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                    THE MENTOR 1918.03.15, No. 151,
                               The Incas




                            LEARN ONE THING
                               EVERY DAY

                   MARCH 15 1918      SERIAL NO. 151

                                  THE
                                MENTOR

                               THE INCAS

                                  By
                          OSGOOD HARDY, M. A.

                    DEPARTMENT OF          VOLUME 6
                    HISTORY                NUMBER 3

                          TWENTY CENTS A COPY




WORSHIPERS OF THE SUN


The deity whose worship the Incas especially inculcated, and which
they never failed to establish wherever their banners were known to
penetrate, was the Sun. It was he who, in a particular manner, presided
over the destinies of man; gave light and warmth to the nations, and
life to the vegetable world; whom they reverenced as the father of
their royal dynasty, the founder of their empire; and whose temples
rose in every city and almost every village throughout the land.

Besides the Sun, the Incas acknowledged various objects of worship,
in some way or other connected with this principal deity. Such was
the Moon, his sister-wife; the Stars, revered as part of her heavenly
train, though the fairest of them, Venus, known to the Peruvians by
the name of Chasca, or the “youth with the long and curling locks,”
was adored as the page of the Sun, whom he attends so closely in his
rising and in his setting. They dedicated temples also to the Thunder
and Lightning, in whom they recognized the Sun’s dread ministers, and
to the Rainbow, whom they worshiped as a beautiful emanation of their
glorious deity.

In addition to these, the subjects of the Incas enrolled among their
inferior deities many objects in nature, as the elements, the winds,
the earth, the air, great mountains and rivers, which impressed them
with ideas of sublimity and power, or were supposed in some way or
other to exercise a mysterious influence over the destinies of man.

But the worship of the Sun constituted the peculiar care of the Incas,
and was the object of their lavish expenditure. The most renowned of
the Peruvian temples, the pride of the capital, and the wonder of
the empire, was at Cuzco, where, under the munificence of successive
sovereigns, it had become so enriched that it received the name of
“The Place of Gold.” It consisted of a principal building and several
chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large extent of ground in the
heart of the city, and completely encompassed by a wall, which, with
the edifices, was all constructed of stone.

The interior of the temple was most worthy of admiration. It was
literally a mine of gold. On the western wall was emblazoned a
representation of the deity, consisting of a human countenance looking
forth from amidst innumerable rays of light which emanated from it in
every direction, in the same manner as the sun is often personified
with us. The figure was engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous
dimensions, thickly powdered with emeralds and precious stones. It was
so situated in front of the great eastern portal that the rays of the
morning sun fell directly upon it at its rising, lighting up the whole
apartment with an effulgence that seemed more than natural, and which
was reflected back from the golden ornaments with which the walls and
ceiling were everywhere encrusted. Gold, in the figurative language
of the people, was “the tears wept by the Sun,” and every part of the
interior of the temple glowed with burnished plates and studs of the
precious metal.

From Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru.”




[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU]




_THE INCAS_

_The Tellers of the Story_

ONE


Rude and destructive as were most of the Spanish _conquistadores_
(con-kees-tä-dõ´-rays), many of them sympathized with the conquered
people, and it is from the records of their impressions that we have
obtained most of what we know about the Incas. Four of these Castilian
diarists whose work is most valued were soldiers. Of their number,
Pedro de Cieza de Leon (pay´-dro day see´-ay-sa day lay´-on) has given
us the fullest and most interesting account of the ancient Peruvians.
Only a boy of fourteen was he when he embarked on the Spanish Main,
and he was only nineteen when, in 1538, he joined an expedition up the
valley of the Cauca (kä-oo´-kä). He commenced his chronicle in 1541,
and for ten years traveled from one end of Peru to the other, writing
down his impressions as he went. The first part of his journal was
published in 1554. Juan de Betanzos (hwän day bay-tän´-sos), another
soldier, has left us but a portion of his work. We have only the record
used by Friar Gregorio de Garcia (gray-go´-rio day gar-see´-a) in the
first two chapters of his “Origen (o-ree´-hen) de los Indios,” and
an incomplete manuscript in the Escurial (ay-skoo-ree-al). This was
edited and printed in 1880 by Jimenez de la Espada (hee-may´-nes day
lä ay-spä´-dä). Betanzos’ work is valuable, as he learned the Quichua
(kee´-choo-a) language and was an official interpreter. Pedro Sarmiento
de Gamboa (pay´-dro sär-mi-ayn´-to day gäm-bo´-ä), a militant sailor,
accompanied the Viceroy Toledo (to-lay´-do), and was employed by him
to write a history of the Incas. Finished in 1572, it is without doubt
the most authentic and reliable we possess as regards the course of
events. Pedro Pizarro, a cousin of the conqueror, was also a historian
of merit, finishing the “Relaciones” (rā-lä-see´-o-nays) at Arequipa
(är-ay-kee´-pä) in 1571.

The writings of lawyers have been of little value, although Prescott
made use of the unpublished “Relaciones” of Polo de Ondegardo (po´-lo
day on-day-gär´-do), written in 1561 and 1570.

The priests were the most diligent inquirers respecting the native
religion, rites, and ceremonies. Vincente de Valverde (vis-ayn´-tä day
väl-vayr-day) was the first priest to come to Peru, but he stayed only
a short time and wrote very little. The best known clerical author is
Josef de Acosta (hos´-ayf day ä-cos´-tä), who was in Peru from 1570
to 1586, and traveled over the greater part of the country. Cristoval
Molina’s (krees-to´-väl mo-lee´-nä) “Report on the Fables and Rites
of the Incas,” written previous to 1584, is also valuable, for he was
a master of the Quichua language. Fernando Montesinos (fayr-nän-do
mon-tay-see´-nos), who, with his amazing list of kings, traced Inca
ancestry back to Noah, was until recently given little consideration.
But lately his work, “Ophir de España, Memorias Historiales (o-feer´
day ay-spän-yä may-mo´-ree-äs ees-tor-ee-a´-läs) y Políticos del Peru
(po-lee´-tee-cos dayl pay-roo´),” written about 1644, has been given
more credence, since it seems probable that much of it was based on
the writings of Blas Valera (bläs vä-lay-rä). The premature death of
the latter and the disposal of his valuable manuscripts is described
by Markham as the most deplorable loss that Inca civilization has
sustained. His work was used extensively by Garcilaso de la Vega
(gär-see-lä´-so day la vay-gä), a grandnephew of the Inca Huayna Ccapac
(wy´-nä k-kä´-päk). He is the most famous of all the historians, and is
quoted some eighty times by Prescott.

