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[Illustration: TOTEMIC WRITING
 INDIAN PETITION TO THE UNITED STATES CONGRESS
(_see page 68_)]




       THE STORY OF THE ALPHABET

            BY EDWARD CLODD

  AUTHOR OF
           "THE STORY OF PRIMITIVE MAN",
           "PIONEERS OF EVOLUTION",
           "THE STORY OF CREATION",
            ETC. ETC.

      "_The two greatest inventions of the human mind_
  _are writing and money--the common language of intelligence_,
  _and the common language of self-interest._"--
                                                 MARQUIS DE MIRABEAU.

       WITH NINETY ILLUSTRATIONS

                 LONDON
         GEORGE NEWNES, LIMITED
        SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND

                  1900

  THIS LITTLE HISTORY OF A B C
  IS DEDICATED TO DOROTHY DAY
  BY HER LOVING GRANDFATHER




PREFACE

If this little book does not supply a want, it fills, however
imperfectly, a gap; for the only work in the English language on the
subject--Canon Isaac Taylor's "History of the Alphabet"--is necessarily
charged with a mass of technical detail which is stiff reading even
for the student of graphiology. Moreover, invaluable and indispensable
as is that work, it furnishes only a meagre account of those primitive
stages of the art of writing, knowledge of which is essential for
tracing the development of that art, so that its place in the general
evolution of human inventions is made clear. Prominence is therefore
given to this branch of the subject in the following pages.

In the recent reprint of Canon Taylor's book no reference occurs to
the important materials collected by Professor Flinders Petrie and
Mr. Arthur J. Evans in Egypt and Crete, the result of which is to
revolutionise the old theory of the source of the Alphabet whence our
own and others are derived. This opens up a big question for experts
to settle; and here it must suffice to present a statement of the new
evidence, and to point out its significance, so that the reader be
not taken into the troubled atmosphere of controversy. That he may,
further, not be distracted by footnotes, references to the authorities
cited are printed in the text.

                                   E. C.

  ROSEMONT, 19 CARLETON ROAD,
          TUFNELL PARK, N.




                           CONTENTS

  CHAP.                                                PAGE
     I. INTRODUCTORY                                      9

    II. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ALPHABET                   23

   III. MEMORY-AIDS AND PICTURE-WRITING                  37
           (_a_) Mnemonic                                39
           (_b_) Pictorial                               51
           (_c_) Ideographic                             72
           (_d_) Phonetic                                79

    IV. CHINESE, JAPANESE, AND COREAN SCRIPTS            82

     V. CUNEIFORM WRITING                                89

    VI. EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS                          113
           (_a_) Hieroglyphic Writing                   115
           (_b_) Hieratic Writing                       125
           (_c_) Demotic Writing                        127

   VII. THE ROSETTA STONE                               128

  VIII. EGYPTIAN WRITING IN ITS RELATION
         TO OTHER SCRIPTS                               134

    IX. CRETAN AND ALLIED SCRIPTS                       157

     X. GREEK PAPYRI                                    198
         The Diffusion of the "Phœnician" Alphabet--
           (_a_) Aramean                                207
           (_b_) Sabean                                 212
           (_c_) Hellenic                               213

