stɑːt]. _Soldier_ is regularly pronounced [souldʒə], not
[souldjə]; and _verdure_, _grandeur_, have both pronunciations, [djə]
being preferred by careful speakers.

After voiceless sounds, as in _Tuesday_, _tube_, [j] occasionally
passes into the corresponding voiceless [ç], which is the consonant
sound in the German _ich_; and sometimes it even becomes [ʃ], compare
the careless pronunciation of _don't you know_ [dountʃənou], _last
year_ [lɑːs tʃiə], _he'll meet you_ [hijl mijtʃu]; _I shall hit you_
is in vulgar speech [ɑi ʃəl itʃə]. For this development in unstressed
syllables, see § 45.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Back continuants.=--When we utter the vowel sound of _who_ the back
of the tongue is raised; if we raise it a little higher, there is
friction, and we obtain the back continuants. These do not normally
belong to standard English. The voiceless [x] is, however, not uncommon
in the pronunciation of words taken from Scotch, Welsh, or German;
even in such words [k] is generally substituted. The Scotch _loch_ is
pronounced [lɔx] or [lɔk]; the German _Hoch(heimer)_ is always spelt
and pronounced _hock_ [hɔk]. In Scotch [x] occurs normally.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Throat r= (_uvular_ =r=).--This sound, which does not normally belong
to standard English, has been referred to in § 32.

=35. The h sounds.=--We considered the glottis (the interval between
the vocal chords) in § 6. We saw that when it is quite open, the breath
passes through without producing any audible sound. When, however,
the glottis is somewhat narrowed, the breath brushes past the vocal
chords, and an _h_ is produced; this we may call a voiceless glottal
continuant.[41]

Now there may be various kinds of glottal [h]. The passage between the
vocal chords may be more or less narrow, and it may remain uniform or
gradually grow narrower or wider. The current of breath may be strong
or weak; it may be of uniform force, or gradually grow stronger or
weaker. When there is a strong current of breath, and the opening is
very narrow, we call it "wheezing."

In standard English the _h_ is a glottal continuant only when there is
precise and emphatic utterance. Ordinarily it is produced in the mouth
passage. When we say _ha_, the vocal chords are not drawn together
until the vowel is sounded; the mouth, however, gets into position
for uttering the vowel a little before the time, and the breath as it
passes through produces an _h_ sound. In [hɑ] then, we practically
have a voiceless [ɑ] followed by the ordinary voiced [ɑ]; in _he_, a
voiceless [i] followed by the ordinary [i] vowel; in _who_, a voiceless
[u] followed by the ordinary [u]. Whisper these words, and also _hay_
and _hoe_; and after each, whisper the [h] only. Notice that the ear
detects an actual difference in these _h_ sounds.

       *       *       *       *       *

A good deal depends on the current of breath with which the [h] is
uttered. In standard English the current does not keep on growing in
volume until the vowel is sounded; it distinctly diminishes before the
vowel appears. This may be graphically represented by the signs [<h>].

       *       *       *       *       *

If the current of breath does not diminish in this way, but starts
weakly and does not reach its maximum force until the vowel is reached,
the ear does not receive the impression of a distinct [h]. This sound
may be written [h<] or simply [<]. This (the "soft breath") precedes
initial vowels in standard English; it is the sound which in cockney
speech commonly represents the more distinct [<h>]; those who use it
are said to "drop their h's." Conscious of the defect, they often
prefix a full, even an exaggerated [h] to words which have no _h_. It
need hardly be said that carelessness in the use of _h_ is not to be
tolerated. It is interesting to note that no _h_ is ever dropped in the
speech of Americans, except in the weak forms of _he_, _him_, _her_.

[h] occurs in standard English only before stressed vowels. Initial _h_
before unstressed vowels is only pronounced when preceded by a pause.

Notice that:

1. Written _h_ is not pronounced in _heir_, _honest_, _honour_, _hour_,
and words derived from these.

It is now pronounced in standard English in _herb_, _hospital_,
_humble_, _humour_ (a fair number of educated speakers still pronounce
this word without [h]).

2. It is regarded as correct to say _a history_, but _an historical
novel_; _a habit_, but _an habitual action_; many, however, pronounce
the _h_ in both cases.

3. Certain words drop the _h_ when they occur in an unstressed position
in the sentence; this is a regular feature of standard colloquial
speech, and does not convey the slightest suggestion of vulgarity. It
must be recognised that such words have two forms, weak and strong,
according as they are used without or with emphasis. Compare the
following sentences:

  Tom  has     been     there.    Has  he  though?
  tɔm  əz   bijn (bin)  ðeːə.     hæz  i   ðou?

   I  gave  her  a  book.         What,  to  her?
  ai  geiv  ər   ə  buk.          wɔt,   tu  həː?

Find as many words having strong and weak forms as you can by observing
the ordinary speech of those around you. Then compare the list given in
§ 47.

For the dropping of _h_ in the second part of compound words, see § 47.


=36.=

VOWELS

We have considered the sounds produced when the passage through which
the breath passes is closed (stops) or narrowed (continuants); we now
have to consider the sounds produced when the passage is wide enough
for the breath to pass through without audibly brushing against the
sides. These sounds are the vowels.

"Voice," produced by the vibration of the vocal chords, may be said
to give body to the vowel; the shape of the passage through which the
breath passes determines the features that distinguish one vowel from
another, _i.e._ its quality. The shape of this passage is capable of
almost infinite variation, which leads to a corresponding variety of
resonances, and these determine the quality of the vowels.

Picture to yourself the inside of the mouth, and consider how the
cavity may become larger or smaller, according as you separate or draw
together the jaws; see what a difference it makes if you raise the
tongue at the back, or in the middle, or in the front; bear in mind
that the position of the lips may also modify the sound, as you will
notice if, for instance, you utter [u] as in _who_, first with the lips
forming a long narrow slit, and again with the lips forming a very
small circle (of the same size as the end of a lead pencil).

=37.= Of the well-defined vowels that which is articulated with least
effort is [ɑ].[42] It is the earliest vowel sound uttered by the
baby, before it has acquired control over the muscles of the tongue.
It is also common as an interjection. Utter it, and watch the tongue
with your mirror; you will see that the middle of the tongue ridge is
slightly raised. The opening of the mouth is generally larger than in
the case of the other vowels. See the diagram on p. 125.

Utter the standard English sound of _a_ in _hat_, for which the sign
is [æ]. Say several times [ɑ æ] and watch the tongue as you do so; you
will see that it moves forward and is a little higher in front and
lower at back for [æ]. The opening of the mouth is often quite as large
for [æ] as for [ɑ].

Now try to produce the sound which lies between the two, with the
tongue occupying an intermediate position; you will obtain the sound
[a], which is the northern English vowel in _hat_, and the vowel in the
French word _chat_; in standard English it occurs only as the first
part of the diphthongs in _bite_ [bait] and _bout_ [baut].[43] This [a]
is sometimes called the "clear" _a_ sound. See the diagram on p. 123.

Next, draw the tongue a little back, and you will obtain a variety of
[ɑ] which is "dark" and has a suggestion of the vowel in _all_ [ɔːl].
This sound is commonly substituted for the "pure" or "neutral" [ɑ] in
cockney speech, so that _fast_ is made to sound like [fɔːst], _park_
like [pɔːk].

This "darkening" of the _a_ sound should not be permitted; in order to
counteract it, it may be advisable to make the class utter [ɑ] singly
and in chorus, until they are quite clear as to the nature of the
required sound.

It is sometimes found that precise speakers, through an excessive
desire to avoid any suspicion of cockney leanings in their speech,
substitute [a] for [ɑ], saying, for instance, [faːðə] in place of
[fɑːðə]; it is particularly ladies of real or would-be refinement who
commit this mistake. A mistake it is, like every other deviation from
what is generally recognised by the educated.

In other cases the "clear" pronunciation of _a_ is often heard, _e.g._,
in _glass_, _bath_, _past_, _answer_, _demand_, _grant_, _everlasting_.
Both [a] and [æ] occur, particularly in the speech of ladies. What is
the American pronunciation of _half_?

In standard English there is practically no short [ɑ],[44] but only the
long [ɑː], which should be neither "dark" nor "clear." If we analyse it
carefully, we often find[45] that it is not a single vowel of uniform
value, only the first part being "pure" [ɑ], the rest being a faint
variant; but for practical purposes we may regard it as uniform in
quality, as in good speech it is a pure long vowel.

=38.= There is a short sound closely akin to it (in position, but not
in sound), which we have in _but_, _much_, etc., and for which the sign
is [ʌ]. The back of the tongue is raised a little in the production
of this sound, and sometimes the front also; and in consequence there
are several varieties of it. It occurs only in syllables having
some stress; we have [ʌ] in _teacup_, _unfit_, _until_; but not in
_welcome_, which is not felt to be a compound. When it is unstressed,
it becomes the dull vowel [ə]; unstressed _but_ is [bət]. Observe the
vulgar pronunciation of _just_ as [dʒest].

       *       *       *       *       *

The dull vowel [ə] occurs very commonly in ordinary speech; most
unstressed syllables contain this vowel or the variety of [i] mentioned
below. It is found, for instance, in the italicised syllables of
vow_e_l, vari_e_ty, carp_e_nt_e_r, ordin_a_ry. The long [əː] is
variously written; we have it in _fern_, _fir_,[46] _fur_, _word_.
(In northern English there is some variety in the [ə], according to
the written vowel which it represents.) Notice the precise and the
ordinary pronunciation of such words as _paternal_, _polite_, _potato_.
The uneducated often insert [ə] in such words as _Henry_ [henəri],
_umbrella_ [ʌmbərelə]; and sometimes they substitute [i] for [ə], as
in _miracle_, wrongly pronounced [mirikl̩], _philosopher_, wrongly
pronounced [fi´lɔsifə], and in _oracle_, _pigeon_.

The letters _e_, _i_, and _y_ in unstressed syllables represent a very
laxly articulated sound, for which the sign [i] is used in this book.
It varies somewhat in different speakers; several sounds intermediate
between the open [ɪ] and the middle [_e_] may be heard. This serves
to explain the uncertainty of spelling in such cases as _ensure_ and
_insure_, _enquire_ and _inquire_.

Sometimes the vowel disappears altogether, as in _business_,
_medicine_, _venison_.

The letter _o_ in unstressed syllables preceding the chief stress is
usually [ə], but in precise speech an _o_-sound is heard in such words
as _conceive_, _official_, _possess_. After the chief stress [ɔ] is
rarely heard; but _epoch_ [ijpɔk] and other uncommon words keep the [ɔ].

=39. The front vowels.=--Utter the word _he_ and notice what the tongue
does. You can do so by looking into your mirror, or by putting a finger
just inside your front upper teeth, or by whispering the sound, and
feeling what happens.

_You will generally find that you can analyse vowels best if you
whisper them, because the "voice" does not interfere with your
appreciation of the mouth resonances. By this time your muscular
consciousness_ (see § 9) _should be considerably developed, and you
should be conscious of what your tongue, lips, etc., are doing, without
having recourse to a mirror_.

You will find that you are raising your tongue very high in front:
[ɑ] and [i] are extremes; in the one case the front of the tongue is
practically as low as it can be, in the other it is raised as high as
possible. You might raise the tongue farther, but the resulting sound
would not be a vowel. The passage would be too narrow, there would be
friction, and a continuant would be the result (see § 34).

Utter a pure [ɑ] and gradually raise the front of the tongue until
you reach [i]. You may either keep your vocal chords vibrating all the
time, or you may whisper the sounds; but see that the tongue moves
slowly and steadily. You will realise that very many sounds lie between
[ɑ] and [i]; as they are all produced with the raising of the front of
the tongue, they are called front vowels.

We have already noticed clear [a], and have met with [æ], which is the
vowel sound in _hat_ [hæt]. When unstressed the [æ] gives place to [ə];
_that_ [ðæt] becomes [ðət].

       *       *       *       *       *

The uneducated sometimes substitute a closer sound (the middle _e_) for
[æ]; they say [k_e_b] for _cab_, [k_e_tʃ] for _catch_, [θ_e_ŋks] for
_thanks_, [b_e_ŋk] for _bank_. The same mistake may also be heard in
the pronunciation of _carriage_, _radish_, _January_. In _any_, _many_
the first vowel is always [_e_]. What is it in _manifold_?

The sound [æ] is only found short. There is a kindred long sound [ɛː],
as in _fair_, for which the tongue is rather higher. It is often called
the open [ɛ], [æ] being a still more open sound.

       *       *       *       *       *

A difference in the formation of [æ] and [ɛː] must be noticed; it is
not confined to this pair of vowels. In uttering a vowel sound we may
adjust the articulations so favourably that the resulting sound is
clear and decided; this may be called _tense_ articulation, producing
tense vowels. If we do not trouble to adjust the articulations
carefully, if we have lax articulation, we obtain _lax_ vowels. In
standard English we do not articulate tensely, except in precise
and emphatic speech. (Notice how tensely the French and the Germans
articulate their accented long vowels.) In teaching children the terms
_tight_ and _loose_ may be used.

The articulation of [ɛː] is relatively tense, that of [æ] is lax. For
[ɛ] see the diagram on p. 123.

Notice that [ɛː] is always followed by a more or less distinct [ə];
_there_ is [ðɛːə], _Mary_ is [mɛː(ə)ri]. Consider the value of _-ear-_
in _bear_ and _bearing_.

There is a vulgar pronunciation of _I dare say_ as [ai desei], instead
of [ai dɛːə sei].

=40.= The diphthongs in _bite_ and _bout_ are pronounced by the
uneducated in many ways not permissible in standard English. The first
element should be "clear" [a]. A "pure" [ɑ] would not be offensive
here, though it is much less common;[47] but any pushing forward of the
tongue beyond the [a] limit, any substitution of [æ] for [a], is not to
be tolerated. The nasalising of these diphthongs adds to the unpleasant
effect. Probably the best means of counteracting these tendencies is
to insist on [ɑi] and [ɑu]; if the pure [ɑ] has been practised, as was
suggested above, it will form a stepping-stone to the acquisition of
good diphthongs.

Notice how a German pronounces these diphthongs; you will find that he
dwells much longer on the first element than we do, and that it is more
open.

The ending _-ile_ in _agile_, _docile_, _fertile_, _futile_, _hostile_,
_puerile_ is pronounced [ail], and not [il] as used to be the case.

=41.= The next sounds in the series, obtained by raising the tongue
a little higher than for [ɛ], are "middle" [_e_] and "close" [e].
The vowel in _pen_, _get_, _fell_ is usually the middle [_e_]; some
speakers (perhaps mostly ladies) use the close [e] here, but the very
close [e], heard in French _été_, is not found in standard English.
For ordinary purposes the sign [e] may serve to designate both [e] and
[_e_], as they are so closely connected. When unstressed, the [e] gives
place to [ə]; thus unstressed _them_ is [ðəm]. Notice that _'em_ really
goes back to the old form _hem_.

For [e] see the diagram on p. 122.

Observe the colloquial tendency to pronounce _get_ as [git].

       *       *       *       *       *

A fairly close [e] is in standard English the first element of the
diphthong in _laid_, _tame_, _late_, etc. There is not one uniform
vowel sound in these words; pronounce _aid_ quite slowly, and you
will notice that the tongue rises before the consonant is reached.
The diphthong is long when a voiced sound follows it, short before a
voiceless sound. Thus _laid_ [leid] is longer than _late_ [leit]. Test
this statement by finding other words containing the diphthong, and
pronouncing them to yourself or getting others to pronounce them. What
is the quantity of the [ei] when the diphthong is final?

       *       *       *       *       *

In vulgar speech the first element of the diphthong tends to [ɑ],
sometimes almost to [ɔ].

Listen to a foreigner's pronunciation of English words containing this
diphthong; what do you notice?

The vowel in _says_ and _said_ is short [sez, sed], as also in _ate_
[et]. The pronunciation of _-ain_ as [ein] in such words as _fountain_,
_captain_, _bargain_, is a pedantic affectation.

How do you pronounce _villain_, _curtain_?

=42.= Two front vowels remain to be considered, the _i_ sounds. Say
_bid_ and _bead_. You recognise that one is longer than the other; are
they otherwise the same? Say _bid_ and repeat it with the same vowel
drawn out; then say _bead_, and repeat it with the vowel shortened. If
you are careful in each case to change only the length, and not the
quality of the vowel, you will perceive that the vowels in _bid_ and in
_bead_ are different.

       *       *       *       *       *

The vowel in _bid_ is laxly articulated and is known as the open [ɪ].
In unstressed syllables (see § 38) it is often very open indeed, and
when it is final, as in _very_, the tongue is raised very little
higher than for close or even middle _e_. The sign for this sound is
[e˔] or [ɪ˕]. (Here ˔ means more close, ˕ more open.) Can you hear any
difference between the two vowels of _lily_?

The great phonetician Ellis remarked that the pronunciation of the _i_
in _six_ is the touchstone of foreigners, especially of those belonging
to the Romance nations; they usually articulate it too tensely. Ask a
Frenchman to say _fini_, and compare his sounds with those in _finny_.