The works of many of these authors and of others less famous are
available today in English, as a result of the indefatigable efforts
of Sir Clements Markham, whose translations have been published by the
Hakluyt Society. There are still many interesting and valuable old
manuscripts reposing in the archives of Madrid (mäd-reed´) and Seville
(say-veel´-yay), which have yet to be discovered, edited, and given
to the world. Of the Spanish historians who have been engaged in this
work, Dr. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada is probably the best known. An
excellent bibliography of Peruviana has been prepared by Markham and is
published in “The History of the Incas,” Publications of the Hakluyt
Society, Series II, Vol. XXII, Cambridge, England.

  PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
  ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
  COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.




[Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACCOCHA NEAR
SICUANI, PERU]




_THE INCAS_

_The Inca Sovereigns_

TWO


The Inca sovereigns about whom tradition tells us enough so that they
may be considered historical personages are twelve in number. The
first of these, Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok-kä), or Rocca the Great,
was the first ruler after the return of the Incas to Cuzco (coos´-ko)
at the close of their long exile in Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko). He
reigned from 1134-1197, according to the chronology of Dr. Gonzales
de la Rosa (gon-sä-lays day lä ro´-sä), the most eminent of modern
Peruvian historians. Rocca owed his position to a cleverly executed
plot contrived by his mother. She dressed him in glittering gold
apparel, and hid him in the Chingana (cheen-gä´-nä) Cave on Sacsahuaman
(säk-sä-wä´-män) Hill. At intervals for several days excited Cuzqueñans
(koos-kayn-yäns) beheld a golden vision moving on the fortress heights.
Eventually, after their curiosity and fanatical credulity had been
sufficiently aroused, the vision descended into the city. It gave
itself over to the crowd, allowed itself to be conducted to the temple,
and there proclaimed itself the adopted son of the Solar Deity. Under
Rocca, the Temple of the Sun was enlarged and the city greatly improved.

There is some question among historians as to the acts of Rocca’s
successors, Lloque Yupanqui (lyo´-kay yoo-pän´-kee) and Mayta Ccapac
(my´-tä k-kä´-päk), who reigned from 1197-1246, and 1246-1276,
respectively. Garcilaso (gär-see-lä´-so) records their conquering the
Cana (kä´-nä) and Colla (kol´-yä) people in the southwest, building
a Sun Temple at Hatun-Colla (ä-toom-kol´-yä), carrying on warfare
along the shores of Lake Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä), and Lake Aullagas
(aul-yä´-gas), and on the west, going as far as Lake Parinaccochas
(pär-een-äk-ko´-chäs) and Arequipa (a-ray-kee´-pä). But the majority
of historians represent the first three Incas as confining themselves
more or less to the Cuzco Valley, and gradually, by diplomatic means,
extending their influence over the surrounding inhabitants.

Ccapac Yupanqui (yoo-pän-kee), 1276-1321, made the region to the
southeast the theatre of his operations, and Garcilaso credits him with
reaching Potosi (po-tos´-ee). Inca Rocca, 1321-1348, improved the water
supply of Cuzco (would that he might come again), founded schools,
and militariwise, attempted to penetrate the Amazonian forests. His
son, Yahuar-Huaccac (yä´-wär-wäk´-käk) (weeping-blood), 1348-1370, was
rather a nonentity. His name was acquired as follows, says tradition:
While a child he fell into hostile hands. At the point of death he was
seen to be weeping tears of blood. This so affected his enemy that he
was permitted to live; he eventually escaped to his own people after a
life of hardship among some shepherds.

He was followed by Uiraccocha (weer-äk-ko´-chä), 1370-1425, in whose
reign occurred the invasion of the Chancas (chän´-käs). The invaders
were finally driven out, chiefly through the bravery of his son,
Pachacuti (päch-ä-koo´-tee), who reigned from 1425-1478. Under this
rule and that of his successors, Tupac Yupanqui, 1478-1488, and Huayna
Ccapac (wy´-nä k-kä´-päk), 1488-1525, the Inca dominion grew from a
comparatively small confederation to the great, imperial state found
by the Spaniards. Huascar (wäs´-kär), the successor of Huayna Ccapac,
was overthrown and taken prisoner by his natural brother, Atahuallpa
(ä-tä-wäl´-pä), about the time that Pizarro entered Peru. When the
latter heard of the quarrel between the two brothers he determined to
settle it. Fearful lest the decision should go against him, Atahuallpa
had Huascar murdered, and this act provided Pizarro with an excuse for
the execution of Atahuallpa.

After he had acquired complete control of the country, Pizarro
elevated the Inca Manco (män´-co) to the throne. This proud youth
soon tired of the farce and fled to the fastnesses of the Vilcabamba
(veel-cä-bäm´-bä) mountains. Here he and his successors, Sayri Tupac
(sigh-ree too´-päk) and Tupac-Amaru (too´-päk-ä-mä´-roo), maintained
their independence until 1571, when the latter was captured by the
Viceroy Toledo, brought to Cuzco, and there beheaded in the great
square.

In 1781, a descendant of Tupac-Amaru bearing his name, led a revolt
against the barbarous oppression of the Spaniards, only to fail and
suffer torture, together with his whole family. In 1814, Pumacagua
(poo-mäk-ä´-wä), also of Inca ancestry, started an abortive uprising,
which, although a failure, was the beginning of the struggle which was
to eventually break the power of Spain in Peru.

  PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
  ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
  COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.




[Illustration: RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY]




_THE INCAS_

_The Expansionist Policies of the Incas_

THREE


Although pacific by nature, the Incas built up their vast empire by
conquest. Not one reign lacked great military campaigns, and in all
of them the necessity of introducing the worship of the Sun gave
rulers a pretext as plausible as the followers of Mahomet had for
their great wars. Wherever it was possible, peaceful methods were
employed. Persuasion, diplomacy and bribery were all tried; if these
were unsuccessful, war was declared, but only after the failure of
all the arts used in the acquisition of an empire by the most subtle
politicians of a civilized land.

Immediately on the declaration of war, mobilization took place with
extreme rapidity, for the Incas aimed early to secure such an obvious
strategical advantage that their enemies would wisely surrender without
a struggle. This was made possible by the remarkable series of roads
constructed throughout the empire. In times of peace these served
as post roads, which enabled the Incas to have surprisingly rapid
intercommunication. At convenient places storehouses were located.
These were always kept completely equipped, so that the mobilization
of the Inca armies, which sometimes totaled 200,000 men, provided the
minimum of inconvenience for the civilian population.

Contrary to the customs of some of our supposedly civilized modern
nations, the Incas forbade their soldiers engaging in any unnecessary
outrages, and punished such infractions of the law very severely. Even
after the war had commenced, the Incas were always ready at any time to
bring about peace. At the conclusion of hostilities they adopted the
policy of the Romans, gaining more by clemency to the vanquished than
by their victories.

As soon as the reduction of a country had been brought about, measures
were taken to insure the loyalty of those newly conquered. The first
step was the introduction of the worship of the Sun. No disrespect
was shown to the local gods, but an acceptance of the priority of
the Sun was always enforced. Often-times the peoples’ own gods were
treated as hostages and removed to Cuzco. The Inca system of government
was, of course, always imposed. Land was cultivated according to the
well-regulated schemes of the Incas, which included fertilization, crop
rotation, and careful supervision to see that the desired amount of
acreage was devoted to each product. The Quichua language was enforced.
The new members of the empire were assigned their particular style of
clothing and hair-dressing. Roads were built to all parts of the new
territories and absolute amalgamation was eventually secured.

In some instances, where the loyalty of the conquered was doubtful, a
portion of them were removed, bag and baggage, to some locality where
they would be surrounded by inhabitants of whose loyalty there was no
question. Some of the latter were then sent to occupy the lands of the
exiles.

Through successive reigns the same policy was continued. Each Inca
took up the work where his predecessor had been compelled to leave it,
and tried to do his share in advancing the boundaries of the empire.
Each Inca’s life was a “crusade against the infidel to spread the
worship of the Sun, to reclaim the benighted nations from their brutish
superstitions, and to impart to them the blessings of a well-regulated
government.”

  PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
  ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
  COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.




[Illustration: LLAMAS LADEN WITH FAGOTS COMING INTO CUZCO, PERU]




_THE INCAS_

_The Incas’ Food Supply_

FOUR


One of the greatest aids to the Incas in extending their domains was
their abundant food supply: the result, largely, of the great progress
they had made along agricultural lines. Although Peru is a very
mountainous country, by taking advantage of every available inch of
fertile ground where the climate permitted the raising of crops, they
were able to carry on a system of agriculture which, in the variety
of products yielded, seems truly marvelous. It is stated by Mr. O. F.
Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture, that a complete
census of the plants cultivated by the ancient Peruvians would probably
include between seventy and eighty species.

The most important products are the maize and the potato, one world
crop of which is today more valuable than all the gold the conquering
Spaniards were able to take out of the country. The cultivation of corn
goes very far back, for abundant specimens have been found in ancient
graves, and the type of maize that furnishes the bulk of the Peruvian
crop is peculiar to that region.

Other plants familiar to us are the pineapple, the sweet potato,
peanuts, beans, Lima beans, guava (gwä´-vä), alligator pears, _papayas_
(pä-pä´-yäs), and _chirimoyas_ (chee-ree-mo´-yäs), as well as many
with which we are not familiar, as _affu_ (äf´-foo), _arracacha_
(är-rä-cä´-chä), _tintin_ (teen´-teen), _tomate_ (to-mä´-tay), _purutu_
(poo-roo´-too), _quinoa_ (keen´-o-ä), _occa_ (ok´-kä), and _ullucu_
(ool-yoo´-koo). From the dried potato a nutritious flour was made
called _chuña_ (choon´-yä), which was used to thicken stews.

The coca plant (_Erythroxylon_) was widely cultivated, but in the
days of the Incas, if we are to believe the historians, its use was
regulated by the government. Commonly used today by their modern
descendants, it is alcohol’s most potent aid in the degradation of the
Peruvian Indian.

We must not think, however, that the Incas were vegetarians. Although
they lacked sheep, hogs and cattle, in the _llama_ (lyämä) and _alpaca_
they had excellent meat, as well as animals to provide them with
wool, and in the case of the _llama_, a serviceable pack animal. The
_guanacos_ (gwä-nä´-kos) and _vicuñas_ (vi-coo´-nyas), first cousins of
the _llama_, were never domesticated, but were hunted in large drives
superintended by representatives of the government. In the mountains
there were rodents, such as the _viscacha_ (vee-scä´-chä), _chinchilla_
(cheen-cheel´-yä), and guinea-pigs. In the valleys there were monkeys
and parrots. At the sea-shore and near the larger rivers fish were
plentiful. Such excellent means of communication existed between the
capital at Cuzco and the coast, that the Incas were kept constantly
supplied with fresh fish.

The prevalence of both fishing and hunting is attested by the many
depictions of these industries found on ceramic art objects which have
been encountered by the archeologists. Hunting was carried on to such
an extent, and the country in general was so intensively cultivated,
that the Peruvian highlands today have less to offer the nimrod than
any other section of the world equally uninhabited and desolate.