    XI. RUNES AND OGAMS                                 223

   INDEX                                                229




                   LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

 _Indian Petition to the United States Congress_ Frontispiece

 FIG.                                                         PAGE
  1.    _Magical Pictograph against Stings_                    18
  2.   _Magical Device against Skin Disease_                   20
  3.   _Aboriginal Rock Carvings (Australia)_                  27
  3a.  _Aboriginal Rock Paintings (Australia)_                 28
  4.   _Bushman Paintings_                                     30
  4a.  _Bushman Paintings_                                     31
  4b.  _Specimen of Bushmen Rock Sculptures_                   32
  4c.  _Engravings found on Rocks in Algeria_                  33
  5.   _Bushman Rain-Charm_                                    34
  6.   _Semang Rain-Charm_                                     35
  6a.  _Record of Expedition_                                  35
  6b.  _Various Types of the Human Form_                       36
  7.   _Quipu, for Reckoning, &c._                             40
  8.   _Double Calumet Wampum_                                 48
  9.   _Double Calumet Council Hearth_                         48
  10.  _Jesuit Missionary Wampum_                              49
  11.  _Four Nations' Alliance Wampum_                         49
  11a. _Penn Wampum_                                           50
  12,13. _Indian Grave-posts_                                  53
  14.  _Tomb-board of Indian Chief_                            54
  15.  _Hunter's Grave-post_                                   55
  16.  _A Cadger's Map of a Begging District_                  57
  17.  _Ojibwa Love-letter_                                    58
  18.  _Love-song_                                             58
  19.  _Mnemonic Song of an Ojibwa Medicine-man_               59
  20.  _Wâbeno destroying an Enemy_                            61
  21.  _Etching on Innuit Drill-bow_                           62
  22.  _Ojibwa Hunting Record_                                 62
  23.  _Hidatsa Pictograph on a Buffalo Shoulder-blade_        63
  24.  _Alaskan Hunting Record_                                64
  25.  _Record of Starving Hunter_                             64
  26.  _Alaskan Hunting Life_                                  66
  27.  _Indian Expedition_                                     67
  28.  _Biography of Indian Chief_                             67
  29.  _War-song_                                              68
  30.  _Letter offering Treaty of Peace_                       70
  31.  _Census Roll of an Indian Band_                         71
  32.  _Record of Departure (Innuit)_                          72
  33.  _Statue from Palenque_                                  76
  34.  _Itzcoatl_                                              80
  35.  _Rebus of Itzcoatl_                                     80
  36.  _Paternoster Rebus_                                     81
  37.  _Chinese Picture-writing and Later Uncial_              83
  38.  _Chinese and Tibetan Triglot_                           88
  39.  _Rock Inscription at Behistun_                          95
  40.  _Cylinder Seal of Sargon I._                           107
  41.  _Tell-el-Amarna Tablet_                                109
  42.  _First Creation Tablet_                                110
  43,44. _Deluge Tablet_ (_Chaldean Epic_)                    111
  45.  _Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic Signs for Man_    115
  46.  _Comparative Ideographs_                               122
  47.  _Ptolemy_                                              131
  48.  _Cleopatra_                                            131
  49.  _Kaisars_ (_Cæsar_)--_A. Takrtr_ (_Autokrator_)        131
  50.  _Facsimile of Hieratic Papyrus Prisse_                 140
  51.  _Inscription on the Eshmunazar Sarcophagus_            141
  52.  _Inscription on Sacred Bowls_ (_Baal Lebanon_)         146
  53.  _The Moabite Stone_                                    147
  54.  _Maneh Weight_                                         150
  55.  _Vase with Incised Characters_ (_Crete_)               161
  56.  _Incised Characters on Cup_ (_Crete_)                  161
  57.  _Characters on Vase_ (_Crete_)                         162
  58.  _Signs on Bronze Axe (Delphi)_                         162
  59.  _Signs on Blocks of Mycenæan Buildings_ (_Knôsos_)     163
  60.  _Symbols on Three-sided Cornelian_ (_Crete_)           165
  61.  _Symbols on Four-sided Stone_ (_Crete_)                165
  62.  _Symbols on Four-sided Stones, with larger faces_
          (_Central Crete_)                                   166
  63.  _Symbol on Single-faced Cornelian_ (_Eastern Crete_)   166
  64.  _Symbol on Stone of ordinary Mycenæan type_ (_Athens_) 166
  65.  _Egyptian Scarabs, XIIth Dynasty_
            --_Early Cretan Seal-stones_                      178
  66.  _Signs on Potsherds at Tell-el-Hesy_
             _compared with Ægean Forms_                      179
  67.  _Hittite Inscription at Hamah_                         181
  68.  _Signs on Vase-handle_ (_Mycenæ_)                      183
  69.  _Signs on Amphora-handle_ (_Mycenæ_)                   183

Acknowledgments are gratefully tendered to Messrs. Macmillan, Messrs.
Longmans, Mr. John Murray, Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode, Mr. Edward
Arnold, Messrs. Witherby, the Cambridge University Press, and the
Anthropological Institute for permission to reproduce Illustrations
from their several publications.




THE STORY OF THE ALPHABET




CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

"What is ever seen is never seen," and it may be questioned if one
in ten thousand of the readers of to-day ever pauses to ask what is
the history of the conventional signs called the ALPHABET,
which, in their varying changes of position, make up the symbols of the
hundred thousand words and more contained in a comprehensive dictionary
of the English tongue.