Notice the frequent cockney pronunciation of _-y_ as [_e_i], _e.g._, in
windy [wind_e_i].

Often [ə] is substituted for this sound, as in _unity_, _ability_,
pronounced [juwnəti, ə´biləti], also in _April_, _visible_; but this is
avoided by some speakers.

The [i] in the diphthongs [ai] and [ɔi], as in _buy_, _boy_, is very
low.

       *       *       *       *       *

In _bead_ we have not a single vowel, but a kind of diphthong. If
you utter it slowly, you will find that the tongue does not remain
in a uniform position, but rises a little towards the end, the sound
becoming closer. It may begin close, in which case the further rising
reduces the passage so much that we have [j]; _bead_ in this case
is [bijd]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close
position; then _bead_ is [bɪid].[48] When the diphthong is followed by
a voiceless sound, it is shortened; _beat_ [bijt] [bɪit] is shorter
than _bead_. Compare also _seed_, _seat_, _sit_; _feed_, _feet_, _fit_.
Careful speakers pronounce _been_ like _bean_, not like _bin_; most
speakers, however, use the shortened form in ordinary speech.

For [i] see the diagram on p. 122.

In _dear_, _fear_, etc., we have a rather open vowel, of varying
length, followed by [ɔ]; we may write [diə], but strictly it is [dɪə,
dIˑə] and sometimes [dIːə]. Before [r], as in _dearest_, the [ə]
becomes faint or disappears. Standard English contains no [i] as close
as the French [i] and the German [iː]. Convince yourself of this by
asking foreigners to pronounce words containing these sounds, in their
own language or in English.

Notice the frequent pronunciation of _ear_, _year_, as [jəː], and that
of _dear_ as [djəː].

       *       *       *       *       *

We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [i] to [ɑ]
occurring in standard English.

  close i (diagram, p. 122)
    \
    open ɪ
      \
      close e (diagram, p. 122)
        \
        middle _e_
          \
          open ɛ (diagram, p. 123)
            \
       more open æ
              \
              clear a (diagram, p. 123)
                \
                ɑ (diagram, p. 125)

It will be good practice for you to utter this series of sounds, from
[ɑ] to [i] and _vice versa_, and long as well as short.

The raising of the tongue for the [i] sounds is best seen if the upper
and lower teeth are kept well apart.

=43. The back vowels.=--When the front vowels have been carefully
differentiated, the back vowels will be found to present little
difficulty. Owing to the fact that the back of the tongue does not
admit of so much variety of movement as the front of the tongue, the
number of sounds in the series [ɑ] to [u] is smaller than in the series
[ɑ] to [i].

You will see that there is some resemblance between the sounds of the
two series. Thus we had a lax [æ] and a tense [ɛː] in the front vowels;
and there are corresponding open _o_ sounds when the tongue is raised a
little at the back.

The articulation of these sounds is often unsatisfactory owing to the
lower jaw not being moved down sufficiently, the teeth being hardly
separated. The back vowels gain in quality (cp. § 36) if they are
produced with lip rounding. The opening is large in the case of the
sounds in which the tongue is only slightly raised; as it rises higher,
the opening of the lips grows smaller, until for [u] it is only the
size of the end of an ordinary lead pencil. This lip rounding is rare
with southern English speakers who have not had special voice training;
they usually bring together or separate the lips without rounding.

       *       *       *       *       *

The short vowel sound in _not_, _what_, etc., is a laxly articulated,
open [ɔ], much more open than any _o_ in French or German, with the
front of the tongue even lower than for [ɑ]. It is lengthened a little
before a voiced final consonant, as in _dog_ [dɔg]; but it should never
be made quite long. The pronunciation [gɔːd] for _God_ is detestable.
Before _ss_ [s], _st_ [st], _sp_ [sp], _th_ [θ], and _f_, _ff_, or
_ph_ [f], the long sound is occasionally heard. Determine whether in
the following words you use the long or the short sound: _loss, ost_,
_froth_, _cross_, _cough_, _soft_, _coffee_, _off_, _officer_, _cloth_,
_moss_, _gospel_. Extend the inquiry to your friends.

When the short [ɔ] is in an unstressed syllable it either disappears
entirely (as in _lesson_, where the [n] is syllabic, see § 24), or
it may become [ə], as in _minor_ [mainə], or it may become the sound
[ö], which will be explained in § 44. Thus _October_ is [ɔk´toubə] or
[ök´toubə]; _connect_ is [kɔ´nekt] only in precise speech, but usually
[kö´nekt] or [kə´nekt].

       *       *       *       *       *

The long [ɔ] in _law_, _laud_, _lord_ is rather tensely articulated,
certainly not so laxly as the short [ɔ].[49] Before voiceless sounds
the vowel is somewhat shortened, as in _short_ (compare _shawl_ and
_shot_). It is in standard English the only sound of stressed _or_ (or
_oar_) before a consonant;[50] there is no difference in sound between
_laud_ and _lord_, _fought_ and _fort_, _stalk_ and _stork_, _cawed_
and _cord_. It is true that some speakers try to make a distinction.
The long [ɔː] is not a simple long vowel, but really a diphthong of
which the second element is [ə][51]; and in words containing a written
_r_, these precise speakers somewhat lengthen the [ə] element. Thus
they will say [lɔːᵊd] for _laud_, and [lɔːəd] for _lord_. It may be
added that they generally do so only if the distinction has been spoken
about, and they have expressed their firm belief in its existence;
then, for a while, the [ɔːə] may be heard. A simple test, which the
student should apply to his friends, is that of asking them to
write down the word he utters. If he says [fɔːt], meaning _fought_,
most people will write down _fort_, because the sound gives them
no guidance, and the substantive is likely to occur to them first.
Similarly, if he says [lɔːd], meaning _laud_, they will write down
_lord_.[52]

The word _lore_, which hardly occurs in ordinary speech, is often
pronounced [lɔːə] in order to distinguish it from _law_, the [ə] sound
being much more distinct than in _law_, _more_, _bore_, etc. Consider
the value of _-ore-_ in _more water_, and in _more ink_.

       *       *       *       *       *

There is much variation in the pronunciation of the words _daunt_,
_flaunt_, _gaunt_, _gauntlet_, _haunch_, _haunt_, _jaundice_, _jaunt_,
_launch_, _laundry_, _paunch_, _saunter_, _staunch_, _taunt_, _vaunt_.
The general tendency seems to be in favour of [ɔː], not [ɑː].

       *       *       *       *       *

When unstressed, the sound is often shortened to [ɔ] or [ö][53]; thus
_autumnal_ becomes [ɔ´tʌmnəl] or [ö´tʌmnəl]; _or_ when stressed is
[ɔː], unstressed [ɔ] or [ö] or [ə].

       *       *       *       *       *

A variety of the open [ɔ], not equally open in all speakers of standard
English, is the first element in the diphthong found in _boy_ [bɔi].
The pronunciation [böi[53]] is also heard.

In vulgar speech [ɔi] sometimes becomes [ɑi]; thus _boil_ is
pronounced [bɑil]. Only in _choir_ (also written _quire_) is this
pronunciation current in good speech.

=44.= Utter the sound usually called "long _o_" and found in _bode_,
_boat_, etc,; you will observe that the sound is not uniform, as the
tongue rises a little before the consonant is reached.[54] Indeed the
action of the tongue is quite similar to what we noticed in the case of
[ei] in § 41; and also to [iːj] or [Iːi] in § 42, where, however, it is
less obvious to the ear. The diphthongal character of the "long _o_" is
so essential, that when a stranger merely says [oːnoː] for _oh no!_ we
at once recognise that he is not English.

The first element of this diphthong is a middle [_o_], sometimes a
fairly close [o]; in standard English the [o] is never so close as in
French [o] or in German [ɔː].[55] (Watch foreigners when they utter
these sounds; notice how tensely they articulate, and how much more
they round their lips than we do.) In cockney speech the first element
is pronounced with the tongue lower and raised in front.--The second is
a _u_ sound; place a finger against the interval between the upper and
lower teeth, and notice how they are brought a little closer towards
the end of the diphthong. Observe also the action of the lips. The
diphthong is longer before voiced than before voiceless continuants;
verify this statement by saying, or getting others to say, _bode_ and
_boat_, _goad_ and _goat_, _robe_ and _rope_, _brogue_ and _broke_.

In syllables that are weakly stressed, the first part of the diphthong
becomes [_o_], [ö][56] or even [ə], the second part disappearing
altogether. Thus _fellow_ is in precise speech [feloːu], but in
ordinary speech [fel_o_, felö], and in careless (but not necessarily
vulgar) speech [felə].[57] In "ladies' speech" the [öü] occurs even in
stressed syllables, and may then be confidently described as a sign of
affectation.

The prefix _pro-_, when stressed, is generally pronounced [prou]. In
_process_ and _progress_ [prɔ] is sometimes heard; in the substantives
_project_ and _produce_ it is the rule.

=45.= The _u_ sounds are clearly parallel to the _i_ sounds. In both
cases we have a laxly articulated short sound, and a diphthong in which
the tongue rises towards the end.

       *       *       *       *       *

The short sound in _would_, _book_, etc., is open, and the sign for it
is [ᴜ]. Do you notice any difference in the length of the vowel sound
in the words _should_ and _put_, _pull_ and _cook_? Observe others, if
you are uncertain in your own case. (You will sometimes find it hard to
determine what is your natural, instinctive way of pronouncing a word,
when once you have grown accustomed to watching your own speech.)

When this [ᴜ] is unstressed it becomes [ü][58] or [ə], or is dropped
altogether. Thus _helpful_ becomes [helpfül, helpfəl], and _should_
becomes [ʃüd, ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt].

       *       *       *       *       *

The vowel sound in _who_ is not uniform. (See what was said about the
corresponding _i_ sound in § 42). It may begin as close [u][59], in
which case the further rising towards the end reduces the passage so
much that we have [w]; _who_ in this case is [huːw]. Or the vowel may
begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then _who_ is [hUːu].
When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is somewhat
shortened; _hoot_ is [huwt] or [hᴜut]; compare _root_ with _rude_. A
half-long vowel is now generally heard in _room_; some speakers make it
quite short.

In unstressed syllables the first element is shortened and often
becomes [ü]; thus _July_ is [dʒüw´lai].

Before [ə] the diphthong loses its second element; _cruel_ is [kruəl].
When the [ə] represents a written _r_, the first element often changes
to a vowel with lower tongue position. Thus _poor_ is pronounced
[pᴜə, poə], and some educated speakers of southern English even say
[pɔː], riming with _door_, _floor_; but this can hardly be considered
standard English. Notice also the various pronunciations of _your_,
_sure_. Before spoken [r], as in _poorest_, _enduring_, the [ə] becomes
very faint or disappears.

       *       *       *       *       *

The so-called "long u" in such words as _due_, _dew_, _dude_ consists
of three parts. The second and third are the vowel sounds in _do_,
which have just been discussed; the first is [j], which after voiceless
sounds tends to become the voiceless [ç] and even [ʃ], as was mentioned
in § 34. Thus _tune_ is in ordinary speech [tjuwn], and often [tçuwn];
in careless speech it may even become [tʃuwn].

The _-ture_ in _nature_, _creature_, _forfeiture_, etc., is generally
pronounced [tʃə][60]; the pronunciation [tjə] or [tjü] sounds affected
in ordinary speech. _Venture_ is usually [ventʃə], sometimes [venʃə],
[ventjə], or [ventjü]. _Censure_ is always [senʃə].

In _allude_, *_allusion_, _lute_, _lucent_, _luminous_, *_flute_,
_salute_,*_absolute_, *_absolution_, _dissolute_, *_dissolution_,
*_superstition_, *_Susan_ both [uw] and [juw] may be heard; [uw] is
probably more common in the words marked with an asterisk. Precise
speakers prefer [juw] in all the words given. In _assume_, _presume_
[juw] is regularly heard. As a rule [j] is not inserted after [r], [ʃ],
[ʒ], or consonant plus [l].

Notice the pronunciation of _casual_ [kæʒuəl] or [kæʒwəl], _sensual_
[senʃuəl], _usual_ [juwʒuəl] or [juwʒəl], _visual_ [vizjuəl]. _Educate_
is [edjukeit] or [edʒukeit]; careful speakers prefer the former.

As the "long _u_" begins with a consonantal sound it is correct to say
_a uniform_, _a university_, _a union_, _a European_, _a eulogy_. To
write _an_ before such words is a gross mistake.

We find the [u] element changed in unstressed syllables; thus _value_
becomes [væljü], _regular_ becomes [regjülə, regjələ], and, very
colloquially, [reglə].

       *       *       *       *       *

We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from [u] to [ɑ]
occurring in standard English:

         ü  close u (diagram, p. 124)
             /
          open ᴜ
           /
        close o (diagram, p. 124)
         /
   ö  middle _o_
       /
    open ɔ (diagram, p. 125)
     /
  dark ɑ

Practise this series, as was suggested in § 42, in connection with the
[i] to [ɑ] series.

FOOTNOTES:

[14] For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which
the breath does not also pass out through the mouth, _i.e._ which are
not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."

[15] Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.

[16] Also called labial.

[17] Also called dental.

[18] Also called palatal.

[19] Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more
usually, but less accurately, guttural.

[20] An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are
common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.

[21] Examples in the conventional spelling are printed in _italics_.

[22] _i.e._ at the end of a word, before a pause.

[23] When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic
of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home
counties.

[24] The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.

[25] On the other hand, in Somerset _clean, clod_ are sometimes
pronounced with [tl-].

[26] See footnote 8 on page 29.

[27] See footnote 8 on page 29.

[28] In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-_ing_ is
always pronounced [iŋg].

[29] The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.

[30] The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.

[31] See also § 45.

[32] Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit]
but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].

[33] In a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue; or
the tongue may be "tied," in which case the ligature is easily cut.

[34] The back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent; how does
this explain the substitution of [w] for [r] which is sometimes heard?

[35] The rule may also be stated thus: _r_ is only heard when a vowel
follows in the same or the next word. "Vowel" must here be taken to
include [j].

[36] The term "dark" here implies a deep and obscure resonance, with
little friction.

[37] Contrast the [l] of _will_ and _willing_ (where its position
between front vowels leads to forward formation).

[38] Some pronounce this word [sælv].

[39] Some pronounce this word [fɔlkən].

[40] These are modifications of the Scotch form of the word.

[41] [h] is described as voiceless; but it may also be produced with
voice. We have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a
cartilaginous part: it is possible to let the former vibrate, while the
latter is left open, and the breath passing through produces [h]. Try
to utter this sound.

[42] The "neutral" vowel [ə], for which see § 38, requires less effort.

[43] Notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in
uttering the first part of this diphthong; see § 40.

[44] However, there is a pronunciation of _are_, intermediate between
the emphatic [ɑː] and the unstressed [ə], which may be described as
short [ɑ]. The _a_ in the unstressed prefix _trans-_, and the second
_a_ of _advantageous_ also have the sound of [ɑ] sometimes.

[45] Especially when it is final.

[46] Many cultivated people pronounce _girl_ as [gɛəl]; but [gəːl] is
to be preferred. _Clerk_, _sergeant_ have [ɑː], not [əː]; also _Derby_,
_Berkshire_, _Hertfordshire_.

[47] It is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally; in
ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner, especially
if the [ɑ] element of the diphthong is lengthened.

[48] The first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation
of _tea_, _please_.

[49] For [ɔː] see the diagram on p. 125.

[50] Exceptions are _borrow_, etc., _work_, _attorney_, etc.

[51] To pronounce this [ə] distinctly in such words as _law_, _saw_ is
a mistake.

[52] It is absurd to speak of _fort_ and _caught_, _morn_ and _dawn_ as
"cockney" rimes; they are perfectly good rimes in standard English; and
a southern Englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad.
Considering, however, that standard English is by no means universal,
the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes.

[53] For [ö] see the note on p. 68.

[54] In the case of this diphthong as well as in that in _name_,
_pail_, etc. (see § 41), untrained singers usually betray themselves by
passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong.

[55] For [o] see the diagram on p. 124.

[56] [ö] is [o] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more
forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French
_eu_ or German _ö_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.

[57] The pronunciations [wində, pilə] for _window_, _pillow_ are,
however, avoided by educated speakers.

[58] [ü] is [u] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more
forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French
_u_ or German _ü_; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.

[59] For [u] see the diagram on p. 124.

[60] See also § 29.




THE SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH


=46.= Let us take a familiar nursery rime as an example of simple
conversational English; it will serve to give us some idea of the
problems which have to be considered when we deal with the sounds of
connected speech. This is the rime:

siŋ ə sɔŋ əv sikspəns | ə pɔkit ful əv rai | fɔːr ən tʍ_e_nti
blækbəːdzz̥ | beikt in ə pai | w_e_n ðə pai wəz oŭpnd | ðə bəːdzz̥
bi´gæn tə siŋ | wɔzn̩(t) ðæt ə deinti diʃ | tə s_e_t bi´fɔː ðə kiŋ.