Alcoholic beverages were used, of course, but the government saw to
it that their manufacture did not affect other industries. _Chica_
(chee-cha) was made from both potatoes and maize, but the favorite
brand was brewed from the _molle_ (mol-yay) berry. Then, as today,
religious feasts provided the common people with an opportunity for
debauchery, but under the Incas there was less of the consequent
inebriety.

  PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
  ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
  COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.




[Illustration: SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU]




_THE INCAS_

_Inca Architecture_

FIVE


Together with the excellence of their governmental system and
the extent of their food supply, the architecture of the ancient
inhabitants of the Peruvian plateau establishes their claim to fame.
Although early historians attempted to give the Incas themselves
the credit for the wonderful structures to be found in Peru, it is
generally believed today that most of the megalithic remains, such as
Tiahuanaco, Sacsahuaman and Ollantaytambo, are the work of a people
living many centuries before the Incas, whose own traditions carry them
back only about 400 years prior to the coming of the Spaniards. However
that may be, the ability to make equally fine structures evidently
existed down to Spanish times, although in later years such work became
less and less common.

There is a great uniformity in Inca architecture. In the highlands the
edifices are usually built of porphyry or granite, and in the coastal
regions more frequently of brick. The walls often have a thickness
of several feet, but are rather low, seldom attaining more than
ten or twelve feet in height. The apartments seldom open into each
other--usually onto a court. The doors, which ordinarily provide the
only entrance for light, are like the Egyptian, narrower at the top.
The ruins at Machu Picchu (mä-choo peek´-choo) and in that vicinity are
remarkable because windows are quite common in them. As the Incas had
not evolved the arch, their doors, windows and niches were crowned with
a lintel stone, in many cases necessarily a huge affair. Among the most
interesting features of an Inca residence are these niches, probably
used for shelves, perhaps for shrines, although if for that purpose
there would seem to be more of them than necessary in most houses.

The fineness of the stonework is, of course, the most remarkable
characteristic of the Incas’ architecture. They seemed able to
fit, with equal facility, blocks of stone weighing tons and those
weighing but a few pounds. Although they are not known to have used
the T-square, some of their angles are very true, and when it seemed
desirable, they could build a straight wall. Particularly beautiful are
some of their circular structures, such as the Temple of the Sun in
Cuzco.

It is probable that only the temples and palaces of the rulers were
so well built, and that the common people lived in houses of mud and
stone. One of the most remarkable structures in Peru, the temple
of Uiraccocha (u-eer-äk-ko´-chä) at Racche (räk´-chay), shows a
combination of fine stonework, and mud and stone. In addition, the
upper part of these walls, which tower some thirty feet high, is
of _adobe_ (a-do´-bay) only, and centuries of weathering has done
but little more damage to the sun-dried bricks than to the granite
foundations.

There is something incongruous in the fact that the roofs of the
buildings walled so beautifully, and often covered inside with
skilfully woven tapestries and gold adornments, were commonly of
thatch. The rafters were of wood, tied on to ring stones and projecting
cylinder stones with maguey withes. But, although they were ignorant
of iron, did not even mortise their timbers, and were content with a
dingy, unlighted interior, the buildings of the Incas were adapted to
the character of the climate, and the wisdom of their plan is attested
by the number which still survive, while the more modern constructions
of the conquerors have been buried in ruins.

Providing they escape the destructive hands of the treasure-hunting
Peruvians, only a gigantic cataclysm of the earth’s surface can destroy
these monuments to the stoneworking skill of Peru’s ancient inhabitants.

  PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
  ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
  COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.




[Illustration: DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA]




_THE INCAS_

_Vitcos and Tampu-tocco_

SIX


The location of Vitcos (veet´-kos), or Pitcos (peet´-kos), the home
of the Inca Manco after he fled from Cuzco to the wilds of Vilcabamba
(veel-kä-bäm´-bä), was one of the questions which students of Inca
history had never answered. Arm-chair archeologists and historians
had selected the site of Choqquequirau (chok-kā-kee-rä´-oo) (cradle
of gold), which consists of a series of extensive ruins above the
Apurimac (a-poo-ree´-mak) River near Abancay (ä-bän-ca´-ee). His visit
to these ruins convinced Dr. Hiram Bingham, of Yale University (now
Lieut.-Colonel Bingham), that Vitcos and Choqquequirau could not be
identical.

Accordingly, in 1911 he conducted an expedition to Peru, one object of
which was to find a place that would fit the descriptions of the Inca’s
retreat as given by the early Spanish historians, some of whom, _i.e._,
Father Antonio de Calancha (än-to´-nee-o day cä-län´-chä) and Baltasar
de Ocampa (bäl-tä-sär´ day o-cäm´-pä), had actually visited Vitcos.

The expedition went down the Urubamba (oo-roo-bäm´-bä) Valley
to the mouth of the Vilcabamba River, crossed the Chuquichaca
(choo-kee-chä´-cä) Bridge, and went up the Vilcabamba Valley,
finding place after place which tallied with the accounts of Ocampo
(o-käm´-po) and Calancha (cä-län´-chä). Above the little town of
Puquiura (poo-kee-oo´-ra) were encountered ruins now called Rosaspata
(ro-säs-pä´-tä). Careful study has proved that these fit, in every
detail, the description of the Inca’s last home.

While on his way to Vitcos, Colonel Bingham was fortunate enough
to discover the ruins of Machu Picchu. Although the problematical
existence of these ruins had long been known, no one had ever taken
the trouble to climb to the top of the ridge and make certain as to
their location. In so doing, Colonel Bingham came upon ruins whose
magnificent beauty alone makes them of more than ordinary interest,
but doubly important is the discovery because in Machu Picchu we seem
to have found at last the Tampu-tocco (tämpoo-tok´-ko) of early Inca
legends.

The selection of Paccari-tampu (päk´-ka-ree-tam´-poo) as Tampu-tocco
has never seemed justified. The slight similarity in name, the
location of a few ruins and natural caves in that vicinity, and the
non-existence of any place which had a better claim, made up the
evidence to substantiate the theories of those who wished to call
Paccari-tampu the cradle of the Inca race. Machu Picchu, as shown by
Colonel Bingham,[1] corroborates in every detail the descriptions of
Tampu-tocco given by all the historians.