Professor Max Müller says that "by putting together twenty-three or
twenty-four letters in every possible variety. We might produce every
word that has ever been used in any language of the world. The number
of these words, taking twenty-three letters as the basis, would be
25,852,016,738,884,976,640,000, or, if we took twenty-four, would be
620,448,401,733,239,439,360,000; but," as the Professor warns us,
in words the force of which will be manifest later on, "even these
trillions, billions, and millions of sounds would not be words,
because they would lack the most important ingredient--that which makes
a word to be a word--namely, the different ideas by which they were
called into life, and which are expressed differently in different
languages."


(_Lectures on Language_, ii. 81.)

These words themselves, as will also be shown concerning the
ear-pictures by which they are represented, reveal in their analysis a
story of the deepest interest. In the happy simile quoted by the late
Archbishop Trench in his _Study of Words_, they are "fossil history,"
and, as he adds, "fossil poetry and fossil ethics" also. To cite a few
examples, more or less apposite to our subject, "book" is probably from
the Anglo-Saxon _bóc_, a "beech," tablets of the bark of that tree
being one of the substances on which written characters were inscribed.
Parallel to this are the words "library" and "libel," both derived from
the Latin _liber_, the inner bark or rind of a tree used for paper;
while, as everybody knows, the word "paper" preserves the history of
the manufacture of writing material in Egypt from the pith of the
papyrus reed, the use of which goes back, as will be shown hereafter,
to a high antiquity, and the classic name of which, _biblos_, has
been applied to "bible." "Code" is derived from the Latin _codex_,
"a tree-trunk"; "letters" comes through the French _lettre_ from the
Latin _lino_, _litum_, "to daub" or "besmear," an early mode of writing
being the graving of characters on tablets smeared with wax. "Tablet"
is the diminutive of "table," which comes from the Latin _tabula_,
"a board," and the ancient writing instrument, called a _stylus_,
illustrates the passage of language from the concrete to the abstract
in its application to the way in which a writer expresses his ideas.
We speak of his "style," just as we say "he wields an able pen," this
word being derived from the Latin _penna_, "a feather." The phrase
_lapsus calami_, "a slip of the pen," preserves record of the use of
the reed (Latin _calamus_), which also survives in "quill," from Old
English _quylle_, "a reed." But the metal pen has a longer history than
was suspected, since Dr. Waldstein has found one, cut and slit like
our modern specimens, in a tomb of the third century B.C.,
at Eretria in the island of Eubœa in the Ægean. "Volume," from Latin
_volumen_, "a roll," tells us what was the usual form of books in
ancient times, the old form of preservation and custody of legal
records surviving in "Rolls of Court," "Master of the Rolls," and so
forth. So in "diploma," which, literally, is a paper folded double,
from Greek _diploō_, "to fold." Both "diplomacy" and "duplicity" mean
"doubling," but the force of the parallel may not be pursued here.
Finally--for the list might be extended indefinitely--"parchment" is
borrowed from Pergamus, a town in Asia Minor, where skin came into
general use, Ptolemy V. (205-185 B.C.), so runs a doubtful
story told by Pliny, having prohibited the export of papyrus from Egypt.

As words, under the analyses now indicated, yield the history of their
origin and of the changes both in spelling and meaning which follow
their passage from older forms, and likewise reveal the reasons which
governed the choice of them, so the letters of which they are made
up bear witness to similar laws of development. The story which it
is the purpose of this little book to endeavour to extract from them
has mutilated and imperfect chapters, and, moreover, missing chapters
which may never be recovered. But sufficing material survives for
piecing together a narrative of the triumph of the human mind over
one of the most difficult tasks to which it could apply itself; a
task which, unwrought, would have made advance in the highest sense
impossible beyond a certain point. In the highest sense, because man
has gone a long way without knowledge either of reading or writing.
These "two R's" are not necessary in matters of personal contact with
his fellows, while in other ways progress is independent of them. An
illiterate man may be an accomplished landscape artist, a skilful
engineer, a successful farmer or trader, and prosperous in many ways
where the aim of life is to "live by bread alone." It is true that
much of the intellectual and spiritual record of man's past was long
preserved in the form of oral tradition. But to the volume of such
record there is a limit, while time and caprice alike work havoc in
it. Memory, great as was its capacity of old, before dependence on
books impaired it, was not infallible, nor, as the world's stock of
knowledge increased, could it "pull down its barns and build greater
wherein to bestow its goods." We have, by an effort of the imagination
well-nigh impossible to make, only to assume the absence of any means
of material record of the involved and myriad events which fill the
world's past, to conceive the intellectual poverty of the present.
We have only to assume the absence of any medium whereby we could
communicate with friends at a distance, or whereby the now complex and
countless dealings between man and man could be set down and every
transaction thus "brought to book," to realise the hopeless tangle of
our social life. All that memory failed to overlap would be an absolute
blank; the dateless and otherwise uninscribed monuments which the past
had left behind would but deepen the darkness; all knowledge of the
strivings and speculations of men of old would have been unattainable;
all observation and experience through which science has advanced from
guesses to certainties irretrievably lost; life could have been lived
only from "hand to mouth," and the spectacle presented of an arrested
world of sentient beings. Save in fragmentary echoes repeated by
fugitive bards, the great epics of East and West would have perished,
and the immortal literatures of successive ages never have existed. The
invention of writing alone made possible the passage from barbarism to
civilisation, and secured the continuous progress of the human race.
It is solely through the marvellous perfecting, through stages of slow
advance, of a scripture that "cannot be broken," that the past is as
eloquent, as real, as the present. "The pen is mightier than the sword"
in accumulating and preserving for both gentle and simple the store of
the world's intellectual wealth, unto which "all the things that can be
desired are not to be compared."

