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[Illustration: Flag]




  TWO CENTURIES

  OF

  SHIPBUILDING




[Illustration: _H. M. S. Argyll._]




  TWO CENTURIES OF
  SHIPBUILDING

  BY THE

  SCOTTS AT GREENOCK.

  [Illustration: decoration]

  [_Partly Reprinted from "Engineering."_]

  [Illustration: decoration]

  "Take it all in all, a ship of the line is the most honourable thing
  that man, as a gregarious animal, has ever produced.... Into
  that he has put as much of his human patience, common sense,
  forethought, experimental philosophy, self-control, habits of order
  and obedience, thoroughly wrought hand-work, defiance of brute
  elements, careless courage, careful patriotism, and calm expectation
  of the judgment of God, as can well be put into a space of
  300 feet long by 80 feet broad."--RUSKIN.


  [Illustration: sailing ship]


  LONDON:

  OFFICES OF "ENGINEERING," 35 and 36, BEDFORD STREET, W.C.

  1906.




Contents.

[Illustration: decoration]

                                                                PAGE

  PERSONALIA                                                      xi

  THE ERA OF THE SAILING SHIP                                      1

  THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEAMSHIP                                15

  Table I. Epoch-Marking Steamers built by the Scotts, 1819
  to 1841                                                         31

  Table II. Progress in the Economy of the Marine Engine,
  1872 to 1901                                                    41

  A CENTURY'S WORK FOR THE NAVY                                   43

  Table III. Progressive Types of Warship Machinery, and
  their Economy, 1840 to 1905                                     53

  Table IV. Particulars of the Successive Large Naval Guns,
  1800 to 1905                                                    56

  Table V. Size and Fighting Qualities of British Battleships
  of Different Periods, 1861 to 1905                              59

  YACHTING AND YACHTS                                             63

  Table VI. General Particulars of Principal Steam Yachts
  Built by Scotts' Company                                        69

  THE TWENTIETH CENTURY                                           73

  Numbers of British and Foreign, and of Oversea and Channel,
  Steamers, of over 16 knots speed                                75

  Table VII. Records of Coal Consumption of Steamship
  "Narragansett"                                                  79

  EFFICIENCY: DESIGN: ADMINISTRATION                              88

  THE SHIPBUILDING YARD                                           94

  THE ENGINE AND BOILER WORKS                                    106




List of Illustrations.

[Illustration: decoration]

                                                                    PAGE

  H.M.S. "Argyll" (Plate I.)       _Frontispiece_


  PERSONALIA.

  Portraits of William Scott (born 1722, died 1769); John Scott (born
      1752, died 1837); William Scott, his Brother (born 1765); and
      Charles Cuningham Scott (born 1794, died 1875) (Plate II.)
                                                  _Adjoining page_     1

  John Scott, C.B. (born 1830, died 1903); Robert Sinclair Scott
      (born 1843, died 1905); Charles Cuningham Scott (the present
      Chairman); Robert Lyons Scott (Plate III.)   _Adjoining page_    1


  THE ERA OF THE SAILING SHIP. (PAGES 1 TO 14.)

  The Beginnings (Plate IV.)                         _Facing page_     2

  Greenock and Scotts' Yard in the Eighteenth Century (Plate V.)
                                                     _Facing page_     4

  A West Indiaman                                                      7

  A Typical East Indiaman                                              9

  The "Lord of the Isles" (Plate VI.)                _Facing page_    10

  The "Archibald Russell" (Plate VII.)                  "      "      12


  THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEAMSHIP. (PAGES 15 TO 42.)

  Early Steamboats at Greenock, 1820 (Plate VIII.)   _Facing page_    16

  The "City of Glasgow" (Plate IX.)                     "      "      20

  A Side-Lever Engine of 1831                                         23

  An Engine of 1832                                                   25

  Scotts' First P. and O. Liner, the "Tagus" (Plate X.)
                                                     _Facing page_    26

  Type of Side-Lever Engine of 1840                                   29

  Double-Geared Engine for Early Atlantic Liner                       32

  A Pioneer in Water-Tube Boilers (The Rowan Boiler)                  35

  High-Pressure Machinery in the "Thetis" (Plate XI.)
                                                     _Facing page_    36

  The Machinery of the "Achilles"                                     38

  General Arrangement of the Machinery of the "Achilles" (Plate XII.)
                                                     _Facing page_    38

  The "Achilles" of 1865, off Gravesend (Plate XIII.)   "      "      40


  A CENTURY'S WORK FOR THE NAVY. (PAGES 43 TO 62.)

  Model of H.M.S. "Prince of Wales," 1803 (Plate XIV.)
                                                     _Facing page_    43

  The Launch of the First Clyde-Built Steam Frigate "Greenock," 1849
      (Plate XV.)                                    _Facing page_    44

  Machinery in H.M.SS. "Hecla," and "Hecate" 1839 (Plate XVI.)
                                                     _Facing page_    46

  Machinery of H.M.S. "Greenock," 1848                                48

  Machinery of H.M.S. "Canopus," 1900                                 49

  H.M.S. "Thrush," 1889 (Plate XVII.)                _Facing page_    50

  Engines of H.M.S. "Thrush," 1889 (Plate XVIII.)                     52

  H.M. Battleship "Prince of Wales" (Plate XIX.)                      58

  Propelling Engines of H.M.S. "Argyll" (Plate XX.)                   60


  YACHTING AND YACHTS. (PAGES 63 TO 72.)

  The "Erin," Owned by Sir Thomas Lipton, Bart. (Plate XXI.)
                                                     _Facing page_    63

  The "Clarence," an Early Racing Cutter (Plate XXII.)  "      "      64

  The "Greta" of 1876; the "Greta" of 1895 (Plate XXIII.)
                                                     _Facing page_    66

  The "Margarita"; the "Tuscarora" (Plate XXIV.)                      68

  The Saloons of the "Beryl," Owned by Lord Inverclyde (Plate XXV.)
                                                     _Facing page_    70

  Typical Yacht Engines (Plate XXVI.)                   "      "      72


  THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. (PAGES 73 TO 87.)

  Dining-Saloon in a Mail Steamer; Drawing-Room in the Steam Yacht
      "Foros" (Plate XXVII.)                         _Facing page_    73

  The Donaldson Liner "Cassandra" (Plate XXVIII.)       "      "      74

  The Holt Liner "Achilles" of 1900 (Plate XXIX.)       "      "      76

  The Largest Oil-Carrying Steamer afloat--the "Narragansett"
      (Plate XXX.)                                   _Facing page_    78

  The Launch of a China Steamer (Plate XXXI.)           "      "      80

  The China Navigation Company's T.SS. "Fengtien" (Plate XXXII.)
                                                  _Adjoining page_    81

  The British India Company's SS. "Bharata" (Plate XXXIII.)
                                                     _Facing page_    82

  One of Twenty Thames Steamers Engined by the Scotts
      (Plate XXXIV.)                                 _Facing page_    84

  Engines and Boilers for Twenty London County Council Steamers
      (Plate XXXV.)                               _Adjoining page_    85

  Typical Propelling Machinery (Plate XXXVI.)        _Facing page_    86


  EFFICIENCY: DESIGN: ADMINISTRATION. (PAGES 88 TO 93.)

  Shipbuilding (Plate XXXVII.)                       _Facing page_    88

  The Launch of H.M.S. "Argyll" (Plate XXXVIII.)        "      "      90

  Engine Construction (Plate XXXIX.)                    "      "      92


  THE SHIPBUILDING YARD. (PAGES 94 TO 105.)

  The Moulding Loft (Plate XL.)                      _Facing page_    94

  Beam Shearing Machine; Bevelling Machine; Hydraulic Joggling
      Machine (Plate XLI.)                        _Adjoining page_    95

  In one of the Platers' Sheds (Plate XLII.)         _Facing_  "      96

  Punching and Shearing (Plate XLIII.)                  "      "      98

  The Fitting-out Dock (Plate XLIV.)                    "      "     100

  The Graving Dock (Plate XLV.)                   _Adjoining_  "     101

  The Saw Mill (Plate XLVI.)                         _Facing_  "     102

  Two Views in the Joiners' Shops (Plate XLVII.)  _Adjoining_  "     103

  Electric Generators in the Power Station; Hydraulic Pumps and
      Air-Compressors in the Power Station (Plate XLVIII.)
                                                     _Facing page_   104


  THE ENGINE AND BOILER WORKS. (PAGES 106 TO 116.)

  View in Main Machine Shop (Plate XLIX.)            _Facing page_   106

  Vertical Planing Machine; Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine
      (Plate L.)                                     _Facing page_   108

  Surfacing and Boring Lathe (Plate LI.)          _Adjoining_  "     109

  Brass-Finishing Shop (Plate LII.)                  _Facing_  "     110

  Tool, Gauge, Template and Jig Department
      (Plate LIII.)                                     "      "     112

  In the Boiler Shop (Plate LIV.)                       "      "     114

  Hydraulic Plate-Bending Machine                                    114


[Illustration: decoration]




Personalia.

[Illustration: decoration]


JOHN SCOTT (I) founded the firm in 1711, and engaged
in the building of herring busses and small craft. There
is, unfortunately, no engraving of him extant, so that our
series of portraits on Plates II. and III. adjoining page 1,
is to this extent incomplete.

WILLIAM SCOTT, his son, born 1722, died 1769, succeeded
him, and, with his brother, extended the business alike as
regards the extent of the works, and the types of vessels
built. His first square-rigged ship--of 1765--was the first
vessel built on the Clyde for owners out of Scotland.

JOHN SCOTT (II), born 1752, died 1837, son of William,
greatly developed the works and built the dry dock and
basin now included, with the original Yard, in the establishment of
Messrs. Caird and Co., Limited. Under his _régime_ many ocean-going
sailing ships were constructed, ship-work for the Navy was undertaken,
the manufacture of steam machinery commenced in 1825, and Admiralty
orders undertaken for engines for dockyard--as well as Greenock-built
frigates. He built the Custom House Quay in 1791, bought Halkshill, the
family seat, in 1815, was a partner in the Greenock Bank, and otherwise
promoted the industries of the town.

His brother, WILLIAM SCOTT (II), born 1756, migrated
to Barnstaple, where he carried on an extensive shipbuilding
industry, obtaining engines for the most of his steamships from the
Greenock Works.

CHARLES CUNINGHAM SCOTT, born 1794, died 1875, son of John Scott (II),
along with his elder brother, John Scott (III), born 1785, died
1874, carried on the business as "John Scott and Sons," developing
still further the progressive policy of his father, who had been
responsible for the works for about half a century. The Cartsdyke Yard
was commenced in 1850 by Charles Cuningham Scott, and his son John,
under the style of "Scott and Co.," and this firm is the one which has
maintained the continuity of the Scotts' association with shipbuilding.

JOHN SCOTT (IV), born 1830, died 1903,[1] and ROBERT SINCLAIR SCOTT,
born 1843, died 1905, sons of Charles Cuningham Scott, were responsible
for the progress for nearly forty years, and the former was created a
Companion of the Bath (C.B.) in 1887. During their _régime_ the firm
took a large part in the introduction of the steamship for over-sea
voyages; in the development of high steam pressures and of the
multiple-expansion engine, which greatly improved the economy of the
steam engine; and in naval work, with its incidental advancement. They
completely reconstructed the Cartsdyke Works, and greatly improved what
is now known as the Cartsburn Dockyard, modernising the equipment.
The co-partnery was, for family reasons, registered in 1900 under the
Limited Liability Company Law.

CHARLES CUNINGHAM SCOTT, son of John Scott, C.B.,
is now the head of the concern and Chairman of the
Company (Scotts' Shipbuilding and Engineering Company,
Limited), and with him on the directorate are his brother
ROBERT LYONS SCOTT, C. Mumme, and James Brown.

[Illustration: decoration]


[Illustration: _William Scott_ (_1722-1769_)]

[Illustration: _John Scott_ (_1752-1837_)]

[Illustration: _William Scott_ (_born 1756_)]

[Illustration: _Charles C. Scott_ (_1794-1875_)]

[Illustration: _John Scott_ (_1830-1903_)]

[Illustration: _P. Sinclair Scott_ (_1843-1905_)]

[Illustration: _C. C. Scott_]

[Illustration: _R. L. Scott_]


FOOTNOTE:

[1] This date is incorrectly given as 1904 at the end of the third
paragraph on page 66.




[Illustration: decoration]




The Era of the Sailing Ship.

[Illustration: decoration]


The maintenance of an industry for two hundred years by one family, in
the direct line of succession and in one locality, is almost unique
in the history of western manufactures. Such a record proves that
the successive generations have displayed diligence, prudence, and
enterprise; otherwise it would not have been possible for them to have
held continuously a foremost place in the face of incessant competition
consequent upon the general advance in science, the introduction of
superior constructional materials, and the invention of new machinery.
It indicates also the maintenance of a high standard of workmanship
as well as integrity and business capacity; because time is the most
important factor in proving efficiency and in establishing credit for
durability of work, without which no reputation can be retained for
such a long period.

The Scotts began the building of ships in Greenock in 1711. To-day,
their descendants of the sixth generation worthily maintain the high
traditions which have accumulated during the intervening two hundred
years. It is impossible to form an adequate conception of the service
rendered by this one firm to the science of marine construction and to
Britain, the leading maritime nation of the world. We should require
to review in detail the successive steps: firstly, in the perfection
of the sailing ship, from the sloops and brigantines of the eighteenth
century, to such beautiful clippers as Scotts' _Lord of the Isles_,
which in 1856 made the record voyage from China, and did much to wrest
from the Americans the "blue ribbon" of the ocean; and, secondly,
in the development of the steamship from its inception early in the
nineteenth century to the leviathans of to-day. In successive epochs in
the history of naval architecture the Scotts have played a creditable
part, and to some of the more important improvements initiated or
advanced by the firm reference will be made in our brief survey of the
work done during the past two centuries. Unfortunately, some years ago,
most of the old-time records were destroyed by a fire at the shipyard,
so that our review of the early work is largely from contemporary
publications, and is unavoidably incomplete.

[Illustration: Plate IV. _From an Engraving by E. W. Cooke, R.A._
THE BEGINNINGS.]

The beginnings were small, for Scotland had not yet attained to
industrial importance, and had little oversea commerce. The first
trans-Atlantic voyage made by a Clyde ship was in 1686, when a
Greenock-built vessel was employed on a special mission to carry
twenty-two persons transported to Carolina for attending conventicles
and "being disaffected to Government."[2] American ships were most
numerous on the western seas, and the East India Company had a monopoly
of the eastern seas, so far as Britain was concerned, and preferred
to build their ships in India, although many were constructed on the
south coast of England. This monopoly checked progress. There was
little or no incentive to improvement in merchant ships, and the
naval authorities were too busy fighting Continental nations to risk
extensive experimental work. We have it on the authority of Sir
Nathaniel Barnaby, K.C.B.,[3] that neither Government nor private
builders made much progress in improving methods of construction. The
first letters patent granted for improvements relating to ships bear
the date January 17th, 1618, but the result of a thorough investigation
of all patents between 1618 and 1810 discloses no improvement worth
recording, except in the manufacture of sheathing and the construction
of pumps.

The Scotts, like a few other shipbuilders on the Clyde, were concerned
for the greater part of the eighteenth century in the building of
fishing and coasting boats. There belonged to Greenock, in 1728,
as many as nine hundred of such fishing boats, locally built, each
carrying from twenty to twenty-four nets and manned by a crew of four
men. For many years the business of the firm consisted almost entirely
in the building of herring busses and small craft employed in the
fishing trade, the first establishment being at the mouth of the West
Burn, on land leased from the Shaw family. The shipbuilding industry
was carried on intermittently, and the Scotts were the first to give
it stability and continuity. In 1752, the Greenland whale fisheries
were engaged in, and this led to a development in the size of craft.
The first square-rigged vessel built in the port was a brig, named
_Greenock_, constructed in 1760, for the West Indian trade. In 1765,
William Scott, who had succeeded the original founder--his father, John
Scott--built a large square-rigged ship for some merchants of the town
of Hull, the timber for which came from the Ducal woods at Hamilton.
This ship is notable as being probably the first ship built on the
Clyde for owners out of Scotland.[4] To take a fairly representative
year (1776), eighteen vessels, ranging up to 77 tons, and of a total of
1073 tons burden, were constructed in Greenock, and of the number six
were built by the Scotts.[5] Although the work could be more cheaply
done on the Clyde than at London or Bristol, there was for a long time
a strong prejudice against English owners ordering vessels from the
north, and against Scotch vessels taking any part in the oversea trade.

The Jacobite risings had also affected the industry, but the War of
Independence in America had far-reaching beneficial results. It is true
that prior to this the rich fields of the English colonial possessions,
as well as the English markets, had been opened to the commerce of
Scotland, and that the merchants of Glasgow had developed extensive
commercial operations with the West Indies and British North America;
but, although there was thus a considerable oversea trade between the
Clyde and the Western hemisphere, all the large vessels trading to the
Clyde were built in America.[6] The shipbuilding industry in the States
was thus a very extensive one; and, in 1769, there were launched, in
the North American Colonies, three hundred and eighty-nine vessels
of 20,000 tons burden, which was far in excess of the annual British
output.[7] This was largely owing to the limitless supply of timber in
America, and to the import duties on constructional material imposed
in this country to suit the English growers of oak, the price of which
advanced in the eighteenth century from £2 15s. to £7 7s. per load.[8]

The _Brunswick_, of 600 tons, carpenters' measurement, to carry 1000
tons real burden, built by the Scotts in 1791 for the Nova Scotia
trade; and the _Caledonia_, of 650 tons, built by the Scotts in 1794,
for the carriage of timber for the Navy yards--each the largest ship in
Scotland of its respective year--signalised the beginning of a period of
greater activity, especially in respect of large ocean ships. Some
years before--1767--the Scotts had feued ground for a building yard
on the shore east of the West Burn. They added a graving dock of
considerable size, and the inaugural proceedings included a dinner held
on the floor of the dock.

[Illustration: Plate V. _From an Old Engraving._
GREENOCK AND SCOTTS' YARD IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]

Other developments contributed to the prosperity of the port of
Greenock, the chief of the establishment being John Scott of the third
generation, who was born in 1752, and died in 1837. His brother,
William Scott, also the second of that name, migrated to Bristol,
where he carried on an extensive trade as a shipbuilder. The latter
was the father of James M. Scott, who is still remembered by some old
inhabitants as the founder, about 1847, of penny banks in Greenock
and of the Artisans' Club. John Scott, after his brother's departure,
carried on the business under the name of John Scott and Sons, and
did great service not only for the town, but also for the advancement
of the business. In three successive years, 1787, 1788, and 1789,
he bought three large plots from the ninth Lord Cathcart, for the
extension of the works.[9] These then extended almost from the West
Quay to the West Burn. He also, in 1791, constructed the old steamboat
or custom-house quay,[10] and played a large part in developing the
banking facilities of the town. He bought, in 1815, Halkshill, near
Largs, which has continued the residence of the family. In view of the
association of the firm with the town, it may be worth interpolating
here a statement of the growth of the population of Greenock, with the
sources from which the figures have been taken.

  Year.  Population.             Source.
  1700      1,328     Campbell's History, page 23.
  1801     17,458     Weir's History, page 120.
  1901     68,142     Census Returns, vol. i., page 212.

Shipbuilding work, however, was still in craft which to-day would
be considered insignificant. The increase of the mercantile fleet
of England throughout the eighteenth century was only fivefold in
respect of numbers, and sixfold in tonnage; the average size shows
an augmentation from 80 tons to only 100 tons, and there was no
improvement in labour-economising appliances for the working of the
ship, as the ratio of men to tonnage was at the beginning of the
century practically one to every 10 tons, and at the close one to 13
tons.[11]

In the nineteenth century, the tonnage increased eightfold, but in view
of the adoption of steam the actual carrying capacity was augmented
nearly thirtyfold; the average size of ship increased to 760 tons.
Practically, every ship in the eighteenth century carried guns, the
average being two per vessel. It was not until 1853 that there was
omitted from the mail contracts the clause which provided that each
mail vessel must be built to carry guns of the largest calibre in use.

[Illustration: A WEST INDIAMAN. (_See page 12._)]

The nineteenth century brought every incentive to the development
of shipbuilding. Nelson taught the lesson, never to be forgotten,
that sea-power is essential to the commercial expansion--even to the
existence--of our island kingdom, with its corollary, that the merchant
fleet is as necessary to this mastery of the sea as fighting squadrons.
The sea became our home; there arose a renewed love of exploration,
and an ambition for colonisation. Success brought the chastening
influence of responsibility, with a higher appreciation of the
advantage of a conciliatory policy towards foreign nations.
Contemporaneously with the growth of this conception of empire there
arose a war of retaliation in shipping with the newly-formed United
States of America, which continued for half a century. Although not
without its regrettable incidents, it stimulated a rivalry in the
shipping and shipbuilding industries which was ultimately as beneficial
as it had been pronounced. The monopoly of the East India Company in
the Eastern shipping trade terminated, so far as India was concerned,
in 1814, and as regards China in 1834. This removed an influence which
had hitherto retarded enterprise in naval construction--especially on
the Clyde--due to the Company's preference for building their ships in
India, and in the south of England ports. Private owners, too, entered
more vigorously into competition with American clippers which had first
commenced trade with China in 1788.

With the widening of the maritime interests and the intensification
of competition there was awakened a general desire to increase the
strength of ships. In this respect, as in others, there had been
little advance either in the Navy or in the mercantile marine. It was
exceptional for a ship of the eighteenth century to continue in service
for more than twelve or fifteen years. This was due partly to defective
constructional details, and partly to the ineffective methods of
preserving timber.

[Illustration: A TYPICAL EAST INDIAMAN. (_See page 12._)]

Ships were then built up[12] of a series of transverse ribs, connected
together by the outside planking and by the ceiling. There was no
filling between the ribs. The ship's structure thus suffered severely
from hogging and sagging stresses. The French tried to improve this by
introducing oblique iron riders across the ceiling, or by laying the
ceiling and the outside planking diagonally, while in other instances
the whole was strengthened with vertical or diagonal riders; but none
of these systems gave complete satisfaction. The Sepping system was
introduced about 1810, and was early adopted by the Scotts. The bottom
of the ship was formed into a solid mass of timber. The beams were
connected with the side of the ship by thick longitudinal timbers below
the knees, and by other stiffening members. A trussed frame was laid
on the inside of the transverse frame in the hold of the ship, and
the decks were laid diagonally. These members bound the ship in all
directions, so as to resist the stresses due to the ship working in a
seaway.

The method of preserving the timber adopted at the beginning of the
eighteenth century was to char the inner surface of the log, while
the outer surface was kept wet; but this was superseded early in the
century by the stoving system, which consisted in placing timber in wet
sand, and subjecting it to the action of heat, for such time as was
necessary to extract the residue of the sap and bring the timber to a
condition of suppleness. This process continued until 1736, after which
the timber itself was steamed. Copper sheathing was first employed
on warships in 1761; prior to this lead had been used, but only
occasionally.

American shipbuilders held an important position, even in the British
trade, for some time after the Declaration of Independence; but there
was then developed a pronounced spirit of emulation amongst the British
firms, which had a marked effect on competition in western seas. At the
beginning of the nineteenth century much of the oversea work done by
the Scotts was for the West Indian trade. The vessels were not often of
more than 600 tons, but the firm continued steadily to develop their
business.

[Illustration: Plate VI. THE "LORD OF THE ISLES." (_See page 13._)]

Between 1773 and 1829, the period of expansion under the second John
Scott, to which we have already referred, the output was 16,800
tons.[13] This output included a succession of fine ships for the
West India trade, to the order of some of the old Glasgow companies,
amongst the number being Stirling, Gordon and Company; J. Campbell and
Company; James Young and Company; and Muir and Fairlie. We may mention
as typical ships, the _Grenada_, of 650 tons burden, and the _John
Campbell_, of 446 tons, built in 1806, the first ships launched on the
Clyde with all rigging in position.

Thus early, too, the Scotts had entered upon the construction of
that long series of yachts, sailing and steam, which has brought
them considerable repute, and even more pleasure, since they were in
successive generations noted yachtsmen. In 1803 they launched the
45-1/2-ton cutter for Colonel Campbell, of the Yorkshire Militia, which
was pronounced one of the completest of the kind ever built in Scotland
up to that time. It may be incidentally mentioned, that the Scotts also
showed thus early their practical sympathy with the auxiliary forces of
the Crown by being at the head of the volunteer Sea Fencibles formed on
the Clyde in the stormy years of the Napoleonic wars.