  [1] See The Story of Machu Picchu, by Hiram Bingham. Nat. Geo.
  Mag., Feb., 1915, and Vitcos, ibid., Proceedings of the Am.
  Antiquarian Soc., April, 1912.

In addition, it appears that Machu Picchu may also be Vilcabamba, the
old, the mysterious place three days’ journey from Vitcos, to which,
as told by Father Calancha, two monks were taken by the Incas while
they were in that region seeking his conversion. No situation at all
plausible has ever been suggested for this mythical locality. Granting
that Machu Picchu is Tampu-tocco, the presence of two distinct cultures
and skeleton remains, chiefly of women and effeminate men, would seem
to indicate that on his retreat to Vitcos the Inca Manco made use of
the wonderfully concealed first home of the Incas to provide safe
retirement for the priests and priestesses of the Sun.

A very important part of the work of modern archeology lies in
identifying the location of the cities and towns which have a place in
Inca tradition and history. The finding of the first and last home of
the Incas by Colonel Bingham’s expeditions is only the beginning of a
great deal of similar work which awaits the archeologist in Peru.

  PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
  ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
  COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.




THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

MARCH 15, 1918

[Illustration: RUINS OF MAUCALLACTA, PACCARITAMBO--Near view of the
gateway]

THE INCAS

By OSGOOD HARDY, M. A.

_Instructor in Spanish in the Sheffield Scientific School, and Chief
Assistant and Interpreter of the Peruvian Expeditions of 1914-1915,
under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic
Society_

_MENTOR GRAVURES_

  RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY · SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST
  FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU · ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU ·
  DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA · LLAMAS COMING INTO CUZCO ·
  RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACOCHA, NEAR SICUANI, PERU

NOTE.--All pictures in this Mentor are reproduced by permission of the
National Geographic Society and the South American Exploration Fund of
Yale University, under whose auspices the Peruvian Expeditions directed
by Dr. Hiram Bingham have taken place.

NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION.--The letter “_ä_” with two dots above is
pronounced as in “father”; the “_ā_” with a horizontal line above is
pronounced as in “ray.”

Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New
York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The
Mentor Association, Inc.


There is probably no part of the world that stimulates more curiosity
in an archeologist or even in a casual traveler than that part
of South America which was once inhabited by the Incas of Peru.
Tiahuanaco’s (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko) finely carved gateway and its ponderous
stone platforms, Sacsahuaman’s (saks-ä-wa´-män) gigantic walls,
Ollantaytambo’s (ol-yän-tie-tam´-bo) monolithic fortress, and Machu
Picchu’s (mä´-choo peek´-choo) picturesque grandeur fill one with an
admiration for their builders which is only equaled by the sorrow that
today, over three centuries after the advent of Pizarro (pee-sä´-ro)
and his _conquistadores_ (con-kees-tä-do´-rays), we can do little more
than make conjectures concerning the ancient Peruvians.

[Illustration: RUINS OF PATALLACTA--A Typical Inca Temple]

And, furthermore, it is doubtful if we can ever go very far in
solving the problem of man in the Andes. Although they made great
progress in architecture, agriculture, engineering, and the science of
government, the ancient Peruvians did not achieve the art of writing,
nor did they even reach the stage of hieroglyphics. Their records
were kept on _quipus_ (kee-poos), variously  strings with many
different kinds of knots. These seem, however, to have been used only
for accounting purposes. Thus far, the _quipus_ in possession of our
archeologists have been of no particular aid in deciphering the history
of their makers. Accordingly, what we know of the Incas consists of
traditions gathered together by early Spaniards, and the work of
present-day students who, by modern archeological methods, are slowly
bringing some light to bear on this apparently insolvable problem.

[Illustration: PISAC

Terraces below the principal ruins, still used for growing wheat and
barley]

[Illustration: DOORWAY

In ruins, now known as Rosaspata, but which Dr. Bingham has shown are
probably those known to the Incas as “Vitcos,” the last home of the
Incas]


_Origin of American Aborigines_

Although there are many ideas advanced as to the origin of the American
aborigine, it is commonly believed that he came from northeastern
Asia and gradually moved southward. Archeologists and geologists are
all agreed that he arrived at the close of the glacial epoch, long
after the disappearance of the prehistoric animals which Dr. Matthew
described for Mentor readers some time ago. When he came to this
continent he had probably already reached the higher stages of the
Stone Age, and was possibly already in the Bronze Age. Just how long it
has been since his arrival we cannot tell.

Although the number of traditions concerning the origin of the Inca
empire is legion, the two best known are the Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä)
and Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko) legends. The former has been given
us by the immortal Prescott, relying on the Commentaries of the Inca
Garcilaso de la Vega (gär-sil´-ä-so day lä vay-gä). From him we know
there was a time when the ancient races of the continent were all
plunged in deplorable barbarism. “The Sun, the grand luminary and
parent of mankind, taking compassion on their degraded condition, sent
two of his children, Manco Ccapac (män´-ko k-kä´-päk) and Mama Occlo
(mä´-mä ok´-klo), to gather the natives into communities and teach them
the arts of civilized life. The celestial pair, brother and sister,
husband and wife, advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood
of Lake Titicaca to about the 16th degree south. They bore with them a
golden wedge, and were directed to take up their residence on the spot
where the sacred emblem should without effort sink into the ground.
They proceeded but a short distance--as far as the valley of Cuzco
(koos´-ko), the spot indicated by the performance of the miracle; there
the wedge speedily sank into the earth and disappeared forever. On this
spot the children of the Sun established their residence, and laid the
foundations of the city of Cuzco.”