These reflections are commonplace enough, but they may not be wholly
needless, and an example or two of the impression made on the barbaric
mind by written symbols may help us the better to appreciate what our
case would be without them. In the narrative of his adventures in the
Tonga Islands, published about ninety years ago, William Mariner tells
how anxiety to escape from the place where, on the wreck of the ship
_Port au Prince_, he and some other Englishmen had been cast ashore,
led him to write, by means of a solution of gunpowder and a little
mucilage for ink, a letter which he entrusted to a friendly native to
give to the captain of any vessel that might happen to touch at Tonga.
Finow, the king, came to hear of this, and got hold of the letter. But
he could make "neither head nor tail" of it. However, by threats of
death if he refused, one of Mariner's shipmates was made to interpret
the mystic signs to Finow, who, still puzzled, sent for Mariner and
ordered him to write down something else, saying, when Mariner asked
for a subject, "Put down me." This done, Finow sent for another
sailor, who read the royal name aloud, whereupon the king appeared
more bewildered than ever, exclaiming. "This not like me; where are
my legs?" Then it slowly dawned upon him that it was possible to make
signs of things which both the writer and the interpreter had seen.
But the bewilderment returned when Mariner told him that he could
write down a description of any one whom he had never seen, or of an
event which happened long ago or far away, when these were told him.
Thereupon Finow whispered to him the name of Tongoo Aho, a former king
of Tonga, who, it had come to Mariner's knowledge, was blind in one
eye. When Mariner set these things down, and the king had them read
to him, it was explained that "in several parts of the world messages
were sent to great distances through the same medium, and, being folded
and fastened up, the bearer could know nothing of the contents; and
that the histories of whole nations were thus handed down to posterity
without spoiling by being kept. Finow acknowledged this to be a most
noble invention, but added that it would not at all do for the Tonga
Islands; that there would be nothing but disturbances and conspiracies,
and he should not be sure of his life perhaps another month. He said,
however, jocularly, that he should like to know it himself, and for
all the women to know it, that he might make love with less risk
of discovery, and not so much chance of incurring the vengeance of
their husbands." (Mariner's _Tonga Islands_, i. 116, ed. 1827.) The
_Smithsonian Reports_, 1864, tell a story of an Indian who was sent by
a missionary to a colleague with four loaves of bread, accompanied by
a letter stating their number. The Indian ate one of the loaves, and
was, of course, found out. He was sent on a similar errand and repeated
the theft, but took the precaution to hide the letter under a stone
while he was eating the bread, so that it might not see him!