As soon as the monopoly of the East India Company was removed in
1814, private shipowners entered the lists, and the Scotts were early
occupied in the construction of Indo-China clippers. In 1818 they built
the _Christian_, and in 1820 the _Bellfield_, the latter, of 478 tons
register, for the London and Calcutta trade. She was one of the first
of a long series. The _Kirkman Finlay_, of 430 tons, built in 1834,
suggests the name of a firm long and honourably associated with the
development of trade in our great Eastern dependency. The effect of
competition was a reduction in the average rate of freight per ton from
India to Britain from £32 10s. about 1773 to £10 in 1830.

The East India Company about the year 1813 paid £40 per ton for
their ships, as against about £25 per ton by other traders; the latter
sum was about the same as that paid in America. The East Indiaman had
a crew in the ratio of one to 10 or 12 tons, while one to 25 tons
sufficed for the West Indiaman. The speed of the western ship was
greater, largely by reason of the difference in proportions and lines.
The clipper built on the Clyde and in America had a length equal to
five or six times the beam, against four times the beam in the case of
the East India Company's ships. In the design of these clippers the
Scotts took an important part. Charles Cuningham Scott was then at the
head of the concern. An ingenious method of making model experiments
in the graving dock at the works was evolved in the 'forties, whereby
the firm were able to arrive at the most satisfactory form of hull to
give the minimum of resistance, and at the same time a large capacity
for cargo per registered ton. In this latter respect they were more
successful than the designers of the East Indiamen, notwithstanding the
bluff form of the latter.

As rapidity in answering the helm was a most important element in
tacking, and therefore in speed, the firm about this time prepared
full-rigged models, about 5 ft. long, for experimental trials as to the
ship's form and rudder, on Loch Thom, on the hill above Greenock, in an
exposed place where the conditions of wind were analogous to those at
sea. The results proved satisfactory. In fact, in these years, when the
_Minerva_, _Acbar_, and other noted clippers were built, the care used
in design and construction was almost as great as that now devoted in
the case of racing yachts.

[Illustration: Plate VII. THE "ARCHIBALD RUSSELL." (_See page 14._)]

The Scotts, in the first half of the nineteenth century, continued to
produce a long series of successful sailing ships, while at the same
time taking a creditable part in the evolution of the steamship. Steam,
however, was not possible in long-distance voyages until pressures had
been increased, and coal consumption reduced to moderate limits; and
thus it came that, although the steam engine was used in the early
years of the nineteenth century in river, and later in coasting,
craft, the sailing ship continued supreme almost until the middle of
the century. We do not propose, however, to refer to all of the later
sailing ships built by the Scotts, but it may be interesting to give
some details of the construction.

American rock elm was largely used. The frames were in three sections
with scarfed joints, bolted together, the scantlings being reduced
towards the top, so as to lower the centre of gravity. Inside the
frames there were at various heights longitudinal timbers, to add to
the fore-and-aft strength. The top sides were of greenheart, the beams
of oak or greenheart, with wrought-iron knees; the height between the
beams was made to admit of two hogsheads of sugar being placed in the
hold. There were side-stringers, sometimes 10 in. thick, between the
floor and the beams, which were half-checked into the stringers. On the
top of the beams there were deck-stringers. There was a most effective
transverse and longitudinal binding, brass bolts being extended right
through the knee, stringer, frame, and skin of the ship. The decks
were of yellow or Dantzig white pine. An 800 or 1000-ton West Indiaman
occupied about nine months in construction. The last wooden ship built
in Greenock was the _Canadian_, completed by the Scotts in 1859.[14]

The highest conception of the iron sailing ship, as built by the
firm, was probably embodied in the _Lord of the Isles_, completed in
1856. She had a length between perpendiculars of 185 ft., a breadth
of 29 ft.--the proportion being thus 6.4 of length to 1 of beam--with
a depth of hold of 18 ft. Her registered tonnage was 691 tons, and
her builders' measurement 770 tons. Although a fine-ended ship she
carried a large cargo on board, and made her first trip to Sydney in
seventy days, which had not then been surpassed.[15] She made the
passage from Shanghai to London in eighty-seven days, with 1030 tons
of tea on board. In one trip she averaged 320 nautical miles for five
consecutive days. When engaged in the celebrated race for the delivery
of the season's teas from Foo-chow-foo to London, in 1856, the _Lord of
the Isles_ beat two of the fastest American clippers, of almost twice
her tonnage. She "delivered her cargo without one spot of damage, and
thus British ships regained their ascendency in the trade which their
American rivals had far too long monopolised."[16] From that time the
British sailing ships gradually gained a complete superiority over the
American vessels, and carried all before them, until they in turn were
supplanted by the British steamship. From time to time an occasional
sailing ship was constructed of steel; the latest, the _Archibald
Russell_, is illustrated. Built for Messrs. John Hardie and Company,
this vessel has a length, between perpendiculars, of 278 ft., a beam
of 43 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 26 ft., and carries 3930 tons of
deadweight cargo on a draught of 21 ft. 7-1/2 in. But less than 1 per
cent. of ships now constructed depend upon the unbought but uncertain
winds, and then only for special trades. On regular routes the steamer
is now almost paramount, and it was, therefore, appropriate in the
highest degree that the first vessels to steam regularly to China,
_viâ_ the Cape, should, like the _Lord of the Isles_, be built by the
Scotts; but that belongs to another story.

[Illustration: decoration]

FOOTNOTES:

[2] Campbell's "Historical Sketches of the Town and Harbour of
Greenock," vol. i., page 18.

[3] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development in the Century," page 23.

[4] Brown's "Early Annals of Greenock," page 136

[5] Williamson's "Memorials of James Watt," 1856.

[6] "The Gazetteer of Scotland," 1842, vol. i., page 709.

[7] "Journals of the House of Commons," 1792, page 357.

[8] Holmes' "Ancient and Modern Ships," page 152.

[9] Williamson's "Old Greenock," page 148.

[10] Campbell's "Historical Sketches of the Town and Harbour of
Greenock," page 68.

[11] The following figures are taken for 1701 from "Chambers'
Estimates," pages 68, 69, and 90; for 1793 from Lindsay's "History of
Merchant Shipping"; for 1803 from "Porter's Progress of the Nation,"
page 626; and for 1901 from the "Statistical Abstract for the United
Kingdom."

                     1701.     1793.      1803.      1901.
  Number of ships     3,281     16,079     20,893     20,258
  Tonnage           261,222  1,540,145  2,167,863  15,357,052
  Seamen             27,196    118,286      --       247,973

The Scottish fleet, which is not included for 1701 and 1793, was much
smaller, alike in the size of units and aggregate tonnage.

[12] Holmes's "Ancient and Modern Ships," page 130.

[13] Weir's "History of Greenock."

[14] Brown's "Early Annals of Greenock," page 138.

[15] Murray's "Shipbuilding in Iron and Wood," page 60.

[16] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iii, page 294.




[Illustration: decoration]




The Development of the Steamship.

[Illustration: decoration]


A close association existed between the Scotts and the family of James
Watt, the inventor of the steam engine: the founder of the Scotts'
shipbuilding firm and the father of Watt were identified with several
schemes for the improvement of Greenock; and the signature of John
Scott, of the third generation, whose portrait is the second reproduced
on Plate II., is taken from a document in connection with some
intromissions of town's funds, to which also is adhibited the signature
of Watt's father.

It is not surprising, therefore, that the Scotts were early close
students of Watt's inventive work, and among the first to enter upon
the building of steamships; while at the same time, as we have shown
in the preceding pages, building many of the fine sailing ships which
established British shipping supremacy in the early half of the
nineteenth century, and raised Greenock by 1829 to a port having trade
with every part of the world.

Miller and Taylor commenced their experiments at Dalswinton in 1788,
with a steam engine driving paddle-wheels in boats[17]. Symington's
steam tug, _Charlotte Dundas_, by its success in 1802 on the Forth
and Clyde Canal[18], removed any remaining doubt; but it was not until
1812 that Henry Bell, with his _Comet_, proved the commercial utility
of the steam system, although without profit to the promoter.[19] The
building of steamships, evolved by experiments by various workers
in Britain--and in America also--was readily adopted on the Clyde.
Within four years of the completion of the _Comet_, it was not
unusual for five hundred or six hundred passengers to enjoy in the
course of one day water excursions on the river.[20] The fares were
practically five times those prevailing to-day. Among the earliest
of the Clyde steamers were the _Active_, of 59 tons, and _Despatch_,
of 58 tons, built by the Scotts. In calculating the tonnage in those
early days, an average allowance of one-third was deducted for the
machinery. In 1816 the firm built the _Shannon_, of a length between
perpendiculars of 77 ft. 7 in., of a beam of 15 ft. 3 in., and of a
depth moulded of 9 ft. 1 in. She had fore-and-aft cabins. Her engines
were of 14 horse-power nominal. She plied on the Shannon between
Limerick and Kilrush. By 1818--six years after the completion of the
_Comet_--thirty-two steamers were running on the Clyde, and some of
these were sent ultimately for traffic on the coast and on other
rivers.[21] The largest of these was of 112 tons, with engines of 40
nominal horse-power.

The Scotts had built many sailing craft for the Clyde and Belfast
trade, for the Glasgow and Liverpool service, and for the Liverpool and
Drogheda, and other coasting routes; and it was natural when steam was
introduced that the same firm should supply the side-paddle boats.

[Illustration: Plate VIII. _From an Old Engraving._
EARLY STEAMBOATS AT GREENOCK.]


In three successive years--from 1819 to 1821--the largest steamer
in the kingdom came from Scotts' Works. The record was marked in
1819 by the _Waterloo_, of over 200 tons, with engines of 60 nominal
horse-power; in 1820, by the _Superb_ of 240 tons register, with
engines of 72 nominal horse-power, which cost about £37 per ton, and
steamed 9 miles per hour, using 1670 lb. of Scotch coal per hour; and
in 1821, by the _Majestic_, of 345 tons register, with engines of 100
horse-power, which cost over £40 per ton, and steamed 10 miles per
hour for a consumption of 2240 lb. of Scotch coal. Although the modern
steamer is fifty times the size of these pioneers, with a cost per ton
of less than one-fourth, and a fuel consumption per unit of work done
of not more than a seventh, the records of these and other early ships
are worthy of full reference.

The advantage of steam navigation for channel service was at once
recognised. A Parliamentary return issued in 1815 showed that for the
space of nine days in the previous year only one mail packet could sail
between Holyhead and Dublin owing to adverse winds, and even then the
average passage was twenty-four hours. Lord Kelvin, in his memorable
Address as Chancellor of the University of Glasgow, in 1905, recalled
the fact that early in the century his father often took three or
four days to cross from Belfast to Greenock in a smack, as she was
frequently becalmed. With favourable winds, rapid passages were made, a
revenue cutter occasionally doing the Belfast and Greenock run in ten
hours.

The Greenock and Belfast route was among the first around the coast to
come under the influence of the mechanical system of propulsion. The
_Rob Roy_, which was the outcome, so far as form of hull was concerned,
of probably the first model experiments ever made--undertaken by David
Napier in the Canal at Camlachie[22]--was in 1818 the pioneer in the
Glasgow and Belfast steam service, and later in the Dover and Calais
steam service.

There followed in 1819 three notable vessels from Scotts' Works: the
_Waterloo_,[23] the _Robert Bruce_, and the _Sir William Wallace_. The
particulars and performances of these vessels, taken from contemporary
records, principally the "Greenock Advertiser," which faithfully
reported each incident in the development of the steamship, are
especially interesting as illustrative of early work.

The _Waterloo_, which, as we have already said, was the largest steamer
of her year (1819), had a beam equal to one-fifth of her length, the
measurement between perpendiculars being 98 ft. 8 in. In addition to
a large number of passengers, she carried under ordinary conditions
a cargo of 100 tons, on a draught of 8 ft. 6 in. against 7 ft. 3 in.
without cargo. Three months were required, between the launch of the
ship and her trials, for the fitting on board of engines each of 30
nominal horse-power, which gave her a speed of between 8 and 9 miles
per hour. Sails, however, were still carried to assist in driving the
ship, and this vessel was of schooner rig. She inaugurated the steam
service between Belfast and Liverpool.

The _Robert Bruce_ was the first steamer to trade between the Clyde and
Liverpool.[24] She was followed by the _Sir William Wallace_. Both
were built by the Scotts, and had engines of 60 nominal horse-power.
They began service in the summer of 1819; and the record of the maiden
voyage of the former, in August, 1819, showed that two and a-half
hours were occupied in the run from Glasgow to Greenock, about 22
miles; and within 26 hours thereafter the vessel took on her pilot at
the north-west lightship outside the Mersey Bar. The return voyage
was equally satisfactory. To quote again from contemporary records,
"the passengers, both out and home, were so highly gratified with the
performance of this vessel and their treatment on board that they
unanimously expressed their entire satisfaction with Captain Paterson's
exertions to render them comfortable and happy, their conviction of the
seaworthiness of the vessel, and their admiration of the powers of the
engines, capable of propelling so large a body at the rate of 7 knots
per hour, in the face of a strong north-northwest wind and high sea for
at least two-thirds of the way from Liverpool, her rate thither being
nearly 9 knots."[25]

In 1820, the _Superb_, of 240 tons and 72 horse-power, followed the
_Sir William Wallace_, and marked a still further improvement. She had
a copper boiler, and in the three cabins sleeping accommodation was
provided for sixty-two passengers. She was "the finest, largest, and
most powerful steam vessel in Great Britain.[26] The average duration
of the passage from the Clyde to Liverpool did not exceed 30 hours."

The _Majestic_, also for the Clyde and Liverpool service, was built
in 1821, and was 134 ft. 11 in. long between perpendiculars, 22 ft. 8
in. beam, and 14 ft. 5 in. depth, moulded. Her draught, 10 ft. 6 in.
forward and 12 ft. aft, was too great for the upper reaches of the
Clyde, and passengers were brought from Glasgow to Greenock in a
tender. In her four cabins there was greatly-increased accommodation
for the passengers. She was probably the first steamer with a
sleeping apartment exclusively for ladies. The copper boiler worked
at a pressure of 4 lb. per square inch, and the engines ran at 56
revolutions. The fares[27] to Liverpool in those days were £2 15s., as
compared with 11s. to-day; of course, very much better accommodation is
now provided.

The _City of Glasgow_ was built in 1822 for the Liverpool service.
This vessel, which cost £15,000, had a speed of over 10 knots, and was
reputed the fastest afloat. Her length was 110 ft. 4 in., beam 22 ft. 4
in., and depth, moulded, 13 ft. She was arranged like the _Majestic_,
and the two were long the most important vessels in the Clyde and
Liverpool trade. She was subsequently bought by McIver, and inaugurated
the competition with the Burns line, commenced in 1829.[28] The McIver
and Burns lines were subsequently combined.

The Scotts rendered similar service in the development of the mail
route between Holyhead and Dublin. The first vessel built by them for
this service was the _Ivanhoe_, constructed in 1820. The steam service
had been opened between these two ports in 1819 by the _Talbot_, the
first steamer fitted with feathering floats.[29] The _Ivanhoe_,[30] a
larger steamer than the _Talbot_, was of 170 tons burden, her length
between perpendiculars being 97 ft. 4 in., beam 19 ft., and depth,
moulded, 14 ft. 6 in. She had various improvements in her machinery,
which was of 60 nominal horse-power. She left Scotts' yard in May,
1820, and made the voyage to Howth (200 miles), in 26-1/2 hours.

[Illustration: Plate IX. _From "The Life of Robert Napier."_
THE "CITY OF GLASGOW." ]


Thus the Scotts continued to improve on each successive ship, and to
widen the area of their influence. The Clyde continued to largely
monopolise the industry of steam shipbuilding, and it was not until the
summer of 1822 that a steamer--not built in Scotland--appeared on the
Clyde. This was the _Saint George_, from Liverpool, and the _City of
Glasgow_, already referred to, her competitor in the Liverpool trade,
raced her and greatly excelled.

One of the first steamers to trade in the Mediterranean was the
_Superb_, sent thither in 1824, and the _Trinacria_, also built by the
Scotts, followed in 1825. These ran between Naples and Palermo. The
last-named vessel was 135 ft. long over-all, and 113 ft. 6 in. between
perpendiculars, 39 ft. 6 in. broad over the paddle-box, and 21 ft.
10 in. net beam, 14 ft. deep (moulded), and of 300 tons burden. The
vessel was especially well-equipped, and cost £15,000. The engines, the
first manufactured by the Scotts at their Greenock foundry, were of 80
nominal horse-power, and the boilers, which were of copper, weighed
40 tons. The speed was 10 miles per hour. Later this steamer became
the _Hylton Joliffe_, and was employed by the General Steam Navigation
Company on their London and Hamburg service.

As to the yard in which these several vessels were built, suggestion
is afforded of the state of efficiency by the following quotation from
a history published in 1829.[31] "The building yard of Messrs. Scott
and Sons is allowed to be the most complete in Britain, excepting those
which belong to the Crown. It has a fine extent of front from the West
Quay to the termination of the West Burn, and has a large dry dock,
which was altered lately to the plan of the new dock. All the stores
and lofts are entirely walled in, and, independently of the building
premises, they have an extensive manufactory of chain cables."

The majority of the engines for these early steamers of the Scotts
were constructed by Napier or Cook, and were of the side-lever or
beam type. In 1825, however, John Scott, who had done so much for the
progress of the firm, decided to commence building machinery, and
acquired for £5000 the works which have since been developed into the
well-known Greenock Foundry. This establishment was begun, although on
a very small scale, about 1790,[32] and in its equipment, which was
considered thoroughly efficient, there was included a large cupola.
Some idea is given of the extent of the establishment by reference to
Weir's "History of Greenock" (1829), page 94, where it is stated that
in the few years that had elapsed since the taking over of the works
by the Scotts "they have manufactured some splendid engines, and--what
is more to be looked for than the appearance--they have wrought well.
They have in hand the largest engine ever made, which is of a size of
200 horse-power, and is intended for a vessel building at Bristol. The
number of men employed amount to about two hundred and twenty, while
the weekly distribution of wages is £180." As a contrast, it may be
said here that there are now four thousand men in the works, earning
per week over £5500 in wages, and that the Scotts are engaged on the
largest set of engines yet constructed by them--for H.M.S. _Defence_.
They are of 27,000 indicated horse-power, to give the immense armoured
cruiser named, of 14,600 tons displacement, a speed of 23 knots.

Since 1825, the Scotts have continued to do very satisfactory engine
work, much of it of an original character, not only for vessels built
for themselves, but for ships constructed on the Thames and other
English rivers, and also for the series of warships built for the
British Navy at their works, and for others constructed at the Royal
Dockyards. This naval engine work began with H.M. ships _Hecla_
and _Hecate_, engined in 1838-9, and the first warships built in the
dockyards to be sent to Scottish works to receive machinery.[33] And
here it may be noted, too, that the first warship built by the Scotts
was the _Prince of Wales_, in 1803, and also that the firm had the
credit of building the first steam frigate constructed at Clyde works
for the British Navy, H.M.S. _Greenock_, launched in 1839. They also
built the first compound engines fitted to a French warship. With these
naval ships and engines we deal in our next Chapter, and may therefore
continue our narrative regarding merchant steamers.

[Illustration: A SIDE-LEVER ENGINE OF 1831.]

We reproduce on the preceding page a drawing illustrating an early type
of engine built by the firm. This is an engine constructed in 1831.
The steam cylinder is 52-1/4 in. in diameter, and the crank-shaft is
actuated, through connecting-rods, from the ends of the levers operated
by the piston-rod, while the air-pump is placed at the opposite ends of
the levers.

A different type of engine, constructed in the following year (1832),
is illustrated on the facing page. In this case the cylinder operates
the opposite end of the levers to that connected with the crank-shaft.
In both engines the lever-gudgeon passes through the jet-condenser.

The records we have given are historically interesting, because they
tell of the beginnings of a great epoch in British shipping. We do
not propose to follow in such detail subsequent steamships, built for
other services, between London and Aberdeen, the Clyde and Dublin,
etc. The _City of Aberdeen_, built in 1835 for the first-named, marked
noteworthy progress. She measured 187 ft. over the figure-head, and
was of 1800 tons, including the space for the machinery. Her poop was
60 ft. long and 45 ft. broad. According to contemporary testimony,
she was, in her day, the strongest steamer built, having solid frames
from gunwale to gunwale. She had additional bracing with African oak
stringers; oak and iron trussings alternately bolted to the stringers
formed a complete system of diagonal fastenings and bindings from stem
to stern. The whole of the cabins, saloons and state rooms, were on one
deck, and there was the important innovation of hot and cold baths. The
speed was 12 miles per hour.[34]

The _Jupiter_, of 439 tons and 210 horse-power, built in 1836 for the
Clyde and Dublin trade, cost £20,000, and established a record in
speed, making the voyage in sixteen hours six minutes, at the rate of
13 miles per hour; formerly the voyage took twenty-four hours.

[Illustration: AN ENGINE OF 1832.]

In the late 'thirties and the early 'forties there was a great
development in oversea trading steamers, the Clyde taking, then as now,
the foremost place. Several epoch-marking voyages had been made with
the steam engine used intermittently. The _Savannah_ had thus crossed
the Atlantic from the United States in 1819, and the _Royal William_
from Quebec in 1833.

The barque _Falcon_,[35] 84 ft. in length, and of 175 tons, had,
on the voyage to India in 1835 utilised engines which, however, were
removed on her arrival in our Eastern dependency. Later in the same
year the _Enterprise_, of 470 tons and 120 horse-power, also rounded
the Cape of Good Hope to India. In all these cases, however, sails
were utilised whenever possible, and there was still great hesitancy
in accepting the steam engine even as an alternative on occasions to
the use of the "unbought wind." The advantage, however, of a rate of
speed which, while low, would be constant, soon asserted itself, and
there followed within a few years regular mail steamship services on
the North and South Atlantic Oceans, in the Mediterranean Sea, in the
Indian Ocean, and the China Seas. In the beginning and development of
these services the Scotts took a prominent part.

One of the first notable steamship lines to be organised for oversea
service was that which ultimately became the Peninsular and Oriental
Company. It had its origin[36] in steamship service from Falmouth
to Oporto, Lisbon, Cadiz, and Gibraltar. Four steamers were built
in 1836-37: the _Tagus_, _Don Juan_, _Braganza_, and _Iberia_. The
first-named was built by the Scotts, and the third was engined by
them. These ultimately carried the mails as far as Alexandria, whence
they were conveyed overland to Suez, and from thence by the East India
Company's vessels to Bombay. This service developed into the Peninsular
and Oriental service, when, in 1840, the Company took over the mail
service on the Indian Ocean; in 1847 they extended their operations to
China. The overland service continued until the Suez Canal was opened
in 1869, and many of the vessels for the Mediterranean service, as well
as for the eastern route, were built by the Scotts.

[Illustration: Plate X. SCOTTS' FIRST P. AND O. LINER, THE "TAGUS."]


The _Tagus_,[37] which was thus amongst the first of the P. and O.
steamers, was built in 1837. She had a length of 182.1 ft., a beam of
26 ft., and a depth of 17 ft. 4 in., the burden tonnage being 709 tons.
When carrying 265 tons of coal in her bunkers and 300 tons of cargo,
the draught was 14 ft. 6 in. The side-lever engines which were fitted
to her had a cylinder 62 in. in diameter, with a 5-ft. 9-in. stroke,
developed 286 horse-power, and operated paddle-wheels 23 ft. 6 in.
in diameter. Two of the other early steamers, the _Jupiter_ and the
_Montrose_, were also constructed by the Scotts.

The conveyance of cargo and passengers across the Isthmus of Suez not
only involved inconvenience and expense, but was a cause of great
delay. There was still, however, a strong prejudice against steamships
being utilised for long sea voyages, partly because of vested interests
in sailing ships. Sir John Ross, C.B., who, in 1818 and in 1829 to
1833, made Arctic explorations, was one of the strongest advocates for
a service to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope; and, in order to
establish the feasibility of the undertaking, made experiments with the
_City of Glasgow_, built by the Scotts in 1821. This vessel, of 283
tons, had in the interval been fitted with new boilers, with special
safety appliances, and they worked at 4-lb. pressure; they gave the
high evaporation in those days of 9 lb. of water per pound of coal.[38]

This vessel made the trip from London Bridge to the lightship off
Spithead (246 miles) in thirty-one hours five minutes, on a consumption
of 6 lb. of fuel per indicated horse-power per hour. These facts were
utilised by Sir John Ross in his advocacy of the route, and a new
company was formed, under his chairmanship, in 1837.