=47.= Pedantically precise speech is as much out of place in the
nursery as vulgar speech; therefore we do not say, siŋ eĭ sɔŋ ɔv
siksp_e_ns.

Notice that the following words have =strong and weak forms=, a weak
form being regularly used when they are not stressed:--

             _weak_                    _strong_
  a, an      ə, ən                     ei, æn
  the        ðə (before consonants)    ðij
             ði (before vowels)
  has        həz,[61] əz, z             hæz
  have       həv,[61] əv, v             hæv
  had        həd,[61] əd, d            hæd
  is         iz, z, s                  iˑz
  are        ɑ(r), ə(r)                ɑːə, ɑːr
  was        wəz                       wɔz
  were       wə(r)                     wəː(r), wɛːə(r)
  can        kən, kn̩                  kæn
  shall      ʃəl, əl, l                ʃæl
  will       əl, l                     wil
  could      kəd                       kud
  should     ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt, d            ʃud
  would      wəd, əd, d                wud
  he         hi,[62] i                  hij
  she        ʃi                        ʃij
  her        hə(r),[62] ə(r)           həː(r)
  him        ɪm                        him
  his        ɪz                        hiz
  we         wi                        wij
  us         əs                        ʌs
  you        ju, jə                    juw
  them       ðəm, (əm)                 ðem
  your       jü(r), jɔ(r), jə(r)       juːə(r)
  of         əv                        ɔv
  from       frəm, frm̩                frɔm
  to         tə (before consonants)    tu
  and        ənd, n̩d, ɔn, n̩          ænd
  or         ɔ(r), ə(r)                ɔː(r)

The use of strong forms for weak ones in ordinary conversation is
undoubtedly a fault, and should be avoided; much of the unnatural
reading aloud in our schools is due to this cause. Foreigners who
have lived long in England often fail in this respect when they have
overcome almost all other difficulties. It is also not uncommon in the
speech of colonials.

       *       *       *       *       *

Notice [p_e_ns], but [sikspəns].

A word which forms the second part of a compound often changes in
pronunciation, a weaker form being substituted. Compare _penny_ and
_halfpenny_, _board_ and _cupboard_, _come_ and _welcome_, _day_ and
_yesterday_, _ways_ and _always_, _fast_ and _breakfast_, _mouth_ and
_Portsmouth_, _land_ and _England_, _ford_ and _Oxford_.

The first letter of the second part is sometimes dropped; thus the
_w_ in _housewife_ (case for needles, etc.) [hʌzif], _Greenwich_,
_Harwich_, _Woolwich_, _Norwich_, _Keswick_, _Warwick_ is no longer
pronounced, nor the _h_ in _shepherd_, _forehead_, _Clapham_,
_Sydenham_, and in many words beginning with _ex-_, e.g., _exhale_,[63]
_exhaust_, _exhibit_, _exhilarate_, _exhort_. The dropping of _h_ in
_neighbourhood_ is vulgar.

Sometimes there is a change in the first part of a compound word.
Compare _half_ and _halfpenny_, _three_ and _threepence_, _fore_ and
_forehead_, _break_ and _breakfast_.

The stress of compounds like _sixpence_ is discussed below
("blackbirds").

=48.= In _pocket_ the second vowel is not middle [_e_], but a very
laxly articulated variety of [ɪ], with the tongue only a little higher
than for close [e]; see § 38. In the speech of elocutionists the middle
[_e_] often appears here. They tell of the [gaːəd_e_n ɔv ijd_e_n],
just as they succeed in pronouncing [d_e_vɪl] instead of [d_e_vəl],
thus avoiding all offence; for [d_e_vəl] is said by common people, but
[d_e_vɪl] only by the polite.

       *       *       *       *       *

Notice that in _four-and-twenty_ the _r_ is pronounced, as it comes
between vowels; but it is mute in _before the King_, where it comes
before a consonant, as in the word _forth_. See § 32.

=49.= In _and_ the _d_ is dropped. Here it might be a case of
assimilation; that is to say the _t_ which immediately follows, and
which is closely akin to it, might have changed it to [t], and the two
would have fallen together.

In _sit down_, do you utter both [t] and [d]? If you speak naturally,
you probably say [sidaun] or [sitaun]. What is your pronunciation of
_hold tight_, _less zeal_?

In _cupboard_ none but the absurdly precise pronounce the [p].

       *       *       *       *       *

Assimilation of consonants is common in English, and the more
colloquial the speech is, the more assimilation you are likely to find.
Assimilation reduces the number of movements which have to be made,
and thus represents a saving of trouble; and in colloquial speech we
incline to take as little trouble as possible.

The general rule is, that when two sounds come together, those
movements of articulation which are common to both are executed once
only. Thus in _don't_,[64] the stopping of the passage for [n] also
does duty for [t]; it is the opening of the passage which constitutes
the [t]. In _stamp_ the closure for [m] also does duty for [p]. In
_witness_ the closure for [t] remains for [n], which merely requires
the opening of the nose-passage and vibration of the vocal chords.

Utter the word _clean_, and observe whether you produce the [k] in
the same way as in _keen_; probably you will find that for the [k] of
_clean_ you open the closure only at the sides, leaving the centre of
the tongue in contact, ready for the production of [l]. See whether
anything similar happens when you say the word _atlas_.

Sometimes a voiced sound makes a neighbouring sound voiced, or a
voiceless sound makes a neighbouring sound voiceless. Examples in
the nursery rime are [bəːdzz̥] and [beikt]; find similar examples of
the _s_ of the plural[65] and the _ed_ of the past participle, and
determine in each case whether the final sound is voiced or voiceless.
Try to find pairs like _lagged_ and _lacked_, _bids_ and _bits_.

Utter the words _apt_, _act_, and notice carefully when you make the
closure for [t]; probably it is earlier than you would have thought. Do
you make the [n] closure in _open_ before or after the [p] opening?

In compound words, and in neighbouring words which belong closely
together, assimilation is common. When one word ends in a voiceless
sound and the other begins with a voiced sound, or _vice versa_, it
is usually the second which prevails. Observe _cupboard_ [kʌbəd],
_raspberry_ [rɑːzbəri], _blackguard_ [blægɑːd], _bedtime_ [betaim],
_hold tight_ [houltait].

Consider the pronunciation of _observe_, _obstacle_, _gooseberry_,
_absolve_, _absolute_.

In careless speech [hɔːʃu] is heard for [hɔːsʃu], [lædbru grouv] does
duty for _Ladbroke Grove_, and [həsijn] for _has seen_. _Is she_ is
regularly pronounced [iʒ ʃi], or [iʃi] in quick conversation.

The nasals frequently change to suit the place of articulation of
the _following_ sound, as in _congress_ [kɔŋres], _congregation_
[kɔŋri´geiʃən], _anchor_, _concave_, _conclusion_, _concourse_,
_concrete_, _syncope_, _tranquil_, _unctuous_, _pincushion_ [piŋkuʃən],
_infamous_ [imfəməs], _Holland Park_ [hɔləmpɑːk]; or of the _preceding_
sound, as in _second single_ [sekŋsiŋgəl], _captain_ [kæpm̩], _open the
door_ [oupm̩ ðə dɔː], _cup and saucer_ [kʌpm̩sɔːsə]. The examples from
_pincushion_ onwards occur only in distinctly careless speech.

The change of [s] to [z] in _house_, _houses_ [haus, hauziz], shows a
different kind of assimilation.

=50.= The dropping of _d_ in _four-and-twenty_ might also be due to
the desire to =simplify a group of consonants=; and this will seem the
more likely explanation if we notice that the _d_ of _and_ is generally
dropped before a consonant, but kept before a vowel. Compare _you and
Ida_, _bread and butter_; if you drop the _d_ in the first instance,
or utter it in the second, you are equally wrong. Such simplifying is
fairly common in educated speech; most people drop the _t_ in _often_,
and the _p_ in _empty_ (where it has no etymological justification),
and _jumped_; in colloquial speech _don't know_ is [dʌnou]. In quite
careless speech you may notice consonants dropped in such words as
_acts_, _insects_, but this is clearly a licence which cannot be
permitted in the class-room. Indeed these groups of consonants should
be articulated with great care. Nothing so quickly gives an effect
of slovenly speech as the slurring of consonants, where it is not
generally adopted.

       *       *       *       *       *

In ordinary speech numerous instances occur of this tendency to
simplify groups of consonants, _d_ and _t_ being the sounds most
frequently dropped.

    _d_ is not pronounced in _handkerchief_ [hæŋkətʃif], _handsome_
    [hænsəm], _Windsor_ [winzə], _Guildford_ [gilfəˑd], _Ingoldsby_
    [iŋgəlzbi], _Wednesday_ [wenzdi].[66]

    The _d_ in _friends_, _grandfather_ is also often dropped;
    and, in very careless speech, the _d_ of such words as _old_,
    _cold_, _child_, _thousand_, _kindness_, _landlord_.

    _t_ is not pronounced in _christen_ [krisən], _glisten_
    [glisən], _hasten_ [heisən], _listen_ [lisən], _moisten_
    [mɔisən], _apostle_ [ə´pɔsəl], _bustle_ [bʌsəl], _castle_
    [kɑːsəl], _epistle_ [i´pisəl], _gristle_ [grisəl], _hustle_
    [hʌsəl], _ostler_ [ɔslə], _pestle_ [pesəl], _rustle_ [rʌsəl],
    _thistle_ [θisəl], _trestle_ [tresəl], _whistle_ [wisəl],
    _wrestle_ [resəl], *_Westbourne_ [wesbən], *_Westminster_
    [wesminstə], _Christmas_ [krisməs], _chestnut_ [tʃesnət],
    _coastguard_ [kousgɑːd], _often_ [ɔːfən], _soften_ [sɔːfən],
    _mortgage_ [mɔːgidʒ], *_directly_ [di´rekli], *_exactly_
    [i´gzækli], _postpone_ [pous´poun], _waistcoat_ [weiskət,
    weskət], _bankruptcy_ [bæŋkrəpsi].

    In very careless speech the _t_ of such words as _slept_,
    _swept_, _wept_ is dropped; also in _acts_, _facts_, _insects_,
    _sects_.

    Notice the French _rosbif_, _bifteck_.

    _th_ is not pronounced in _asthma_ [æsmə], _isthmus_ [isməs]
    and (carelessly) in _depths_.

    _p_ is not pronounced in _empty_ [emti], _jumped_ [dʒʌmt],
    _tempt_ [temt], _attempt_ [ə´temt], _contempt_ [kən´temt],
    _peremptory_ [pər´emtəri], _symptom_ [simtəm],[67] _sapphire_
    [sæfaiə], _Sappho_ [sæfou].

    _c_ is not pronounced in _corpuscle_ [kɔː´pʌsəl], _muscle_
    [mʌsəl], _victuals_ [vitl̩z], _indict_ [in´dait].[68]

So many educated speakers say [ɑːst] for _asked_, that this
pronunciation must be regarded as no longer incorrect.

What is the usual pronunciation of _next station_?

In careful speech the simplifications marked with an asterisk are
avoided, as also such pronunciations as [ail dʒʌssij] for _I'll just
see_, [difikl̩ kwestʃn̩z] for _difficult questions_. The omission of
[k] in the pronunciation of _arctic_ and _antarctic_ and of [g] in
_recognise_ is generally regarded as faulty.

       *       *       *       *       *

Unfamiliar groups of consonants at the beginning of words are
simplified by dropping the first sound; notice the simplification of

  _bd_      in _bdellium_;
  _chth_    in _chthonian_;
  _gn_      in _gnaw_, _gneiss_, _gnome_, _gnostic_;
  _gz (x)_  in _Xerxes_ [zəːksijz], _Xenophon_;
  _kn_      in _knee_, _knit_, _know_, etc.;
  _mn_      in _mnemonic_;
  _phth_    in _phthisis_ [θaisis], also [taisis];
  _pn_      in _pneumatic_, _pneumonia_;
  _ps_      in _psalm_, _pseudo-_, _Psyche_, _psychic_ [saikik],
               _psychology_, etc.;
  _pt_      in _ptarmigan_, _Ptolemy_;
  _sw_      becomes _s_ in _sword_ (observe also _answer_);
  _wr_      in _wreck_, _write_, etc.

Similarly, an unfamiliar group at the end of a word is simplified,
usually by dropping the last sound; notice--

  _ln_      in _kiln_ (some do not drop this _n_);
  _mb_      in _bomb_, _catacomb_, _climb_, _comb_, _dumb_, _hecatomb_,
               _lamb_, _limb_, _plumber_, _succumb_, _tomb_;
  _mn_      in _autumn_, _column_, _condemn_, _contemn_, _hymn_,
               _limn_, _solemn_.

(The opposite tendency is found in vulgar speech, where [vɑːmint] is
said for _vermin_, [draund] for _drown_.)

       *       *       *       *       *

Observe _drachm_ [dræm], _yacht_ [jɔt], _impugn_ [im´pjuwn],
_physiognomy_ [fizi´ɔnəmi], _diaphragm_ [daiəfræm], _paradigm_
[pærədaim], _phlegm_ [flem], _sign_ [sain], _feign_, _reign_,
_foreign_, _benign_.

=51.= In [rai] we have a diphthong. It is worth noting that the English
diphthongs [ai, au, ɔi, ei, ou], etc., all have the =stress= on the
former element.

       *       *       *       *       *

_Blackbirds_ and _black birds_: in the spelling we distinguish these
by writing the first as one word, the second as two. What difference
is there in the sounds? If you listen carefully, you will find that
the second vowel in the compound word is just a little shorter than
in _birds_ standing alone, and that in _blackbirds_ the opening of the
closure for [k] is not heard, while in _black birds_ it may be audible.
The chief difference, however, lies in the =stress of the compound
word=. _Blackbirds_ is an example of descending stress [>], _black
birds_ is pronounced with level stress [=], perhaps with ascending
stress [<].

Take the following compound words or groups, and classify them
according to their stress:--

_Sixpence_, _rainbow_, _good morning_, _looking glass_, _moonshine_,
_bravo!_, _twenty-four_, _twenty-four men_, _High Street_, _London
Road_, _waterspout_, _right of way_, _undo_, _Mr Jones_, _Park Lane_,
_season ticket_, _sunflower_, _Hongkong_, _steel pen_, _Chinese_,
_hallo!_ _bill of fare_, _earthquake_, _sea wall_, _Bond Street_,
_Grosvenor Square_, _fourteen_, _Hyde Park_.

Try to deduce some rules from these examples. It has been said that
level stress contrasts, and uneven stress unites the ideas expressed by
the compound words; do you agree with this?

Notice what difficulty our level stress gives to the German; he will
utter _steel pen_, _Hyde Park_, etc., with descending stress. Do so
yourself, and observe how strange it sounds.

Notice the difference in stress of

  Substantive or Adjective     Verb
          _absent_            _to absent_
          _accent_            _to accent_
          _consort_           _to consort_
          _converse_          _to converse_
          _desert_            _to desert_
          _prefix_            _to prefix_
          _present_           _to present_

           Substantive         Verb
          _proceeds_          _to proceed_
          _produce_           _to produce_
          _project_           _to project_
          _protest_           _to protest_
          _rebel_             _to rebel_
          _record_            _to record_
          _refuse_            _to refuse_

           Substantive         Adjective
          _compact_           _compact_
          _instinct_          _instinct_
          _minute_            _minute_

Some words of two syllables have the stress on the first or the second
syllable according to their place in the sentence. Consider the accent
of the italicised words in the following sentences: They sat _outside_.
An _outside_ passenger. Among the _Chinese_. A _Chinese_ lantern.
His age is _fifteen_. I have _fifteen_ shillings. Some fell by the
_wayside_. A _wayside_ inn. Try to find a rule governing these cases.

The stresses in a sentence are considered in § 54.

       *       *       *       *       *

_When_ would be pronounced as voiceless [ʍ] by some, hardly by a
southern English nurse saying the rime (§ 46). Notice how the tongue
moves forward as the [n] passes over into the [ð] in _when the_.

_Was_ is in the weak form because it is quite unstressed; but notice:
[wɛːə ju riːəli ðɛːə? j_e_s, ai wɔz].

=52.= In _opened_, observe carefully how the consonants are
articulated, and put their action down in writing.

How many syllables are there in _opened_, _bubbles_, _chasms_,
_mittens_?

Probably you have no difficulty in understanding and answering this
question, but if asked to describe =a syllable= you might hesitate, for
it is not easy.

Utter [ɑ] and then [t]; which carries farther, which has greater
fulness of sound or sonority? If you wished to attract the attention
of some one, and were only allowed to utter one of these two sounds,
you would prefer [ɑ] without hesitation. Why is [ɑ] more sonorous than
[t]? Because, whereas [t] is only a brief noise, in [ɑ] the current
of breath is rendered musical by the vibration of the vocal chords,
and has a free passage through the wide open mouth. Indeed [ɑ] is the
most sonorous of all sounds. It is clear that voiced sounds are more
sonorous than voiceless, vowels than consonants, continuants than
stops. The liquids and nasals stand between vowels and consonants in
point of sonority; they are voiced and with either a fair passage
through the mouth or a free passage through the nose. A good deal
naturally depends on the force and the pitch of the sounds; a whispered
[ɑ] may not carry so far as a forcible [s].