Barbaric ideas fall into fundamentally-related groups, and the examples
just given are connected with the widespread belief in the efficacy
of written characters to work black or white magic, to effect cures,
and otherwise act as charms--a belief largely derived from the legends
which ascribe the origin of writing to the gods--legends themselves
the product of Ignorance, the mother of Mystery. In an Assyrian
inscription, Sardanapalus V. speaks of the cuneiform or wedge-shaped
characters as a revelation to his royal ancestors from the god Nebo;
among the Egyptians, Thoth was the scribe of the gods, and their oldest
forms of writing were named "the divine." Chinese tradition ascribes
the invention of writing to the dragon-faced, four-eyed sage Ts'ang
Chien, who saw in the stars of heaven, the footprints of birds, and the
marks on the back of the tortoise, the models on which he formed the
written characters. At this invention "heaven caused showers of grain
to descend from on high; the disembodied spirits wept in the darkness,
and the dragons withdrew themselves from sight." On the altars raised
to Ts'ang Chien throughout the Celestial Land, every scrap of fugitive
paper which has writing on it is burned in his honour. In Hindu legend,
Brahma, the supreme god of the Indian Trinity, gives knowledge of
letters to men; and Nâgari, in which alphabet the sacred books are
written, is spoken of as "belonging to the city of the gods." The
handwriting of Brahma, legend further says, is seen in the serrated
sutures of men's skulls; and as Yahweh or Jehovah wrote the "Ten Words"
with his own finger, so Brahma inscribed the holy texts of the Veda
on leaves of gold. The story of the culture-hero, Cadmus, introducing
the alphabet from Phœnicia into Greece is well known; while in Irish
legend, Ogmios, the Gaelish Hercules, is familiar as the inventor of
writing. But perhaps less familiar is that in the Northern Saga which
attributes the invention of runes to Odin:--

    "Thought-runes shalt thou deal with
    If thou wilt be of all men
    Fairest-souled, wight and wisest.
    These are ded,
    These first cut,
    These first took to heart high Hropt." (Odin.)

Belief in the power of the spoken word, notably as a curse, has
world-wide illustration; and not less is that in the power of the
written word or of the pictorial symbol. Cabalistic formulæ and
texts from sacred writings play a large part; the virtue in Jewish
phylacteries and frontlets was believed to depend on the texts which
they enclosed; the amulets worn by Abyssinians to avert the evil
eye and ward off demons have the secret name of God chased on them;
passages from the Koran are enclosed in bags and hung on Turkish and
Arab horses to protect them against like maleficence; prayers to the
Madonna are slipped into charm-cases to be worn by the Neapolitans;
while not so many years back (indeed, so persistent are superstitions,
that kindred practices obtain throughout Europe to this day) sick folk
in the Highlands were fanned with the leaves of the Bible.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Magical Pictograph against Stings]

In his instructive and entertaining book on _Evolution in Art_,
Professor Haddon refers to a series of valuable observations on the
use of picture-writing as a charm against diseases and stings of
venomous animals, among the Semang tribes of East Malacca, made by Mr.
H. Vaughan Stevens, and edited by Mr. A. Grünwedel. The women wear
bamboo combs on which are drawn patterns of flowers or parts of flowers
believed to be antidotes to fevers and other invisible diseases; for
injuries and wounds such as those caused by a falling bough in the
jungle, or the bite of a centipede, other means are employed. Among the
magic-working devices incised in bamboo staves by the Semang magicians,
Mr. Vaughan Stevens gives illustrations of one against the stings
of scorpions and centipedes (fig. 1), and of another against a skin
disease (fig. 2).

In the first-named there is depicted the figure of an Argus pheasant,
the wheel-like patterns beneath which represent the eye-marks in the
tail-feathers. On the left is an orange- centipede, the head
of which points to the tail of the pheasant. The dotted lines round
the centipede are tracks which it leaves on a man's skin. On the other
side of the Argus are two blue scorpions, the figures at the end of
their tails representing a swelling in the flesh of the persons stung
by them. The female of this kind of scorpion is more poisonous than the
male, and is said to cause double stings, which are denoted by the two
rows of dots in the top figure. "The significance of this bamboo is
that as the Argus pheasant feeds on centipedes and scorpions, so its
help is invoked against them by striking the bamboo against the ground."

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Magical Device against Skin Disease]

The other example, which exhibits a much more complicated and
conventionalised device, is designed as a charm against two kinds of
skin disease, the one represented by fish scales indicating leprous
white ulcers, the other represented by oval figures indicating hard
knots on and under the skin. The rows stand for the several parts
of the body which are affected, and the figures increase in size to
show that the disease will spread if not cured. Although the way in
which the charm is applied is not clear, there is no doubt that belief
in its virtue belongs to the large class of barbaric ideas grouped
under sympathetic magic, _i.e._ that things outwardly resembling
one another are thought by the barbaric or illiterate to possess
the same qualities. The result is that effects are brought about
in the individual himself by the production of similar effects in
things belonging to him, or, what is more to the purpose, in images
or effigies of him. Here it suffices to say that the most familiar
examples of "sympathetic magic" are the making of an image of the
person whose destruction is sought, of wax, clay, or other substance,
so that as the wax is melted, or the clay dissolved in running water,
his life may decline or wear away to its doom. Such examples are
gathered alike from civilised and barbaric folk, from Devonshire and
the Highlands to North America and Borneo.