[Illustration: RUINS OF PATALLACTA

Showing niches with holes for bar locks in the upper room of the temple
on top of the rock]

[Illustration: INCA FORTRESS WALL, SACSAHUAMAN

The gigantic size of the stones and the precision with which they are
fitted, without mortar, bear testimony to the engineering genius of the
Inca megalithic builders]

The Titicaca myth, however, does not receive as much consideration
today as the Tampu-tocco (täm´-poo-tok´-ko) myth. The former is
characterized by the late Sir Clements Markham as an obvious invention
to account for the ancient ruins and statues in the vicinity of
Tiahuanaco (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko), and on the islands of Titicaca and
Koati (ko-ä´-tee). “It has no historical value,” he says, “while the
Tampu-tocco myth is as certainly the outcome of a real tradition, and
is the fabulous version of a distant historical event.”

[Illustration: CUZCO, PERU

PALACE OF THE INCA ROCCA

A large gravure picture of this massive structure will be found in The
Mentor (No. 132) on “Peru”]

The story is somewhat as follows. At a distance from Cuzco is a
place called “Tampu-tocco” (“House of the Windows”). This was long
considered to be identical with “Paccari-tampu” (päk´-kä-ree-tam´-poo)
(“House of the Dawn”), but the explorations and study of Dr. Bingham
have shown that the evidence is in favor of his statement that Machu
Picchu is Tampu-tocco. From this locality, at a date placed by
students somewhere between 950 B. C. and 200 A. D., came four brothers
accompanied by four sisters. Their leader, Manco (män´-ko) (the
princely), succeeded in making away with his three brothers, so that
at length, on their arrival at Cuzco, where the golden rod which this
Manco also carried sank into the ground, the first Inca and his sisters
were able to found their kingdom without rivals. Under the leadership
of Manco and his successors, sometimes known as “Pre-Megaliths,” the
empire grew. In the seventeenth or nineteenth reign a change in dynasty
took place, and thenceforth the megalithic monarchs, who were often
distinguished and skilful astrologers and reformers, ruled with the
title of Amauta (ä-mä-oo´-tä).

About 450 A. D. came the end of this dynasty. Pachacuti
(pä-chä-koo´-tee) VI, a ruler of peoples on the east, south and west
and subject tribes, had risen in revolt. The invaders ultimately
retired, but the power of Cuzco was broken, and the ruler slain.
The city was left to the priests, and the inhabitants, under a new
sovereign, took refuge at Tampu-tocco, where some twenty-four princes
ruled in succession. At length, when the provinces once under the
control of the princes of Cuzco had relapsed into barbarism, a woman
of high birth named Siyu-yacu (see´-yoo-yä´-koo), contrived a plot to
place on the throne one who would initiate a bold attempt to recover
the power once possessed by their forefathers. The individual selected
was Siyu-yacu’s own son, Rocca (rok´-kä). The plot was successful,
and Rocca, later known as Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok´-kä) or the
Great Rocca, was the first of the Inca sovereigns whose reign looms
up clearly enough to remove it from the realm of traditions and give
it a place, although slightly hazy, in history. From the accession of
Rocca to the throne, about 1100 A. D., down to the murder of Tupac
Amaru (too´-päk ä´-mä-roo) in 1671 by the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo
(frän-sees´-ko day to-lay-do), the course of events is fairly well
authenticated. It is to this period that a discussion of the Incas must
necessarily be confined.

[Illustration: ALPACAS

A semi-domesticated animal resembling sheep, and yielding a long, fine
wool, usually brown or black]

[Illustration: GROUP OF LLAMAS IN JULIACA]


_When the Spanish Came_

When the Spaniards arrived, the little kingdom of Cuzco had already
grown to an empire that extended to the equator on the north, and was
bounded on the south by the River Maule (mä´-oo-lay) in southern Chile
(chee´-lay). On the west it extended to the Pacific Ocean, and on the
east faded away in the torrid forests of the Amazon and the rolling
hills of the Argentine uplands. The Incas had succeeded in conquering
the many tribes scattered over this whole region, and for the most part
had enforced the use of their own language, the Quichua (kee´-choo-a).
They had evolved a system of government which, expanding from that of
a village community, had met the needs of a vast empire; and they had
done it so gradually that the inhabitants at large had been conscious
of little change save in the direction of increased prosperity and
security.

[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU RUINS

General view, showing growth covering ruins]


_Inca Government and Religion_

The Inca government was a despotism. The Inca--the chief magistrate of
the dominant tribe--had absolute powers, and as a direct descendant of
the Sun was also vested with sacred attributes. Surrounding him and
under him were his immediate family. His official wife was his sister,
and from their offspring was chosen the successor of the Inca. The
elder was usually designated, although this rule was broken in several
instances where the younger brother seemed more able. Next in the
social scale were the nobles, or _orejones_ (o-ray-ho´-naze), as they
were called by the Spaniards. These officials wore very large earrings.
The lobe of the ear was often distorted so that ornaments several
inches in diameter were inserted. Under the _orejones_ came the
_caracas_ (cä-rä´-cäs), or inspectors, who had charge of the census,
the estimation of local resources, and the imposition and collection
of tribute. Their work was chiefly administrative, and the actual
government was left to district magistrates and judges, who acted as
tax-collectors also. Finally, there were the common people. These were
divided for military purposes into 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s, and
the mobilization of the Inca armies was almost Teutonic in its ease and
precision.

[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO--The Town and Fortress]

As might be expected, the Inca religion included the worship of many
things. The priestly historians always characterize it as extremely
vile; but those of Inca ancestry insist that it was remarkably pure and
spiritual, consisting of only one true worship, that of the Sun. Only
those that have experienced life in the Peruvian highlands and have
endured the enervation of its cold altitudes can realize how certainly
must the early peoples have turned to the worship of that force which
alone makes life endurable or possible on the Peruvian plateau.

The places of worship were usually temples, so located as to catch the
first rays of the rising sun. _Huacas_ (wä´-käs), such as large rocks
or springs, were, of course, worshiped where they were situated, and
oft-times were surrounded by temples. In the case of stones, shelves or
platforms were carved, on which the priests stood while making their
offerings to the Sun god.