The first vessel of the fleet, named the _India_, was built and
engined by the Scotts, and was a few years later transferred to the
Peninsular and Oriental Company. The _India_, launched in 1839, was
the largest steamer built on the Clyde up to that date, being 206 ft.
6 in. long, 30 ft. 9 in. beam, or 48 ft. wide over the paddle-boxes.
The gross tonnage was 1206 tons. Accommodation was provided for eighty
cabin passengers, and provision made for 400 tons of cargo. A feature
of her construction was the provision of two strong bulkheads of iron
across the engine-room, in order to avoid accidental outbreak of
fire, and also to prevent water from a leak in one part spreading to
another.[39] This was probably the beginning--nearly seventy years
ago--of the system of division by watertight bulkheads, now universal.
Its compulsory adoption was advocated by the Institution of Naval
Architects in 1866, and enforced by Lloyds in 1882, and by the Board
of Trade in 1890. The machinery was of 320 horse-power, and had
surface-condensers. The _India_ was launched on the anniversary of the
birth of James Watt, and a salute of twenty-one guns was fired as the
vessel left the ways.

Five other steamers were built for the service, and the voyage took
from fifty-five to sixty days, as compared with the one hundred and
thirteen days occupied by the _Enterprise_. A monthly service was thus
rendered possible. At the same time the Scotts built steam vessels for
the coasting trade of India and of South Africa.

The type of machinery in use at this period is illustrated on the
opposite page. This particular engine was constructed in 1838. The
piston was connected to one end of the side-levers, while the crank was
operated from the other. The paddle-wheel of this engine was 25 ft.
0-1/2 in. in diameter, with seventeen floats. For about thirty years
this was the standard type of marine engine for paddle steamers.

The Gothic architectural design for the main framing was gradually
abandoned for something less ornamental and perhaps more mechanical.

[Illustration: TYPE OF SIDE-LEVER ENGINE OF 1840.]

The Royal West India Mail Company's Service, still one of the best
known of British lines, was commenced in 1841. Some of the steamers
were purchased, but amongst those built originally for the service was
the _Dee_ by the Scotts. She was 213 ft. 9 in. long, 30 ft. 4 in. beam,
and 30 ft. in depth, the burden tonnage being 1848 tons. On a draught
of 17 ft. 6 in. she carried 700 tons of cargo; and, as with most of the
oversea liners of the period, the average speed was only about 8 knots.
The voyage of 13,650 miles occupied then one hundred and nine days,
including stoppages; and the consumption of fuel was 25-1/2 tons per
day. The engines, which had cylinders 73 in. in diameter with a stroke
of 7 ft., were of 450 horse-power, driving side paddle-wheels 28 ft. 6
in. in diameter.[40]

In the thirty years from the first commercial British steamer, the
_Comet_, there had not been much advance in the steam engine, excepting
in size, power, and, perhaps, reliability. Wood had continued to be
the constructive material for all but the smallest ships. The size of
vessels had grown steadily to the 1848 tons of the West Indian mail
liner, which started regular steamship service almost contemporaneously
with the inauguration of the Atlantic mail line by the Cunard Company
in 1840. Speeds on service, even on the shortest routes, were seldom
over 13 knots, and on the long routes under 8 knots. But this was in
excess of the average attained by all but exceptionally fast clippers.
The Table on the opposite page shows the progress made in thirty years.

TABLE I.--EPOCH-MARKING STEAMERS BUILT BY THE SCOTTS, 1819 TO 1841.

  -----+------------------+--------+---------+-------+------------------
  Year.|       Name.      |Tonnage.| Horse-  |Speed  |     Remarks.
       |                  |        |power.[A]|(Miles |
       |                  |        |         |  per  |
       |                  |        |         | Hour).|
  -----+------------------+--------+---------+-------+------------------
  1819 |    _Waterloo_    |   200  |   60    |   9   |Largest steamer of
       |                  |        |         |       |  1819.
       |                  |        |         |       |
  1820 |     _Superb_     |   240  |   72    |   9   |Largest steamer of
       |                  |        |         |       |  1820.
       |                  |        |         |       |
  1821 |    _Majestic_    |   345  |  100    |  10   |Largest steamer of
       |                  |        |         |       |  1821.
       |                  |        |         |       |
  1835 |_City of Aberdeen_|   ...  |  200    |  12   |Strongest steamer
       |                  |        |         |       |  of 1835.
       |                  |        |         |       |
  1836 |    _Jupiter_     |   439  |  210    |  13   |Record speed
       |                  |        |         |       |
  1837 |     _Tagus_      |   709  |  286    |  10   |Largest constructed
       |                  |        |         |       |  on Clyde, 1837,
       |                  |        |         |       |  and an early
       |                  |        |         |       |  P. and O. liner.
       |                  |        |         |       |
  1839 |     _India_      |  1206  |  320    |  10   |First steamer to
       |                  |        |         |       |  India _viâ_ the
       |                  |        |         |       |  Cape and the first
       |                  |        |         |       |  Indian liner.
       |                  |        |         |       |
  1841 |      _Dee_       |  1848  |  450    |  10   |First Royal West
       |                  |        |         |       |  India Mail liner.
  -----+------------------+--------+---------+-------+------------------

[A] It is difficult to determine in all cases the basis on which
horse-power was computed. The figures given represent nominal
horse-power, and in Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine" (page 3),
the indicated horse-power is, for this early period, recorded as 1.8
times the nominal horse-power.

We enter now upon the period when iron took the place of timber as a
constructional material. It was first used in part in the construction,
on the banks of the Monkland Canal as far back as 1818, of a canal
barge named the _Vulcan_, a vessel which continued at work for over
sixty years.[41] But the first vessel built entirely of iron was a
small craft constructed in 1821 in England. It was not, however, until
1832 that the first sea-going vessel was built of this metal. Progress
in the adoption of iron was slow, largely because timber had proved so
serviceable, and, with lessened restriction upon its importation, had
become much cheaper. It was not until the higher strength and greater
ductility of steel were demonstrated in the 'eighties that timber
was finally superseded. The last wooden ship built by the Scotts was
completed in 1859.

The firm built several of the early Atlantic liners, and we reproduce
on page 32, as a further step in the development of the steam engine,
a drawing showing the double-gear engines constructed early in the
'fifties for an iron screw steamer of 1190 tons, built for the Glasgow
and New York service. This engine was pronounced at the time "the most
compact specimen of its type then in existence,"[42] for although
the power developed was 250 horse-power, and the ship was 260 ft. in
length, only 12 ft. 6 in. of the fore-and-aft length was taken up by
the machinery. "Every weight was well balanced, the working parts
were clear and open, and the combined whole was stable, firm, and
well bound together." The cylinders were 52 in. in diameter, were
arranged diagonally, and worked at right angles to each other, with
a stroke of 3 ft. 9 in. The piston-rods projected through the lower
covers, to allow of long return connecting-rods. Each cylinder had two
piston-rods, for greater steadiness, their outer ends in each case
being keyed into a crosshead, fitted at each end with slide-blocks,
working in a pair of inclined open guide-frames, bolted to the bottom
cylinder cover, and supported beneath by projecting bracket-pieces,
recessed and bolted down upon pedestal pieces on the engine sole-plate.
From each end of this crosshead, immediately outside the guide-frame,
a plain straight connecting-rod of round section passed up to actuate
the main first-motion shaft. The upper ends of the connecting-rods were
jointed to side-studs, or crank-pins, fixed in two opposite arms of
a pair of large spur-wheels, which gave motion to the screw-shaft by
means of a pair of corresponding spur-pinions, fixed on the shaft.

[Illustration: DOUBLE-GEARED ENGINE FOR EARLY ATLANTIC LINER.]

The main spur-wheels were 11 ft. 5-1/2 in. in diameter, and the pinions
on the screw-shaft 4 ft. 6 in.; so that the screw propeller made 2-1/2
revolutions to each rotation of the engine. The arrangement ensured
that each piston was directly coupled to both of the large wheels, and
the increased length of the crossheads, which the plan involved, was
counterbalanced by the effect of the double piston-rods, for by this
division of the pressure the cross-strain leverage was proportionately
diminished.

The use of steam expansively in multiple-cylinder engines was, however,
the most important factor in the development of the steamship during
the latter half of the nineteenth century.[43] With low steam pressures
and simple engines the coal consumption, even for moderate-sized ships,
was a serious item in a long sea voyage; and, early in the 'fifties,
engineers, recognising the economy which would result from a successful
compounding of steam, tackled the problems of steam-generation plant to
enable the necessary high initial pressure to be developed with safety.
John Elder had fitted several ships, but was, for a long time, content
with an initial pressure of from 50 lb. to 60 lb. per square inch.

The late John Scott, C.B., was so convinced of the economy of steam
at higher pressures in the compound system that he decided to build,
largely at his own expense, a vessel which would enable him to put the
system to a thorough test. This steamer, constructed of iron in 1858,
was the _Thetis_, which was, undoubtedly, an epoch-marking ship, as her
machinery was operated at an initial pressure of 115 lb. to the square
inch--exceptionally high for those days.

For the first time, surface condensers were used in association with
the compound marine engine. There were, as shown on Plate XI., facing
page 36, six cylinders, arranged in two groups, each with one high- and
two low-pressure cylinders. The three pistons of each group worked one
crosshead, connecting-rod, and crank. Each group had two slide-valves,
one for the high-pressure and one for the low-pressure cylinders, and
both were attached to one valve spindle and one reversing link.[44] The
engines worked up to 51 revolutions per minute--equal to a piston speed
of 255 ft. per minute--and the maximum indicated horse-power was 256.
The engines were tried by the late Professor Macquorn Rankine, F.R.S.,
who certified that the coal consumption on trial was 1.018 lb. per
indicated horse-power per hour: an extraordinary result, even in the
light of modern improvements.[45]

A large part of this efficiency was due to the boilers, which were of
the Rowan water-tube type, and are illustrated on the opposite page.
They had square vertical water-tubes, and through each of these there
passed four hot-gas tubes. They evaporated 11 lb. of water per pound
of coal, which was 30 per cent. higher than was attained with the best
marine boilers of those days. The coal consumption at sea was about
1.86 lb. per indicated horse-power per hour.

Unfortunately, there soon developed small holes in the boiler-tubes,
owing to erosion of the external surface, probably the consequence of
the chemical action set up by the steam for cleaning the tubes mixing
with the soot and other deposit.[46] Although for this reason this
early water-tube boiler did not succeed, there is no doubt that the
performances suggested improvements which have since brought complete
success to this system of boiler. At the same time, the efficiency of
high steam pressures was completely established and resulted in very
considerable progress in the size and power of steamships.

[Illustration: A PIONEER IN WATER-TUBE BOILERS.]

Another innovation which suggested future developments was the fitting
at the base of the funnel in the _Thetis_ of a series of water-tubes
for the purpose of utilising the waste heat from the boilers to
evaporate water for subsequent condensation to make up the boiler feed.
The time was not ripe for such a utilisation of the waste gases--the
heat was insufficient to generate the required steam--but now various
schemes are applied for absorbing the waste heat in the uptake to heat
air for furnace draught and to superheat steam.

A number of water-tube boilers were made, and a set was fitted into
a corvette built for the French Navy. This vessel, completed in the
early 'sixties, was the first ship in the French fleet to be driven by
compound engines, and will fall to be described with other vessels in
our next Chapter, dealing with the work of a century for the Navy.

Perhaps the most significant indication of the success of the Scott
compound engine is found in the results of its application to the early
Holt steamers. Alfred Holt commenced trading with the West Indies in
1855, while his brother, George Holt, became associated with Lamport
in the River Plate trade in 1865. Both lines continue among the most
successful in British shipping.

The Holt steam line to China was commenced in 1865, and was the only
one _viâ_ the Cape of Good Hope which proved at once successful.
Built and engined by the Scotts, the early Holt liners, starting from
Liverpool, never stopped till they reached Mauritius, a distance of
8500 miles, being under steam the whole way, a feat until then
considered impossible.[47] Thence the vessels proceeded to Penang,
Singapore, Hong Kong, and Shanghai. Unaided by any Government grants,
they performed this long voyage with great regularity.

[Illustration: Plate XI. HIGH-PRESSURE MACHINERY IN THE "THETIS."]

The three vessels which inaugurated the very successful Holt line were
named _Agamemnon_, _Ajax_, and _Achilles_, and were built of iron
by the Scotts in 1865-6. They were each 309 ft. in length between
perpendiculars, 38 ft. 6 in. beam, and 29 ft. 8 in. in depth, with
a gross tonnage of 2347 tons--dimensions which were then deemed too
great for the China trade, but which experience soon proved to be
most satisfactory. Sails were fitted to the vessels, as shown in the
engraving on the Plate facing page 40.

Alfred Holt was the first to apply the compound engine to long voyages,
and his vessels were the earliest of the type built for the merchant
service by the Scotts. It is true the Pacific Company had compound
engines fitted to one or two ships prior to this, but these were only
used in the coasting trade. The engines of these Holt liners are
therefore of historical interest, and general drawings are reproduced
on the next page and on Plate XII. A feature in these liners was that
the propeller was abaft the rudder, which worked in an aperture in the
deadwood corresponding to that for the propeller in single-screw modern
ships.

A detailed description from the specification of the machinery may
be reproduced, as it indicates the practice of the Scotts for a
considerable time. Indeed, this type of compound engine, with slight
modifications, was the standard engine for Holt liners until the advent
of the triple-expansion engine. The details follow:--

 The cylinders were: high-pressure, 30 in. in diameter; low-pressure,
 62 in. in diameter, with 4 ft. 4 in. stroke, arranged vertically in
 tandem fashion, with the low-pressure cylinder on the top. There were
 two connecting-rods, but a common crosshead for the tandem cylinders,
 and a common crankpin.

 The crankshaft was 13-1/2 in. in diameter, with a bearing 30 in. long
 at the aft end of the bedplate, which took the propeller thrust. The
 propeller was three-bladed, 17 ft. in diameter, with 26 ft. 6 in.
 pitch; with 46 revolutions per minute the piston speed was 400 ft.
 per minute. To ensure smooth working with the single crank, a heavy
 flywheel was fitted, and the pump levers carried a massive weight to
 help to balance the weight of pistons and rods.

 [Illustration: THE MACHINERY OF THE "ACHILLES."]

 The condenser had 420 tubes 1-1/2 in. in diameter, giving a cooling
 surface of 1375 square feet. The tubes were arranged in three nests,
 the water circulating through the top one first and the bottom one
 last. The circulating pump, instead of forcing water through the
 tubes, as was usual in such case, sucked from the condenser and
 discharged directly overboard. There were: one air pump, 24 in. in
 diameter; one circulating pump, 24 in. in diameter; two feed pumps,
 4-3/4 in. in diameter; and one bilge pump 7 in. in diameter: all the
 pumps were single-acting, with 17 in. stroke. The diameters of the
 principal pipes were: main steam, 7-1/2 in.; to low-pressure cylinder,
 12 in.; circulating inlet, 10 in.; discharge, 12 in.; air-pump
 discharge, 10 in.; main feed, 3-3/4 in.; and waste steam, two at 6 in.
 in diameter.

 The two boilers were double-ended, of the locomotive type, with
 wet-bottomed furnaces. The centre was cylindrical, but the ends were
 rectangular with semi-cylindrical tops, the total weight, without
 water, being 78 tons. Each boiler had a long receiver passing through
 the uptake to dry the steam. On the receiver was a deadweight
 safety-valve 6-1/4 in. in diameter, to suit a working pressure of 60
 lb. per square inch. The grate surface was 112 square feet, and the
 total heating surface 4506 square feet, there being 328 iron tubes 4
 in. in diameter.

[Illustration: Plate XII. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE MACHINERY OF THE
"ACHILLES."]

The three pioneer ships of the Holt line--the _Agamemnon_, _Ajax_, and
_Achilles_--proved most economical. The _Achilles_ came home from China
in fifty-seven days eighteen hours, net steaming time, or, including
the stoppages at ports, sixty-one days three hours. She travelled
during this period a distance of 12,352 miles, on a consumption of
coal which did not exceed 20 tons per day for all purposes,[48] equal
to 2-1/4 lb. per unit of power per hour, which for those early days,
with comparatively low steam pressures, must be regarded as a highly
satisfactory result.

The non-stop voyage between Liverpool and Mauritius was made as early
as 1866 in thirty-seven days, equal to 10 knots, with a number of
passengers and a fair cargo. The higher economy established for the
compound engine on long voyages resulted in the ultimate supersession
of the sailing ship.[49] Thus the Scotts, while still enjoying the
credit of the splendid performance of the _Lord of the Isles_ in the
early 'sixties, produced at their foundry the Holt compound engine,
which sounded the death-knell of the clipper. The compound system had
at once an influence on the size of ships. Up till 1862 no ship of
over 4000 tons had been constructed, with the exception of the _Great
Eastern_; by 1870 there were fifteen; by 1880, thirty-seven.[50]

The Scotts, aided by Holt, continued their research towards higher
economy, and a large fleet of steamers was built, with engines having
flywheels which, it was found by experience, considerably improved the
economy up to a certain stage, although with increased pressure the
proportion of saving was not commensurate with the weight of the wheel,
and the three-cylinder three-crank engine was ultimately adopted.

The Scotts throughout the century continued to have a close
association with the China trade, constructing a long series of
successful steamers for the Holt company and for other lines, with
services from Britain to the Far East, and carried out very extensive
work in the building up of the coasting trade of Asia and Oceania.
For the Holt line alone there have been constructed by the Scotts
forty-eight steamers, aggregating 148,353 tons; while the propelling
machinery of these represents 19,500 nominal horse-power. For the India
and China services there have, in the past fifty years, been completed
over one hundred and thirty steamers.

The China Navigation Company, Limited, was formed in 1873 by Messrs.
John Swire and Sons, of London, for trading in China, and the first
steamers built for them by the Scotts were two vessels of 1200 tons
gross, completed in 1876.

Since then the Scotts' yard has practically never been without a vessel
for one or other branch of the Eastern trade, and particularly for
the China Navigation Company, which runs steamers from China as far
south as Australia, as far west as the Straits, and as far north as
Vladivostock and the Amur river. They also have ships trading up the
Yangtsze Kiang to Ichang, 1000 miles from the sea, where the rapids
prevent navigation farther into the interior. For this service the
twin-screw steamer was adopted in 1878, much earlier than in many other
trades, largely owing to the strong advocacy of the late John Scott,
C.B. Up to that time most of the Yangtsze steamers were propelled
by paddle-wheels driven by walking-beam engines. The first of the
twin-screw steamers was built in 1878--a vessel of 3051 tons gross--and
there has been constructed since then a long succession of very
serviceable steamers. For this line alone, sixty-four vessels have been
constructed by the Scotts, the aggregate tonnage being 115,600 tons,
while the nominal horse-power of the propelling machinery fitted to
these vessels is 15,000 horse-power.

[Illustration: Plate XIII. THE "ACHILLES" OF 1865 OFF GRAVESEND.]

But having in our brief historical sketch come to times within the
recollection of the reader, it may be more satisfactory to depart from
the purely chronological review of the company's operations, and to
offer rather an analysis of the progress made, deferring a description
of typical modern steamers for a separate Chapter.

The direct-acting vertical engine, with inverted cylinders, almost
as we know it to-day, and as illustrated in connection with the
work of the twentieth century, was introduced in the late 'fifties.
The compound engine, introduced in 1854, was developed into the
triple-expansion system in 1882, and later into the quadruple-expansion
type; but this latter has not been much adopted, only some 3 per cent.
of the vessels registered at Lloyds being so fitted. This is in a large
measure due to the satisfactory economy attained with triple-expansion
engines. As to the progress made, Table II., giving average results at
different periods, is instructive.[51]

TABLE II.--PROGRESS IN THE ECONOMY OF THE MARINE ENGINE, 1872 TO 1901.

  -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+------+------
                                             |1872.|1881.|1890. | 1901.
  -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+------+------
  Boiler pressure in pounds per square inch  |52.4 |77.4 |158.5 | 197
  Coal consumption in pounds per indicated   |     |     |      |
   horse-power per hour                      | 2.11| 1.83| 1.52 | 1.48
  Consumption on prolonged sea voyages in    |     |     |      |
   pounds per indicated horse-power per hour |...  | 2   | 1.75 | 1.55
  Piston speed in feet per minute            |376  |467  |529   | 654
  -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+------+------

The advance of the century may be popularly expressed by stating that,
whereas in the first coasting steamships built by the Scotts the fuel
consumed in carrying 1 ton of cargo for 100 miles was 224 lb., the
expenditure to-day is from 4 lb. to 5 lb. The economy of the steam
engine has accounted, as is shown in the Table, for a considerable part
of this improvement. But, at the same time, the growth in the size of
ships has enabled the normal speed of 10 knots to be realised, with an
addition to engine power of much less ratio than the increase in the
capacity of the steamer. As to speed, recent progress has been most
marked in the Navy, and it is therefore fitting that here we should
direct our attention to Naval work.

[Illustration: decoration]


[Illustration: Plate XIV. MODEL OF H.M.S. "PRINCE OF WALES," 1803.]

FOOTNOTES:

[17] Woodcroft's "Steam Navigation," page 20, etc.

[18] Woodcroft's "Steam Navigation," page 54.

[19] Deas' "Treatise on the Improvements and Progress of Trade on the
River Clyde" (1873), page 24.

[20] Muirhead's "Life of Watt," pages 428 and 429.

[21] Williamson's "Clyde Passenger Steamers," pages 348 to 351.

[22] James Napier's "Life of Robert Napier," page 21.

[23] This was the second of the name--a favourite one after the Duke
of Wellington's great victory, and gave rise to the following poetic
effusion:--

  And now amid the reign of peace,
    Art's guiding stream we ply;
  That makes our wheels, like whirling reels,
    O'er yielding water fly.
  As our heroes drove their foes that strove
    Against the bonnets blue;
  On every side the waves divide
    Before the _Waterloo_.

        --Millar's "Clyde from Source to Sea," page 179.


[24] Millar in "Lecture on Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering at
Glasgow Exhibition, 1880-81," page 138.

[25] "Greenock Advertiser," August 6th, 1819.

[26] "Steamboat Companion" for 1820.

[27] Millar, "On the Rise and Progress of Steam Navigation." Lectures
at the Glasgow Exhibition (1880-81), page 138.

[28] Hodder's "Life of Sir George Burns, Bart.," page 161.

[29] Williamson's "Clyde Passenger Steamers," page 32.

[30] Lindsay's "History of Merchant Shipping," vol. iii., pages 78 to
80.

[31] Weir's "History of Greenock," page 89.

[32] Williamson's "Memorials of James Watt" (1856) page 228.

[33] "Greenock Advertiser," July 5th, 1839.

[34] "Greenock Advertiser," February 5th and May 25th, 1835.

[35] Fincham's "History of Naval Architecture," page 294.

[36] Sir Thomas Sutherland, in the "Pocket Book of the P. and O.
Company" (1890), page 15.

[37] Fincham's "History of Naval Architecture," page 235.

[38] Sir John Ross's "Steam Communication to India by the Cape of Good
Hope" (1838), page 31.

[39] "Greenock Advertiser," January 22nd, 1839.

[40] Fincham's "History of Naval Architecture," pages 320 and 321.

[41] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iv., page 86.

[42] "Practical Mechanic's Journal," vol. i., 1853.

[43] The number of steam vessels belonging to the United Kingdom
in 1849 was only 1142, of 158,729 tons; Sweden, which was second
among the nations of the world, had only about one-tenth of this
tonnage.--Porter's "Progress of the Nation," page 626.

[44] Holmes' "Marine Engineering," page 74.

[45] Rankine's "Steam Engine," page 502.

[46] "Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol.
xxviii., page 141; and vol. xxx., page 278.

[47] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iv., page 434.

[48] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xi.,
page 152.

[49] Lindsay's "Merchant Shipping," vol. iv., page 435.