Things are invested with mystery in the degree that their origins and
causes are unknown; and the beliefs and customs, of which a few among
the teeming illustrations have been given, invite the reflection that,
had writing remained the monopoly of any caste or class, it would
have remained an engine of enslavement, instead of becoming an engine
of liberation of the mind. "Knowledge is power," and whatever has
ensured the possession and the retention of power over his fellows has
been seized upon by man--notably by man as priest, from medicine-man
to Pope, as wielder of weapons of authority, the more dreaded when
unseen or intangible. Signs which were unadapted, and, things being
what they then were, impossible, for general use, and moreover needing
great expenditure of time and labour to master them, would come under
this head, and it was only through their ultimate simplification
that they could become serviceable to the many, and made vehicles of
the diffusion of knowledge. How monstrous and penal an instrument of
inequality learning itself long continued among ourselves is shown in
the fact that "benefit of clergy"--one among many evidences of the old
conflict between the civil and the sacerdotal powers--was not wholly
repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute, exemption from trial
for criminal offences before secular courts was extended, by law passed
in the reign of Edward I., not only to ecclesiastics, but to any man
who could read. A prisoner sentenced to death might be claimed by
the bishop of the diocese as a clerk and haled before him, when the
ordinary gave the man a Latin book from which to read a verse or two.
If the ordinary said "Legit ut clericus"--_i.e._ "he reads like a
clerk"--the offender was only burnt in the hand, and then set free.




CHAPTER II

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ALPHABET

We may, without further preface, advance to our main purpose, which is
to supply an account of the stages through which the alphabets of the
civilised world passed before they reached their, practically, final
form. Here, as in aught else that the wit of man has devised and the
cunning of his hand applied, the law of development is seen at work. In
the quest for traces of any fundamental differences between him and the
animals to which he stands in nearest physical and psychical relation,
he has been variously described as tool-maker, fire-maker, possessor
of articulate speech, and so forth; but the further that observation
and comparison have been made, the more apparent has it become that
those differences are of degree and not of kind. Some evidence in
support of this has been already summarised in previous volumes of
this series; and here it suffices to say that it is in the inventive
arts, as _e.g._ the production of fire, of the mode of which nature
supplied the hints, and the making of pictorial signs, in which the
mimetic instinct, shared by some of the lower animals, comes into play,
that, restricting the comparison to things material, man appears upon
a higher plane. But this has been reached by processes of development
involving no break in the continuity of things.

In this "story" we start with man as sign-maker. His prehistoric
remains supply evidence of artistic capacity in a remote past, and set
before us in vigorous, rapid outline what his life and surroundings
must have been. On fragments of bone, horn, schist, and other
materials, the savage hunter of the Reindeer Period, using a pointed
flint flake, depicted alike himself and the wild animals which he
pursued. From cavern-floors of France, Belgium, and other parts of
Western Europe, whose deposits date from the old Stone Age, there have
been unearthed rude etchings of naked, hardy men brandishing spears at
wild horses, or creeping along the ground to hurl their weapons at the
urus, or wild ox, or at the woolly-haired elephant. A portrait of this
last named, showing the creature's shaggy ears, long hair, and upwardly
curved tusks, its feet being hidden in the surrounding high grass, is
one of the most famous examples of palæolithic art.