The worship was carried on by priests and _mamaconas_ (mä-mä-ko´-näs),
the latter, the priestesses, directed the lives of the virgins of the
Sun. The most beautiful girls of the kingdom were gathered together
from all parts of the land. The most attractive became the wives of the
Inca, after they had passed through a severe training in the various
feminine arts; others took the vows and became _mamaconas_, while the
rest either became wives of the nobles or were sent back to their homes.

[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU

Sacred Plaza and Intihuatana Hill]

[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO--The Fortress]

Many different feasts were celebrated, the most famous being those of
Intip Raymi (een´-teep rye´-mee) and Situa (see´-too-a). The former was
celebrated in June at the winter solstice, the object being to secure
the return of the Sun. It lasted for nine days, was celebrated by all
the ruling caste, and was always successful. Situa was celebrated
in August, and the movable _huacas_ were transported to Cuzco from
all over the empire. There were also many feasts of local and family
significance, as those of name-giving and adolescence.

The rites of worship were sacrifice, prayers, confession, and fasting.
Although there has been a great deal of controversy over this point,
it is generally accepted that, unlike the Mexican peoples, the Incas
did not make human sacrifices. Offerings of food, libations and
animal sacrifices were the customary procedure. Some of the Inca
prayers which have come down to us are remarkable for their beauty
and spiritual qualities. Confession was made to a priest. Fasting was
usually observed by those desirous of entering some sacred spot, as at
the end of a pilgrimage, and is said to have been at times of twenty
days’ duration. The more famous pilgrimages were those to Pachacamac
(pä-chä-kä´-mac) and Titicaca.


_Peasant and Labor Conditions_

[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO

Lower terrace of Fortress]

“The condition of the peasant in Peru,” summarizes Mr. T. A. Joyce,
“approximated nearer to the ideals of the doctrinaire socialist than
in any country of the world. But it was at a price which, perhaps,
the native of no other country would consent to pay. From the cradle
to the grave the life of the individual was marked out for him; as he
was born, so would he die, and he lived his allotted span under the
ceaseless supervision of officials. His dress was fixed according to
his district; he might not leave his village except at the bidding of
the state, and then only for state purposes; he might not even seek
a wife outside of his own community. An individual of ability might,
perhaps, rise to be one of the subordinate inspectors, but the higher
ranks were inexorably closed to him.”

[Illustration: THE CONCACHA STONE

A famous “Huaca” (meaning “holy”). The name was applied to material
objects, such as rocks, etc., which were worshiped]

Because of this despotism, which placed all the labor in the hands
of the state, the Incas were able to achieve marvels in the way of
building, road-making, irrigation works, and agricultural engineering.
Inherently an agricultural people, the greatest efforts of the ancient
Peruvians seem to have been exerted, not in building tombs for the
dead, as did the Egyptians, but in making conditions better for the
living. It is true that a great deal of labor was expended on the
wonderful palaces of their rulers. Each successive Inca thought it
necessary to rear an edifice for himself. But the greater part was
employed for the benefit of the country as a whole, in irrigation and
other projects. Water was brought many miles, and regions which today
are desolate through the Spaniards’ failure to keep in repair the
ditches and canals were flourishing agricultural communities in the
days of the Incas. Rampant streams that threatened to destroy fertile
valleys were penned within stone walls. Roads made throughout the whole
dominion were useful, of course, for the transportation of troops, but
especially valuable because the intershipment of crops was thereby made
easy.

[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU

Intihuatana Hill and Stairway]


_Agriculture and Architecture_

As might be expected in a mountainous country, where a wide stretch of
level ground is but seldom encountered, the construction of miles upon
miles of terraces was necessary. “Many <DW72>s,” writes Mr. O. F. Cook,
of the United States Department of Agriculture, “have more than fifty
terraces, forming huge staircases as high as the Washington Monument,
resting against the lower <DW72>s of mountains that tower thousands of
feet above.”

[Illustration: RUINS ON KOATI ISLAND

The famous Island of the Moon]

The stonework of the prehistoric builders excites the wonder and
admiration of the beholder--admiration for the grand and beautiful
simplicity of the Inca masonry, wonder as to the methods employed in
its accomplishment. What the means were we do not know--at best we
can only conjecture. The modern Indians--in fact, many of the upper
class of Peruvians--prefer to explain it by magical methods, such as
softening the rocks by rubbing them with the juice of some plant or
fruit. Only the combined labor of hundreds of people, understanding the
lever and the inclined plane, could have moved some of the huge rocks
that form many of the walls. And moving them would be the easiest part
of the work. How they succeeded in fitting these monoliths together, so
that in places the joints are too fine for the naked eye to discern,
is quite beyond the ken of the modern stone-worker. Formerly it was
thought that the larger terraces were chiefly for defensive purposes;
but the fact that these, as well as those more plainly agricultural
in character, show the underlying strata of stones to be covered with
fine agricultural soils that must have been brought from a distance,
would indicate, according to some of our scientists, that these also
were used to produce crops. The importance attached to agriculture can
be understood from the fact that the majority of the terraces equal in
fineness of masonry even the palaces of the Incas. Lacking timber, the
Incas used stone as the chief building material, and, although they had
not evolved the pure arch, they had learned to secure strength through
the keying together of irregular blocks, and, as Dr. Bingham writes,
“had developed many ingenious devices, such as lock-holes for fastening
a bar back of the door; ringstones, which were inserted in the gables
to enable the rafters to be tied on; and projecting cylinder stones,
which could be used as points to which to tie the roof and keep it from
blowing off.”

[Illustration: RUINS OF TORONTOY

Showing window, a projecting cylinder stone and lock-hole]

Sculpture existed only in a rude form, and the decoration of Inca
pottery did not equal that of the coast people. Their ceramic products
are marked by simple and graceful lines, rather Grecian in effect, and
of striking simplicity and utility. They had arrived at a high degree
of skill in the manufacture of textiles, for the _llama_ and _alpaca_
provided them with excellent raw material.