[50] Pollock's "Modern Shipbuilding, and the Men Engaged in it," page
199.

[51] "Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers" (1901),
page 608.




[Illustration: decoration]




A Century's Work for the Navy.

[Illustration: decoration]


The work for the Navy by the Scotts began with the building, in 1803,
of a sloop-of-war named _The Prince of Wales_; a photograph from the
model of this vessel is reproduced on Plate XIV. Since the construction
of this ship the firm have carried out several important Admiralty
contracts, including the first machinery manufactured in Scotland for
a dockyard-built ship, the first steam frigate built in the North, and
several later ships, with their engines; the most recent order being
for the machinery of the armoured cruiser _Defence_, of 14,600 tons
displacement, and 27,000 indicated horse-power, to give a speed of 23
knots.

The progress demonstrated by a contrast between the small sloop-of-war
and this latest powerfully-armed and well-protected high-speed cruiser,
is a record of research and invention, not only on the part of the
naval architect, but also of the chemist, the metallurgist, and the
engineer; the triumph is greater than that reviewed in the case of the
Merchant Marine. Great speed has been achieved, notwithstanding that
the problems to be solved in its attainment have been intensified by
the limitations in the size of the ship in order to minimise the target
presented to the enemy's fire, and by the necessity of providing for
heavy armour, armament, and ammunition in the displacement weight.

When a comparison is made of the Navy ships at the beginning of the
nineteenth century with those of a hundred years earlier, it is found
that little progress had been made, either in design or in gun-power.
The largest vessel in 1700 was of 1809 tons burden, with a hundred
guns. A century later, the size had increased only to 2600 tons, with a
hundred and twenty guns.[52] But even this was an exceptionally large
vessel. The British ships were, as a rule, smaller, and perhaps slower,
than the French ships; but then--as now and always--skill in strategy,
courage in combat, and devotion to duty were the most powerful
factors in action. No fault in these respects could be found with the
work of our Navy in the various engagements which terminated in the
epoch-marking victory in Trafalgar Bay.

The peace following the Napoleonic wars was not conducive to
advancement, as there was little incentive to pursue the sciences
which contributed to the development of destructive weapons. Steam as
a motive power and iron as a constructive material were not so readily
adopted in the Navy ship as in the Merchant Marine. Progress in the
utilisation of iron was not continuous. The first application of steam
was belated, and its popularity was not unalloyed.

[Illustration: Plate XV. _From an Old Engraving._ THE LAUNCH OF THE
FIRST CLYDE-BUILT STEAM FRIGATE "GREENOCK," 1849.]

The Admiralty ordered their first ship of iron in 1839--a small,
non-fighting boat for the Dover station--and there followed other
vessels for the exploration of the River Niger. But the first
iron fighting ship was not built until 1843. In 1848-9 the Scotts
constructed the iron steam frigate _Greenock_, the largest iron warship
of her day, and the first steam frigate built on the Clyde. The
over-all length of this vessel was 213 ft., the beam 37 ft. 4 in.,
and the depth of hold 23 ft. She was of 1413 tons burden, and carried
ten 32-pounder smooth-bore muzzle-loading guns. The illustration on
Plate XV. is a reproduction from an old engraving of the launch of the
vessel. It is a noteworthy feature that the figure-head was a bust
of John Scott, the second of that name. This compliment by the Naval
authorities of the time was well merited, as he did much not only for
the advance of naval architecture, but also for the development of
Greenock.

As a writer of the day put it, this vessel was the _experimentum
crucis_ of the principle of constructing fighting ships of iron.[53] By
1850 there were six large iron vessels, ranging downwards from the 1980
tons of the eighteen-gun ship _Simoon_, with eleven smaller vessels;
but they were all condemned, because it was found by experiment[54]
that the 32-pounder gun at short range could perforate the side of the
iron ship, and that the projectile carried its "cloud of langrage" with
great velocity into the interior of the ship, so that men could not
stand against it. Tests were also made with sixteen wrought-iron plates
superposed, to give a total thickness of 6 in., but these also were
perforated by the 32-pounder projectiles at 400 yards range; so that
the adoption of iron on the main structure of the ship was practically
delayed until armour-plates were first rolled in 1859.

The obstacle to the adoption of steam was the unsuitability of
paddle-wheel machinery for fighting ships. The wheel was exposed to
gun-fire, and the whole of the machinery could not be located below
the water line. Moreover, the side wheel limited the number of guns
which could be utilised for broadside fire. The first steam craft
ordered by the Admiralty was a small vessel of 210 tons and 80 nominal
horse-power, built in London in 1820.[55] Several other non-fighting
steamships followed. By 1837, the largest steam vessel in the fleet
was a sloop of 1111 tons and 320 horse-power.[56] In 1839 five steam
vessels were built, and two of them--the _Hecate_ and _Hecla_--were
engined by the Scotts. These wooden steamers were the first Naval
vessels sent to Scotland to have their machinery fitted on board. They
were of 817 tons and 250 horse-power. The paddle-wheels had a diameter
of 25 ft. 1/2 in., and there were seventeen floats. The main engines,
illustrated on page 29, represent the type adopted, not only in the
Naval, but in the Merchant service of this time. The steam pressure was
then about 3 lb. per square inch.

On Plate XVI. we illustrate the general arrangement of the machinery in
the _Hecate_ and _Hecla_. There were four boilers of the rectangular
type, each with two wet-bottomed furnaces at one end and large return
flues at the other end. The uptakes passed up inside the boilers
through the steam space, uniting in one funnel.

Smith's screw-propeller was tried experimentally in 1837, and
Ericsson's about the same time. The comparative trials of the
_Archimedes_ fitted with Smith's screw against existing paddle-steamers
did much to prove the efficiency of the new system.[57] The screw-ship
excelled the performance of paddle-steamers on the service, and the
screw-propeller was adopted by the Admiralty in 1845; twin-screws
followed twenty-five years later.

[Illustration: Plate XVI. MACHINERY OF H.M.SS. "HECLA" AND "HECATE,"
1839.]

The _Greenock_, built in 1848, was the first war vessel by the Scotts
fitted with the screw-propeller. We have already referred to her
construction in iron, and to her launch. She had a displacement of
1835 tons, and her engines were of 719 indicated horse-power. The
speed realised on the trial was 9.6 knots. The _Greenock's_ machinery,
which is illustrated on the next page, is specially interesting, as it
represents one of the earliest attempts to drive the screw-propeller by
gearing. Two horizontal cylinders were fitted, each 71 in. in diameter,
with a stroke of piston of 4 ft. The gearing consisted of four sets
of massive spur-wheels and pinions, in the ratio of 2.35 to 1, so
that 42 revolutions per minute of the engines give 98.7 revolutions
to the propeller-shaft. The propeller was 14 ft. in diameter, and was
so fitted that it could be detached and raised to the deck. There
were four rectangular brass-tube boilers, each with four wet-bottomed
furnaces, and all the internal uptakes united in one funnel, which was
telescopic, so that when it was lowered and the propeller raised out of
the water, the vessel had the appearance, as well as the facility, of a
sailing frigate.

As will be seen from the drawings, both the engines and boilers were
arranged very low in the hull, to be safe from the enemy's fire. The
engine and boiler compartment occupied 72 ft. of the length of the
ship--about one-third of the total length--and the seating for the
machinery was specially constructed, with a very close pitch of frames
which were only 1 ft. apart. For comparison with the drawings of the
machinery in the _Greenock_, we give on page 49 a similar drawing of
the machinery of the _Canopus_, of 12,956 tons displacement, seven
times that of the _Greenock_. To double the speed, the power of
machinery had to be multiplied twenty times, and yet the space occupied
is only about trebled.

[Illustration: MACHINERY OF H.M.S. "GREENOCK," 1848.]

[Illustration: MACHINERY OF H.M.S. "CANOPUS," 1900.]

In 1850 the largest of the steam vessels in the Navy[58] had a
displacement of 3090 tons, but the most noted was the _Dauntless_, of
2350 tons displacement, with engines of 1347 indicated horse-power
to give a speed of 10 knots. It is true that there were three smaller
vessels of greater speed, one of 196 tons steaming 11.9 knots; but this
was the highest rate reached in the Navy service. By this time some of
the fast mail steamers made 13-1/2 knots. These latter were suited for
war service, but we have already dealt with them.

Following the adoption of the screw-propeller in warships came the
abandonment of gearing for the engines. For many years various forms
of horizontal engine were used; first with return-connecting rods,
and subsequently with direct-acting rods. Steam pressures steadily
increased, largely owing to stronger materials being available. It was,
however, not until the 'seventies that the cylindrical boiler, the
compound engine, and the surface condenser admitted of an increase to
60 lb. per square inch[59]--several years after these improvements had
been introduced in the Merchant Marine.

The Scotts had worked steadily at the solution of the problem from
their trials with the _Thetis_ in 1858 (see page 34 _ante_). In 1860
the late John Scott, C.B., laid before the Admiralty a system of
water-tube boilers and compound engines, but objection was raised to
the system. The French Naval authorities, with whom the Scotts then
had close business connection, took up the scheme, largely because
of the favour with which it was viewed by M. Dupuy de Lôme, the head
of the Department. The first ship fitted was a corvette of 650 tons
displacement; the boilers worked at a pressure of 140 lb., while the
initial pressure at the compound three-cylinder engines was 120 lb.
These were the first engines of the compound type in the French Navy.

[Illustration: Plate XVII. _From a Photograph by Symonds and Co.,
Portsmouth._ H.M.S. "THRUSH," 1889.]

The Scotts were at the time building engines for four corvettes
under construction at the Woolwich and Deptford yards for the
British Navy; and the Admiralty agreed to have fitted in one of them
water-tube boilers and engines similar to those built for the French
boats. The boilers may be said to have belonged to the same general
type as the Thornycroft and Normand water-tube steam generators. It
was subsequently found impossible, however, to ensure that the top of
the boilers should be at least 1 ft. under the load-line--a condition
then enforced in steam vessels for the Navy--and the adoption of the
water-tube boiler was deferred, the ordinary machinery of the period
being fitted to work at 25-lb. pressure instead of 120-lb.[60]

This was unfortunate, as it removed the incentive to continued research
needed to make the water-tube boiler a really satisfactory steam
generator. The Scotts, however, continued to work for the successful
application of high pressures, and it was this that brought them into
contact with the late Mr. Samson Fox, with whom they were closely
identified for many years in connection with the development of the
corrugated flue and the cylindrical steam boiler.

Opinion being adverse to the water-tube boiler, notwithstanding its
acceptance by many foreign Navies, there was a strong agitation
fostered by engineers to induce the societies for the registry of
shipping, and also the Board of Trade, to increase the ratio of the
working to the test, pressure in boilers. The British Admiralty allowed
the boiler to be worked up to within 90 lb. of the test pressure,
whereas in the Merchant Service the working pressure was limited to
one-half of the test pressure. In 1888 the Scotts, being convinced that
the Admiralty system afforded quite a satisfactory factor of safety,
undertook the experiment of submitting a warship boiler, then being
built by them to Admiralty specification, to the highest possible
pressure, even up to bursting-point. The boiler ultimately leaked
to such an extent, after the pressure had been maintained for a
long period at 620 lb. per square inch, that it was not considered
necessary to proceed further. The stresses at this stage worked out to
48,130 lb. per square inch; and the result proved that there was some
justification for a reduction in the minimum scantlings of the shells
of marine boilers to, at least, the scale adopted by the Admiralty.[61]

These suggestive experiments were carried out in connection with the
boilers constructed in 1888-9 for two war vessels built by the Scotts.
These vessels were the _Sparrow_ and the _Thrush_. At the same time,
the Scotts engined two other vessels of the same type, constructed at
the Royal Dockyards. A view is given on Plate XVII. of the _Thrush_,
which was commanded by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales on the North American
and West Indian stations in 1891. She was a vessel of composite build,
of 805 tons displacement, with machinery of 1200 horse-power, to give a
speed of 13 knots; but, as is shown by the illustration, she was fitted
as a three-masted schooner, and utilised her sails when the wind was
favourable. In this respect, she marks the transition stage between the
days of the sailing craft and the modern ship, depending entirely on
steam for propulsion. Indication is afforded of the progress towards
this transformation by Table III. on the opposite page, which shows the
improvement in economy in the machinery of warships at various stages
in their development.

[Illustration: Plate XVIII. ENGINES OF H.M.S. "THRUSH," 1889.]

The figures in the Table are average results rather than highest
attainments during the periods. For 1890-95 we have taken the
_Barfleur_, the engines of which were constructed by the Scotts in
1894; whilst the particulars for 1895-1900 refer to the _Canopus_,
engined by them in 1900. In 1902 they also supplied the machinery
for the battleship _Prince of Wales_, and commenced the construction
of the armoured cruiser _Argyll_. But before referring in detail to
these latter ships, we may briefly review the advances in applied
mechanics, metallurgy and chemistry, which have contributed largely to
the perfection of these modern fighting ships in respect of offensive
and defensive qualities.


TABLE III.

PROGRESSIVE TYPES OF WARSHIP MACHINERY, AND THEIR ECONOMY, 1840 TO 1905.

  ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
                          |1840 to 1855.|1855 to 1875.|1875 to 1890.
                          |             |             |
  ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
  Type of boiler          | Rectangular | Rectangular | Single-ended
                          |    box      |    box      |  cylindrical
                          |             |             |
  Steam pressure per      |  3 lb.      |    25 lb.   |     90 lb.
  square inch             |    to 4 lb  |             |
                          |             |             |
  Coal consumption per    |     7 lb.   | 4 lb.       |    2-1/2 lb.
  indicated horse-power   |             |   to 5 lb.  |
  per hour                |             |             |
                          |             |             |
  Type of engine          |    Geared   |   Simple    |    Three-
                          |    screw    | horizontal  |   cylinder
                          |             |   surface   |   compound
                          |             | condensing  |
                          |             |             |
  Piston speed in feet    |     220     | 500 to 600  |      750
  per minute              |             |             |
                          |             |             |
  Weight of machinery per |   10 cwt.   | 3 cwt.      |    3 cwt.
  indicated horse-power   |             |   to 5 cwt. |
  per minute              |             |             |
                          |             |             |
  Speed of ship           |   8 to 9    |     14      |      16
                          |   knots     |    knots    |     knots
  ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
  ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
                          |1890 to 1895. |1895 to 1900.|1900 to 1905.
                          |    [A]      |    [B]     |    [C]
  ------------------------+--------------+-------------+-------------
  Type of boiler          | Single-ended | Belleville  | Water-tube
                          |  cylindrical | water-tube  |
                          |              |             |
  Steam pressure per      |     155 lb.  |   300 lb.   |  300 lb.
  square inch             |              |             |
                          |              |             |
  Coal consumption per    |      2 lb.   |    1.8 lb.  |  1.8 lb.
  indicated horse-power   |              |             |
  per hour                |              |             |
                          |              |             |
  Type of engine          |    Three-    |   Three-    |   Four-
                          |   cylinder   |  cylinder   |  cylinder
                          |   triple-    |  triple-    |  triple-
                          |   expansion  |  expansion  |  expansion
                          |              |             |
  Piston speed in feet    |      840     |     918     |    1000
  per minute              |              |             |
                          |              |             |
  Weight of machinery per |   2-3/4 cwt. |    2 cwt.   |  1.6 cwt.
  indicated horse-power   |              |             |
  per minute              |              |             |
                          |              |             |
  Speed of ship           |      18      |     18.25   |     23
                          |     knots    |     knots   |    knots
  ------------------------+--------------+-------------+-------------
[A] Battleship, _Barfleur_.

[B] Battleship, _Canopus_.

[C] Armoured Cruiser.

The gun most in favour at the close of the eighteenth, and at the
opening of the nineteenth, centuries was the cast-iron, smooth-bored,
muzzle-loader: first the 32-pounder and later the 68-pounder.
Carronades were used for "smashing" rather than for penetrating the
skin or structure of ships. Although the 68-pounders were improved by a
lining of wrought iron being inserted in the bore, whereby the energy
at 1000-yards range was increased from 290 to 600 foot-tons, little
progress was made until after the Crimean War, when chemists undertook
the investigation of the action of explosives and metallurgists sought
to produce stronger metals.

The general idea as regards the powder used as a propellant was
that the ignition was instantaneous, and that the more violent the
explosion the greater would be the velocity of the projectile. Under
such conditions short weapons naturally found favour; and indeed,
with a light, spherical, ill-fitting projectile, there was very
little advantage to be gained by lengthening the bore. But with the
introduction of rifled cannon, much heavier and better-fitting shot
became possible, and a rapid-burning powder gave rise to dangerous
pressures in the gun. It was then realised that it was not an explosion
that was wanted, but a continuous pressure acting on the base of a
shot for a relatively considerable period. This needed a slow-burning
explosive, and led to the manufacture of powder as pebbles or prisms;
the enlargement in the late 'seventies of the chamber of the gun, and
the provision of air spaces for the expansion of the powder, greatly
added to the velocity with which the shot left the gun, and therefore
augmented its carrying power.[62]

Gun-makers had meanwhile improved the strength of the weapon by a
recognition of the fact that wrought iron was twice as strong in the
direction of the fibre as across it; and thus in the 'sixties they
began to coil the central tube, surrounding it by hoops, welded or
shrunk on. The full advantages of fibre were thus secured for resisting
circumferential strain. The bore was rifled to give the shot that
rotatory motion which prevents irregularity in flight and conduces to
accuracy of fire at long range. The smooth-bore gun was effective up to
only 1000 yards range, as compared with the 6000 yards and 7000 yards
for the modern weapon. Breechloading was first introduced into the Navy
in the 'sixties, but discarded because the details for closing the
breech end proved unsatisfactory. Finally, it was reintroduced in 1878,
a satisfactory mechanism having been devised.

These various improvements gradually increased the power of the
gun. The length and weight had enormously grown, as is shown by the
particulars of successive large Naval guns, shown in Table IV. on the
next page; but the increase in energy up till the 'eighties was not
commensurate with the augmentation of the weights of the projectile and
charge.

The advance from the 38-ton gun of 1870 to the 110-1/2-ton gun in
1887 involved the multiplying by five of the charge of powder, which
quadrupled the energy of the gun, but the carrying power of the shot
was still deficient. The velocity had increased in twenty years
from 1600 to 2000 ft. per second, slower-burning powder having been
introduced.


TABLE IV.

PARTICULARS OF THE SUCCESSIVE LARGE NAVAL GUNS, 1800 TO 1905.

  -----+--------+---------+-------+--------+-----+-----+--------+-------
       |        |         |       |        |Weight of           |Penetra-
       |        |         |       |        |Projectile.         |tion of
       |        |         |       |        |     |Weight of     |Wrought-
       |        |         |       |        |     |Charge.       |Iron at
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |Muzzle  |1000
  Year.| Type.  | Weight. |Length.|Calibre.|     |     |Energy. |Yards
  -----+--------+---------+-------+--------+-----+-----+--------+-------
       |        |tons cwt.| in.   |   in.  | lb. | lb. |ft.-tns.|  in.
  1800 |Cast-   |   2  12 | 114   |   6.4  |  32 |  10 |   400  |  --
       |iron    |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |smooth- |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |bore    |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1842 |Ditto   |   4  15 | ...   |   8.12 |  68 |  16 |   700  |  --
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1865 |Woolwich|   4  10 | ...   |   7    | 115 |  22 |  1400  |  7
       |wrought-|         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |iron    |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1870 |Built-up|  38   0 | 200   |  12.50 | 810 | 200 | 13,900 | 17
       |muzzle- |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |loader  |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1880 | Ditto  |  80   0 | 321   |  16    |1700 | 450 | 27,960 | 22-1/2
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1887 |Built-up| 110  10 | 524   |  16.25 |1800 | 960 | 54,390 | 32
       |breech- |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |loader  |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1895 |Wire-   |  46   0 | 445.5 |  12    | 850 | ... | 33,940 | 34.6
       |wound   |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |breech- |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |loader  |         |       |        |     |     |        |
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1900 |Ditto   |  51   0 | 496.5 |  12    | 850 | 210 | 36,290 | 35.4
       |        |         |       |        |     |     |        |
  1905 |Ditto   |  58   0 | 540   |  12    | 850 | ... | 49,560 | 42
  -----+--------+---------+-------+--------+-----+-----+--------+-------

Attention was further directed to the improvement of explosives;
and ultimately, instead of gunpowder having a potential energy of
480 foot-tons per pound, modified gun-cotton was introduced, with
an energy of 716 foot-tons per pound, and still later there were
evolved explosive compounds of which the potential energy per unit of
weight was fourfold greater than in the case of gunpowder, namely,
1139 foot-tons per pound. Finally, the explosive has taken the
form of cordite, which ensures slow burning, great expansion, and,
consequently, augmented propelling power behind the projectile, without
material addition to the maximum strain upon the weapon. But in any
case the constructional strength of the modern gun is enormously
superior to the earlier built-up weapons, as around the inner tubes
there is coiled something like 120 miles of wire, which itself has a
breaking-strain of between 90 and 110 tons per square inch, and is
put on under a tension of from 54 tons per square inch on the inner
wires to 32 tons per square inch on the outer wires,[63] so that the
ultimate resistance to strain consequent upon the firing of the gun
is enormously increased. Velocities of 2600 ft. per second are thus
realised, and even more is quite feasible, so that penetration of
wrought iron at 1000 yards range has now been increased to 42 in.

If we compare the 12-in. gun to-day with the weapon of the same
calibre of twenty years ago, when there was no widened chamber for
the explosive, when prismatic powder of low expansive power was used,
it is found, as shown in the Table opposite, that the penetration
at 1000 yards has been doubled, and the possible effective range
multiplied fivefold. There has also been an enormous gain in quicker
fire by improved breech mechanism and efficient hydraulic and electric
mountings, whereby the gun and all its loading, elevating, and training
machinery is rotated.

The metallurgist has also been successfully occupied, and it is
probable that the armour plate of to-day is still invulnerable.
The earlier wrought-iron plates were increased from 4-1/2 in. in
thickness on the _Warrior_ of 1861, to the 24 in. on the _Inflexible_
of 1881; the area protected being almost proportionately reduced.
The artillerist with improved projectiles ultimately defeated this
heavy cleading on the ships; but compound armour, first made in 1879,
enabled the maximum thickness on the broadside to be reduced to 18 in.,
permitting a greater area to be covered for the same weight. At first
the 80-ton gun failed in its attack, but heavier weapons, with improved
projectiles, prevailed. The next step was the introduction of
all-steel armour in 1890. Two years later there was introduced the
super-carburising and subsequent chilling of the face of plates made of
an alloy of nickel steel. In 1897 the process of hardening was still
further developed, and now the 9-in. plate on the modern battleship is
equal in resistance to a 26-in. wrought-iron plate of the 'sixties,
or a 20-in. compound-plate of the 'eighties, or a 13-in. plate of the
early-hardened type. For the present, therefore, the armour seems to
have secured the victory, as at 5000 yards range 9-in. armour can
scarcely be defeated by even the 12-in. gun.

With the increased resistance of armour and the consequent reduction
in its thickness, the naval designer can spread his protecting plates
over a much wider area, so that the whole broadside of ships like the
_Prince of Wales_, or the cruisers _Argyll_ and _Defence_, is clad with
armour of satisfactory resisting power. At the same time the gun-power
and speed of ships have been greatly increased without making the
displacement inordinately high. On the opposite page a Table gives the
main features of representative ships at different epochs, which will
show this at a glance.

The growth in the size of battleships has been steady, with the
exception of the class represented by the _Barfleur_ and _Canopus_,
both of which were engined by the Scotts. These vessels are embodiments
of a desire to check the advance in the size and cost of the
battleship. The deficiency in the number and calibre of their guns
was partly compensated by the introduction, for the first time in
battleships, of quick-firing weapons of large calibre. The _Barfleur_
had four 12 in. breechloaders and ten 4.7 in. quick-firers; while the
_Canopus_ had four 10 in. breechloaders and ten 6 in. quick-firers. But
opinion has again strongly grown in favour of having in each British
ship the best that can be achieved; and thus the _Prince of Wales_
has a displacement greater than any previous ship, while in the _King
Edward_ and the _Lord Nelson_ classes there has been a further growth
in every element of power. The probabilities, too, are that we have
not yet by any means seen the end of this advance.