Now if a sound with good carrying power has for its neighbours sounds
that do not carry far, it helps them to be heard; notice how such
weakly sonorous sounds as [t] or [p] occurring in the words of a song
are quite clearly heard at the other end of a large concert hall. They
are carried along by the full sounding vowels, as the greater volume of
air employed causes more pressure, and hence a more forcible and louder
release. It is the sounds of greater sonority that carry the syllable,
which term is also applied to a vowel standing alone, or beside other
vowels of practically equal sonority. In English, the syllable is
generally carried by vowels; sometimes also by liquids and nasals,
which are then called =syllabic=.[69]

Rules for dividing words into syllables are given in most grammars, and
are required for writing and printing; but they do not always represent
the actual state of things. When a consonant comes between two vowels,
it really belongs to both syllables. In _leaving_ we pronounce neither
_lea-ving_ nor _leav-ing_.

From the phonetic point of view we may think of words and groups of
words as consisting of a series of sounds of varying sonority. We
may indicate the sonority very roughly by lines; if we connect their
top ends, we shall obtain a curve. Thus the word _sonority_ might be
represented as follows (no attempt is here made at scientific accuracy).

[Illustration:
        ^
        |
    ^   |   ^
  / | \/|\ /|\  ^
  | | | | | | | |
  s o n o r i t y]

The curves will represent a series of waves; and each of these waves is
a syllable.

       *       *       *       *       *

_Began_: notice the quality of the vowel in the first, unstressed
syllable of this word. It is higher than any real _e_ sound, and
is very laxly articulated. It occurs also in _before_, _enough_,
_inquire_; find other words in which it occurs. Is it the same sound as
the second vowel in _lily_?

_To sing_: read the sixth line quite naturally and see whether you say
[tə] or [tu]; get friends to read it, and find out what they say.

_When you wish to ascertain how a friend pronounces some particular
sound, do not tell him what this sound is, or he may pronounce it not
naturally, but in what he believes, or has been told, is "the correct
pronunciation."_

Try to ascertain the pronunciation of these sentences: _What are you
going to do to-morrow morning?_ _I'm going to answer letters._

_Wasn't that_: _was_ is here in the strong form (§ 47); are weak forms
found at the beginning of a sentence? Notice the syllabic [n]; also the
simplification of the group of consonants by the omission of [t]. What
is the weak form of _that_? When is it used?

The remaining words present nothing of special interest.

=53.= We may now consider the =stress of the sentence=. For this
purpose it is sufficient to consider the most sonorous part of each
syllable, generally speaking a vowel. We may distinguish stress and
absence of stress, which we can designate by the signs / and ×; extra
strong stress will be //, and secondary stress \. The first line of
Sing a Song of Sixpence, will then run:--

                             // × / × // \

Here "sing" and "six" have the strongest stress; "song" has ordinary
stress.

Secondary stress is given to that syllable of a word which is stressed,
but has not the chief stress; thus the stresses in _energetic_ may be
written \ × / ×.

The nursery rhyme then shows the following stresses:--

         // × / × // \
      × // × / × //
       // × \ × // \
      // \ × //
     // × / × // \
    × // × / × //
   // × / × // × /
  × // × / × //

Perhaps you do not read the poem in this way; mark the stresses for
yourself, without looking at the book.

_Accept no statements without verifying them._

=53A.= It will have struck you that you have really been scanning the
poem. Hitherto you may have done it by means of the signs – and ˘,
taken from Latin prosody, where they stand for "long" and "short."
Consider the question which of these two systems of scansion is the
more accurate and the more convenient.

=53B.= It may also strike you that in reading the poem we do not make
a pause at the end of each word; and of course we do not read it "all
in one breath." How many breaths do you require for reading it slowly?
for reading it quickly? What guides you in finding places for your
pauses? Take any dozen lines of prose and read them aloud; notice where
you pause for breath. The words which are read together in one breath
are called a _breath group_. After considering several passages from
this point of view, you will realise that good reading depends to some
extent on the choice of suitable places for taking breath. Let your
friends read to you, and observe how they manage their breath.

=54.= We have spoken several times of stress, and you have probably
followed without difficulty. What is stress? Utter the series of sounds
[´atata], then [a´tata], and [ata´ta].[70] You use more force for the
stressed than for the unstressed vowels, that is to say, you put more
breath into them. Place your hand close in front of your lips as you
say the above sounds, and you will notice a distinct increase of breath
as the stressed syllable is uttered.

We use this stress for purposes of emphasis; generally speaking,
we expend more breath on those syllables of a word, or words of a
sentence, which are more important for the meaning. We may say that
English sentence stress is guided by logical considerations. Is this
equally true of French? of German? Has anything struck you about the
stress in French, or in English as spoken by a Frenchman?

=55.= Stress, due to force of breath, is not the only means of
accentuation at our disposal. We can also produce various effects by
changing the _pitch_ of the voice. When the pitch of a voice hardly
varies at all, we consider it monotonous. Certain clergymen have
acquired the habit of reading the Church service in monotone; consider
whether this has any advantage or disadvantage. When there is very
great and regular or monotonous variation of pitch in a voice, we call
it a "sing-song."

In standard speech there is moderate variation of pitch; it becomes
considerable only in dramatic and oratorical declamation, when a
skilled use of pitch variations may produce a deeply moving or highly
stirring effect, somewhat resembling that produced by song.

Observe the pitch changes in ordinary speech. The most obvious case is
the rise of pitch in questions, in contrast with the tendency to lower
the pitch in a statement. Even though we have the same order of words
as in a statement, this change of pitch alone suffices to show that a
question is being asked. Say: _You are going out_ and _You are going
out?_ Try to say _Are you going out?_ with the same falling pitch as
in _You are going out_, and observe the strange effect. Determine the
changes of pitch in such questions as: _Is your brother tall or short?_
_Is your uncle's house in the town or in the country?_ Notice that joy
or any great excitement leads to the use of a higher pitch than usual.

Sometimes the pitch may rise or fall, or rise and fall, or fall and
rise during the utterance of a single vowel. Say _No_ in a doubtful, a
questioning, a decided, and a threatening tone, and observe the pitch.
If you wish to represent it roughly, you may use \ for fall in pitch, /
for a rise, /\ for a rise and fall, \/ for a fall and rise.

=56.= We have devoted our attention mainly to standard English as
it is spoken in ordinary life, because it is important to train the
ear so that it perceives the sounds and ceases to be misled by the
conventional spelling. Only when we can hear what sounds our pupils
actually utter, only when we have a fair idea of the way in which they
produce these sounds, are we in a position to correct what is faulty in
the mother tongue, or to impart the sounds of a foreign language with
any prospect of success. Hints have been given as to some of the faulty
tendencies likely to be found; the teacher whose ear has been trained
in the manner here suggested will be able to add to their number
without difficulty, and probably with growing interest. In this respect
every county presents its own problems, and many still require to be
recorded; every teacher can help by contributing his own observations.

No observer can fail to be struck by the different degrees of care with
which most individuals speak English under different circumstances.
In their talk among themselves, children, especially young boys, are
often extremely careless; at home we find various degrees of care,
much depending on the example set by the parents and the influence
of governesses and nurses. In talking to educated strangers, we are
usually careful in our pronunciation. If we occupy a position which
makes it necessary to speak to large numbers, we must be particularly
careful, and that in several respects: the voice must be pleasant,
carry far, and have good staying power.

=57.= A pleasant voice is to a certain degree a natural gift; it
depends on the quality of the vocal chords, the shape of the roof of
the mouth, and so on. Many voices are spoilt by bad habits, such as
excessive nasalising, or very high pitch. The teacher of elocution
often gives valuable criticism and help here. Listen attentively to any
criticisms which your friends make about your voice.

The voice of a public speaker (which includes the class teacher and
college lecturer no less than the clergyman, actor, or politician) must
carry far. His words must penetrate to every hearer, even in a large
hall. If there is any straining to catch his words, those words will
not produce their best effect. _The chief requirement is not loudness,
but distinctness._ He must articulate more carefully than in ordinary
conversation: unstressed vowels will have greater importance and be
less reduced, consonants will never be slurred over. The stressed
vowels are the most important of all because they are the most sonorous
sounds and help the others (see § 52); he will let the vocal chords
vibrate longer for them, to reinforce their value, and he will produce
them in such a way that they give their characteristic sound most
clearly. For this purpose he will find it best to articulate more
tensely (this applies also to the consonants) than in ordinary speech;
and a distinct rounding of the lips for the back vowels will enable him
to add to their value. He will prefer to keep the tongue point well
forward in the mouth for [l]. This and other hints he may obtain from
the teacher of elocution.

However pleasant a voice may be, and however far it may carry, it
will yet be of little use if it tires soon; it must have staying
power. This again is to some extent a natural gift; the throat may be
constitutionally weak. Training, however, can do very much to improve
the powers of endurance. Above all, good breathing is essential; hints
have been given in § 4 how this may be assured, and the teacher cannot
be recommended too warmly to give from 15 to 25 minutes every morning
to breathing exercises; he will be amply repaid for the time spent in
that way by the greater ease with which he gets through his teaching,
and by the inevitable improvement in his general health. It has also
been pointed out above that bad ventilation and dust are calculated to
interfere with his voice. Another suggestion may be helpful: to keep
the tongue as forward in the mouth as possible. The average tongue
position in many southern English teachers is too far back in the
mouth, and this is found to lead to serious fatigue; it may indeed be
regarded as one of the main causes of "teachers' sore throat."

It is in giving advice on the management of the voice for public
speaking that trustworthy teachers of elocution are most helpful. When
they make dogmatic statements as to how a sound or word is or should be
pronounced, their guidance is not equally satisfactory, and the student
is earnestly recommended always to test their statements himself. The
same request is addressed to him with regard to the present book; if it
arouses interest, there is no harm if it also arouses opposition.

FOOTNOTES:

[61] These forms are found, for instance, at the beginning of
questions; thus _have you been there?_ is [həv ju bijn ðɛə]. They are
also found after vowels, e.g., _I had done so_, [ai həd dʌn sou].

[62] See the note on p. 72.

[63] When contrasted with _inhale_, this word is also pronounced
[eksheil].

[64] The change in the quality of the vowel is interesting; possibly
_don't_ preserves the old pronunciation of the vowel in _do_.

[65] Strictly speaking the _s_ of the plural was always voiced in the
older language, and it is in _cats_, _tips_ that we have assimilation.

[66] The first _d_ is sometimes heard in the pronunciation of this word.

[67] It should, however, be noted that in passing from [m] to [t] there
is a transitional sound or "glide" which has the value of a faint [p].

[68] The _c_ in _victuals_ and _indict_ has no etymological
justification, as may be seen from the middle English spelling
(_vitaille_, _endite_).

[69] For syllabic _m_ see § 22; for syllabic _n_, § 24; for syllabic
_l_, § 33.

[70] The mark ´ _precedes_ the stressed syllable.




APPENDIX I

Exercises.


1. How is _-ious_ pronounced in _gracious_, _bilious_, _victorious_?

2. How is _-ion_ pronounced in _motion_, _onion_, _criterion_,
_vision_, and _Ionian_?

3. How is _-ial_ pronounced in _labial_, _judicial_, _martial_,
_partiality_?

4. What difference in pronunciation, if any, do you make between _hire_
and _higher_, _lyre_ and _liar_, _cure_ and _(s)kewer_, _alms_ and
_arms_?

5. Consider the value of _oar_ in _roar_ and in _roaring_, and the
value of _air_ in _pair_ and in _pairing_.

6. Determine the vowel sounds corresponding to the italicized letters
in ch_i_ld, ch_i_ldren; wom_a_n, wom_e_n; r_ea_d (infinitive),
r_ea_d (past participle); s_ay_, s_ay_s; dr_ea_m, dr_ea_med; l_ea_p,
l_ea_ped; h_ea_r, h_ea_rd; c_a_n, c_a_n't; d_o_, d_o_n't; gentlem_a_n,
gentlem_e_n.

7. Write in transcript the words italicized:

    _a._ I have _learned_ much from this _learned_ man.

    _b._ He has _aged_ a good deal. He is _aged_.

    _c._ I _used_ to _use_ it; you _used_ it too.

Try to account for the pronunciation of _used_ in the sense of "was
accustomed" (see § 49).

8. Transcribe your pronunciation of _halfpenny, twopence_,
_threepence_. Show the difference between the English and the French
pronunciation of _franc_, and between the English and the German
pronunciation of _mark_.

9. A waiter was heard to remark pathetically that he never _could_ tell
whether a customer wanted "cold lamb" or "cold ham." What caused his
uncertainty?

10. The pronunciation of the children of Walworth attending the Church
schools has given much concern to Canon Horsley, who says that in
their speech "I've been to take her home" becomes "binter tiker rome,"
"Oh, shake hands" becomes "ow shy cans," and "I've been having a game"
becomes "binnavinagime." Consider the pronunciation suggested by this
rough transcription, transcribe it more carefully, and comment on such
features of the Walworth dialect as it illustrates.

11. You are familiar with the term "alliteration," and know that it is
a favourite device of cheap journalism. Criticise the alliteration in
the following scare-lines: CITY CLERK CHASED. THIEF TAKEN. SOLICITOR
SHOT.

12. Mention words in which the following letters are written but not
sounded: _b_, _g_, _gh_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _t_, _w_.

13. Comment on the following statement: "The letters _l_ and _r_ are
called trills, because there is a vibration in the sounds, or in some
part of the vocal apparatus by which we pronounce them."

14. Consider this statement: "The _ai_ in _fair_, _ea_ in _lead_, _ie_
in _field_, _ei_ in _receive_, are none of them true diphthongs; they
are more or less clumsy ways of showing the length of an elementary
vowel-sound."

15. "English has two _e_ sounds, as in _fed_, _feed_, and four _u_
sounds, as in _but_, _pull_, _fur_, _fool_." Do you agree with this?

16. Why does _crystal_ look nicer than _kristle_, which represents the
same sounds? Account for such spellings as Edythe, Smythe, Whyte.

17. Say quickly but distinctly:

    She sells sea-shells in a salt-fish shop.

    Is Stephen Smith's son a smith too?

    How many houses had Harry Hall?

    Long and loudly little Lily laughed.

    The skilled dentist extracted the three teeth.

    Do you want the thick thread or the thin?

    In silence he sat on the sands by the silvery sea.

    A boat is floating over the ocean.

    With a loud shout he came out of the house.

    The first question Charles asked was strange.

    Three grey geese in the green grass grazing.

18. Discuss the old-fashioned form of address "mine host." Do you say
"an historical novel"? "a (or an) hotel at Folkestone"? How do you
pronounce "the Grand Hotel"? Transcribe your pronunciation of "I gave
her her hat."

19. What is the derivation of _ventriloquist_? Does the term correctly
indicate the way in which ventriloquists produce their sounds? Which
sounds do you think most likely to give them difficulty?

20. In the French of the 12th century _l_ under certain circumstances
became a vowel; thus _altre_ became _autre_ and _chevals_ became
_chevaus_. How do you explain this change? Point to a similar change in
English.

21. How would you teach a foreigner to pronounce the English _th_
sounds?

22. Little children say _pease_ for _please_, _gamma_ or _granma_ for
_grandma_, _dess_ for _dress_, _tocking_ for _stocking_. Illustrate the
tendency shown in these examples from the speech of grown-up people.

23. Comment on the little child's pronunciation of _tsain_ for _chain_,
_fee_ for _three_, _noder_ for _another_, and _bafyoom_ for _bathroom_.

24. Consider carefully the question, why the pronunciation of a foreign
language presents difficulties; draw on any foreign language you know
for illustrations.

25. The Latin _camera_ is our _chamber_, _numerus_ our _number_, Latin
_humilis_ our _humble_, Latin _similare_ our _(re)semble_. Account for
the _b_ in the English words.

26. Consider the value of _ure_ in _sure_, _pure_, _nature_, _figure_.

27. What light is thrown on the pronunciation of the past by the
following quotations:

    (_a_) While he, withdrawn, at their mad labour smiles,
          And safe enjoys the Sabbath of his toils. (Dryden.)

    (_b_) Dreading even fools, by flatterers besieg'd,
          And so obliging that he ne'er oblig'd. (Pope.)

    (_c_) _Cóntemplate_ is bad enough, but _bálcony_ makes me sick.
    (Rogers.)

    (_d_) The dame, of manner various, temper fickle,
          Now all for pleasure, now the conventicle. (Colman.)

    (_e_) There is little doubt that in the pronunciation of
    _successor_ the antepenultimate accent will prevail. (Walker.)

    (_f_) To ketch [catch] him at a vantage in his snares.
    (Spenser.)

    (_g_) Yet he was kind, or, if severe in aught,
          The love he bore to learning was in fault. (Goldsmith.)


28. Determine which sounds are represented by _ea_ in the following
words: _bear_, _beard_, _bread_, _bead_, _yea_, _create_, _realm_,
_leap_, _leapt_, _hearken_; and by _eo_ in the following words:
_yeoman_, _people_, _leopard_, _re-open_.