Here let us pause to say that the apparent absence of other indications
of man's presence, showing passage from lower to higher stages of
culture, led to the assumption that vast gaps have occurred in his
occupancy of north-western and other parts of Europe. The theory of
absolute disconnection between the Old Stone Age and the Newer Stone
Age long held the field, but it has disappeared before the evidence
against tenantless intervals of areas in prehistoric times. And so
with succeeding periods. There is no warrant for assuming entire
effacement of one race, with resulting clear field for the immigration
of another race; and modern archæological research is producing the
links which connect the rude art of Northern with that of Southern
Europe, and, what will be shown to be of great moment, with that of
the Eastern Mediterranean. The examples of this must remain rare,
since only pictographs on some durable material, or specimens of the
fictile art, would survive the action of time. But, happily, if they
are infrequent, they are widely distributed. For to those yielded by
the bone-caverns already referred to are to be added rock-carvings in
Denmark, and figures on limestone cliffs of the Maritime Alps; there
are curious graphic signs, suggestive to some eyes of a primitive
script, in the Marz d'Azil cave; while still more interesting are the
animal and fylfot or swastika-like figures (the swastika is a solar
symbol) "painted probably by early Slavonic hands on the face of a
rock overhanging a sacred grotto in a fiord of the Bocche di Cattaro."
To this last-named example, given by Mr. Arthur Evans in his paper on
"Primitive Pictographs" (_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xiv. ii. 1894)
may be added some pregnant remarks by the same authority. "When we
recall the spontaneous artistic qualities of the ancient race which
has left its records in the carvings on bone and ivory in the caves of
the 'Reindeer Period,' this evidence of at least partial continuity
on the northern shores of the Mediterranean suggests speculations
of the deepest interest. Overlaid with new elements, swamped in the
dull, though materially higher, Neolithic civilisation, may not the
old æsthetic faculties which made Europe the earliest-known home of
anything that can be called human art, as opposed to mere tools and
mechanical contrivances, have finally emancipated themselves once more
in the Southern regions, where the old stock most survived? In the
extraordinary manifestations of artistic genius to which, at widely
remote periods and under the most diverse political conditions, the
later populations of Greece and Italy have given birth, may we not be
allowed to trace the re-emergence, as it were, after long underground
meanderings, of streams whose upper waters had seen the daylight of
that earlier world?" (Presidential Address to the Anthropological
Section, British Association. _Nature_, 1st Oct. 1896.)

But man at the same stage of culture being everywhere practically the
same, there is, in the paucity of examples from the Europe of the
past, compensation in the specimens of graphic art found among extant
barbaric folk. It is probable that a good proportion of these lack
significance, but _the pictograph is the parent of the alphabet_, and
therefore the careful transcripts of rock and other paintings which
explorers have made may yet prove to be of value when interpreted
in the light of examples whose gradations have been traced. Since
the extinction of the Tasmanians, whom anthropologists regard as the
nearest approach to Palæolithic man, the Australians stand, in certain
respects, at the bottom of the scale, although the ingenuity of their
social organisations warrants hesitation in making them the nadir of
human kind. But as the reproductions show (figs. 3 and 3_a_), their
attempts at art are inferior to the spirited designs of the prehistoric
cave-dwellers.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Aboriginal Rock Carvings (Australia)]

[Illustration: Fig. 3_a_.--Aboriginal Rock Paintings (Australia)]

Mr. R. H. Mathews, who has made an extensive survey of the
rock-paintings and carvings, says that one type serves for another,
so lacking are all in variety; "the stencilled and impressed hands,
the outlines of men and animals rudely depicted in various colours,
appearing to be universally distributed over the continent." He adds
that "although it will be better not to attempt to suggest meanings
to the groups of native drawings until a very much larger amount of
information has been brought together ... still when we know that
drawings such as these by uncivilised nations of all times, in various
parts of the world, have ultimately been found to be full of meaning,
it is not unreasonable for us to expect that the strange figures
painted and carved upon rocks all over Australia will some day be
interpreted. Perhaps some of these pictures are ideographic expressions
of events in the history of the tribe; certain groupings of figures may
portray some legend; many of the animals probably represent totems;
and it is likely that a number of them were executed for pastime and
amusement." (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv. 2, p.
153.) In their recently published "Native Tribes of Central Australia,"
Messrs. Spencer and Gillen divide the rock-paintings into two series,
those of ordinary type, and those which, found in places strictly
taboo to women and children and uninitiated men, are associated with
totems, _i.e._ with the natural object, whether living or non-living,
from which the tribe believes itself to be descended. These totemistic
figures, called _Churinga_ (a general native term for sacred objects)
_Ilkinia_, are frequently in the form of spiral and concentric circles,
others being portraits of the totems themselves, as low in type as the
centipede or witchetty grub.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Bushman Paintings]

[Illustration: Fig. 4_a_.--Bushman Paintings]

The faces of sandstone caverns in South Africa are often covered with
paintings which are the handiwork of Bushmen (figs. 4, 4_a_, and
4_b_). With a skill showing some advance on the art of the Australian
aborigines there is depicted, usually in black or brownish-red colour,
the hunting and other exploits which make up life among a people
who represent the aboriginal races of the southern portion of the
continent. Some of the drawings border on caricature; others, in the
words of an observer, "suggest actual portraiture. The ornamentation
of the head-dresses, feathers, beads tassels, &c., seemed to have
claimed much care, while the higher class of drawings indicate correct
appreciation of the actual appearance of objects, and perspective and
foreshortening are well rendered." (Mark Hutchinson, _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xiv. p. 464.)