Although they were unfamiliar with refined methods of heat treatment,
and so were compelled to sacrifice extra hardness and strength by
increasing the tin content, they had learned the art of cold working,
and produced many kinds of bronze implements. Some of these were of an
excellent temper, and, together with obsidian knives, were used for
trepanning. Inca methods of warfare, the use of slings and war clubs,
naturally caused many wounds which could be relieved only by such
operations.

In war their skill was defensive rather than offensive. They built
salients and re-entrant angles in their walls, and dry moats are often
encountered.

They domesticated the South American camel (the _llama_), which
enabled them to carry out engineering and agricultural works far more
difficult than they could have accomplished had they been obliged to
depend on human bearers. In addition to maize, potatoes, and cassava,
they had many other important crops, such as pineapples, peanuts, and
cotton. Great is the treasure of precious and base metals which has
come, and is to come, from Peru. But that sinks into insignificance
beside the value of one corn and potato crop throughout the world.
And in the future it seems not at all unlikely that the Incas, famous
for centuries for their system of government, their masonry, and the
treasures which the Spaniards took from them, will be yet more famous
for the extent to which they developed agriculture.

[Illustration: RUINS OF TORONTOY

The man is seated on a carved rock, probably an altar]

[Illustration: INCA IMPLEMENTS]

       *       *       *       *       *

We can do no better, in closing this account of the old Peruvian
empire, than to quote from Mr. Prescott’s imperishable work, “The
Conquest of Peru,” the following summary of the characteristics of Inca
culture:

“Under the rule of the Incas, the meanest of the people enjoyed a
far greater degree of personal comfort than was possessed by similar
classes in other nations on the American continent--greater probably,
than in feudal Europe. Under their scepter, the higher order of the
state had made advances in many of the arts that belong to a cultivated
community. By the well-sustained policy of the Incas, the rude tribes
of the forest were gradually gathered within the folds of civilization,
and of these materials was constructed a flourishing and populous
empire, such as was to be found in no other part of America.”

[Illustration: INCA POTTERY AND INSTRUMENTS]


_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_

  EARLY MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA                          _By Ales Hrlicka_
  Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 52

  HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF PERU                   _By W. H. Prescott_

  THE INCAS OF PERU                        _By Sir Clements R. Markham_

  SOUTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY                        _By Thomas A. Joyce_

  STAIRCASE FARMS OF THE ANCIENTS                       _By O. F. Cook_
  National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5

  FURTHER EXPLORATIONS IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS  _By Dr. Hiram Bingham_
  National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5

  THE STORY OF MACHU PICCHU                      _By Dr. Hiram Bingham_
  National Geographic Magazine, Volume 27, No. 2




THE OPEN LETTER


[Illustration: MONOLITHIC GATEWAY AT TIAHUANACO]

We are indebted to Dr. Hiram Bingham and his Peruvian Expeditions for
the interesting picture material in this number of The Mentor. Dr.
Bingham (Lieut.-Colonel Bingham) became interested in South America
when he was in Yale University, and in 1906 he took an expedition over
the historic march of Bolivar from Venezuela to Colombia. Two years
later, when Colonel Bingham was appointed a delegate to the first Pan
American Scientific Congress at Santiago, Chile, he went there by
way of Bolivia and Peru, and, while in Peru, he visited the ruins of
Choqquequirau (meaning the “cradle of gold”), said to be the last home
of the Incas.

       *       *       *       *       *

Colonel Bingham’s studies led him to think that the legend was wrong.
So, in 1911, he set off to Peru, with a party of six, his objects
being to hunt for “Vitcos” (the name of the last home of the Incas)
and to make an ascent of Corropuna, reputed to be a rival of Aconcagua
for the honor of being the highest mountain in South America. The
expedition was very successful. Corropuna was scaled, and found to be
somewhat lower than Aconcagua. Vitcos was found at Rosaspata and not at
Choqquequirau. The reputed bottomless lake of Parinaccochas was found
to be no more than four feet in depth, and, best of all, Machu Picchu
was discovered.

       *       *       *       *       *

All this was so important that the National Geographic Society decided
to assist in another expedition to carry on the good work. Accordingly,
the Peruvian Expedition of 1912, under the auspices of Yale University
and the National Geographic Society, was sent out. It cleared the way,
photographed and mapped Machu Picchu, and made many other explorations.
A report of this expedition was received with so much interest, and the
pictures were considered so beautiful, that the Peruvian Expedition
of 1914-1915 was organized under the same auspices. This expedition
accomplished a great amount of additional work in the way of map making
and archeological research, collecting flora and fauna from districts
previously unvisited, and determining the location of several rivers.

       *       *       *       *       *

A vast amount of important historical material has been gathered by
these expeditions, and The Mentor is very fortunate in being permitted
to use photographs collected in the course of the expeditions, and in
having a member of the party as author of this article. In connection
with Mr. Hardy’s account of the Incas, Colonel Bingham writes to The
Mentor as follows:

    “Within the confines of the ancient Inca empire, the
    archeologist can find a field for work, which, in the beauty of
    its natural surroundings, and the healthfulness of its climate,
    together with the interest lent by the present-day inhabitants,
    is equal, if not superior to, any other part of the earth’s
    surface.

    “In the past, its comparative inaccessibility has been a very
    great deterrent to systematic work in the regions once occupied
    by the Incas. Now, better steamship connections with the rest
    of the world, and increasing railway mileage within, have
    greatly lessened the transportation difficulties.

    “The solution of the problem of man in the Andes has only
    begun, and it is to be hoped that American students will have
    many future opportunities to enter this field of research.”

[Illustration: W. D. Moffat

EDITOR]




The Mentor on the Ranch


I want to let you know how this little ranch-woman has enjoyed her part
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Mentor all profit and success in the good work it is doing in bringing
people nearer to the real, big things of the world.

                                   MRS. C. R. DEAN, Lincoln, New Mexico


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End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mentor: The Incas, vol. 6, num. 3,
Serial No. 151, March 15, 1918, by Osgood Hardy

*** 