29. Determine which sounds are represented by _oi_ in the following
words: _boil_, _heroic_, _choir_, _tortoise_, _turquoise_, _coincide_;
and by _ou_ in the following words: _south_, _southern_, _mourn_,
_journal_, _though_, _thought_, _uncouth_.

30. Determine which sounds are represented by _g_ in the following
words: _gem_, _goal_, _gaol_, _gill_, _gibberish_, _fatigue_, _gnaw_;
and by _ough_ in the following words: _trough_, _through_, _thorough_,
_sough_, _cough_, _rough_, _plough_, _lough_.

31. A character in one of Miss Braddon's novels says:
"Supernumery--it's no use, I don't think anybody ever did know how
many syllables there are in that word." What is it that leads to the
shortening of this word in uneducated speech? Mention similar cases of
shortening.




APPENDIX II

Lists of Words with Phonetic Transcription.


                                 NOTE.

The accent shows that the _following_ syllable has the chief stress.

As these lists are intended for the use of English students, it has
been thought sufficient to let [e] represent the first vowel sound and
[i] the second vowel sound in _very_.

The variation in length of [ij] and other diphthongs and of [m, n, l],
etc., has not been indicated.

Words which have occurred in the text of the book are not repeated here.

When two pronunciations are given, both may be considered as common;
the first is generally to be preferred. If, however, a pronunciation is
enclosed in brackets, it is to be regarded as faulty.


A. General.

  abdomen, æb´doumən (´æbdomən)
  ab initio, ´æb i´niʃiou, -jou
  abscission, æb´siʒən
  acacia, ə´keiʃə
  accent (subst.), ´æksənt, ´æksent; (verb) æk´sent
  acclimatize, ´æklimətaiz, ə´klaimetaiz
  accolade, ´ækɔleid
  accoutre, ə´kuwtə
  acetic, ə´sijtik, -se-
  acoustics, ə´kaustiks (ə´kuwstiks)
  acrobat, ´ækrobæt
  adage, ´ædidʒ
  adept, ´ædept, ə´dept
  adieu, ə´djuw
  ad infinitum, ´æd infi´naitəm
  admirable, ´ædmirəbl
  admiration, ædmi´reiʃən
  ad nauseam, ´æd ´nɔːsiæm, -jæm
  ado, ə´duw
  adult, ´ædʌlt, ə´dʌlt
  ad valorem, æd və´lɔːrem
  advantageous, ædvən´teidʒəs, ædvæn´teidʒəs
  advertisement, əd´vəːtizmənt
  aegis, ´ijdʒis
  aegrotat, i´groutæt
  aerated, ´ɛːəreitid
  aerial, ɛ´eriəl, ɛ´iːəriəl
  aerie, ´ɛːri, ´iːəri
  aeronaut, ´ɛːronɔːt
  aesthetics, ij´sθetiks (e´sθetiks)
  a fortiori, ´ei fɔː´ʃjɔːrai
  again, ə´gen, ə´gein
  against, ə´genst, ə´geinst
  aged (adj.), ´eidʒid
  aggrandizement, ə´grændizmənt
  aghast, ə´gɑːst
  agile, ´ædʒail
  ague, ´eigjuw
  aisle, ´ail
  albeit, ´ɔːlbijit
  algebra, ´ældʒibrə
  alibi, ´ælibai
  alienate, ´eiljəneit
  allegiance, ə´lijdʒəns
  allegro, ə´legrou, -leig-
  allot, ə´lɔt
  alloy, ə´lɔi
  ally, ə´lai
  almanac, ´ɔːlmənæk
  also, ´ɔːlsou, ´ɔlsou
  always, ´ɔːlwiz, -wəz, -weiz
  amateur, ´æmətəː, ´æmətʃuə
  amenity, ə´meniti
  among, ə´mʌŋ (ə´mɔŋ)
  anæmic, ə´nijmik
  anarchist, ´ænəkist
  anarchy, ´ænəki, ´ænɑːki
  anchovy, æn´tʃouvi
  anemone, ə´neməni
  angina, æn´dʒainə
  anglice, ´æŋglisi
  ant, ´ænt (´ɑːnt)
  antipodes, æn´tipodijz
  antique, æn´tijk
  antithesis, æn´tiθisis
  aorist, ´ɛːərist
  aperture, ´æpəˑtʃə
  aphasia, ə´feizjə
  apophthegm, ´æpoθem
  apotheosis, æpoθi´ousis, əpo-
  apparatus, æpə´reitəs
  apparent, ə´pɛːrənt, -pær-
  a priori, ´ei pri´ɔːrai
  apropos, ´æpropou
  arch-, usually ɑːtʃ
  archangel, ´ɑːkeindʒəl
  archetype, ´ɑːkitaip
  archi-, ´ɑːki-, ´ɑːkj-
  archives, ´ɑːkaivz
  arid, ´ærid
  arras, ´ærəs
  artificer, ɑː´tifisə
  artiste, ´ɑːtijst, -ist
  asafœtida, ´æsə´fetidə
  askance, ə´skæns, -ɑːns
  aspirant, ə´spairənt
  assignee, æsi´nij
  atoll, ´ætɔl, ə´tɔl
  attorney, ə´təːni
  avalanche, ´ævəlɑːnʃ
  awkward, ´ɔːkwəd
  awry, ə´rai
  ayah, ´ajə
  aye (always), ´ei
  aye (yes), ´ai

  baboo, ´bɑːbuw
  bacillus, bə´siləs
  bagatelle, ´bægətel
  bakshish, ´bækʃijʃ
  balcony, ´bælkəni
  ballet, ´bælei
  balsam, ´bɔːlsəm
  basalt, ´bæsɔlt, bə´sɔːlt
  bass (voice), ´beis
  because, bi´kɔːz, bi´kɔz
  bedizen, bi´daizən
  begone, bi´gɔn
  belligerent, be´lidʒərənt
  betroth, bi´trouð
  bicycle, ´baisikl (´bai´saikl)
  bigot, ´bigət
  bijou, ´bijʒuw
  billet-doux, ´bilei´duw
  bison, ´baisən
  bitumen, ´bitjumən, bi´tjuwmən
  bizarre, bi´zɑː
  blancmange, blə´mɔn(d)ʒ
  blithe, ´blaið
  blouse, ´blauz (´bluwz)
  boatswain, ´bousən
  bodega, bo´dijgə
  bombast, ´bɔmbæst, ´bɔmbəst
  bona fide, ´bounə ´faidi
  booth, ´buwð
  borough, ´bʌrə (´bʌrou)
  bouquet, bu´kei
  bourn, ´bɔːn, ´buːən
  bravado, brə´veidou, brə´vɑːdou
  brazier, ´breiʒə, ´breizjə
  breeches, ´britʃiz, ´brij-
  brougham, ´bruːəm, ´brouəm (´broum)
  brusque, ´brusk, ´brʌsk
  buffet, ´bufei
  bulwark, ´bulwək
  bureau, ´bjuːrou, bju´rou
  burgher, ´bəːgə

  cabal, kə´bæl
  cachet, ´kæʃei
  cadi, ´keidi
  caesura, si´zjuːrə
  cambric, ´keimbrik
  campanile, kæmpə´nijli
  cañon, ´kænjən
  cantata, kæn´tɑːtə
  cantonment, kæn´tuwnmənt, -tɔn-
  caoutchouc, ´kautʃuk
  cap-à-pie, ´kæpəpij
  capitalist, ´kæpitəlist
  caprice, kə´prijs
  capuchin, ´kæpjutʃin
  carouse, kə´rauz
  cashier, kə´ʃiːə
  casino, kə´sijnou
  cathedra, ´kæθidrə (kə´θijdrə)
  cauliflower, ´kɔliflauə
  celibate, ´selibət
  'cello, ´tʃelou
  centenary, ´sentenri, sen´tenəri
  cere (-cloths, -ments), ´siːə-
  chagrin, ʃə´grijn, ʃə´grin
  chalybeate, kæ´libjet
  chamois (leather), ´ʃæmi
  chaperon, ´ʃæpəroun
  charade, ʃə´rɑːd, ʃə´reid
  charivari, ´ʃærij´vɑːrij
  charlatan, ´ʃɑːlətən, -æn
  chastisement, ´tʃæstizmənt
  chauffeur, ´ʃoufə
  chaunt, ´tʃɑːnt
  chauvinist, ´ʃouvinist
  chic, ´ʃik
  chimera, kai´miərə, ki-
  chiro-, ´kairo-
  chivalric, ʃi´vælrik  } also
  chivalrous, ´ʃivəlrəs } with
  chivalry, ´ʃivəlri    } tʃi-
  choir, ´kwaiə
  choleric, ´kɔlərik
  chough, ´tʃʌf
  cicala, si´kɑːlə
  cicerone, sisə´rouni
  cinque, ´siŋk
  circuit, ´səːkit
  circumstance, ´səːkəmstəns
  clandestine, klæn´destin
  clematis, ´klemətis, (kli´meitis)
  clique, ´klijk
  coalesce, kouə´les
  cobalt, ´koubɔlt
  cochineal, ´kɔtʃinijl
  cognisant, ´kɔgnisənt
  coign(e), ´kɔin
  coincide, kouin´said
  colonel, ´kəːnəl
  combat, combatant, combative have ´kʌm- or ´kɔm-
  comely, ´kʌmli
  commentary, ´kɔməntri
  comparable, ´kɔmprəbəl
  comrade, ´kʌmrid, ´kɔmrid
  conch, ´kɔŋk
  condign, kən´dain
  condolence, kən´douləns
  conger, ´kɔŋgə
  congeries, kɔn´dʒeriijz, -´dʒij-
  conjure (sleight of hand), ´kʌndʒə
  conjure (implore), kən´dʒuːə
  connoisseur, kɔni´səː, kɔni´sjuːə
  consignee, kɔnsi´nij
  Consols, kən´sɔlz
  constable, ´kʌnstəbl, ´kɔnstəbl
  construe, ´kɔnstruw, kən´struw
  contagion, kən´teidʒən
  contemplate, ´kɔntempleit (kən´templeit)
  contemplative, kɔn´templətiv
  contents, ´kɔntents, kən´tents
  contumacy, ´kɔntjuməsi
  contumely, kən´tjuwmili
  conversazione, kɔnvəsætsi´ouni
  corollary, kə´rɔləri, kɔrələri
  corps, ´kɔː
  coterie, ´koutərij
  cotillon, ko´tiljən
  counterfeit, ´kauntəfit
  courteous, ´kɔːtjəs, ´kəːtjəs (´kəːtʃəs)
  courtesy, ´kəːtəsi
  courtier, ´kɔːtjə
  covetous, ´kʌvitəs
  covey, ´kʌvi
  coxswain, ´kɔksən
  cozen, ´kʌzən
  crayon, ´krejən
  croup, ´kruwp
  cui bono, ´kai ´bounou
  cuirass, kwi´ræs, kju-
  cuisine, kwi´zijn
  cuneiform, ´kjuwniifɔːm
  cupola, ´kjuwpolə
  cynosure, ´sainosjuə, ´sainoʃuə, ´sino-

  dais, ´deis
  dandelion, ´dændilaiən
  debauch, di´bɔːtʃ
  debonair, ´debənɛːə
  debris, ´debri
  decade, ´dekəd, ´dekeid
  decadence, ´dekədəns
  decease, di´sijs
  decorous, ´dekərəs, di´kɔːrəs
  dei gratia, dijai ´greiʃiei
  demesne, di´mein
  demise, di´maiz
  demonstrate, ´demənstreit
  demy (paper), di´mai
  depot, ´depou (´dijpou)
  derelict, ´derəlikt
  desiderate, di´sidəreit
  design, di´zain
  designate, ´dezigneit, ´des-
  desist, di´zist
  desuetude, ´deswitjuwd
  diæresis, dai´iːərəsis
  diapason, daiə´peizən
  didactic, di´dæktik
  dilatory, ´dilət(ə)ri
  dilettante, dili´tænti
  diocese, ´daiosis
  dis- (before voiced sounds), diz-; (before voiceless sounds), dis-
  dishabille, ´disəbijl
  disputant, ´dispjutənt
  distich, ´distik
  divan, di´væn (´daivən)
  divers, ´daivəːs
  diverse, di´vəːs
  divisible, di´vizibl
  docile, ´dousail, ´dɔsail
  doctrinal, ´dɔktrinəl, dɔk´trainəl
  doge, ´doudʒ
  dolorous, ´dɔlərəs
  domicile, ´dɔmisail
  douche, ´duʃ, ´duwʃ
  doughty, ´dauti
  dramatis personæ, ´dræmətis pəː´sounij
  draught, ´drɑːft
  drollery, drouləri
  dromedary, ´drʌmidəri
  drought, ´draut (drɔːt)
  dubiety, djuw´baiəti
  ducat, ´dʌkət
  ductile, ´dʌktail
  duteous, ´djuwtjəs (´djuwtʃəs)
  dynasty, ´dinəsti, ´dainəsti
  dysentery, ´disəntri

  eau de Cologne, ´ou di kə´loun
  echelon, ´eʃəlɔn
  eclat, ´eklɑː, e´klɑː
  e´en, ´ijn
  e´er, ´ɛːə
  effete, e´fijt
  eglantine, ´egləntain
  either, ´aiðə, ´ijðə
  elicit, i´lisit
  elite, e´lijt
  elixir, i´liksə
  emaciated, i´meiʃieitid
  embrasure, em´breiʒə
  enervate, ´enəːveit
  enunciate, i´nʌnʃieit
  envelope, ´ɔnvəloup, ´enveloup
  environs, en´vairənz
  epaulet, ´epɔlet
  epitome, i´pitomi
  epoch, ´ijpɔk (´epɔk)
  equerry, ´ekwəri, e´kweri
  erase, i´reis
  erasure, i´reiʒə
  ere, ´ɛːə
  escheat, es´tʃijt
  eschew, es´tʃuw
  esoteric, eso´terik
  espionage, ´espiɔnidʒ
  evasive, i´veisiv
  exchequer, eks´tʃekə
  excise, ´eksaiz, ek´saiz
  excuse (verb), eks´kjuwz, (subst.) eks´kjuws
  expert, ´ekspəːt
  expletive, ek´splijtiv
  exquisite, ´ekskwizit
  extant, ek´stænt, ´ekstənt
  extempore, ek´stempəri
  extirpate, ´ekstəːpeit
  extraordinary, ek´strɔːdnəri, ´ekstrə´ɔːdinəri
  exude, eg´zjuwd, -ks-
  eyot, ´aiət

  façade, fə´sɑːd, fə´seid
  facile, ´fæsil
  facsimile, fæk´simili
  fakir, fə´kiːə, ´feikiə
  falchion, ´fɔːlʃən
  fanatic, fə´nætik
  farinaceous, færi´neiʃəs
  fealty, ´fiːəlti
  fecund, ´fijkʌnd, ´fe-
  feod, ´fjuwd
  feoff, ´fef
  fetish, ´fijtiʃ, ´fe-
  finance, fi´næns
  financier, fi´nænʃə, -sjə
  finesse, fi´nes
  fissure, ´fiʃə
  flaccid, ´flæksid
  flamboyant, flæm´bɔjənt
  fluor, ´fluːə
  fœtid, ´fetid
  forfeit, ´fɔːfit
  fragile, ´frædʒail
  franchise, ´fræn(t)ʃaiz, -ʃiz
  frigate, ´frigət
  frontier, ´frɔntiːə, frʌn-
  fuchsia, ´fjuwʃə
  fugue, ´fjuwg
  furlough, ´fəːlou
  furore, fju´rɔːri
  futile, ´fjuwtail

  gala, ´geilə
  gallant (polite), gə´lænt
  gambol, ´gæmbl
  gaol, ´dʒeil
  garish, ´gɛːriʃ
  gaseous, gæsjəs, geiʒjəs
  gauche, ´gouʃ
  gauge, ´geidʒ
  generic, dʒe´nerik
  gesture, dʒestʃə
  gewgaw, ´gjuwgɔː
  geyser, ´gaisə, ´geisə
  ghoul, ´guwl
  gibberish, ´gibəriʃ
  gibbet, ´dʒibit
  gibbous, ´gibəs
  gig, ´gig
  gigantic, dʒai´gæntik
  gill (of fish), ´gil; (of liquid), ´dʒil
  gillyflower, ´dʒiliflauə
  gimlet, ´gimlit
  gimp, ´gimp
  gist, ´dʒist
  gizzard, ´gizəd
  glacial, ´gleiʃəl
  glacier, ´gleiʃə, ´glæsjə, -iə
  gladiolus, glə´daiələs, glædi´ouləs
  glamour, ´glæmə
  goitre, ´gɔitə
  gondola, ´gɔndələ (gɔn´doulə)
  gosling, ´gɔzliŋ
  gouge, ´guwdʒ, ´gaudʒ
  gourd, ´guːəd, ´gɔːd
  gravamen, græ´veimən, grə-
  greasy, ´grijzi, ´grijsi
  groat, ´grout (´grɔːt)
  gross, ´grous
  guerdon, ´gəːdən
  guillotine, ´gilətijn
  gunwale, ´gʌnəl
  gutta-percha, ´gʌtə´pəːtʃə
  gyves, ´dʒaivz