[Illustration: Plate XIX. _From a Photograph by West and Son, Southsea._
HIS MAJESTY'S BATTLESHIP "PRINCE OF WALES," 1902.]


TABLE V.

SIZE AND FIGHTING QUALITIES OF BRITISH BATTLESHIPS OF DIFFERENT PERIODS.

  ------------+---------------------------------------------------------
              | Date of Completion.
              |    +----------------------------------------------------
              |    | Displacement.
              |    |      +----------------+------+---------+-----------
              |    |      |                |      | Total   | Collective
              |    |      |                |      | Weight  | Energy at
              |    |      |                |      | of Shot | Muzzle of
      Name.   |    |      |  Side Armour.  |Speed.| in One  | One Round.
              |    |      |                |      | Round.  |
  ------------+----+------+----------------+------+---------+-----------
              |    | tons |      in.       | knots|    lb.  | foot-tons
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Warrior_   |1861| 9,210| 4-1/2-in.      |14-1/2|   3800  |   61,476
              |    |      | wrought iron   |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Hercules_  |1868| 8,680| 9-in. to 6-in. |14    |   5400  |   70,200
              |    |      | wrought iron   |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Alexandra_ |1877| 9,490| 12-in. to      |15    |   5426  |   71,400
              |    |      | 6-in. wrought  |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Inflexible_|1881|11,880| 24-in. to      |13    |   6936  |  123,120
              |    |      | 16-in. wrought |      |         |
              |    |      | iron           |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Benbow_    |1888|10,600| 18-in.         |16.75 |   4600  |  135,560
              |    |      | compound       |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Royal      |1892|14,150| 18-in. and     |17.5  |   5800  |  159,610
  Sovereign_  |    |      | 5-in. compound |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Barfleur_  |1894|10,500| 12-in.         |18.5  |   2450  |   67,670
              |    |      | compound       |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Canopus_   |1900|12,950| 6-in. hardened |18.25 |   4600  |  178,720
              |    |      | steel          |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Prince of  |1902|15,000| 9-in.          |18.25 |   4600  |  194,400
  Wales_      |    |      | super-hardened |      |         |
              |    |      | steel          |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _King       |1904|16,350| 9-in.          |18.50 |   5920  |  270,040
  Edward VII._|    |      | super-hardened |      |         |
              |    |      | steel          |      |         |
              |    |      |                |      |         |
  _Lord       |1905|16,500| 10-in.         |18.50 |   7960  |  413,900
  Nelson_     |    |      | super-hardened |      |         |
              |    |      | steel          |      |         |
  ------------+----+------+----------------+------+---------+-----------


As to the machinery made by the Scotts for these battleships, the
_Barfleur_ had three-cylinder, triple-expansion twin-screw engines, to
run at 108 revolutions, and to develop 13,000 indicated horse-power. On
her trials the power was 13,163 indicated horse-power. There are eight
single-ended, return-tube, cylindrical boilers, working at 155 lb.
pressure. Other details are given in the Table on page 53.

The engines of the _Canopus_ are illustrated on page 49 by a drawing
taken from a Paper read at the Institution of Civil Engineers, by Sir
John Durston and Admiral H. J. Oram.[64] This was the first type of
British battleship fitted with water-tube boilers. She was followed
soon after by the _Prince of Wales_.[65]

The _Argyll_, which was built and engined by the Scotts, and the
_Defence_, which is being built in one of the Royal Dockyards, and is
having its machinery constructed by the Scotts, signalise progress in
cruiser design. The hardening of armour, increasing its resistance,
permits of a reduction in weight for a given measure of protection, so
that it has been possible to effectively defend the modern cruiser,
while at the same time giving an enormously increased gun-power and a
speed far in excess of that possible ten years ago. The _Argyll_ is a
vessel of 10,850 tons displacement, being 450 ft. long, 68 ft. 6 in.
beam, and having a draught of 25 ft.; while the _Defence_ is a vessel
of 14,600 tons displacement, having a length of 490 ft., a beam of 74
ft. 6 in., and a draught of 26 ft. In both ships the greater part of
the broadside, from 5 ft. below the water-line to the upper deck, is
armoured, and a very large proportion of the area thus clad has 6-in.
hardened plates.

[Illustration: Plate XX. PROPELLING ENGINES OF H.M.S. "ARGYLL."]

In the late 'nineties it was assumed that quick-firing artillery was
best suited to the work of a cruiser, and thus the 6-in. gun was
exclusively adopted. But since then Naval strategists have developed
their ideas as to the function of armoured cruisers, and now anticipate
their use in the line of battle; so that not only has the defensive
quality been improved, but the offensive power has been materially
increased. In the _Defence_, and the other ships of the class, the
6-in. gun has been entirely discarded in favour of an installation of
9.2-in. and 7.5-in. weapons. Owing to the perfection of the hydraulic
and electric mountings, little has been forfeited in respect of
rapidity of fire, while much has been gained in the striking energy at
a given range of each projectile. Thus, while the 6-in. gun five years
ago had an energy equal to penetrating 6 in. of wrought iron at 3000
yards' range, the 7.5-in. weapon now may perforate 6-3/4 in., and the
9.2-in. gun 9 in. of the hardest armour at corresponding range. The
total weight of projectiles fired from the present-day cruiser in a
minute is double, and the muzzle energy quadruple, the results attained
by the cruisers designed at the close of the nineteenth century.[66]

The modern cruisers steam at 23 knots, the power of the machinery in
the _Argyll_ being 21,000 indicated horse-power, and in the _Defence_
27,000 indicated horse-power. The machinery of the _Argyll_, which is
typical, consists of four sets of triple-expansion engines, arranged
in separate watertight compartments. The diameters of the cylinders
are: high-pressure, 41-1/2 in.; intermediate-pressure, 65-1/2 in.;
and the two low-pressure, each 73-1/2 in., all having a stroke of 42
in. At full power, developed with 138 revolutions, the piston speed
is 966 ft. per minute. The cylinders are fitted with liners, and are
steam-jacketed; forged steel is used for the liners of the high-
and intermediate-pressure cylinders, and cast-iron for those
of the low-pressure cylinders. The cylinder covers and pistons
are of cast steel, the latter being of conical form. The high-
and intermediate-pressure cylinders have piston valves, and the
low-pressure cylinders flat valves. The cylinders are supported at the
front by eight forged-steel columns, and at the rear by four cast-iron
columns formed with guide-faces, and one forged steel column. The
crankshaft is in four pieces, the high- and intermediate-pressure parts
being interchangeable with each other, and the two low-pressure parts
with one another. The shafts are hollow, and three-bladed propellers
of manganese bronze are fitted to each. The condensers are entirely
separate, and independent air pumps are fitted.

The _Argyll_ had a combination of six cylindrical and sixteen
water-tube boilers, but in the later ships, including the _Defence_,
the boilers are entirely of the water-tube type. The working pressure
of the boiler is 275 lb., reduced at the engines to 250 lb. The trials
of the _Argyll_ were carried through most satisfactorily,[67] and
the vessel, under the new Admiralty conditions, was completed for
commission by the builders. The fact that this armoured cruiser was so
completed at the builder's yard is of itself evidence of the capacity
and efficiency of the plant.

[Illustration: decoration]


[Illustration: Plate XXI. THE "ERIN," OWNED BY SIR THOMAS LIPTON, BART.
(_See page 70._)]


FOOTNOTES:

[52] Charnock's "History of Marine Architecture," vol. iii., page 245.

[53] The "Greenock Telegraph," May 4th, 1849.

[54] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development of the Century," page
140.

[55] Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine," page 3.

[56] Fincham's "History of Marine Construction," page 332.

[57] _Ibid._, page 344.

[58] Sir Nathaniel Barnaby's "Naval Development of the Nineteenth
Century," page 113.

[59] Sennett and Oram's "Marine Steam Engine," page 10.

[60] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xxx.,
page 278.

[61] "Proceedings of the Institution of Naval Architects," vol. xxx.,
page 287.

[62] "Encyclopædia Britannica" (1898 edition), vol. xi., page 288.

[63] "Engineering," vol. lxxix., page 577, May 5th, 1905.

[64] See "Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers" (1899),
vol. cxxxviii., part 3.

[65] "The Engineer," vol. xcviii., page 15.

[66] "Engineering," vol. lxxx., page 415.

[67] "Engineering," vol. lxxx., page 420.




[Illustration: decoration]

Yachting and Yachts.

[Illustration: decoration]


Yacht designers and builders, when votaries of the sport, produce much
better results, and in this truism we have some explanation of the
success of the Scotts in the long series of yachts built during the
past century. There are a few misty memories and time-worn traditions
to the effect that yachting of a kind was indulged in on the Clyde in
the closing years of the eighteenth century; but there are no authentic
records antecedent to the nineteenth century. From 1803 onwards the
Scotts have been closely identified with the pastime, and with the
production in the early years of sailing yachts; and, later, of steam
craft.

The first notable Clyde racing yacht, of which there is any record,
was launched by the Scotts in 1803, as already referred to on page
11 _ante_. She was a 45-1/2-ton cutter for Colonel Campbell, an
Argyllshire soldier, and the launching ceremony, the honours of which
were done by Lady Charlotte Campbell, was attended with military
honours. For the twenty years immediately following the launch of
this cutter, yachting made most pleasing progress, and in 1824 the
Royal Northern Yacht Club was formed for the better organisation and
encouragement of the pastime. The club had its origin in the North of
Ireland, and had jurisdiction over that district, as well as over the
West of Scotland up till 1838, when the Irish section was disbanded.
The Royal Northern gave regattas throughout the season, at almost
every suitable port, from Helensburgh on the Clyde to Oban. Amongst
the leaders of the Clyde Division was John Scott, the second of the
name, and a large number of the racing craft owned by the members were
built by him. Indeed, one of the most experienced writers on Yachting
in Scotland, Mr. J. D. Bell, says that "among the old yachting families
of the West of Scotland, the Scotts and the Steeles filled the foremost
place."

Among the best remembered of the yachts built by John Scott were the
cutters _Hawk_ and _Hope_, constructed for himself, and the _Clarence_,
built for his son-in-law, the late Robert Sinclair. The _Hawk_ was a
boat of about 30 tons, the _Hope_ was rather smaller, and was used for
cruising rather than for racing; and the _Clarence_ was about 18 tons.

The _Hawk_ was a successful racer, and secured many cherished prizes,
but the _Clarence_ was her superior, and was the first of a long line
of prize-winners which have brought renown to the Clyde. Indeed, in all
she won over thirty challenge trophies, and in her best season never
suffered defeat. Robert Sinclair, the owner, was himself a keen and
accomplished yachtsman.

[Illustration: Plate XXII. _From a painting at Halkshill._ THE
"CLARENCE": AN EARLY RACING CUTTER.]

In the races held in 1833-34--most prominent years--John Scott,
with the _Hawk_, won the Anglesey Cup at Dublin, and the Oban and
Helensburgh Cups; while Robert Sinclair, with the _Clarence_, won
the Ladies' Cup at Oban, the Kintyre Cup at Campbeltown, the Dublin,
Adelaide, and Booth Cups at Dublin, the Stewart Cup at Greenock, the
Largs Cup and the Dunoon Cup. These two yachts were indeed close
rivals, although the principal honours rested with the _Clarence_.
On one occasion, however, the _Hawk_ unexpectedly defeated the
_Clarence_ in an important race at Dublin, and the owners were anxious
to have the cup in Greenock as soon as possible for a special reason.
Recognising that the _Clarence_ was really the faster boat, they handed
over the trophy to her crew to take to the Clyde port; but the luck
which enabled the _Hawk_ to win the cup stood by her on the passage
home, and she made the port a considerable time before her rival.

The _Clarence_ became a pilot boat, and was unfortunately run down off
Garroch Head, while the _Hawk_ was transferred to the fishing trade.
In later years John Scott, C.B., had the laudable desire to secure as
a relic the vessel his grandfather had owned, but the negotiations
failed; and the boat is probably still at work among the islands of
Scotland.

The Royal Northern Club's fleet in the 'thirties numbered about fifty,
but there were no steam vessels on the list until 1855. Among the
principal boats in the club were the Duke of Portland's ketch, the
_Clown_, of 156 tons; the Duke of Buccleuch's cutter, the _Flower of
Yarrow_, of 145 tons; Mr. John Scott's cutter, the _Lufra_, of 81 tons;
Mr. Robert Meiklem's schooner, _Crusader_, of 126 tons; and Mr. Lewis
Upton's cutter, _Briton_, of 91 tons. The membership was about one
hundred and fifty, the aggregate tonnage of the fleet about 2000 tons,
and its cost, at a fairly generous estimate, about £20,000.

What a contrast is suggested by a review of the fleet of yachts owned
to-day by Clyde yachtsmen! There are now eight clubs in the Firth
recognised by the Yacht Racing Association, and one of the largest of
these--the Royal Clyde--alone has over a thousand members, with a fleet
of over three hundred and seventy yachts, of a collective tonnage of
26,000 tons, and of a first cost of a million sterling. The club-house
at Hunter's Quay, which cost about £20,000, is representative of
the best of its kind. Many of the yachts--sailing and steam--are of
considerable size, and have international repute for their excellence,
either as racers, or as comfortable seaworthy cruisers.

The origin of the Royal Clyde Club in itself affords interesting
suggestion of the development of the pastime on the Clyde. Owing to a
rule enforced by the Royal Northern Club during the earlier period of
its existence, boats smaller than 8 tons could not be enrolled; many
enthusiastic owners of small craft were thus debarred from membership,
and in 1856 they decided to form a new club. This, first named the
Clyde Model Yacht Club, became, a year later, the Clyde Yacht Club;
and, having grown immensely in influence, obtained, in 1872, Queen
Victoria's sanction to the appellation of "Royal." To-day the Royal
Clyde Yacht Club is one of the most important in the Kingdom.

John Scott (1752-1837) was long a prominent member of the Royal
Northern Club. His son, Charles Cuningham Scott, was an original
member, but did not take the same active part in the pastime, the
claims of a quickly-developing industry being probably the reason. But
the records of the family were again revived by his sons--John Scott,
C.B., Robert Sinclair Scott, and Colin William Scott. They displayed
a preference for steam craft, although the first-named owned several
cutters, beginning with the _Zingara_; later several beautiful yachts,
each successive ship being named the _Greta_, were built for him. The
first of these, of 1876, and the last, of 1895, are illustrated on the
Plate facing this page. He was elected Commodore of the Royal Clyde
Club in 1895 in acknowledgment of his services to the club and to
yachting generally, and he occupied the post until his death in 1904.

[Illustration: Plate XXIII. THE "GRETA," OF 1876.]

[Illustration: THE "GRETA," OF 1895.]

These were exciting times in Clyde yachting. It was then that Lord
Dunraven and Sir Thomas Lipton made their gallant but unsuccessful
efforts to recover the America cup with Clyde-built boats, while the
performances of the _Britannia_, owned by the then Prince of Wales,
now His Majesty the King, and of the _Meteor_, belonging to the German
Emperor, gave a distinction to the sport which it had never enjoyed
before.

The Mudhook Yacht Club was formed in 1873 by a few skilled yacht
designers and yachtsmen, and included Robert Sinclair Scott, Colin
William Scott, and James Reid. The membership was limited to forty,
and the aim of the founders was to "encourage amateur yacht sailing."
There were many inspirations connected with the founding of the club;
there is a tradition that when a "Mudhooker" was being initiated, he
was usually confronted with a coil of rope, a small marlinspike, a
chart and dividers, a forecastle bucket and other implements; and,
before the hand of fellowship was extended to him, he was exercised,
with more or less of solemnity, as to their uses. From the foundation
of the Club until his death in 1905, Robert Sinclair Scott was Admiral
of the Club. For twenty-nine years from the same period his brother,
Colin William Scott, acted as Honorary Secretary, and his great
services were recognised on the club attaining its majority in 1894, by
the presentation by the members of a set of old candelabra and fruit
dishes. The present Honorary Secretary is R. L. Scott, son of John
Scott, C.B.

Although, as we have said, the Scotts never owned racing yachts, they
have built for themselves and for others a long succession of beautiful
steam yachts, as recorded in the Table on page 69. In all, seven yachts
have been built in succession for the Scotts themselves. Each was named
the _Greta_, after a small stream which runs through the Halkshill
Estate, excepting the last, which was called the _Grianaig_, the Gaelic
for Greenock.

The last _Greta_ is exactly double the length of the first, while
the yacht tonnage is practically eightfold. The successive steps are
marked. The _Greta_ of 1876 was 76 ft. long, and of 53 tons, and she
was at once purchased by a Kilmarnock lady, Miss Finnie. The vessel
built for John Scott, C.B., in the following year was slightly larger,
and she also was coveted and secured. In 1878 a still larger ship was
built, and for many years this craft continued in the possession of its
original owner, but in 1892 was displaced by a vessel of greater size,
of 135 ft. 6 in. in length, and of 230 tons yacht displacement. Other
vessels followed at periods of three years, and the _Greta_ of 1898 was
154 ft. long, and of 393 tons.

Many other notable vessels were constructed in the same period for
other owners; and while it is not possible to refer to all of them,
mention may be made of the _Tuscarora_, built in 1897, for William
Clark, Esq., of Paisley. This vessel, which is illustrated on Plate
XXIV., is 170 ft. long, and of 775 tons. She had a bridge and promenade
deck 104 ft. long; and there were ten state-rooms and large saloons for
the owner and his guests. Built for oversea cruising, she had a very
complete installation of refrigerating machinery. The triple-expansion
engines with which she was fitted developed 1030 horse-power when
running at 150 revolutions, equal to a piston speed of 675 ft. per
minute. Steam was supplied by a single-ended boiler.

A much larger vessel--indeed, the largest of the type constructed by
the firm--was the _Margarita_, constructed for A. J. Drexel, Esq., of
Philadelphia, to the designs of the late Mr. G. L. Watson, who did so
much for the advance of the science of naval architecture as applied
to sailing and steam yachts. This vessel is of 272 ft. in length, with
a displacement of 2522 tons. For the owner and his guests there are
thirteen large state-rooms, and the general saloons include dining,
drawing, and smoking rooms, a boudoir, and a children's nursery.
The yacht is equipped with all the accessories of the modern liner,
including refrigerating appliances. It is propelled at a speed of
over 17 knots by twin-screws, operated by two independent sets of
triple-expansion, four-cylinder engines, balanced to obviate vibration.


[Illustration: Plate XXIV. THE "MARGARITA."]

[Illustration: THE "TUSCARORA."]


TABLE VI.--GENERAL PARTICULARS OF PRINCIPAL STEAM YACHTS BUILT BY
SCOTTS' SHIPBUILDING AND ENGINEERING COMPANY, LIMITED, GREENOCK.

  -----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------
             |         |       |        |        |         |
             | Date of |       |        |        |Displace-|
             |Construc-|       |        |        | ment in |
     Name.   |  tion.  |Length.|Breadth.| Depth. |  Tons.  |Speed.
  -----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------
             |         |ft. in.| ft. in.|ft.  in.|         |knots.
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Greta_    |  1876   | 76  0 |  12  0 |  9   3 |     53  |  7.5
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Greta_    |  1877   | 84  0 |  12  6 |  9   6 |     73  |  8.25
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Greta_    |  1878   | 90  0 |  14  0 |  9   6 |     86  |  9.33
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Ulva_     |  1879   |162  0 |  21  0 | 15   6 |    350  | 11.08
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Griffin_  |  1879   |120  0 |  16  6 | 11   0 |    152  |  9.8
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Eagle_    |  1879   | 84  0 |  12  6 |  9   6 |     77  |  7.7
             |         |       |        |        |         |
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Retriever_|  1884   |123  0 |  17  0 | 12   0 |    144  | 11
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Alca_     |  1887   | 80  6 |  14  0 | 10   0 |     93  | 10
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Santanna_ | 1887    |180  0 |  24  0 | 15   6 |    495  | 13.6
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Foros_    |  1891   |236  0 |  30  6 | 20   6 |   1170  | 12.5
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Greta_    |  1892   |135  6 |  18  6 | 12   0 |    230  | 11
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Kittiwake_|  1893   |113  0 |  21  0 | 13   6 |    210  |  9.55
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Lutra_    |  1894   |117  0 |  18  0 | 12   0 |    200  | 10.75
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Greta_    |  1895   |145  0 |  22  0 | 13   5 |    338  | 11
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Erin_     |  1896   |252  0 |  31  6 | 20   6 |   1330  | 15.6
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Tuscarora_|  1897   |170  0 |  26  6 | 15   7 |    775  | 12.5
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Greta_    |  1898   |154  0 |  22  9 | 13   6 |    393  | 12.25
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Lutra_    |  1899   |140  0 |  21  0 | 13   0 |    348  | 11.65
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Margarita_|  1900   |272  0 |  36  6 | 28   0 |   2522  | 17.1
             |         |       |        |        |         |
             |         |       |        |        |         |
             |         |       |        |        |         |
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Waihi_    |  1900   | 82  0 |  14  6 | 10   0 |    102  | 10.3
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Saevuna_  |  1901   | 76  4 |  14  6 |  9   3 |     95  |  8.4
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Grianaig_ |  1904   |160  0 |  23  9 | 14   0 |    435  | 12.6
             |         |       |        |        |         |
  _Beryl_    |  1904   |160  0 |  25  0 | 14   6 |    500  | 13.3
  -----------+---------+-------+--------+--------+---------+------
 ------------+------------------------+------+------+-------------------
             |                        |Indi- |      |
             |                        |cated |Boiler|
             |                        |Horse-|Pres- |
     Name.   |    Type of Engines.    |power.|sure. |        Owner.
  -----------+------------------------+------+------+-------------------
             |                        |      |  lb. |
             |                        |      |      |
  _Greta_    |        Compound        |   58 |   74 |John Scott, Esq.,
             |                        |      |      |  C.B.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Greta_    |           "            |   76 |   78 |John Scott, Esq.,
             |                        |      |      |  C.B.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Greta_    |    Compound tandem     |  105 |   78 |John Scott, Esq.,
             |                        |      |      |  C.B.
  _Ulva_     |       "       "        |  277 |   70 |F. A. Hankey, Esq.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Griffin_  |       "       "        |  130 |   78 |C. E. Dashwood, Esq.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Eagle_    |        Compound        |   74 |   75 |Count Stackleberg,
             |                        |      |      |  St. Petersburg.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Retriever_|           "            |  215 |   90 |O. Randall, Esq.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Alca_     |    Triple-expansion    |  110 |  160 |Colonel Malcolm,
             |                        |      |      |  Poltalloch.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Santanna_ |      "        "        |  780 |  150 |M. Louis Prat,
             |                        |      |      |  Marseilles.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Foros_    |      "        "        |  960 |  160 |M. Kousenzoff,
             |                        |      |      |  Moscow.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Greta_    |      "        "        |  280 |  160 |John Scott, Esq.,
             |                        |      |      |  C.B.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Kittiwake_|      "        "        |  185 |  160 |Lord Carnegie.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Lutra_    |      "        "        |  250 |  160 |Colonel Malcolm.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Greta_    |      "        "        |  340 |  170 |John Scott, Esq.,
             |                        |      |      |  C.B.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Erin_     |Triple-expansion, 4 cyl.| 2500 |  180 |Sir Thomas Lipton,
             |                        |      |      |  Bart.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Tuscarora_|  "        "        "   | 1030 |  170 |Wm. Clark, Esq.,
             |                        |      |      |  Paisley.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Greta_    |  "        "        "   |  480 |  170 |John Scott, Esq.,
             |                        |      |      |  C.B.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Lutra_    |  "        "        "   |  480 |  170 |Lord Malcolm of
             |                        |      |      |  Poltalloch.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Margarita_|  {Twin-screw, triple}  | 5200 |  200 |A. J. Drexel, Esq.,
             |  {expansion, four   }  |      |      |  Philadelphia,
             |  {cylinders in each }  |      |      |  U.S.A.
             |  {engine            }  |      |      |
             |                        |      |      |
  _Waihi_    |    Triple-expansion    |  130 |  170 |J. Bulloch, Esq.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Saevuna_  |        Compound        |   75 |  130 |Maurice Bernard
             |                        |      |      |  Byles, Esq.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Grianaig_ |    Triple-expansion    |  740 |  190 |R. Sinclair Scott,
             |                        |      |      | Esq.
             |                        |      |      |
  _Beryl_    |      "        "        |  910 |  200 |Baron Inverclyde.
  -----------+------------------------+------+------+-------------------


The _Erin_, now owned by Sir Thomas Lipton, Bart., was designed and
built in 1896 for a Sicilian nobleman and was purchased later by the
popular baronet and sporting yachtsman. One of the largest vessels of
her time, she was 250 ft. long, and of 1330 tons displacement. The
four-cylinder, carefully-balanced engines, of 2500 horse-power, gave
her a sea speed of 15-1/2 knots. A view of this well-known yacht is
given on Plate XXI., facing page 63.

Much might be written about the decoration of these yachts; but it may
suffice to give illustrations of the dining- and drawing-rooms in the
steam yacht _Beryl_, owned by the Right Hon. Baron Inverclyde. The
saloons are in the Old-English style, and are treated with decorative
freedom, but with strict simplicity. The walls in both cases are
framed in solid figured white Austrian wainscot oak, highly finished
and polished. The drawing-room has silk tapestry panels, relieved with
chaste carving on the window canopies, dado rail and mantelpiece, and
divided with bevelled and carved pilasters, with carved Corinthian
capitals. In the dining-room, on the other hand, there is no tapestry,
the whole being of oak, suitably carved. In the ports there are large
plate-glass windows, fitted with Greenwood springs. In each room there
is a large cupola skylight, which, with its rich stained glass, gives
a fine decorative effect. The drawing-room cupola is fitted with a
brass mushroom ventilator. The ceiling in each case is of yellow pine,
moulded, ribbed, and beamed in the Tudor style, and painted flat white,
picked out with gold.

[Illustration: Plate XXV. THE DRAWING ROOM. THE DINING SALOON.]

[Illustration: THE STEAM YACHT "BERYL," OWNED BY LORD INVERCLYDE.]

The drawing-room has a slow-combustion grate having
brass mounts, with richly-carved oak mantelpiece, marble jambs,
tiled hearth, and fire-brasses and fender. The dining-room has a
steam radiator enclosed in a cabinet with Numidian marble top and
brass-grilled front.

The _Beryl_ is a vessel of 160 ft. in length, with a displacement of
500 tons at slightly less than 12-ft. draught. She steams at 13.3 knots
with the engines indicating 910 horse-power, steam being supplied from
a large single-ended boiler with three furnaces.

As typical of the engines adopted in the yachts built by the Scotts, we
give an illustration on Plate XXVI., facing page 72, of the engines of
the _Grianaig_. In the thirty years that have elapsed since the first
_Greta_ was built, the ratio of horse-power to tonnage has increased
from 1 to 1 to 2 to 1, the steam pressure from 74 lb. to 200 lb.; and
the piston speed from about 300 ft. to 675 ft. per minute. The aim has
been to ensure reliability by a steady- and easy-running engine.

An effective appearance has always been aimed at, and the result has
invariably been a highly-finish design. Yachts' engines are invariably
balanced, whether so specified or not, as the gain in comfort to all on
board, owing to the absence of vibration, is so marked as to more than
compensate for the extra cost involved. Forced lubrication has also
been applied, although the engines may be of the ordinary open type:
the main bearings, crank-pins, cross-heads, eccentrics, valve gear,
pump gear, etc., are all included in the system, which has given every
satisfaction.

The _Grianaig's_ engines developed on trial 740 indicated horse-power
at 148 revolutions per minute, with a boiler pressure of 190 lb.
per square foot, and a condenser vacuum of 26.5 in. Some of the
details, being typical of the practice of the firm in respect of yacht
machinery, are quoted from the specification on the next page.

The arrangement of cylinders is as follows: H.P. 14 in. in diameter,
I.P. 22 in. in diameter, L.P. 35 in. in diameter, Stroke 24 in. The
piston and connecting-rods are of steel; the guide-shoes for the
crossheads are of cast iron, the ahead face having white metal, and
the astern face being left plain. The back columns are of the usual
cast-iron box type, the front columns, being steel, are turned. The
high-pressure cylinder has a piston valve, and the intermediate- and
low-pressure cylinders flat slide-valves. None of the cylinders is
provided with liners. A single-stroke reversing engine is situated
at the back of the main engine, but is operated from the starting
platform. The condenser is of the surface type with a circular
cast-iron shell; the total cooling surface is 1300 square feet.

Steam is supplied to the main engine by one single-ended cylindrical
boiler 13 ft. 9 in. in diameter by 10 ft. long, working at a pressure
of 190 lb. per square inch. There are three furnaces, the mean internal
diameter being 3 ft. 5-3/4 in. and the length 6 ft. 10 in. The grates
are 6 ft. long, giving an aggregate area of 61.5 square feet. The
boiler tubes are 3-1/4 in. in diameter and 6 ft. 10-3/4 in. long, the
total heating surface being 1899 square feet.

[Illustration: decoration]

[Illustration: Plate XXVI. ENGINES OF THE YACHT "GRIANAIG."]

[Illustration: Plate XXVII. DINING SALOON IN A MAIL STEAMER.
(_See page 81._)

DRAWING ROOM IN THE STEAM YACHT "FOROS." (_See page 81._)]




[Illustration: decoration]




The Twentieth Century.

[Illustration: decoration]


Prophecy has its allurements even in the domain of applied mechanics;
and having reviewed progress during the past two centuries in naval
architecture, as embodied in sailing ships, merchant steamers,
warships, and yachts, there is a temptation to speculate on the
prospects of the future. The possibilities of the steam turbine, for
manufacturing which the Scotts are laying down a special plant; the
potentialities of the producer-gas engine as applied to the propulsion
of ships; and even the solution of the problems which stand in the way
of the application of the universally-desired oil turbine, are all
topics which would prove interesting, even although no conclusion could
be arrived at. It is enough, however, to say here, that each is having
careful consideration by the firm.

The historian is not, however, concerned with the future, and the
only justification for the title given above is the intention here
to briefly review the state of marine construction, as represented
at the beginning of this new century by typical vessels built or
being built by the Scotts. It is difficult, where so many ships of
distinctive design and equipment have been constructed, to select a
few representative types. Amongst the countries which have had new
ships in recent years are France, Russia, Italy, Denmark, Holland,
Portugal, Greece, India, the Straits Settlements, China, Australia,
New Zealand, Brazil and other South American Republics, and the United
States of America. This list of foreign _cliéntele_, however, is
being diminished, owing to the influence of subsidies paid by foreign
Governments to shipowners or shipbuilders.

Taking account only of large vessels built during the past fifty years,
there are one hundred and five of Scotts' steamers now trading in China
seas, twenty-six in the Indian Ocean, ten on the North Atlantic, nine
in the South African seas, thirty in South American waters, eighteen in
the Colonial service, and ninety-seven on the European coast; while in
home waters there are many more.

One of the gratifying features in connection with the commercial
relationship of the Scotts, too, is the continuance of confidence over
a long period of years of several of our large steamship companies.
This is, perhaps, the best indication of the satisfactory character
of the work done. The Holt Line have had built for them within forty
years, by the Scotts, forty-eight vessels of 148,353 tons. The China
Navigation Company have had a greater number of ships, namely,
sixty-four, but as the size is smaller the total tonnage is less,
namely, 115,600 tons. An important Continental firm has had twenty-one
vessels; while for a Portuguese Company five large vessels were built,
and for the French Trans-Atlantic Company eleven fast liners. Other
cases might be mentioned, but these suffice.

[Illustration: Plate XXVIII. THE DONALDSON LINER, "CASSANDRA."]

As regards fast steamers, the recent warships built and described in a
previous chapter may be accepted as typical in so far as the problems
of marine engineering are concerned. In each of these cases the design
of the machinery has been prepared by the firm, and the difficulties
were more complicated than in the case of merchant work. Moreover,
it must be remembered, that the maritime predominance of Britain is due
as much to that enormous fleet of moderate-speed intermediate and cargo
ships, which maintain exceptionally long voyages with regularity and
economy, as to the fast ships engaged on comparatively short routes.
Of the nine thousand odd British ships included in _Lloyds' Register_,
less than 2-1/2 per cent. have a speed of over 16 knots: a fact which
in itself proves that economy, rather than speed, is the primary
consideration.[68]

The new Donaldson liner, now being constructed by the firm, may be
accepted as representative of one of the most useful types of steamer
in the British fleet. An illustration of this vessel is given on Plate
XXVIII., facing page 74. While primarily intended for the Atlantic
passenger trade, she is of such moderate dimensions as to suit almost
any service, having a length of 455 ft. between perpendiculars, a
breadth of 53 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 32 ft.; the draught will
not be more than 26 ft. with a displacement of 13,500 tons. While
designed to carry 8000 tons of deadweight cargo in the four holds, the
vessel has accommodation for a large number of passengers, who are
afforded more room than on the larger and faster liners, with the same
luxury and comfort. This latter fact accounts in large measure for the
growing preference of a great proportion of the travelling public for
the intermediate ship.

The machinery has been designed with the view of attaining the
highest economy. For driving the twin screws there are two separate
three-cylinder triple-expansion engines, which are to indicate together
5500 horse-power when running at the moderate piston speed of 680
ft. per minute. The cylinders are respectively 26 in., 42 in., and
70 in. in diameter, the stroke being 48 in. There is a very complete
installation of auxiliary machinery. In all, there are fifty-seven
steam cylinders in the ship, each having its special function.

Steam for all of these is supplied at a pressure of 180 lb. per square
inch, by two double-ended boilers 20 ft. long, and two single-ended
boilers 11 ft. 6 in. long, the diameter in all cases being 15 ft. 9 in.
The total heating surface is about 15,000 square feet, and the grate
area 435 square feet. In the design and construction of the engines
and boilers every consideration has been given to strength in order to
ensure reliability.

In dealing with the development of the steamship we had occasion to
refer to the Holt liners, which inaugurated the first regular steamship
service to the Far East, _viâ_ the Cape of Good Hope. That was in 1865,
and since then a long series of most successful steamships has been
constructed by the Scotts for the China trade of the Ocean Steamship
Company. As representative of the modern ship for this service we take
four vessels just completed, three of them taking the names of the
pioneer ships of the line--the _Achilles_, _Agamemnon_, and _Ajax_,
while the fourth is named _Deucalion_; one of these is illustrated on
Plate XXIX., facing this page.

[Illustration: Plate XXIX. THE HOLT LINER "ACHILLES," OF 1900.]

Throughout the forty years that have elapsed since the first vessels
were built, each successive steamer of the forty-eight built by the
Scotts has marked an increase in size, and an improvement in
economy. In the former respect the advance is not perhaps so striking
as in some other trades; but it must always be remembered that a ship
which is to steam for 12,000 or 13,000 miles without many opportunities
of coaling cannot be of high speed; otherwise the bunker capacity
would be so great as to seriously reduce the available cargo space;
while the running expenses would be so heavy as to materially decrease
the utility of the vessel as an aid to the development of commerce.
There is ever the happy mean, which has here been realised with
characteristic prudence and enterprise.

The forty years' progress in the case of the Holt liners has brought
about an increase of 50 per cent. in the dimensions of the ship, the
later Scotts' vessels being 441 ft. between perpendiculars, 52 ft. 6
in. in breadth, and 35 ft. in depth moulded, with a gross register of
7043 tons. In respect of deadweight capacity, however, there has been
considerable development, due to the adoption of mild steel having
permitted a reduction in the weight of boilers and engines, and in
the scantlings of the hull. The new vessels, with a draught of 26 ft.
6 in., carry 8750 tons of deadweight cargo--two and a-half times the
weight carried by the earliest Holt liners.

In forty years the steam pressure in the Holt liners has increased from
60 lb. to 180 lb.; and the piston speed from 400 ft. to 720 ft. per
minute. The heating surface in the boilers has decreased from 6 square
feet to 3 square feet per unit of power; and the condenser surface from
1.83 square feet to 1.3 square feet per unit of power. On the other
hand, each square foot of grate gives now 14 horse-power, as compared
with 6.6 horse-power formerly.

As a result of increased steam pressures and greater efficiency of
propulsion, it may be taken that, notwithstanding the increase in
dimensions and capacity of the ship, and the consequent advance in
engine power, the coal required for a voyage half way round the world
has been reduced to one half that of 1865.

Another notable feature in the economy of the ship is that twenty-five
derricks have been fitted for dealing rapidly with the cargo, and
one of these has a lifting capacity of 35 tons, to take such heavy
units of cargo as locomotive boilers and tenders. In addition, there
are eighteen steam winches. The reduction in the time spent in port,
because of the facilities thus provided, is another element in the
economy of the modern ship.

The largest oil steamer yet constructed, the _Narragansett_,
was completed by the Scotts in 1903. This vessel, built for the
Anglo-American Oil Company, carries in her sixteen separate
compartments, 10,500 tons of oil, at a speed of 11 knots, for a fuel
consumption of 4.9 lb. of coal per 100 tons of cargo per mile. This
result is deduced from steaming, in ordinary service, over nearly
24,000 miles, and is consequently as reliable as it is interesting.

The _Narragansett_, which is illustrated on Plate XXX., facing this
page, has a length between perpendiculars of 512 ft. and overall of
531 ft.; the beam is 63 ft. 3 in., and the depth, moulded, 42 ft.
The deadweight carrying capacity on a draught of 27 ft. is 12,000
tons. The engines are of the triple-expansion type. Interest in the
machinery is associated principally with that fitted for the pumping
of the oil cargo. There are two pump-rooms, one located conveniently
for the oil in the eight compartments forward of the machinery space;
the other in a corresponding situation for the same number of tanks
abaft the propelling engines. The 10,500 tons of cargo can be loaded or
discharged in less than twelve hours. While primarily for the Atlantic
trade, the vessel was designed to undertake, if required, the much
longer voyage of the Eastern service.

[Illustration: Plate XXX. THE LARGEST OIL-CARRYING STEAMER AFLOAT, THE
"NARRAGANSETT."]

Because of the uniformly good results with ordinary coal, we give the
details as received from the superintending engineer of the owners:--


TABLE VII.--RECORDS OF COAL CONSUMPTION OF STEAMSHIP "NARRAGANSETT."

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
   Voyage No.
           +------------------------------------------------------------
           | Coal, Indicated Horse-Power per Hour.
           |      +-----------------------------------------------------
           |      | Total Coal on Voyage.
           |      |      +----------------------------------------------
           |      |      | Coal for Boilers only.
           |      |      |      +---------------------------------------
           |      |      |      | Sea Miles on Voyage.
           |      |      |      |        +------------------------------
           |      |      |      |        | Cargo Carried.
           |      |      |      |        |        +---------------------
           |      |      |      |        |        | Average Speed.
           |      |      |      |        |        |       +-------------
           |      |      |      |        |        |       | Horse-Power
           |      |      |      |        |        |       |   On Voyage.
  ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
           |  lb. | tons | tons |  miles |  tons  | knots |   I.H.P.
  ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
      15   | 1.60 |  918 |  822 |  3,447 | 10,298 | 10.85 |   3,713
           | 1.58 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,900
      16   | 1.59 |  923 |  834 |  3,403 | 10,289 | 10.80 |   3,951
           | 1.64 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,775
           | 1.63 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,668
      17   | 1.50 |  924 |  836 |  3,469 | 10,499 | 10.40 |   3,949
           | 1.53 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,796
      18   | 1.50 |  847 |  775 |  3,441 | 10,563 | 11.10 |   3,937
           | 1.50 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,720
      19   | 1.44 |  837 |  760 |  3,423 | 10,570 | 10.85 |   3,909
           | 1.43 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,813
      20   | 1.50 |  780 |  707 |  3,312 | 10,641 | 11.50 |   4,107
           | 1.32 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,817
      21   | 1.56 |  846 |  766 |  3,330 | 10,651 | 10.60 |   3,909
           | 1.44 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,870
           | 1.46 |      |      |        |        |       |   3,746
  ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------
  Totals   |      | 6075 | 5500 | 23,825 | 73,511 |       |
  Averages | 1.51 |  868 |  786 |  3,404 | 10,501 | 10.87 |   3,848
  ---------+------+------+------+--------+--------+-------+-------------

The China Navigation Company of London, for whom the Scotts began
building in 1875, have had in the thirty years sixty-four vessels,
which have been an important factor not only in the development of
trade in China, but also in the advancement of British interests in the
Far East.

In an earlier Chapter we referred to the extent of the service
conducted by these vessels, and also to the Company's continuous
progressive spirit, which, for instance, induced them, on the
suggestion of the Scotts, to adopt twin-screws. The launch of one of
these ships is illustrated on Plate XXXI., facing this page, while
the next Plate, XXXII., illustrates the _Fengtien_, which was built in
1905 in an exceptionally short period of time. The contract was made
in the closing week of 1904, the first keel-plate was laid on the 15th
January, 1905, the vessel was launched on the 20th April, and arrived
in Shanghai on the 14th July--less than twenty-six weeks from the
date when the building was commenced. This performance indicates not
only the satisfactory character of the organisation, but also of the
equipment of the shipyard and marine engineering works.

The _Fengtien_ has a length between perpendiculars of 267 ft., a
beam of 40 ft., and a depth, moulded, of 18 ft., with a deck-house
having accommodation for thirty-three European first-class passengers;
while on the top of this house there is, as shown in the engraving, a
promenade for passengers. The accommodation provided for first-class
passengers is exceptionally satisfactory, both in respect of
state-rooms and of public saloons. Fifty-six first-class Chinese
passengers are also carried, as well as seventy steerage native
passengers. In addition to this considerable source of revenue, the
ship carries 1720 tons of deadweight cargo on a draught of 14 ft.

The _Fengtien_ on her trial, when developing 2146 horse-power,
attained a speed of 13-1/4 knots, which was considered highly
satisfactory, in view of the unusual dimensions. The engines are of
the triple-expansion, three-cylinder type, fitted with every accessory
which experience has shown to ensure regularity of working, with the
minimum of expense in respect of upkeep and working cost. Steam at
190-lb. pressure is supplied by two boilers, 15 ft. in diameter and 11
ft. 6 in. long, having 5184 square feet of heating surface, and 121
square feet of grate area.

[Illustration: Plate XXXI. THE LAUNCH OF A CHINA STEAMER.]

[Illustration: Plate XXXII. THE CHINA NAVIGATION COMPANY'S T.-SS.
"FENGTIEN."]

We have referred generally to the passenger accommodation in the ships
built by the firm, and it may be interesting to refer here to the
character of the work done and illustrated on Plate XXVII., facing page
73. The first view shows the dining-room of one of four Portuguese
steamers. This room is designed in the Jacobean style. The walls are
framed and panelled in solid walnut, and all the mouldings, cornices,
architraves, pilasters, columns, pediments, and also the furniture, are
beautifully carved. The floor is laid in mosaic tiles, in geometrical
patterns, with Brussels carpet runners in the passage-ways. The ceiling
is of yellow pine, moulded, ribbed, and broken up with carved panels,
painted a flat white and relieved with gold. The dome skylight is in
teak, with richly-carved beams and mouldings; and glazed with embossed
plate glass, while the side windows are fitted with jalousie blinds,
stout double-line teak shutters, and glass bull's-eyes in brass frames.
The upholstery is in crimson Utrecht velvet, and seating accommodation
is provided for sixty-eight saloon passengers.

The other view on Plate XXVII. illustrates the drawing-room of the
steam yacht _Foros_, built for M. Kousenzoff, of Moscow. It is in the
Elizabethan style. The walls are framed in solid East Indian satinwood,
highly finished and French polished, with figured silk tapestry panels
of a shade that harmonises and blends with the wood-work. Neat and
delicate carving in low relief is introduced where most effective. The
ceiling, of yellow pine, has square panels of Tynecastle tapestry,
relieved with rich carving in cornices and beams. The room is lighted
and ventilated by eight large round lights in the ship's side, each
enclosed in a recess with a sliding screen of beautifully-stained and
leaded glass. The large circular skylight in the centre of the room,
finished to suit the ceiling, has large opening sashes, glazed with
stained glass. The floor is laid with oak parquetry, with a Parisian
mat in the centre. The room is heated by a slow-combustion grate
with rich brass mounts, tiled hearth, fire-brasses and fender. The
mantelpiece and overmantel, in satinwood, is a beautiful piece of
work--carved and relieved with colonnades and pilasters. This room is
fitted with a complete installation of electric bells and lights, with
two graceful electric candelabra, one on each side of the fireplace.
The stained glazing is illumined at nights by electric lights on the
outside. The drawing-room is completely and artistically furnished with
high mirrors, fitments, writing-tables, card and occasional tables, and
with a variety of beautifully upholstered chairs and sofas. All the
metal-work is of ormolu.

The British India Steam Navigation Company is another of the old
clients of the Scotts. This Company, originally formed in 1856, under
the title of the Calcutta and Burmah Steam Navigation Company, which
was changed in 1862 to the title now known in all maritime countries,
had its first steamship built by the Scotts, and it is therefore
interesting to illustrate the one recently built at the same Works--the
_Bharata_. This vessel is of the intermediate type, carrying a large
number of British and native passengers, and nearly 4000 tons of cargo.
The length between perpendiculars is 373 ft., the beam 45 ft., and the
depth, moulded, 29 ft. 6 in. The cargo carried on a draught of 24 ft.
is 3940 tons, and this is handled by eight hydraulic cranes, some of
them of high power. The passenger accommodation, in the centre part of
the ship, includes state rooms and saloons for forty-two first-class
and thirty-six second-class European travellers, while in the 'tween
decks a large number of native passengers are accommodated.

The machinery of the _Bharata_ gives a speed of 16 knots, when the
displacement is 5560 tons. The engines are of the triple-expansion
type, and develop 6000 indicated horse-power. Five single-ended boilers
supply steam at 180 lb. pressure. This vessel in service carries her
cargo of about 4000 tons and her passengers at a speed of 16 knots, for
a consumption of ordinary coal of about 50 tons per day.

[Illustration: Plate XXXIII. THE BRITISH INDIA COMPANY'S STEAMSHIP
"BHARATA."]

In our historical Chapters it has been clearly shown that the Scotts
took a prominent part in the evolution of Channel steamers, and
reference may be made to the latest vessels of this class now being
built at the Company's works--two steamers for the old and successful
firm of G. and J. Burns, Limited. These vessels, the dimensions of
which are:--Length 233 ft., breadth 33 ft., depth 24 ft., are to have
a speed of 13 knots. They are to be employed on the service between
Glasgow and Manchester, and are fitted for steerage passengers, and
also for conveying cattle, horses and sheep. The machinery consists of
three-cylinder triple-expansion engines of 1750 indicated horse-power,
having cylinders 23 in., 36 in., and 58 in. in diameter respectively,
with a stroke of 42 in. The boilers, of which there are two in each
ship, are 14 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. 6 in. in length, with a heating
surface of 4000 square feet, and a grate area of 120 square feet. They
work under natural draught at a pressure of 175 lb. per square inch.

We might continue almost indefinitely describing different types of
ships, but will content ourselves with a reference to the fleet of
Thames passenger steamers built in 1905 for the London County Council.
Of the thirty vessels constructed for the Council, twenty had their
boilers and engines from the Scotts' Works. Ten of the steamers, in
which this machinery was fitted, were built on the Clyde by Messrs.
Napier and Miller; six at Southampton, by Messrs. John I. Thornycroft
and Company; and four at Greenwich, by Messrs. G. Rennie and Company.
These vessels are 130 ft. long, and of very light draught--2 ft. 10 in.
when loaded. An idea of their proportions is given by the engraving on
Plate XXXIV., facing this page, showing one of the Clyde-built vessels
ready to steam from Greenock to London.

The engines for all of these vessels are of the compound, diagonal,
surface-condensing type, the two cylinders being 16 in. and 31 in. in
diameter, with a stroke of 3 ft.

One set of engines is illustrated on Plate XXXV., adjoining page 85.
They have forged steel guide columns, to bind the cylinders to the
three entablature frames. The crank-shaft is a solid steel forging,
6-5/8 in. in diameter, coupled to the steel paddle-shafts by flexible
couplings. The surface-condenser, cylindrical in form and constructed
of light brass sheets, is placed below the guide bars close to the
cylinders. The water-ends are of cast brass, arranged for double
circulation of the water. The air-pump, of the trunk type, is driven by
bell-crank levers off the low-pressure connecting-rod. Two independent
feed-pumps are driven off the same crosshead.

The auxiliary machinery includes a circulating pump with auxiliary
air-pump attached, a direct-acting feed and bilge pump, a fan and
engine for the forced draught, and an electric engine and dynamo.