  halberd, ´hælbəd
  halcyon, ´hælsjən
  hautboy, ´houbɔi
  heifer, ´hefə
  heigho, ´heihou
  heinous, ´heinəs
  hemorrhage, ´hemoridʒ
  heroine, ´heroin
  heroism, ´heroizm̩
  heterogeneous, hetero´dʒijnjəs
  hiatus, hai´eitəs
  hierarch, ´haiərɑːk
  hirsute, həː´sjuwt
  hosier, ´houʒə, ´houzjə
  housewife (case for needles, etc.), ´hʌzif
  hussar, hu´zɑː, hʌ´zɑː
  hussy, ´hʌzi
  hygiene, ´haidʒijn
  hygienic, haidʒi´enik, hidʒi´ijnik
  hymeneal, haimi´niːəl
  hyperbole, hai´pəːbəli
  hypochondriacal, haipokɔn´draiəkl, hipo-
  hypotenuse, hai´pɔtənjuws
  hyssop, ´hisəp

  identical, ai´dentikl
  idiosyncrasy, idio´siŋkrəsi
  idyll, ´aidil
  illustrative, ´iləstreitiv, i´lʌstrətiv
  imbecile, ´imbisijl, -il
  imbroglio, im´brouljou
  impious, ´impiəs
  indecorous, in´dekərəs
  indict, in´dait
  indissoluble, indi´sɔljubl
  inexorable, in´egzərəbl, -eks-
  interesting, ´intrəstiŋ
  interlocutor, in´təːlokjuwtə
  interstice, in´təːstis, ´intəstis
  intestine, in´testin
  inundate, ´inʌndeit
  inveigh, in´vei
  inveigle, in´vijgl
  inventory, ´invəntri
  investiture, in´vestitʃə
  irascible, i´ræsibl
  irrefragable, i´refrəgəbl
  irrefutable, i´refjutəbl
  irreparable, i´repərəbl
  irrevocable, i´revəkəbl
  isolate, ´aisoleit
  italics, i´tæliks (ai´tæliks)
  itinerary, i´tinərəri

  jejune, dʒe´dʒuwn
  jeopardy, ´dʒepədi
  jocose, dʒo´kous
  jocund, ´dʒɔkʌnd, ´dʒou-
  j(o)ust, dʒust, dʒuwst

  kopje, ´kɔpi

  laboratory, læbrətri, lə´bɔrətri
  lamentable, ´læməntəbl
  landau, ´lændɔː
  lapel, lə´pel
  lath, ´lɑːθ
  laudanum, lɔdnəm
  laurel, ´lɔrəl
  legend, ´ledʒənd (´lijdʒənd)
  legislature, ´ledʒislətʃə
  leisure, ´leʒə (´lijʒə)
  leopard, ´lepəd
  levée, ´levi
  libertine, ´libətain, -tijn, -tin
  lichen, ´laikən, ´litʃən
  lien, laiən, liːən, lijn
  lieu, ´luw
  lieutenant, lef´tenənt, lif-
  lineament, ´linjəmənt
  liqueur, li´kəː, li´kjuːə
  liquor, ´likə
  liquorice, ´likəris
  litre, ´lijtə
  livelong, ´laivlɔŋ, ´livlɔŋ
  loath, ´louθ
  loathe, ´louð
  loathsome, ´louθsəm, -ð-
  longevity, lɔn´dʒeviti
  longitude, ´lɔndʒitjuwd
  lough, ´lɔk
  lowering (looking sullen), ´lauəriŋ
  ludicrous, ´luwdikrəs
  lugubrious, lu´guwbriəs
  luxurious, lə´gzuːriəs
  luxury, ´lʌkʃəri

  machination, mæki´neiʃən
  magi, ´meidʒai
  mahlstick, ´mɔːlstik
  malinger, mə´liŋgər
  manœuvre, mə´nuwvə
  manse, ´mæns
  margarine, ´mɑːdʒərijn
  marigold, ´mærigould
  marquee, mɑː´kij
  marquis, ´mɑːkwis
  masquerade, mæskə´reid
  massage, ´mæsɑːʒ
  mausoleum, mɔːso´liːəm
  medicament, ´medikəmənt, me´dikəmənt
  mediocre, ´mijdioukə
  mediocrity, mijdi´əkriti
  meerschaum, ´miːəʃəm
  melancholy, ´meləŋkəli
  memoir, ´memwɑː
  menagerie, mi´nædʒəri
  menu, ´menju, mə´nuw
  Messrs, ´mesəz
  metallurgy, ´metələːdʒi, mi´tælədʒi
  metamorphosis, metə´mɔːfəsis
  metathesis, mi´tæθəsis
  metre, ´mijtə
  mezzotint, ´metsotint
  miasma, mai´æzmə, mi-
  millenary, mi´lenəri
  minatory, ´mainətəri
  miniature, ´miniətʃə,-tjə
  minute (adj.), mai´njuwt, mi-
  mirage, mi´rɑːʒ
  misanthrope, ´misənθroup
  miscellany, mi´seləni
  mischief, ´mistʃif
  morose, mə´rous
  myth, ´miθ, ´maiθ
  mythology, mi´θɔlədʒi

  naive, ´neiv
  naiveté, ´neivtei
  nauseate, ´nɔːʃjeit
  nauseous, ´nɔːʃjes, ´nɔːʃəs
  ne'er, ´nɛːə
  neither, ´naiðə, ´nijðə
  nicety, ´nais(ə)ti
  niche, ´nitʃ
  nomenclature, no´menklətʃə
  noose, ´nuwz, ´nuws
  norse, ´nɔːs
  nuncio, ´nʌnʃiou
  nuptial, ´nʌpʃəl

  oasis, ou´eisis
  obeisance, o´beisəns
  obese, o´bijs
  obligatory, ´ɔbligətri, ɔ´bligətri, ɔbli´geitəri
  obloquy, ´ɔbləkwi
  obsequies, ´ɔbsikwiz
  obtuse, ob´tjuws
  occult, o´kʌlt
  octopus, ´ɔktəpəs, ɔk´toupəs
  oligarchy, ´ɔligɑːki
  omniscient, ɔm´niʃənt, -si-
  onerous, ´ɔnərəs
  onomatopeia, ɔnəmətə´piːə
  operative, ´ɔpərətiv, ´ɔpəreitiv
  orchestral, ɔː´kestrəl, ´ɔːki-
  ordeal, ɔː´diːəl
  organization, ɔːgəni´zeiʃən, -nai-
  orison, ´ɔrizən, -s-
  ormolu, ´ɔːməluw
  ornate, ɔ´neit
  osier, ´ouʒə
  oust, ´aust

  pageant, ´peidʒənt, ´pædʒənt
  palaver, pə´lɑːvə
  palfrey, ´pɔːlfri (´pælfri)
  panacea, pænə´siːə
  panegyric, pæni´dʒirik
  pan(n)ier, ´pænjə
  papyrus, pə´pairəs
  paradigm, ´pærədaim
  paraffine, ´pærəfin
  pariah, ´pɛːrjə
  parochial, pə´roukjəl
  parvenu, ´pɑːvənju
  pastel, pæ´stel, ´pæstəl
  pastille, pæ´stijl, ´pæstil
  patent, ´peitənt (´pætənt)
  pathos, ´peiθɔs
  patois, ´pætwɑː
  patrimony, ´pætriməni
  patron, ´peitrən
  patronage, ´pætrənidʒ, ´peitrənidʒ
  patronize, ´pætrənaiz, ´peitrənaiz
  peccavi, pe´keivai
  pedagogue, ´pedəgɔg
  pedagogy, ´pedəgɔdʒi, -gi
  perquisite, ´pəːkwizit
  petard, pi´tɑːd
  phaeton, ´feitən
  phalanx, ´feilæŋks, ´fælæŋks
  phlegmatic, fleg´mætik
  piazza, pi´ætsə
  piquant, ´pijkənt
  pique, ´pijk
  piteous, ´pitjəs (´pitʃəs)
  placard, ´plækɑːd
  plaid, ´plæd, ´pleid
  plait, ´plæt
  plebiscite, ´plebisait
  plenary, ´plijnəri
  plenteous, ´plentjəs (´plentʃəs)
  plethora, ´pleθərə
  plethoric, ´pleθərik
  plover, ´plʌvə
  poignant, ´pɔinjənt
  poignard, ´pɔnjəd
  pomade, po´meid, po´mɑːd
  pommel, ´pʌməl
  pongee, ´pɔndʒi
  porpoise, ´pɔːpəs
  posthumous, ´pɔstjuməs
  potsherd, ´pɔtʃəːd
  precedence, pri´sijdəns
  precedent, ´presidənt
  predatory, ´predətri
  prelate, ´prelət
  prelude, ´preljuwd
  premature, ´premətjuə, ´prijmətjuə
  premier, ´prijmjə (´premjə)
  premise (subst.), ´premis
  premise (verb), pri´maiz
  presage, ´presidʒ
  prescience, ´preʃəns, -si-
  prestige, pre´stijʒ
  primer, ´primə, ´praimə
  pristine, ´pristain, ´pristin
  privacy, ´praivəsi, ´privəsi
  profligacy, ´prɔfligəsi
  prophecy, ´prɔfisi
  prophesy, ´prɔfisai
  puisne, ´pjuwni
  puissant, ´pwijsənt
  pumice, ´pʌmis
  purloin, pəː´lɔin
  purport, ´pəːpət

  quagmire, ´kwægmaiə
  quandary, ´kwɔndəri, -´dɛːri
  quarantine, ´kwɔrəntijn
  quay, ´kij
  queue, ´kjuw
  quiescent, kwai´esənt
  quinine, kwi´nijn
  quoif, ´kɔif
  quoit, ´kɔit
  quoth, ´kwouθ

  ragged, ´rægid
  ranch(e), ´rɑːn(t)ʃ
  rancour, ´ræŋkə
  rapier, ´reipiːə
  rapine, ´ræpin, ´ræpain
  rase, ´reiz
  rations (army), ´ræʃnz
  recluse, ri´kluws
  recondite, ´rekəndait
  reconnaissance, ri´kɔnəsəns
  reconnoitre, rekə´nɔitə
  redolent, ´redələnt
  regicide, ´redʒisaid
  regime, re´ʒijm
  reindeer, ´reindiə
  remonstrate, ri´mɔnstreit
  renaissance, ri´neisəns
  rendezvous, ´rɔndivuw
  repertoire, ´repəːtwɑː
  replica, ´replikə
  requiem, ´rekwiəm
  reredos, riːədɔs
  reservoir, ´rezəvwɑː
  resin, ´rezən, ´rɔzən
  resonance, ´rezənəns
  respite, ´respit
  restaurant, ´restorɔŋ
  reveille, ri´væli
  reverie, ´revəri
  rhetoric, ´retərik
  rheum, ´ruwm
  rhythm, ´riðm
  rhythmical, ´riθmikəl
  ribald, ´ribəld, ´ribɔːld
  rouge, ´ruwʒ
  routine, ru´tijn
  rowlock, ´rʌlək
  ruse, ´ruwz

  sachet, ´sæʃei
  saga, ´sɑːgə
  salient, ´seiljənt
  saline (subst.), sə´lain
  saline (adj.), seilain
  sample, ´sɑːmpl, ´sæmpl
  sarcophagus, sɑː´kɔfəgəs
  satiety, sə´taiəti
  satire, ´sætaiə
  satyr, ´sætə
  scallop, ´skɔləp
  scathe, ´skeið
  scenic, ´sijnik
  sceptic, ´skeptik
  schedule, ´ʃedjul (´skedjul)
  schism, ´sizm
  scimitar, ´simitə
  scintillate, ´sintileit
  scion, ´saiən
  scone, ´skoun (´skɔn)
  scourge, ´skəːdʒ
  sedative, ´sedətiv
  sedentary, ´sedəntri
  seigneury, ´sijnjəri
  semi-, semi
  senile, ´sijnail
  seraglio, si´rɑːljou
  serviette, ´səːvjet
  sheikh, ´ʃijk
  shortlived, ´ʃɔːtlivd
  siesta, si´estə
  signor, ´sijnjɔː
  simile, ´simili
  sinecure, ´sainikjuə
  skein, ´skein
  ski, ´skij (´ʃij)
  sleight, ´slait
  sloth, ´slouθ
  slough, ´slau (´slʌf)
  sloven, ´slʌvən
  sluice, ´sluws
  sobriquet, ´soubrikei
  sojourn, ´sɔdʒəːn
  solace, ´sɔləs
  solecism, ´soulisizm̩, ´sɔl
  soliloquy, sə´liləkwi, so
  sonorous, ´sɔnərəs, sə´nɔːrəs
  sough, ´sʌf
  souse, ´saus
  southerly, ´sʌðəli
  specie, ´spijʃi
  species, ´spijʃijz
  stalwart, ´stɔlwət
  stevedore, ´stijvədɔː
  stoep, ´stuwp
  strategic, strə´tijdʒik
  strychnine, ´striknijn, ´striknin
  suave, ´sweiv
  suavity, ´swæviti
  subaltern, ´sʌbəltəːn
  subsidence, ´sʌbsidns
  succinct, sʌk´siŋkt
  suffragan, ´sʌfrəgən
  suite, ´swijt
  surfeit, ´səːfit
  surveillance, sə´veiləns
  swarthy, ´swɔːði, -θi
  sybarite, ´sibərait
  synagogue, ´sinəgɔg
  syncope, ´siŋkəpi

  technique, tek´nijk
  telegraphy, ´teligrəfi, ti´legrəfi
  tenable, ´tijnəbl, ´tenəbl
  tenet, ´tijnit, ´tenit
  tepid, ´tepid
  termagant, ´təːməgənt
  thorough, ´θʌrə, ´θʌrou
  thraldom, ´θrɔːldəm
  thresh, ´θræʃ
  thyme, ´taim
  tinsel, ´tinsəl
  tirade, ti´reid
  tissue, ´tiʃu
  tonsure, ´tɔnʃə
  tontine, ´tɔntijn
  toothed, ´tuwθt
  tornado, tɔː´nɑːdou
  tortoise, ´tɔːtəs (´tɔːtɔiz)
  tournament, ´tuːənəmənt
  toward, tɔːd, tu´wɔːd
  trait, ´trei
  transient, ´trænzjənt
  transition, træn´siʒən
  treatise, ´trijtis
  tribunal, trai´bjuwnəl, tri-
  tribune, ´tribjun
  trilogy, ´trilədʒi
  trio, ´trijou
  tripartite, ´tripɑːtait
  triptych, ´triptik
  trophy, ´troufi
  troth, ´trouθ, ´trɔθ
  trough, ´trɔf
  trow, ´trou
  tryst, ´trist, ´traist
  turbine, ´təːbain
  turquoise, ´təːkɔiz, ´təːkwɔiz
  tyrannic, tai´rænik, ti-
  tyranny, ´tirəni
  tyrant, ´tairənt
  tyro, ´tairou

  ubiquity, ju´bikwiti
  ukase, ju´keis
  uncouth, ʌn´kuwθ
  undulatory, ´ʌndjulətri
  unison, ´juwnisən
  untoward, ´ʌntuwɔːd, -tɔːd
  upholster, ʌp´houlstə
  usurp, ju´zəːp

  vagary, və´gɛːri
  valet, ´vælit
  valiant, ´væljənt
  valise, və´lijz, və´lijs
  vase, ´vɑːz (´vɔːz)
  vehement, ´vijimənt
  vehicle, ´vijikl
  vermicelli, vəːmi´seli
  vertigo, ´vəːtigou
  vice-gerent, ´vais-dʒerənt
  vice versa, ´vaisi´vəːsə
  vignette, vi´njet
  vilify, ´vilifai
  virago, vi´reigou
  viscount, ´vaikaunt
  visor, ´vizə
  viva voce, ´vaivə´vousi
  vouchsafe, ´vautʃ´seif

  wainscot, ´weinskət
  walrus, ´wɔlrəs
  wassail, ´wæsil
  weir, ´wiːə
  wharfinger, ´wɔːfindʒə
  wind, ´wind (poetry: ´wind, ´waind)
  windlass, ´windləs
  wiseacre, ´waizeikə
  worsted (wool), ´wustid
  worsted (defeated), ´wəːstid
  wrath, ´rɔːθ
  wroth, ´rouθ

  yea, ´jei
  yeoman, ´joumən

  zealot, ´zelət
  zealous, ´zeləs
  zenith, ´zeniθ, ´zijniθ
  zoology, zo´ɔlədʒi


  B. Proper Names.

  Abergavenny, ´æbəgə´veni
  Abinger, ´æbindʒə
  Aeneas, ij´nijæs
  Aeneid, ´ijniid
  Aeschylus, ´ijskiləs
  Aetna, ´etnə
  Afghan, ´æfgæn
  Aflalo, ə´flɑːlou
  Ailsa, ´eilzə
  Aix-la-Chapelle, ´eiks lɑ ʃɑ´pɛl
  Albany, ´ɔːlbəni
  Alcester, ´ɔːlstə
  Alma-Tadema, ´ælmə ´tædimə
  Almondbury, ´ɑːmbəri
  Alnwick, ´ænik
  Alpha, ´ælfə
  Ambrosia, æm´brouzjə
  Ameer, ´æmiːə
  Anabasis, ə´næbəsis
  Anchises, æŋ´kaisijz
  Anstruther, ´ænstə, ´ænstrʌðə
  Antrobus, ´æntrəbəs
  Aphrodite, æfro´daiti
  Apocrypha, ə´pɔkrifə
  Areopagus, æri´ɔpəgəs
  Argyll, ɑː´gail
  Arion, ə´raiən
  Aristophanes, æri´stɔfənijz
  Armada, ɑː´mɑːdə, ɑː´meidə
  Armitage, ´ɑːmitidʒ
  Ate, ´eiti
  Athenæum, æθi´nijəm
  Athene, ə´θijni
  Athens, ´æθənz, -inz
  Athlone, æθ´loun
  Auchinleck, ´æflik
  Ava, ´ɑːvə

  Baal, ´beiəl
  Bacchanal, ´bækənəl
  Bacchus, ´bækəs
  Baden-Powell, ´beidən´pouəl
  Bagehot, ´bædʒət, ´bægət
  Balcarres, bæl´kæris
  Balfour, ´bælfɔː
  Bastille, ´bæstijl
  Beaconsfield, ´bijkənzfijld, ´bekənzfijld
  Beauchamp, ´bijtʃəm
  Beauclerc, ´bouklɛːə, ´boukliːə
  Beaufort, ´boufɔːt, -fət
  Beaulieu, ´bjuːli, ´bouli
  Beaumont, ´boumənt, ´boumɔnt
  Beethoven, ´beithouvən, ´beitouvən
  Bellew, ´belju (bi´luw)
  Bellingham, ´belindʒəm
  Belvoir, ´bijvə
  Berkeley, ´bɑːkli
  Berkshire, ´bɑːkʃə
  Bertie (surname), ´bɑːti
  Bessborough, ´bezbərə
  Bethphage, ´beθfəgij
  Bethune, ´bijtən, ´beθjuwn
  Bezant, ´bezənt, bi´zænt
  Bigelow, ´bigəlou
  Bispham, ´bisphəm, ´bizpəm
  Blenheim, ´blenəm
  Blom(e)field, ´bluwmfijld
  Blount, ´blʌnt
  Boanerges, bouə´nəːdʒijz
  Boer, ´buːə, ´bouə
  Boleyn, ´bulən, ´bulin
  Bolingbroke, ´bɔlinbruk, ´bouliŋbruk
  Bompas, ´bʌmpəs
  Boötes, bo´outijz
  Borghese, bɔː´geizi
  Borrowes, ´bʌrouz
  Bosanquet, ´bousəŋkit
  Botticelli, bɔti´tʃeli
  Boucicault, ´buwsikou
  Boughey, ´bouwi
  Boughton, ´bautən, ´bɔːtən
  Boulger, ´bouldʒə
  Bourchier, ´bautʃə
  Bourke, ´bəːk
  Brabazon, ´bræbəzən
  Breadalbane, bri´ɔːlbən, bri´dælbən
  Brechin, ´brijkin
  Bridlington, ´bridliŋtən, ´bəːliŋtən
  Broke, ´bruk
  Brougham, ´bruːəm
  Broughton, ´brɔːtən
  Buccleugh, bə´kluw
  Buchan, ´bʌkən
  Buchanan, bju´kænən
  Buenos Ayres, bju´ijnɔs, ´bjuinɔs, ´ɛːrijz (ɛːz, aiəz)
  Burghclere, bəː´klɛːə
  Burghersh, ´bəːgəːʃ
  Burghley, ´bəːli
  Bury, ´beri
  -bury, beri, bəri, bri
  Bysshe, ´biʃ
  Byzantine, bai´zæntain, bi´zæntin

  Cadiz, ´keidiz
  Cadogan, kə´dʌgən
  Caedmon, ´keidmɔn
  Cairo, ´kairou
  Caius (College), ´kijz
  Calais, ´kælei, ´kælis
  Calderon, ´kɔːldərən
  Callaghan, ´kæləhæn
  Calliope, kə´laiopi
  Callirrhoe, kə´liroui
  Cam, ´kæm
  Cambridge, ´keimbridʒ
  Campagna, kæm´pɑːnjə
  Campden, ´kæmdən
  Canaan, ´keinən
  Candace, kæn´deisi
  Capell, ´keipəl
  Carew, ´keiri, kə´ruw
  Carlyon, kɑː´laiən
  Carmichael, kɑ´maikəl
  Carnegie, kɑ´negi, kə´negi
  Castlerea (-reagh), kɑːsəl´rei
  Catholic, ´kæθəlik
  Cavan, ´kævən
  Chalfont, ´tʃɑːfənt
  Champlain, ʃæm´plein
  Chandos, ´ʃændɔs
  Charlemagne, ´ʃɑːləmein
  Charon, ´kɛːrɔn
  Charteris, ´tʃɑːtəz
  Cheetham, ´tʃijtəm
  Chersonese, ´kəːsonijs
  Cheshire, ´tʃeʃə
  Chetwode, ´tʃetwud
  Cheyne, ´tʃeini
  Chicago, ʃi´kɑːgou
  Chichele, ´tʃitʃəli
  Chisholm, ´tʃizəm
  Chiswick, ´tʃizik
  Cholmeley, Cholmondeley, Chomley, ´tʃʌmli
  Chrysostom, ´krisəstəm
  Cincinnati, sinsi´næti
  Cirencester, ´sairənsestə, ´sisestə, ´sizitə, ´sistə
  Claverhouse, ´kleivəz
  Clough, ´klʌf
  Cochrane, ´kɔkrən
  Cockburn, ´koubən
  Cocles, ´kɔklijz
  Cocytus, ko´saitəs
  Coke, ´kuk
  Colclough, ´koukli
  Colquhoun, ko´huwn
  Combe, ´kuwm
  Compton, ´kʌmtən, kɔmtən
  Connaught, ´kɔnət
  Constable, ´kʌnstəbəl
  Conyngham, ´kʌniŋəm
  Corkran, ´kɔkrən
  Cortes, ´kɔːtijz
  Couch, ´kuwtʃ
  Courthope, ´kɔːtəp
  Cousens, ´kʌzənz
  Cowen, ´kouən, ´kauən
  Cowper, ´kuwpə, ´kaupə; (poet) ´kuwpə
  Cozens-Hardy, ´kʌzənz´hɑːdi
  Creighton, Crichton, ´kraitən
  Croat, ´krouæt
  Cromartie, ´krʌməti
  Crombie, ´krʌmbi, ´krɔmbi
  Cromwell, ´krɔmwəl
  Cupar, ´kuwpə
  Cymric, ´kimrik, ´kʌmrik
  Czar, ´zɑː
  Czarewitch, ´zɑːrivitʃ
  Czarina, zɑ´rijnə
  Czech, tʃek
  Czerny, ´tʃəːni

  Dalbiac, ´dɔːlbiæk
  Dalgleish, ´dælglijʃ
  Dalhousie, dəl´hauzi
  Dalmeny, ´dælmijni
  Dalziel, ´deiəl
  Damocles, ´dæmoklijz
  Darius, də´raiəs
  Dauphin, ´dɔːfin
  Deborah, ´debərə
  Delhi, ´deli
  Delilah, di´lailə
  Demosthenes, di´mɔsθənijz
  Demy (Magdalen College, Oxford), di´mai
  Denbigh, ´denbi
  Derby, ´dɑːbi
  Deuteronomy, djuwtə´rɔnəmi
  Dives, ´daivijz
  Donegal, dɔni´gɔːl
  Donoghue, ´dʌnəhuw
  Doughty, ´dauti
  Drogheda, ´drɔhədə
  Dvořák, ´dvɔːʒək

  Ecclesiastes, iklijzi´æstijz
  Edinburgh, ´edinbʌrə, -brə
  Eisteddfod, ais´teðvɔd
  Elcho, ´elkou
  Elgin, ´elgin
  Elizabethan, elizə´bijθən
  Elysian, e´lizjən
  Elysium, e´lizjəm
  Elzevir, ´elzivəː, -viə
  Euripides, ju´ripidijz
  Europe, ´juːrəp
  European, juro´piːən
  Exmouth, ´eksməθ

  Faust, ´faust
  Faustus, ´fɔːstəs
  Fe(a)therstonhaugh, ´feðəstənhɔː
  Fildes, ´faildz
  Folkestone, ´foukstən
  Foulis, ´faulz
  Fowey, ´fɔi
  Froude, ´fruwd

  Gaelic, ´gælik (Scotland), ´geilik (Ireland)
  Gairdner, ´gɑːdnə
  Galway, ´gɔːlwei
  Gawain, ´gæwein
  Geddes, ´gedis
  Geikie, ´gijki
  Geoffrey, ´dʒefri
  Geoghegan, ´geigən
  Giaour, ´dʒauə
  Gibraltar, dʒi´brɔːltə
  Giffen, ´dʒifən
  Glamis, ´glɑːmz
  Glasgow, ´glæsgou
  Gloucester, ´glɔstə
  Gomme, ´gɔm
  Goschen, ´gouʃən
  Gough, ´gɔf
  Greaves, ´greivz
  Greenwich, ´grinidʒ
  Grosvenor, ´grouvnə
  Guildford, ´gilfəd
  Gye, ´gai

  Hades, ´heidijz
  Haigh, ´heig
  Hamish, ´heimiʃ
  Harcourt, ´hɑːkət
  Harlech, ´hɑːlik
  Hastings, ´heistiŋz
  Hawarden, ´hɑːdən, ´heiwɔːdən
  Haweis, ´hɔːwis, ´hɔis
  Headlam, ´hedləm
  Hebe, ´hijbi
  Heneage, ´henidʒ
  Hercules, ´həːkjulijz
  Hermione, hə´maioni
  Herodotus, he´rɔdətəs
  Herschell, ´həːʃəl
  Hertford, ´hɑːfəd
  Hervey, ´hɑːvi
  Hobart, ´hʌbət
  Holmes, ´houmz
  Holyhead, ´hɔlihed
  Hopetoun, ´houptən
  Horace, ´hɔrəs
  Hough, ´hʌf
  Houghton, ´hɔːtən, ´hautən
  Huguenot, ´hjuwgənɔt
  Huish, ´hjuwiʃ

  Ian, iːən
  Iddesleigh, ´idsli
  Ingelow, ´indʒəlou
  Iona, ai´ounə
  Iroquois, ´irokwɑː
  Israel, ´izrəəl
  Ithaca, ´iθəkə
  Iveagh, ´aivi
  Ixion, i´ksaiən

  Jaïrus, dʒə´airəs
  Jaques ("As you like it"), ´dʒeikwiz
  Jean, ´dʒijn
  Jerusalem, dʒi´ruwsələm
  Jervaulx (Abbey), ´dʒəːvou
  Jervis, ´dʒɑːvis
  Jervois, ´dʒəːvis
  Jeune, ´dʒuwn
  Johannesburg, dʒo´hænisbəːg

  Kaiser, ´kaizə
  Kearsarge, ´kiːəsɑːg
  Kedleston, ´kelsən; (Derbyshire), ´kedəlstən
  Keighley, ´kijli, ´kaili, ´kijθli
  Keightley, ´kijtli
  Keith, ´kijθ
  Keogh, Keough, K´Eogh, Kehoe, ´kjou
  Ker, ´kəː, kɑː, kɛə
  Keswick, ´kezik
  Keynes, ´keinz
  Khedive, ke´dijv
  Kirkby Stephen, ´kəːbi ´stijvən
  Kirkcudbright, kə´kuwbri
  Knollys, Knowles, ´noulz
  Koran, ´kɔːrən, kɔː´ræn, kɔː´rɑːn
  Kough, ´kjou

  Laffan, ´læfən, lə´fæn
  Lama, ´lɑːmə
  Laocoon, lei´oukoɔn
  Lares, ´lɛːrijz
  Lascelles, ´læsəlz
  Lathom, leiθəm
  Layard, ´lɛːəd
  Leamington, ´lemiŋtən
  Lefevre, lə´fijvə
  Lehmann, ´leimən
  Leicester, ´lestə
  Leigh, ´lij
  Leighton, ´leitən
  Leitrim, ´lijtrim
  Leominster, ´lemstə
  Le Queux, lə´kjuw
  Leveson-Gower, ´ljuwsən´gɔː
  Ley, ´lij
  Leys (school), ´lijz
  Lisle, ´lail
  Llandudno, læn´didnou
  Llewellyn, lu´elin
  Lochiel, lɔ´kijl
  Loughboro, ´lʌfbərə
  Lovibond, ´lʌvbənd
  Lugard, lu´gɑːd
  Luke, ´luwk, ´ljuwk
  Lymington, ´limiŋtən
  Lyons, ´laiənz
  Lyveden, ´livdən

  M'Gee, M'Ghee, mə´gij
  Machiavelli, mækjə´veli
  Mackay, M'Kay, mə´kai
  Mackenzie, mə´kenzi, mə´keŋi
  Maclean, mə´klein
  MacLehose, ´mækəlhouz
  Macleod, mə´klaud
  Macmahon, mək´mɑːn
  MacManus, mək´mænəs
  Macnamara, mæknə´mɑːrə
  Macneill, mək´nijl
  Maconochie, mə´kɔŋki
  Macquoid, mə´kɔid
  Magdalen(e) (College), ´mɔːdlin
  Magna Charta, ´mægnə ´kɑːtə
  Magrath, mə´grɑː
  Maguire, mə´gwaiə
  Mahan, mə´hæn, mɑːn
  Maharajah, mɑhə´rɑːdʒə
  Mahomet, mə´hɔmit
  Mahoney, ´mɑːni
  Mainwaring, ´mænəriŋ
  Majendie, ´mædʒəndi
  Malet, ´mælit
  Maori, ´mɑːori
  Marazion, mærə´zaiən
  Marjoribanks, ´mɑːtʃbæŋks
  Marlborough, ´mɔːlbərə
  Marseillaise, ´mɑːsə´leiz
  Marylebone, ´mæribən
  Masham, ´mæʃəm, ´mæsəm
  Massachusetts, mæsə´tʃuwsits
  Mather, ´mæðə
  Maughan, ´mɔːn
  Maurice, ´mɔris
  Medici, ´meditʃi
  Meiklejohn, ´mikəldʒɔn
  Melhuish, ´meliʃ
  Menpes, ´mempis
  Mentone, men´touni
  Menzies, ´miŋiz, ´meŋiz
  Meux, ´mjuwz, ´mjuwks
  Micheldever, ´mitʃəldevə
  Milan, ´milən, mi´læn
  Millard, mi´lɑːd, ´miləd
  Mivart, ´maivət
  Mohun, ´muwn
  Moleyns (de), ´mʌlinz
  Molyneux, ´mʌlinjuw
  Momerie, ´mʌməri
  Monck, ´mʌŋk
  Monckton, ´mʌŋktən
  Monro(e), mən´rou
  Montaigne, mɔn´tein
  Morant, mo´rænt
  Moule, ´muwl, ´moul
  Mowbray, ´moubri, muwbri

  Naas, ´neis
  Napier, ´neipjə, ´neipiːə
  Neil, ´nijl
  Nemesis, ´nemesis
  Nepean, ni´pijn
  Nereid, ´nijriid
  Newnes, ´njuwnz
  Newquay, ´njuwkij
  Nice, ´nijs
  Nigel, ´naidʒəl
  Nineveh, ´ninivi, -və
  Nirvana, nəː´vɑːnə
  Northcote, ´nɔːθkət

  Oban, ´oubən
  O'Callaghan, o´kæləhən
  Oceania, ouʃi´einjə
  Oceanic, ouʃi´ænik
  Odysseus, o´disjuws
  Odyssey, ´ɔdisi
  Ogilvy, ´ougəlvi
  Ohio, o´haiou
  O'Meara, o´mɑːrə
  Omega, ´oumegə
  Orion, o´raiən
  Orpheus, ´ɔːfjuws
  Osbourne, ´ɔzbən
  Ottawa, ´ɔtewɑː
  Oudh, ´uwd
  Ouless, ´uwlis
  Ouse, ´uwz
  Outram, ´uwtrəm