Each steamer has one cylindrical steam boiler, 9 ft. in diameter by 9
ft. 3 in. long. The working steam pressure is 110 lb. The boilers are
also illustrated on Plate XXXV. The twenty sets of engines and boilers
were completed in a remarkably short space of time.

These steamers were designed for a service speed of 12 statute miles
per hour, and a trial speed of 13 miles per hour, or 11.285 knots.
The best trial performances were attained by the _FitzAilwin_ and the
_Turner_, both built on the Clyde; they attained a speed of 14.1 miles
per hour, or 12-1/4 knots, with the engines making 69.8 revolutions per
minute, and indicating 360 horse-power. This is nearly 1 sea mile per
hour more than was required by the contract.

[Illustration: Plate XXXIV. ONE OF TWENTY THAMES STEAMERS ENGINED BY THE
SCOTTS.]

[Illustration: Plate XXXV. ENGINES OF LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL STEAMERS.]

[Illustration: BOILERS FOR LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL STEAMERS.]


We illustrate on Plate XXXVI., facing page 86, a typical set of
triple-expansion engines. The practice in respect of the design of
engines and boilers is necessarily very varied. From the designs for
a small steam launch to those for a first-class cruiser or battleship
there is a wide range, and all classes of work, with not a few of
special interest, come between those extremes. In connection with the
three-crank triple-expansion engine, now generally adopted for merchant
work, an arrangement well favoured for sizes up to about 1000 indicated
horse-power is that in which the high-pressure cylinder is in the
centre with a piston valve, the intermediate-pressure cylinder being
forward, and the low-pressure cylinder aft, each with a slide valve
at the extreme ends. This has been found to give a handy arrangement
of gear, and to be easily accessible. With twin-screw engines of this
power it is customary, and has been found very convenient, to lead all
the hand-gear for both engines to a pedestal placed midway between the
engines and ahead of the forward cylinders.

A description of the types of engines built by the Scotts for the China
Navigation Company during the past thirty years would be practically
a history of the progress of marine engineering during that period.
The customary sequence of cylinders has in the main been adhered to
in the design of these engines--viz., high-pressure cylinder forward
and low-pressure cylinder aft in the case of compound engines: the
intermediate-pressure cylinder, in the case of triple-expansion
machinery, is placed between the high- and low-pressure cylinders.
Indeed, this latter is the arrangement invariably adopted by the firm
in the design of all large-size ordinary cargo steamer engines. The
valve gear is forward of its cylinder in each case. This has also been
the design adopted in the case of recent high-class passenger and mail
steamers with three cylinders, and in the case also of steamers for
special trades. Twin-screw engines present little deviation from the
above, and such as there is mainly affects pipe connections.

All engines of whatever type up to about 1000 indicated horse-power
are usually arranged with forged columns in front. The condenser is
ordinarily designed to form part of the engine structure, having the
columns cast on, and supporting the cylinders; but not infrequently it
is entirely separate from the main engines, and is carried either on
the back of the columns, or fitted in the wing of the ship.

Of engines for the Navy nothing need be said beyond stating that they
form quite a class by themselves, and all present the special features
of design so characteristic of Admiralty work referred to in an earlier
Chapter. The latest types of large-size engines for the Admiralty are
being fitted with a system of forced lubrication to main bearings and
crank-pins.

The Scotts' practice with respect to paddle engines has been no less
varied than that in the case of screw machinery, ranging as it does
from the ponderous side-lever engine of past years to the stern-wheel
engine of the shallow-draught steamers of the present day. Oscillating
and diagonal engines, both compound and triple-expansion, are also
within the experience of the Company, the three-stage expansion being
the type now usually adopted.

With respect to auxiliary machinery, the Scotts invariably fit a
separate centrifugal pump for circulating the water through the
condenser for all classes of engines, excepting only those for the
ordinary tramp steamer. The air, bilge, and sanitary pumps are usually
worked from the main engine by levers. The feed pumps are generally
independent. Frequently, especially in yachts, all the pumps are
entirely independent of the main engines. The Scotts in some cases
make all auxiliary machinery for their own engines: such as centrifugal
pumps, fans, feed-heaters, auxiliary condensers, duplex feed and
ballast pumps, etc.

[Illustration: Plate XXXVI. TYPICAL PROPELLING ENGINES.]

Many varieties and types of boilers have been made. The old practice
of having two or three rings in the length of the shell in ordinary
cylindrical boilers has long since given place to one plate in the
length. The boiler ends are seldom made in more than two plates; up
to diameters of 11 ft. only one plate is used. The number of riveted
seams is thereby reduced to a minimum, and the liability of the boiler
to leak is minimised. The Scotts also have a system of forced draught
for supplying either cold or heated air to the furnaces, which is
fitted largely to their ships, and gives every satisfaction. Large
installations of Belleville and Yarrow water-tube boilers for working
under forced draught have also been made and fitted in H.M. ships, but
they need no description here. A large installation for burning oil
fuel has recently been completed and applied by the firm to the Babcock
and Wilcox water-tube, and the cylindrical, boilers of H.M.S. _Argyll_.

FOOTNOTES:

[68] From _Lloyds' Register_ we classify, according to speed, the
numbers of British and Foreign, and of Oversea and Channel, Steamers,
of over 16 knots.

  ---------------------+----------+----------++----------+----------
          Speed.       | British. | Foreign. || Oversea. | Channel.
  ---------------------+----------+----------++----------+----------
  Over 20 knots        |    42    |    26    ||    17    |    51
       19 to 20 knots  |    23    |    11    ||     7    |    27
       18  " 19   "    |    38    |    14    ||    15    |    37
       17  " 18   "    |    53    |    49    ||    67    |    35
       16  " 17   "    |    70    |    56    ||    77    |    49
                       +----------+----------++----------+----------
                       |   226    |   156    ||   183    |   199
  ---------------------+----------+----------++----------+----------




[Illustration: decoration]




Efficiency: Design: Administration.

[Illustration: decoration]


Having reviewed the history of the firm, and dealt briefly with the
results obtained by some of the modern steamers constructed by them,
we propose now to describe the Works in order to indicate the measures
adopted to secure efficiency in design and construction of all types of
ships and machinery. Organisation and administration are as important
factors towards this end as the mechanical methods and appliances
adopted, and it may be well, therefore, to deal first with these.

The firm have been responsible for the design of almost every merchant
ship constructed by them. Success has been rendered more certain
by the possession of carefully-collated records, the product of an
organised system of working up all data, of tackling new problems, of
making calculations regarding any scientific question, and of studying
contemporaneous work as described in the technical press and in papers
read at technical institutions. This continuous investigation produces
a wealth of suggestion, which enables the chiefs of the respective
departments to determine how far practice may be improved; and thus
there is steady progress not only in design but in constructional
methods. A well-selected technical library, from which the staff can
borrow books, also contributes to the same end.

[Illustration: Plate XXXVII. SHIPBUILDING. (_See page 100._)]

Admiralty and merchant work is initiated in separate drawing-offices.
The "Printed Instructions to Draughtsmen" throws light on the general
principles which influence design, and one or two quotations may be
made:--"Every machine or structure is designed with a certain object in
view; therefore, in designing, keep that object always to the front. Go
straight to the point, and let the object be attained in as simple a
manner as possible. Avoid all curves and indirect lines, except those
conceived to give uniform strength or stiffness, or required for some
definite purpose. There should be a reason for the contour and shape
of every detail. It should be remembered that designs made in this
way, requiring least material for the work to be done, usually look
best. Besides keeping the object clearly to the front, it is necessary
in designing to remember that certain facilities must be attended
to for moulding, machining, and erecting. It is also necessary to
keep in view the circumstances in which the structure or machine is
to be used. Every little detail should be definitely attended to on
the drawings, and not left to the judgment of the men in the shops;
remember that it is usually the unexpected which happens, and that
even the want of a split pin may cause a breakdown. In making drawings
or sketches for ordering material or for the shops, assume that those
who have to interpret the instructions have no knowledge of, or
information concerning, the work in question, except what is contained
in the drawing or order you are making out. This will ensure that all
information issuing from the drawing-office is complete, and that no
work is done in the shops without drawing-office instructions."

The draughtsman, in designing work, must so arrange details as to fully
utilise, as far as is compatible with progress, the special machine
tools available, the system of gauges, templates, and jigs extensively
applied in the shops, and existing patterns. Bonuses are paid for
improvements in design whereby economy may be effected in machine
operations, etc.

There is a large estimating department, where records of costs, rates,
wages, etc., are of the most complete description. The card system
adopted is admirably suited for enabling references to be made at any
time as to the cost of units in any contract. Here also it is possible,
by the simple process of comparison, to effectually check the economy
of design and manufacture, without which a high premium is placed
against efficiency.

The staff in these departments is largely recruited from the shops,
and thus there is an incentive to the willing apprentice to excel. The
great majority of the vacancies in the technical staff are filled by
apprentices who have spent three and a-half years in the shops, and who
are chosen as a result of examination and of a satisfactory record in
the shops. Financial facilities are afforded to boys and to progressive
workmen to attend special classes, not only in Greenock but in Glasgow.
Competitions are instituted at intervals to encourage expertness in
some branch of work--for instance, in the use of the slide-rule,
etc. Thus in many ways the growth of an active _esprit de corps_ is
encouraged, apart altogether from the influence which the historical
and present-day success of the firm engenders.

The same broad policy is pursued in the shops. Payment by merit to the
tradesman is adopted as far as possible. In the engine works the bonus
system--first adopted in 1902--is extensively applied. The arrangement
is satisfactory from the point of view of tradesman, employer, and
client.

[Illustration: Plate XXXVIII. THE LAUNCH OF H.M.S. "ARGYLL."
(_See page_ 101.)]

Long experience has enabled the firm to set equitable standard times
for many operations, and there was from the beginning the guarantee
that this standard would not be altered unless entirely new machines
were introduced to greatly influence the rate of production. Now if a
workman requires the full time, or more than the time set as a standard
for a job, he is still paid his full-time wage as under the old
conditions: but should he complete the work in less than the standard
time, his rate of wage per hour is increased in direct proportion to
the saving in time; the shorter the time taken, the greater the rate
of bonus. The bonuses earned range as a rule from 20 to 30 per cent.
over the time-rate wage. To quote actual cases, a workman who saves 26
hours on a job for which the standard time is 134 hours, increases his
wage for the fortnight by 14s., while the money saved to the employer
is only 2s. 9d. He who saves 30 per cent. on the time adds 21s. to his
fortnight's wage.

Such reduction in the time taken is not attained at the expense of
efficiency; the premium job is carefully inspected, and unless it is
of the highest standard the bonus is forfeited; so that the workman is
continuously careful to avoid any risk which will result in the loss
of the reward for his extra work. The reduction in time taken is, in
a large measure, due to the exercise of foresight and ingenuity on
the part of the workman. He is ever on the alert to ensure that he
will not be kept waiting for material to enable work to progress. The
machine-man makes certain that before one unit is out of his machine
the casting, forging, or bar for the next is alongside. This is further
facilitated by a man in each shop whose only duty is to see that there
is a supply of work for every tool. Encouragement is always accorded
to those who suggest modifications to increase the output from any
machine. Again, in the erecting of engines, considerable economy has
been attained, owing to similar foresight being exercised to ensure
that each unit is machined before it is wanted by the erector.

To the employer also there is gain in the increased production, from
a given number of machines and men, for a constant establishment
expenditure--rent, rates, taxes, etc. While the wage paid to the men
is increased, there is a reduction in the cost of production, which
of itself encourages capital expenditure on improved methods and
appliances. Concurrently with the adoption of the bonus system there
has been a great increase in the cutting speed of tools, which has also
augmented the rate of production. This "speeding-up" is partly due
to the fitting of new machines, to the substitution of forged steel
machine-cut gear for cast spur-wheels, to the strengthening of lathe
headstocks, to wider belts, to the application of reversible motors to
some machines, and to quicker return speeds.

Some indication may be given of the increased economy resulting from
the bonus system and from the "speeding-up" of tools, as compared with
the former system, with slower speeds and piece-work rates. A typical
job, which had formerly occupied eighty hours, was, after experience,
given a standard time of sixty hours. When first carried out under the
bonus system the time actually taken was forty-five hours, the labour
cost being reduced from £2 13s. 4d. at piece-work rate to £1 17s. 6d.
under the bonus system, while the wage of the worker was increased by
2d. per hour. Subsequently, a repeat of this job was machined by the
same man, who, having confidence that the time allowed would not be
reduced, finished the work in thirty-nine hours, saving twenty-one
hours on the standard time, reducing the cost to £1 15s. 0d., and
increasing his rate of pay by 2.8d. per hour. Other comparisons might
be given to show the advantage over the piece-work. In successive
fortnights after the introduction of the system, the percentage of
time saved on the time taken on piece-work in one department steadily
advanced from 16 per cent. to 47 per cent., and ultimately the pay
of the men per hour was increased 75 per cent., while the saving to the
employer was 50 per cent.

[Illustration: Plate XXXIX. ENGINE CONSTRUCTION. (_See page_ 108.)]

The client profits, as the contract price is reduced without any
diminution in the satisfactory character of the work done; indeed it
is probable that this is improved because of the special inspection
to ascertain if the bonus has been conscientiously earned. A lower
contract price, therefore, is possible; and this places the firm,
both directly and indirectly, in a better position in competition in
shipbuilding. There is more work obtainable, more constant employment
for the workmen, with the additional inducement of higher wages to
capable and diligent men.

[Illustration: decoration]




[Illustration: decoration]




The Shipbuilding Yard.

[Illustration: decoration]


Covering an area of 40 acres, the Works have ten berths for the
construction of ships of all sizes, with departments for producing all
the accessories and machinery--engine and boiler works, steam-turbine
factory, foundries, brass, copper, and sheet-iron shops, saw-mill
and extensive wood-working department--and these give employment to
four thousand workmen. The equipment has been greatly extended and
modernised during the past few years. The building of the China Steam
Navigation Company's steamer _Fengtien_ in nineteen weeks, from the
laying of the keel to the trials, is one of several instances of rapid
construction which might be enumerated.

The plans of ships prepared in the designing department and drawing
offices, to which reference has been made in the previous Chapter,
are passed to the moulding loft, where the work of construction is
commenced. This loft is situated in a substantial four-storey building,
accommodating practically all the wood-finishing departments. Each
floor has an area of 12,500 square feet; the ground and first floors
are given up to the joiners and cabinet-makers, with their numerous
machine tools, while the top floor is at present utilised for storing
completed joiner work, etc. The moulding loft monopolises the
third floor, and as the length is 240 ft. and the width 52 ft., there
is ample space, as is shown on the engraving in Plate XL., facing page
94, for laying down full size deck-plating, stringers, margin plates,
deck girders, etc., so that moulds or templates may be prepared for the
iron workers. Armour-plates for warship belts, barbettes, and casemates
are similarly prepared in template, to assist the makers to form them
to the required curvature and size.

[Illustration: Plate XL. THE MOULDING LOFT.]

[Illustration: Plate XLI. BEAM SHEARING MACHINE. BEVELLING MACHINE.
HYDRAULIC JOGGLING MACHINE.]

The ironworkers' department is extensive and important. When the
material is delivered into the yard, it is discharged from the railway
wagons by a 5-ton electric overhead travelling high-speed crane, which
stacks the plates and bars in such a way that any piece can be readily
removed by the same crane for conveyance to the furnaces.

There are six furnaces suitable for heating shell plates of the largest
size, and angles and bars for frames, etc., up to 60 ft. in length.
Adjacent to the furnaces are the screeve boards and the frame-bending
blocks. The channel, bulb angle, or Z bars, used so extensively now for
framing in large ships, are bevelled as they pass from the furnace to
the bending blocks. This is done in a special machine made by Messrs.
Davis and Primrose, Leith, and illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining
this page. The bars, as delivered from the rolling mills, have flanges
at an angle of 90 deg., which is not suitable for taking the skin
plating of ships. One angle has therefore to be altered, so that while
the inner flange may lie at right angles to the keel-plate, that to the
outside will fit closely to the shell plating throughout the entire
length of the frame from keel to shear stroke, which may be 50 ft. or
60 ft.

As the bar passes through the machine, the web is carried on an
ordinary flat roller, while bevelling rolls, set to the desired angle,
work on each side of one of the flanges to give it the desired set.
There are several of these machines in use, and they run on rails laid
across the front of the furnace, so that the angles, Z sections, or
channels may be bevelled while passing out of the furnace on to the
bending blocks. The manipulation of the plates from the furnace is by
means of steam and electric winches.

Formerly, the turning of the frames to the required curvature against
the pins on the bending blocks was carried out by hand. To suit the
heavier scantlings of the larger ships of the present day, a portable
hydraulic machine is now utilised. It is fixed at its base by pins,
which fit into the ordinary holes in the blocks, and hydraulic pressure
is supplied through a flexible pipe to work the ram-head against the
angles, forcing them to take the desired form. The machine is a great
labour economiser, as it ensures work on the heaviest of bulb angles
being carried out in the minimum of time, and therefore at top heat.

The bars are usually cut to length by a guillotine, but it was
considered that this tended to twist the metal, and perhaps unduly
fatigue it; and as a consequence the firm have fitted John's shearing
and notching machine, as constructed by Messrs. Henry Pels and Co.,
of Berlin. This new machine is illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining
page 95. The tool is shown in the act of cutting through a channel
section. The cutting tool is seen immediately in front of the operator,
and is actuated by gearing accommodated within the standards of the
machine. When the cutting tool is brought down on the angle or beam
to be sheared, and the shaft at the rear started, the rotation of
an eccentric actuated by the shaft causes the point of the tool to
slide idly a short distance to-and-fro on the bar. The hand lever on
the right hand side of the machine is depressed, forcing the tool
downwards, and the continued rotation of the eccentric causes the tool
to pierce through the bar with a downward and inward motion. Where
there is a deep web with flanges, the beam is reversed on the anvil,
to enable the other flange to be cut. The cutting of any bar in this
machine is a matter of only a few seconds.

[Illustration: Plate XLII. IN ONE OF THE PLATERS' SHEDS.]

Of the platers' shed, where the plates, angles, bulbs, bars, etc., are
machined, two views are given on Plates XLII. and XLIII., facing pages
96 and 98 respectively. It may be said generally that the machines are
designed to deal with plates up to 50 ft. in length, and with angles
up to 60 ft. in length, and of corresponding sections. It follows that
the straightening and bending rolls, edge-planers, and punching and
shearing machines, are of great power. It is scarcely necessary to make
detailed references to all of the tools for these and other purposes.

All the tools are electrically driven. The plate-flattening rolls,
which have 15 and 20 horse-power reversible motors, take plates 8 ft.
wide, and the rolls are from 21-1/2 in. to 19 in. in diameter. The
bending rolls are driven by a 20 horse-power motor. The plate-edge
planers, shown to the left in the view, Plate XLII., facing page 96,
are operated by 16 horse-power motors, and the plate is held on the
table by means of hydraulic rams as well as screw-jacks. For drilling
and countersinking plates there are several modern tools, each actuated
by an independent electric motor. One of these is a three-standard
drill, to deal with plates of the largest size. The spindles have a
rise and fall of 10 in., and are fitted with self-acting, as well as
hand, feed, and with the usual rack arrangement for the traverse of
the head. Several radial countersinking machines, with 11-ft. jibs and
spindles 2-1/2 in. in diameter, are driven by 10 horse-power motors.
There are many heavy punching and shearing machines, nearly all of them
having 42-in. gaps, so that they can punch holes at any part of the
widest plates. As a rule, they are arranged to punch 1-1/2-in. holes
through 1-1/2-in. plates at the rate of thirty holes per minute. The
shears are of corresponding power.

For dealing with angles and bars there are several interesting tools,
in addition to shears and punches. Some of the shears cut 8-in. by
4-in. angles, and are driven by 10 horse-power motors. There are
channel-angle shearing machines, taking work 16 in. by 6 in., and
operated by hydraulic pressure. These machines are made with revolving
gear to suit almost any angle of flange.

There is also an hydraulic stamping press for bending angles and tees
to form knee-bars and other stiffening pieces, the cylinders being 14
in. in diameter, working at a pressure of 800 lb. per square inch,
with a stroke of 18 in. The machine, which has been constructed by Sir
William Arrol and Company, Limited, consists of an hydraulic cylinder
mounted horizontally on a massive table. On the ram-head there are
former blocks, while on the table in front there are corresponding
dies. The bar is placed on the table between the blocks and dies, and
as these are forced together by hydraulic pressure, the bar between
them is squeezed into the exact shape required. Not only is the
operation expeditiously executed, but there is no uncertainty. The
whole of the metal within the bar is retained inside the knee, which
becomes thicker and broader, materially adding to its strength. As
the moulds or dies can be made to suit any form, the machine can be
utilised in the preparation of various details of structures, provided
they are designed with a view to their production by aid of dies.
The great economy resulting from the use of special machines is only
realised when the designing staff remember that they must be kept
employed.

A specially powerful tool is provided for bending channel irons
and beams, and for drilling horizontal holes in them. Hydraulic
manhole-punching and flanging machines are employed, each having a ram
of 27 in. in diameter, and capable of punching a hole 42 in. by 16 in.
through a plate 3/4 in. thick. There are provided dies for forming
flanges 4 ft. 6 in. deep in the widest of plates.

[Illustration: Plate XLIII. PUNCHING AND SHEARING.]

The modern practice of joggling and of scarfing the laps and edges of
plates is applied in many instances, and special hydraulic tools are
provided to carry out this work. The firm were also early in adopting
the practice of joggling frames, deck beams, etc. The frames and beams
are joggled when cold, to suit each alternate inner strake of plating,
in a special design of hydraulic press, of which there are several in
the works. This tool, illustrated on Plate XLI., adjoining page 95,
carries dies on the ram-head and on the anvil, to form between them
the obverse and reverse sides of the dent or joggle desired. Movable
centre-pieces on the ram-head and anvil are traversed in all directions
by screw thread to suit the position and width of the joggled part, and
a gauge shows variations of 0.1 in. in the position of the joggled part
of the frame. A 2 ft. length of angle can be joggled at each stroke.
The machines are by Messrs. Hugh Smith and Co., Limited, Glasgow.

The same machine joggles the lap or edge of a shell, inner bottom, or
deckplate in a similar way. The whole length of the frame or plate can
thus be worked in a very short time. A powerful jib crane, of 16 ft.
radius, assists materially in the rapidity of the work turned out by
these tools. The only slips required are at the ends of the vessel,
where the bevel of the frames precludes the use of joggling. A special
electrically-driven hammer is used for forming these taper slips.

The angles, etc., to form the frames are assembled at the head of the
building-berth, and when lying on skids are riveted to form the double
bottom, frames and margin plates. Hydraulic riveters are used wherever
possible. There are about a score of these at work in the shipbuilding
yard, with cylinders from 8 in. to 10-1/2 in. in diameter, a stroke of
7-1/2 in., and a gap of 55 in., so that heavy work can be done. Some of
them are specially designed for keel work, for closing rivets in beams,
and for difficult parts.

The frames thus riveted are conveyed down the berth by a simple and
ingenious cableway, known in the Works as the "switchback," from its
resemblance to the well-known amusement railway. A derrick-post stands
at the head of the berth adjacent to the skids on which the frames are
riveted. The cable stretches from a small derrick at the foot of the
shipbuilding berth over a pulley at the top of the large derrick-post,
and thence, through a similar block at its base, to an electric winch.
The frame or unit of the ship's structure is suspended on a running
block on the cable, which is then made taut, partly by the working
of the winch and partly by the large derrick post being inclined
backwards. The running block with its load travels down the taut cable
by gravity, under the guidance of the squad of fitters. The gradient of
the cableway is only sufficient to enable the load to move slowly to
its position in the shipbuilding berth.

The double-bottom frames and margin plates are united with the
keel-plate, and subsequently there are successively worked into the
structure the tank top plates, side frames, the skin plates, beams,
bulk-heads, and other units, portable hydraulic punches and riveters
being largely used. Pneumatic tools are also extensively employed for
boring, drilling, riveting, chipping, caulking, etc. There are from 130
to 140 of these tools in use on vessels in course of construction.