  Paget, ´pædʒit
  Palgrave, ´pɔːlgreiv
  Pall Mall, ´pel´mel, ´pæl´mæl
  Paraguay, ´pærəgwai
  Paton, ´peitən
  Pegram, ´pijgrəm
  Pembroke, ´pembruk
  Penelope, pe´nelopi
  Penicuik, ´penikuk
  Pennefather, ´penifeθə
  Penrhyn, pen´rin
  Pentateuch, ´pentətjuwk
  Pepys, ´pijps
  Perowne, pə´roun
  Persephone, pə´sefəni
  Persia, ´pəːʃə
  Petrie, ´pijtri
  Pharaoh, ´fɛːrou
  Philippi, fi´lipai
  Pigott, ´pigət
  Pinero, pi´nɛːrou
  Pirbright, ´pəːbrait
  Pirie, ´piri
  Pleiades, ´plaiədijz
  Poe, ´pou
  Pole, ´puwl
  Pole Carew, puwl´kɛːri
  Ponsonby, ´pʌnsənbi
  Pontefract, ´pɔntifrækt, pʌmfrit (cakes)
  Powell, ´pouəl
  Powis, Powys, ´pouwis
  Powlett, ´pɔːlit
  Praed, ´preid
  Prometheus, pro´mijθjuws
  Prowse, ´prauz
  Psyche, ´saiki
  Pugh, ´pjuw
  Puleston, ´pilstən
  Pulteney, ´poultni
  Punjab, pən´dʒɑːb, -ɔːb
  Pyramid, ´pirəmid
  Pythagoras, pai´θægəræs

  Quixote, ´kwiksət

  Rajah, ´rɑːdʒə
  Raleigh, ´rɔːli, ´ræli
  Ralph, ´reif, ´rælf, ´rɑːlf
  Rayleigh, ´reili
  Reay, ´rei
  Rehan, ´reiən
  Renaissance, ri´neisəns
  Reuter, ´rɔitə
  Reynard, ´renɑːd
  Rheims, ´rijmz
  Rhodesia, rou´dijzjə
  Rhys, ´rijs
  Romney, ´rʌmni
  Rothesay, ´rɔθsi
  Rouse, ´ruwz, ´raus
  Rowton, ´rɔːtən
  Roxburgh, ´rɔksbərə
  Ruthven, ´rivən

  Sacheverell, sæ´ʃevərəl
  St Clair, ´siŋklɛːə
  St John, ´sindʒən
  St Leger, sənt´ledʒə, ´siləndʒə
  St Maur, ´simɔː
  St Neots, sə´nijts
  St Paul, sənt´pɔːl
  St Roch, sənt´rouk
  Salisbury, ´sɔːlzbəri
  Saltoun, ´sɔːltaun
  Sandys, ´sændz
  Sanhedrin, ´sænhedrin
  Sassenach, ´sæsenæk
  Saunders, ´sɑːndəz
  Scone, ´skuwn
  Scrymgeour, ´skrimdʒə
  Searle, ´səːl
  Selous, sə´luws
  Seneca, ´senekə
  Seton, Setoun, ´sijtən
  Severus, si´vijrəs
  Shaughnessy, ´ʃɔːnəsi
  Sherbourne, ´ʃəːbən
  -shire, ʃə (ʃiə)
  Shrewsbury, ´ʃruwzbəri, ´ʃrouzbəri
  Sikh, ´sijk
  Slough, ´slau
  Somers, ´sʌməz
  Somerset, ´sʌməset
  Sophocles, ´sɔfəklijz
  Southwark, ´sʌðək
  Southwell, ´sʌðəl
  Sphynx, ´sfiŋks
  Stagirite, ´stædʒirait
  Stanton, ´stɑːntən
  Stour, ´stuːə
  Strachan, ´ʃtrɔːn
  Stranraer, stræn´raə
  Symonds, Symons, ´simənz

  Teignmouth, ´tinməθ
  Telemachus, te´leməkəs
  Terpsichore, teː´psikori
  Thames, ´temz
  Theobald, ´θibəld, ´θijobɔːld
  Theseus, ´θijsjuws
  Thorold, ´θʌrəld
  Thucydides, θju´sididijz
  Tighe, ´tai
  Tintagel, tin´tædʒəl
  Tollemache, ´tɔlmæʃ
  Towcester, ´tɔistə
  Toynbee, ´tɔinbi
  Trafalgar, trə´fælgə, ´træfəlgɑː
  Tredegar, tri´dijgə
  Trefusis, tri´fjuwsis
  Treloar, tri´lɔːə
  Trevelyan, tri´viljən, tri´veljən
  Troubridge, ´truwbridʒ
  Tynemouth, ´tinməθ
  Tyrwhitt, ´tirit

  Urquhart, ´əːkət
  Uruguay, ´juːrəgwai
  Uttoxeter, ´ʌksitə

  Valparaiso, vælpə´raizou
  Vanbrugh, ´vænbrə
  Van Dyck, væn´daik
  Vaughan, ´vɔːn
  Vavasour, ´vævəsə
  Venezuela, veniz´weilə
  Vezin, ´vijzin
  Viëtor, ´fiːətɔːr
  Villiers, ´viləz
  Vinci, ´vintʃi

  Waldegrave, ´wɔːlgreiv
  Walhalla, væl´hælə
  Waugh, ´wɔː
  Weguelin, ´wegəlin
  Wemyss, ´wijmz
  Wesleyan, ´wezliən
  Willard, wi´lɑːd
  Wolseley, ´wulzli
  Worcester, ´wustə
  Wylie, Wyllie, ´waili

  Xenophon, ´zenəfən
  Xerxes, ´zəːksijz

  Yeames, ´jeimz
  Yeatman, ´jeitmən
  Yonge, ´jʌŋ
  Yosemite, jo´semiti

  Zenana, zi´nɑːnə
  Zeus, ´zjuws
  Zouche, ´zuwʃ
  Zuider Zee, ´zaidə ´zei

_The above lists must be regarded as an experiment. It is not to
be expected that the selection of words and in some cases the
pronunciation indicated will commend themselves to all readers.
Suggestions and criticisms are earnestly invited, so that it may be
possible to improve the lists in subsequent editions._




APPENDIX III

On the Teaching of Reading.


Though the teaching of reading does not strictly come within the scope
of this book, a few hints may be given on the subject.

For the first stages the student is referred to the wholly admirable
work of Miss Dale, based throughout on a careful study of the spoken
language.

Later on it is important that the pupils should be able to read aloud
with distinct articulation and an agreeable voice. Far the most helpful
book is Mr Burrell's "Clear Speaking and Good Reading" (published
by Longmans). He dwells on the importance of good breathing and a
good posture, and gives suitable exercises for ensuring both. He
condemns all that is affected or stagy; indeed his whole book is an
eloquent plea for quiet and restraint. He rightly advises the teacher
to listen carefully to good speakers, avoiding (as a rule) those of
his own profession. In dealing with phonetics he hardly appreciates
the advantages attaching to a thorough study of the language as it
is actually spoken; but we can recommend without reserve the later
chapters of his book (vi. The Reading Lesson; vii. Reading and
Reciting; viii. Specimen Lessons in Recitation; ix. On the Higher Study
of Reading and Speaking).




APPENDIX IV


The following diagrams serve to show the position of the tongue in the
formation of some of the vowels.

Observe the different shapes of the mouth passage through which the
breath passes.

(These diagrams were originally prepared by Dr. R. J. Lloyd.)

[Illustration: mar=i=ne (=i=)]

[Illustration: r=E=in (=e=)]

[Illustration: th=E=re (=ɛ=)]

[Illustration: p=A=t (=a=)

This diagram represents the vowel [a]. In northern English it is found
in words like _pat_; in southern English it is the first part of the
diphthong in _house_ [haus], _bite_ [bait].]

[Illustration: br=U=te (=u=)]

[Illustration: n=O=te (=o=)]

[Illustration: =A=ll (=ɔ=)]

[Illustration: f=A=ther (=ɑ=)]

The following diagrams are the result of experiments with an artificial
palate, covered with fine powder. When certain sounds are uttered, the
tongue touches the palate and some of the powder is removed. What is
black in the diagrams indicates those parts of the hard palate which
are touched by the tongue.

[Illustration: These diagrams show where the tongue touches the palate
in the production of [ʃ] and [s] respectively.]

[Illustration: English word _toe_

French word _tôt_ (to)

These diagrams are by Mr Dumville, and are taken from his _Elements
of French Pronunciation and Diction_. They illustrate the manner of
production of the English and the French [t]. It will be noticed that
in the case of the English sound the tongue is farther back than in the
case of the French sound.]

                              PRINTED BY
                         TURNBULL AND SPEARS,
                               EDINBURGH

                   FRENCH LIFE AND WAYS.--Continued.

    =DENT'S WALL PICTURES OF THE FOUR SEASONS.= From Drawings
        especially prepared by J. A. SYMINGTON. Printed in Colours.
        Size 55 by 35 ins. Unmounted, 2s. 6d. net each; Mounted on
        Linen and Eyeletted, 3s. 6d. net each; Mounted on Linen,
        with Rollers, 6s. net each.

    =FRENCH WORD GROUPS.= Based on Dent's Wall Pictures of the Four
        Seasons. By R. GUERRA.

    =RIPPMANN'S FRENCH PICTURE VOCABULARY.= _The First and Second
        Series now ready._ 1s. 4d. each vol.

    =PIERRE LAROUSSE'S DICTIONNAIRE COMPLET ILLUSTRÉ DE LA LANGUE
        FRANÇAISE.= With numerous Illustrations in Colour and Line.
        Large fcap. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. net.

                                GERMAN.
       _Fourteenth (English) Edition, completing 55,200 copies._

    =DENT'S FIRST GERMAN BOOK.= By WALTER RIPPMANN, S. ALGE, and S.
        HAMBURGER. 2s. 6d.

      "An excellent book ... will be found well worth introducing
                      into schools."--_Athenæum._

    =DENT'S GERMAN READER.= By S. ALGE and WALTER RIPPMANN. 3s.
        [_Fifth Edition._

    The same principles underlie the _German Reader_ as the _First
    German Book_; the Reader can, however, quite well be taken with
    pupils who have not worked through the easier volume.

    =GERMAN GRAMMAR AND WORD FORMATION.= Exercises, with an
        Abstract of the Essentials of German Grammar. By WALTER
        RIPPMANN. 1s. 8d.

                      _Third and Revised Edition._

    =HINTS ON TEACHING GERMAN.= With a running Commentary to Dent's
        First German Book and Dent's German Reader. By WALTER
        RIPPMANN. 1s. 6d. net.

    "Particularly good and practical."--_Athenæum._

    =GERMAN DAILY LIFE.= By Dr. KRON. Fifth Edition, Revised. 2s.
        6d. net.

    =AUS DEM LEBEN.= German Scenes for the Classroom. By L. HIRSCH
        and J. STUART WALTERS. 1s. 4d.

    =RIPPMANN'S GERMAN PICTURE VOCABULARY.= _The First and Second
        Series now ready._ 1s. 4d. each volume.

    =A FIRST BOOK OF GERMAN POETRY.= Compiled and Annotated by
        WALTER RIPPMANN. 1s. 4d.

    =DENT'S ANDERSEN IN GERMAN.= Edited, with Exercises, by WALTER
        RIPPMANN. With many beautiful Pictures by =Thomas=,
        CHARLES, and WILLIAM ROBINSON. Crown 8vo, 1s. 4d.

         _An Edition is issued with a Glossary at 2s. 6d. net._

    =DER GOLDENE VOGEL, AND OTHER TALES.= A Second Year German
        Reader. Edited by WALTER RIPPMANN. 1s. 4d.

    =EISENHANS, AND OTHER TALES.= A Second Year German Reader.
        Edited by WALTER RIPPMANN. 1s. 4d.

    The exercises in _Der Goldene Vogel_ and _Eisenhans_ are
    typical of the latest advance in reform teaching. They consist
    of questions based on the text, and exercises in word-formation
    and applied grammar.

    =EASY FREE COMPOSITION IN GERMAN.= By WALTER RIPPMANN, M.A. 1s.
        4d.

    =DEUTSCHE LAUTE.= A Phonetic Chart for use in Class (see under
        Phonetics).

                                ENGLISH.

    =THE SOUNDS OF SPOKEN ENGLISH.= A Manual of Ear Training for
        English Students. By WALTER RIPPMANN. 1s. 6d. net. [_Third
        Edition._

    "The subject is treated in a pleasant and sympathetic manner
    quite without pedantry. Many useful hints are introduced on
    breathing, voice-production, and the elements of elocution. Mr.
    Rippmann is to be congratulated on the production of a fresh
    and interesting little work."--_The Guardian_.

    "An excellent manual that was much required."--_School World_.

    =SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH, READ, SPOKEN, AND RECITED.= By WALTER
        RIPPMANN. 1s. net. [_Second Edition._

    The First Part of this companion volume to _The Sounds of
    Spoken English_ consists of a number of carefully graded
    passages in prose and verse, in phonetic transcription, with
    exercises. The same pieces appear in the ordinary spelling in
    the Second Part, with numerous parallel passages for practice.
    It may be confidently asserted that for class use as well
    as for the private student the _Sounds_ and the _Specimens_
    together afford the best introduction to the study of English
    speech sounds that has yet appeared.

    These two works may be had in one volume at 2s. net.

    =DENT'S FIRST ENGLISH BOOK.= By WALTER RIPPMANN. Well
        Illustrated. 2s. net. [_Fourth Edition._

    "The name of the author and his wide experience in teaching
    modern languages are guarantees of the excellence of his
    work."--_Schoolmistress._

    =THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION.= By Miss E. E. COVERNTON,
        English Mistress at St. Mary's College, Paddington. 1s. 6d.
        net.

    "Miss Covernton is evidently an enthusiast on her subject, and
    this book is pleasantly written and very suggestive.... Those
    who are still novices will gain many hints and avoid many
    pitfalls if they read this volume."--_Modern Language Teaching._

    =THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH ANALYSIS.= By Miss E. M. DOBBS. 1s.
        net.

    =THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH.= A Phonetic Chart for use in Class.
        (See under Phonetics.)

    =ENGLISH SOUNDS.= A Book for Boys and Girls, by WALTER
        RIPPMANN, M.A. 1s.

                                SPANISH.

    =DENT'S FIRST SPANISH BOOK.= By F. R. ROBERT. With
        Illustrations by J. A. SYMINGTON. 2s. net.

    This book is exceptionally well written, and forms a most
    interesting introduction to the study of Spanish.

                        Dent's Classical Series

             ON THE LINES OF DENTS MODERN LANGUAGE SERIES.

                 GENERAL EDITOR: WALTER RIPPMANN, M.A.

              _Fifth Edition, completing 14,650 copies._

    =DENT'S FIRST LATIN BOOK.= By HAROLD W. ATKINSON, M.A., and J.
        W. E. PEARCE, M.A. With 12 Coloured Plates Illustrative of
        Roman Life, by M. E. DURHAM. Small crown 8vo, cloth, 3s.

    Effects for Latin a compromise between the usual "classical
    method" and the "reform method" now frequently used in the
    teaching of modern languages.

    _The Phonetic Part of the First Latin Book is issued separately
    at 6d._

    =DENT'S LATIN PRIMER.= By E. S. FORSTER, M.A. Second Edition,
        1s.

    This _Primer_ is intended for pupils who begin Latin early,
    whereas the _First Latin Book_ is better suited for rather
    older pupils.

    _Note._--Each of the above books contains a Phonetic Transcript
    of the Roman Pronunciation of passages in the Reader.

    =BASIS LATINA. An Introduction to Latin through the Language to
        the Literature.= By Prof. E. V. ARNOLD, assisted by WALTER
        RIPPMANN. 1s. 6d.

    =FORUM LATINUM. A First Latin Book.= By Dr. E. VERNON ARNOLD,
        Professor of Latin at the University College of North
        Wales. Small crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

    =AENEÆ FACTA ET FATA. A Stepping-stone to Virgil.= With Notes
        and Exercises on the text by Dr. E. VERNON ARNOLD. With
        numerous Illustrations. Small crown 8vo, 2s.

    =CÆSAR IMPERATOR. An Elementary Latin Reader.= With Vocabulary
        and Exercises on the Text by J. W. E. PEARCE, M.A.,
        joint-author of Dent's First Latin Book. 1s. 4d.

    =DENTS WALL PICTURES. For Teaching Latin.= Four Coloured
        Pictures enlarged from the First Latin Book. Size 30 by
        22 ins. Unmounted, 2s. net each; Mounted on Linen and
        Eyeletted, 3s. net; Mounted on Linen, with Rollers, 5s. net.

  Romæ, Sexti Domus.               Romæ, Triumphus.
      Pompeiis, Ostium Tabernæ et Via Strata.
      In Gallia, Proelium Equestre et Pedestre.

                            CLASSICAL TEXTS.

    =CÆSAR'S GALLIC WAR.= =Book I.= 1s. 4d. =Books II. & III.= 1s.
        4d. =Books IV. & V.= 1s. 4d.

    =VIRGIL'S AENEID.= =Book I.= 1s. 4d. =Book II.= 1s. 4d. =Book
        X.= 1s. 4d.

    For list of Editors, see Dent's Educational Catalogue,
    obtainable, post free, on application to the Publishers.




Transcriber's Notes:


    Simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors were
    silently corrected.

    Punctuation normalized.

    Anachronistic and non-standard spellings retained as printed.

    Italics markup is enclosed in _underscores_.

    Bold markup is enclosed in =equals=.





End of Project Gutenberg's The Sounds of Spoken English, by Walter Rippmann

*** 