There are ten building berths ranging in length up to 700 ft.; but
slight alterations would enable the firm to build vessels of still
greater size. Several of these are shown on the engraving on Plate
XXXVII., facing page 88. The launching ground is probably the finest
in the river, the channel being here of great depth and very wide, as
is shown on the engraving opposite. Indeed, ordinary merchant vessels
with full lines are launched without any check chains; the fine-ended
ships--mail steamers and cruisers--are, as a precautionary measure,
checked by drags in the usual way. The engraving on Plate
XXXVIII., facing page 90, shows the launch of H.M.S. _Argyll_.

[Illustration: Plate XLIV. THE FITTING-OUT DOCK.]

[Illustration: Plate XLV. THE GRAVING DOCK.]

The ships launched are completed in the fitting-out dock, constructed
about two years ago, and illustrated on Plate XLIV. The engraving shows
H.M.S. _Argyll_ under the big jib-crane. This dock has a length of 560
ft. and a width of 172 ft., and opens directly into the channel of the
Clyde. The depth of water is never less than 28 ft., so that warships
are afloat at all states of the tide. A prominent feature in the view
is the crane, which was supplied by Messrs. George Russell and Co.,
Limited, of Motherwell, and lifts 120 tons at a radius of 70 ft. It is
carried on concrete foundations and piers, which rise 20 ft. above the
level of the quay. In addition to the pier for carrying the mast of the
crane, there are similar supports for each of the back legs through
which the crane is anchored.

One advantage of the derrick type is that the crane may be placed close
to the edge of the quay; in this case the centre is only 7 ft. from the
front of the wharf, so that the full load of 120 tons can be dealt with
at an effective outreach of 63 ft. from the quay. The maximum radius
of the heavy purchase with a load of over 60 tons is 90 ft., and of
the light purchase gear, with a load of 10 tons, 98 ft. The minimum
radius of the crane is 25 ft. There are four sets of gear: for lifting
heavy loads, for raising light weights, for derricking the jib, and
for slewing; a separate controller of the enclosed tramway type is
provided for each. The main hoisting and derricking motors are of 50
horse-power, and the others of 35 horse-power. The speed of hoisting
120 tons is 5 ft. per minute, while a 10-ton load is raised at the
rate of 40 ft. per minute. Automatic brakes are fitted for the slewing
motion, and powerful hand-brakes for the hoisting and derricking gears.
All motions are controlled by one man in the steelhouse fixed to the
mast of the crane 56 ft. above the quay level.

There is on the opposite wharf of the dock a 20-ton travelling electric
crane, and throughout the Works there are many portable and hydraulic
cranes, in addition to the hydraulic and other cranes commanding the
machine tools.

Reference may here be made to the Company's graving dock, illustrated
on Plate XLV., adjoining page 101. The length is 360 ft., and it is
largely used for docking ships for repair, as well as for cleaning
ships preparatory to trial. Our view shows a torpedo-boat destroyer
in the dock. The pumps for the emptying of the dock are electrically
driven.

We may return now to our narrative of the construction of a ship, and
deal with the supplementary departments, including those of joiners,
smiths, plumbers, sheet-iron, and other workers.

Wood-work forms a large and important item in most of Scotts' ships, as
many of them are for passenger service. We illustrate on Plate XLVI.
one of the saw-mills. It is self-contained, having its own power plant,
including a compound engine, having cylinders 15-1/4 in. and 27-1/2 in.
in diameter by 44-in. stroke. There are four vertical saw frames, the
largest having a 36-in. frame, six rollers, and two bogies to take in
the heaviest logs. In addition, there are circular saws, ranging up to
6 ft. in diameter, a swing cross-cut saw, special planing, moulding,
and turning machines to do heavy work, and saw-sharpeners, grindstones,
punching machines and anvils to carry out all repairs and fettling
of the blades, etc. There are also large steam-heated drying stoves,
and a timber-drying yard of about three acres in extent. The overhead
travelling cranes range up to 5 tons capacity, and the rails on which
they run are extended on columns across the yard. The saw-mill is the
largest and best-equipped in the district, and does the sawing and
planing of timber for three of the largest shipbuilding yards, as
well as the general work for two other firms.

[Illustration: Plate XLVI. THE SAW MILL.]

[Illustration: Plate XLVII. TWO VIEWS IN THE JOINER SHOPS.]

The joiners' and cabinet-makers' shop, as we have already indicated,
occupies two floors of a building 240 ft. long and 52 ft. wide; while
the fourth floor is utilised for the French polishing work, as well
as for storing the completed wood-work until the vessel is ready
to receive it. Provision is also made in the same building for the
model-making department, in which replicas of nearly all ships are
produced, and, being works of art, because of their completeness,
accuracy, and beauty, have earned high awards at many Exhibitions.

In the joiners' shops, illustrated by two engravings on Plate XLVII.,
adjoining this page, there is a complete equipment of wood-working
machines for sawing, turning, planing, moulding, sand-papering,
mortising, boring, tenoning, dovetailing, dowelling and joining.
These are electrically driven, and are grouped at three places in the
length of the shop on each floor, with benches around them, so that
the joiners do not require to carry their jobs any distance in order
to have them machined. There is also in use in connection with the
department a portable electric circular saw, which is specially useful
for carpenters and joiners, etc., on board the ship in the dock. An
electric deck-planer, of the lawnmower form, has proved serviceable in
reducing enormously the most laborious task experienced by carpenters
and joiners.

There are two large smithies convenient to the shipbuilding berths,
and in both cases the finishing department adjoins. In one case there
are fifty-four fires and eight hammers; in the other, forty fires,
with five hammers, ranging up to 15 cwt. The fires are operated by
mechanical blowers, and the smoke and waste gases are carried off
by overhead ventilating pipes. Extensive work is carried out by the
smiths. Die-stamping is largely adopted in connection with the making
of eye-plates, cleats, stanchions, clips, etc. In each finishing shop
there are band saws, radial and other drills, screwing machines, and
grindstones. Smiths' stores are arranged above the finishing shops.

The plumbers' shop is fitted with a special machine for bending pipes
when cold, as well as screwing and tapping machines, drills, saws,
grinders, and fires.

The sheet-iron department is equally well equipped, having
straightening rolls, shearing, punching, chipping, drilling, and other
tools, with various hammers; and here work is done in connection with
ventilating and other light ironwork.

In view of the warship contracts undertaken, the mechanics' shop, for
work peculiar to the ship as distinct from the propeller machinery,
etc., is extensive. The four lathes here range up to 27 ft. in length
over all, with a 14-in. headstock and a 22-ft. bed. There is a useful
shaping machine, a fair-sized planer, and several drills, all adequate
for the work required, which is remarkable more, perhaps, for its great
variety than for size.

All the machinery in the yard, and in several departments in the engine
and boiler works, is run from one central station, of which two views
are given on Plate XLVIII., opposite. The electric generators occupy
one side of the power station, and the air compressors and hydraulic
pumps the other. Steam at 200 lb. pressure is supplied by one marine
cylindrical, and four Babcock and Wilcox water-tube, boilers, with
superheater, coal conveyors, and mechanical stokers.

[Illustration: Plate XLVIII. ELECTRIC GENERATORS IN THE POWER STATION.
HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND AIR COMPRESSORS IN THE POWER STATION.]

There are three electric generating sets, with a total capacity of
1200 kilowatts, the voltage being 240. They are illustrated on Plate
XLVIII., facing this page. The engines are of the high-speed, enclosed,
forced lubrication, condensing type. The current is distributed from a
switchboard in the power station by overhead mains, with three-way
distributing panels in the various departments. The motors, of which
there are about 130 in the shipbuilding department alone, are of the
two- and four-pole type, partly or entirely enclosed, and mostly of
10 to 20 electric horse-power. Arc lamps are used for lighting, but
the shops and offices are also illumined by 16 and 32 candle-power
incandescent lamps. Plugs are arranged at various points throughout the
yard for portable lights, and for connecting mains for lighting the
various ships while being completed in the docks.

Hydraulic power at 800 lb. pressure is generated by two high-pressure
pumps, with steam cylinders 15 in. in diameter, and rams 4 in. in
diameter. There are separate accumulators for each. The pressure pipes
are led underground throughout the Works to the various hydraulic tools
already referred to.

There are two air compressors for supplying power for the pneumatic
tools. The combined capacity is 1800 cubic feet of free air per minute.
Each has two steam cylinders 6 in. in diameter, working respectively
high- and low-pressure air cylinders 15-1/4 in. and 21-1/4 in. in
diameter, the stroke being 18 in. The hydraulic pumps and the air
compressors are illustrated on Plate XLVIII., facing page 104.

As we have already stated, part of the power generated in this station
is utilised at the engine works, to which we may now turn our attention.

[Illustration: decoration]




[Illustration: decoration]




The Engine and Boiler Works.

[Illustration: decoration]


Rapidity of construction has been characteristic of the engine and
boiler works of the Scotts to at least as great an extent as in the
shipbuilding yard. Several instances might be noted, beginning with six
blockade-runners, built in a very short period, in 1864, and fitted
with engines to give a speed of 12 knots at sea and 13-1/2 knots on
trial. A recent and striking instance is the construction of boilers
and engines for twenty of the passenger steamers built for traffic on
the Thames, to the order of the London County Council, and described on
pages 83 and 84, _ante_. The contract for this work was signed towards
the end of November, 1904, and work was commenced about the beginning
of December. The various parts of the engines were being machined and
finished during the month of January and the beginning of February,
1905; and all of the twenty sets of engines and boilers were completed
by the end of May. Another noteworthy case is the construction of the
machinery for the steamship _Fengtien_, described on page 80, _ante_.
Work was commenced on the machinery in the middle of January, and
finished about the end of April. The machinery was fitted in the ship
and ready for the trials on the 29th May. The total time taken from
the beginning of work was well under five months.[69]

[Illustration: Plate XLIX. VIEW IN MAIN MACHINE SHOP.]

The pattern shop, where all work originates, is fitted with the usual
pattern-making machinery, including a core-making machine.

The iron foundry, which was begun in 1790,[70] and around which the
large engineering establishment has since been raised step by step,
continues to do sound work. There are four cupolas, of a combined
capacity of about 20 tons, and cylinders up to 120 in. in diameter are
cast. These facts suggest the satisfactory character of the equipment.

The brass foundry is an equally important department, where first-class
work is done. There are fifty-two crucible pots in use, varying in
size up to 150 lb., and of a collective capacity of about 2 tons; also
an air furnace capable of producing at one heat 12 tons of metal, for
such heavy castings as are required for preparing shaft liners, large
sea chests for naval ships, etc. The strength of Admiralty gun metal
made in this foundry is up to 18 tons per square inch, with 30 per
cent. of elongation in a 2-in. length. The foundry is served by an
electrically-operated jib crane.

In the forge and smiths' shops a large amount of detail work is done,
in units ranging up to 3 tons in weight. The hammers vary up to 15 cwt.
power. A considerable amount of die-stamping is done in connection with
auxiliary engine forgings, etc. All paddle-wheels are made in this
department. The blast for the fires is got from an electrically-driven
fan.

The machine shop, which was one of the first constructed with a
completely glazed roof, occupies a site on a steep <DW72>, one side
being formed by a heavy retaining wall, as shown in the engraving on
Plate XLIX., facing page 106. At the level of the top of the wall,
which is 25 ft. high, there is the light machine shop, while at the end
of the bay and over the annexe situated to the left of the engraving,
is the brass-finishing shop. There is a 2-ton hoist between the
erecting-shop floor and the galleries, so that no inconvenience, so far
as transport is concerned, is involved by this arrangement.

Originally a stream ran down the hill and over the site on which the
Works are located, and its waters have for many years been utilised
as a source of power. A special 24-in. inward-flow turbine works in
the conduit which conveys the water across the site, and this turbine
develops continuously 80 horse-power. This serves to drive some of
the machines in the boiler works. The turbine runs in parallel with
a compound vertical engine, which drives the shafts actuating the
groups of small machines in the engine shop. Many of the larger tools,
however, are electrically-driven by separate motors, the current being
transmitted from the central station already described.

The engravings on Plates XXXIX. and XLIX., facing pages 92 and 106
respectively, illustrate the main machine shop, which has a width of
60 ft., and, with the adjoining bay, accommodates some of the finest
marine engineering tools made. Perhaps the best indication of their
efficiency is the fact that three weeks suffice for the machining of
the parts of a complete set of engines to develop 2000 horse-power. The
shops are traversed by five overhead electric cranes, ranging up to 40
tons lifting capacity.

[Illustration: Plate L. VERTICAL PLANING MACHINE.]

[Illustration: MULTIPLE SPINDLE DRILLING MACHINE.]

[Illustration: Plate LI. SURFACE AND BORING LATHE.]

The leading dimensions and the principal work done by the more
important tools afford an idea of the extent of the equipment. There
are several planing and slotting machines, one of which is shown in
the engraving on Plate L., facing this page. There are two combined
machines, to plane 21 ft. and to slot 18 ft., used in connection
with the condensers, cylinders, large bearing frames and sole-plates
of engines, while two other smaller tools are devoted to finishing the
castings for bed-plates and columns. For machining eccentric-rod ends,
etc., there is a 24-in. slotter with a circular table. There are two
high-speed planers with two tool-boxes on the cross-slide, which take
in pieces 10 ft. by 5 ft. by 5 ft., and one to take work 12 ft. by 3
ft. by 3 ft.

In the driving of some of the heavier tools very good results have
been attained by the application of a reversible motor, which in one
case has dispensed with four belts, a pair of bevel wheels, and two
countershafts, reducing enormously the frictional waste, and enabling
higher speeds and quicker return strokes to be attained.[71]

For drilling work there are several large tools. Recently there has
just been fitted a multiple machine which, while primarily intended for
drilling the tube-holes in drums and water-pockets of Yarrow water-tube
boilers, is also utilised in connection with ordinary machine work.
This tool, of which an engraving is given on Plate L., facing page 108,
was manufactured by Messrs. Campbells and Hunter, Limited, Leeds. It
has a massive cross-slide carrying four saddles, movable by a powerful
screw, driven by spur-gearing and friction-clutch, controlled from one
of the saddles. The steel spindles are balanced, and have a special
self-acting, variable, rack-feed motion, as well as a quick vertical
motion by hand for rapidly adjusting the drill through the jig. Each
spindle can be operated independently. The table has a sliding motion,
directed by two straight screws coupled to the cross shaft and vertical
shaft, and is carried by a straight bed with three bearing surfaces.
This machine, which weighs 20 tons, is driven by a 30 brake-horse-power
electric motor.

There are two vertical boring mills used for cylinder work, one being
capable of boring up to 120 in. in diameter, and the other to 94 in.
in diameter. A combined boring and facing machine, with a table 4 ft.
square, is usefully employed on propeller bosses, valve-chests, small
cylinders, and built-up bed-plates, machine bearings, etc.

The installation of high-speed lathes is specially noteworthy. In
one, the face-plate can take in 12 ft. in diameter, and, as the
length of bed is 30 ft., it is useful for large surfacing work, as
well as for turning crankshafts of the larger sizes. There are two
12-in. double-geared lathes for surfacing and screw cutting. These are
self-acting, and the lengths of bed are 19 ft. and 12 ft. respectively.
For turning piston and connecting rods, two screw-cutting lathes of
16-1/4-in. centres are in use, the length of the bed being 22-1/2
ft. These have each a triple-gear headstock, and a chuck 48 in. in
diameter; with rack motion and slide-rest feeds. A 20-in. centre lathe,
with a bed 28 ft. 6 in. long, is fitted with two saddles and four
slide-rests for shaft liners, etc. Amongst others, there is a 27-in.
centre lathe for shafting, the bed being 36 ft. long.

One of the lathes is illustrated on Plate LI., adjoining page 109. This
is a 48-in. surfacing and boring lathe, by Messrs. John Lang and Sons,
Limited, Johnstone. The two new features introduced are the variable
speed drive and automatic speed-changing mechanism. The headstocks
can be used for single or triple gear, and are so arranged that, even
when running at the greatest speed, there is a reduction by gearing.
With this arrangement the lathes have greater power when turning
small diameters than when the belt is used driving direct to the main
spindle. The spindles, which are hollow, with hexagonal turrets, are
of crucible cast steel, and run in gun-metal bearings. By means of
the speed-changing mechanism, the cutting speed of the tool is kept
practically constant when surfacing. This means that any surface can be
finished off in about one-half of the time taken by a lathe having
the ordinary step-cone drive, where the workman will not change the
position of the belt while surfacing. The self-acting feed-motions are
positive.

[Illustration: Plate LII. BRASS FINISHING SHOP.]

Milling is adopted in many instances in preference to planing or
slotting, and this is especially so in connection with valve quadrants,
columns, faces, etc. For the first-named there is a large vertical
miller, and for the latter a horizontal tool with a vertical milling
apparatus. For grinding bolts, etc., a machine having a separate head
for grinding taps is used, the emery wheel being 18 in. in diameter and
1-1/2 in. broad.

A shop, now in course of construction, is to be specially laid out for
the manufacture of turbine machinery of the greatest power. It is to
be 285 ft. long, with a span of 60 ft. Heavy lifts will be taken by a
100-ton overhead crane, and ordinary work will be handled by a 40-ton
electric crane. The heavy machine tools, while specially chosen for
turbine work, are also adaptable for use in the manufacture of the
heaviest reciprocating machinery. The principal tools are large lathes
suitable for turbine rotors and crank-shafts; vertical boring machines
which may be utilised for work on cylinders as well as on turbine
casings; and a heavy planer, 10 ft. by 10 ft. by 25 ft. stroke. The
necessary small machine tools for turbine work will be put down in this
department, whence also some of the large tools will be removed from
the existing shops, so that it will be fully equipped for the purpose
intended.

The brass-finishing shop, which is illustrated on Plate LII., facing
page 110, serves both for ship and engine work. It has only recently
been laid out anew. The machines, according to the latest practice, are
arranged down each side of the shop, and the benches occupy the centre.
Each alternate bench is utilised for the material to be operated upon,
so that the working bench is not littered in a confused way, as is too
often the case. There are representative types of the best makes of
automatic tools, turret lathes, brass-finishers' lathes, and grinding
machines with specially large discs.

A considerable amount of work is done to limit gauge in all the shops
which we have described. This practice has been considerably developed
recently, and a specially equipped department has been organised,
where gauges, templates, and cutting tools are made. This department
is illustrated on Plate LIII., facing this page. A word may first be
said as to the significance of this new department. Where three or
four ships have engines of the same type, a set of jigs and templates
for the most important parts are at once made, so that a unit from
an engine in one ship may be fitted to an engine in another. This
simplifies the ordering of new parts, and greatly reduces the number of
spare items which have to be kept in store by the owners, in order that
repairs or refits may be effected at short notice.

For some time the Scotts have adopted this system, so that it was a
simple matter to enforce it in connection with the machinery of the
twenty Thames Steamers, and in recent naval work, where the practice
is being applied in an extended form. In the recent Admiralty work
every part of an engine is made interchangeable and identical with
the corresponding parts of other engines for the same type of ship,
although built in different parts of the country; and this fact
alone will indicate the extent and intricacy as well as the care
and degree of accuracy necessary. This standardisation to ensure
interchangeability has reached its highest exemplification in the
case of the machinery for the armoured cruiser _Defence_, of 27,000
indicated horse-power, to be completed in twenty-one months from the
placing of the order by the Admiralty.

[Illustration: Plate LIII. TOOL, GAUGE, TEMPLATE, AND JIG DEPARTMENT.]

Then, as regards the tool-making and fettling--the other branch of work
carried out in the tool room--it has been recognised that, to make
the cutting tools efficient, it is necessary to utilise the most
suitable steel for the tools working on various metals and alloys; and
the selection of the tool steel for each metal has been systematised by
the careful collation of data of actual work. In the manufacture of the
tools special appliances are used and will be referred to presently.
The workmen are encouraged to use only tools in sound condition. Each
machine-man in the shops has ten checks, and may borrow from the store
a corresponding number of tools, but these must be returned as soon as
possible for overhaul and re-grinding. The bonus system further induces
the men to ensure that their tools are in good condition.

The tool department is separate from the main structure, and in it
all jigs, templates, and gauges, as well as tools, are constructed.
Standard gauges, as well as limit gauges, are used, and both are
marked in metrical and English dimensions. The tool room is not only
carefully maintained at a regular temperature, in order to prevent the
templates and jigs from varying in the course of their manufacture,
but the appliances adopted have been selected so as to get the most
precise results. In connection with the manufacture of large boiler
taps, drill gauges, milling cutters, etc., a specially designed gas
furnace has been built, with a number of compartments which can be used
separately or collectively, according to the size of the tool being
made. The toolsmith's forge is on the down-draught principle, so that,
in addition to carrying off all smoke and dust, it tends to keep the
atmosphere pure.

Amongst the principal machines used in this tool-manufacturing
department is an 8-in. Whitworth self-acting, sliding-surfacing,
and screw-cutting lathe, with a backing-off and taper-turning
attachment. The milling, drilling, and grinding machines are all by
the best makers. A 10-ft. machine is used for making the comparative
measurements from existing standards. This machine, also of Whitworth
make, has a measuring screw in a fast headstock with a large dividing
wheel, one division of the latter representing 0.0001-in. in the end
movement of the spindle. All transverse and tensile testing of bars is
done in this department.

A check system is used in connection with the distribution of
templates, tools, drawings, etc., and a separate store in the centre of
the works is arranged for this purpose.

[Illustration: HYDRAULIC PLATE-BENDING MACHINE.]

As to the boiler works, the fact that in 1905 the production was
practically one boiler per week is, of itself, testimony to the nature
of the plant adopted. The main boiler shop, together with its yard, has
an area of 7000 square yards, and a height of 45 ft. to the crane rail,
and is served by five overhead electric cranes, ranging in lifting
power up to 100 tons, with numerous jib and other cranes associated
with the various machine tools.

[Illustration: Plate LIV. IN THE BOILER SHOP.]

The machine tools fitted in the boiler works are all of a very powerful
character; but only a few of these need here be referred to. There
is a 13-ft. gap hydraulic plate-bending machine, which is entirely
automatic in its action, and can be set to any radius to bend plates up
to 2 in. thick when cold. The flanging for the front and back plates
of boilers is done in an hydraulic machine, exerting a pressure of
over 160 tons. This machine has four rams, two of which act downwards,
one upwards, and the other horizontally. It is served by a special
hydraulic jib-crane, capable of lifting the heaviest plates. There are
also plate-edge planers and triple boring mills of corresponding power,
while the vertical rolls take in plates up to 10-ft. wide.

For the riveting of the boilers there is a 13-ft. gap hydraulic
riveting machine, capable of exerting a load on each rivet of 200
tons. The weight of this riveting machine alone is about 60 tons, and
it is served by an independent hydraulic jib-crane. All the valves in
connection with the crane and riveter are led to a common platform, so
that one man is able to manipulate the whole of the work.

There is also a large installation of special plant for the manufacture
of water-tube boilers, but it is scarcely necessary to describe this in
detail.

A large part of the boiler work, especially for warships, is
galvanised, and a special department has been organised for this
purpose. The tubes, in the first place, are thoroughly cleaned, then
placed in a zinc bath, and coated by electrolysis to the desired
extent; the object being to expose defects, as well as to protect the
tubes from corrosion during manufacture. The amount of work done is,
perhaps, the best indication of the equipment of this department, as
well as of the water-tube department; and this will be realised when it
is stated that over 24,000 tubes are required for the boilers of one
cruiser, and that six months suffices for their construction.

It would be possible to give other indications of the splendid
equipment of the Works, but enough has been said to show that
there is directed towards the realisation of the best work in all
departments--firstly, the advantages of accumulated experience,
carefully collated throughout two hundred years; secondly, the benefits
which the psychologists claim for hereditary influence--applicable
here not only through the proprietors, but also through many of the
workmen; and, thirdly, a sound progressive spirit, which recognises the
necessity for continual improvement in administration and design, and
in machine tools and methods of manufacture.

[Illustration: decoration]

FOOTNOTES:

[69] For further references to the rate of construction, see
_Engineering_, vol. lx., page 813, where it is noted that ten vessels,
aggregating 26,000 tons, were built for the China Navigation Company in
nine months.

[70] See page 22, _ante_.

[71] See _Engineering_, vol. lxxx., page 418.




PRINTED AT THE BEDFORD PRESS, 20 AND 21, BEDFORDBURY, STRAND, LONDON,
W.C.





End of Project Gutenberg's Two Centuries of Shipbuilding, by Various

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