[Illustration: Fig. 4_b_.--Specimen of Bushmen Rock Sculptures]

[Illustration: Fig. 4_c_.--Engravings found on Rocks in Algeria
(compare with Bushmen type)]

These probably now degraded folk, who live on lizards, locusts, and
roots when other food fails, have a good store of legend and folk-lore.
Fig. 5 seems to portray their belief in "sympathetic magic," if, as
conjectured, it represents the dragging of an hippopotamus or other
amphibious animal across the land for the purpose of producing rain.
The Semangs of the Malay Peninsula use a bamboo rain-charm (fig. 6),
on which the wind-driven showers are depicted in oblique lines, and,
among many other examples wherein the higher and lower culture meet
together, there is one supplied by old Rome, where it was the custom to
throw images of the corn-spirit into the Tiber so that the crops might
be drenched with rain. As showing the persistency of superstitions,
here is a paragraph anent the severe drought in Russia last autumn:
"In another village of the district of Bugulma some moujiks opened
the grave of a peasant who had lately been buried, and then poured
water over the corpse, in the belief that this was the best method of
bringing rain."--_Daily Chronicle_, 24th August 1899.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Bushman Rain-Charm.]

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Semang Rain-Charm.]

[Illustration: Fig. 6_a_.--Record of Expedition.]

The New World is rich in ancient monuments often adorned with symbolic
devices, but older than these are the pictographs covering erratic
blocks and cliff escarpments from Guiana to Nova Scotia, and westward
to the Rockies. Some are incised in the hard stone to a depth of
half an inch; others are traced in broad lines of red ochre or other
colour, their weather-worn state witnessing to a high antiquity. Their
purpose is often not easy to explain, but we know that therein lie the
germs whence alphabets sprung. One picture (fig. 6_a_) on the face
of a rock on the shore of Lake Superior, copied and interpreted by
Schoolcraft, records an expedition across the lake, led by Myeengun,
or "Wolf," a noted Indian chief. The crew of each canoe is denoted by
a series of upright strokes, Myeengun's chief ally, Kishkemanusee,
the "Kingfisher," being in the first canoe. The arch with three
circles (three suns under heaven) shows that the voyage took three
days. The tortoise (a frequent symbol of "land" in North American
picture-writing) seems to indicate the arrival of the expedition, while
the picture of the mounted chief evidences that the event took place
after the introduction of horses into Canada. Some of the examples,
less easy to explain, represent the migration of tribes; some, like the
sculptured eagle near the borders of Quauhuahuac ("the place near the
eagle") are symbolic boundary-marks; while others are direction-marks.
Some have life-size human figures, rayed or horned; one engraved on a
rock overlooking the Big Harpeth, in Tennessee, depicts a sun visible
four miles off. Doubtless a large number of this class (fig. 6_b_) are
merely the outcome of that rude artistic fancy of man which, as has
been seen, has had continuous expression from prehistoric times.

[Illustration: Fig. 6_b_.--Various Types of the Human Form]




CHAPTER III

MEMORY-AIDS AND PICTURE-WRITING

The printed letters or sound-signs which compose our alphabet are about
two thousand five hundred years old. "Roman type" we call them, and
rightly so, since from Italy they came. They vary only in slight degree
from the founts of the famous printers of the fifteenth century, these
being imitations of the beautiful "minuscule" (so called as being of
smaller size) manuscripts of four hundred years earlier. Minuscule
letters are cursive (_i.e._ running) forms of the curved letters about
an inch long called "uncials" (from Latin _uncia_, "an inch," or from
_uncus_, "crooked"), which were themselves derived from the Roman
letters of the Augustan age. These Roman capitals, to which those in
modern use among us correspond, "are practically identical with the
letters employed at Rome in the third century B.C.; such, for
instance, as are seen in the well-known inscriptions on the tombs of
the Scipios, now among the treasures of the Vatican. These, again, do
not differ very materially from forms used in the earliest existing
specimens of Latin writing, which may probably be referred to the end
of the fifth century B.C. Thus it appears that our English
alphabet is a member of that great Latin family of alphabets, whose
geographical extension was originally conterminous, or nearly so, with
the limits of the Western Empire, and afterwards with the ancient
obedience to the Roman See." (Canon Isaac Taylor's _History of the
Alphabet_, vol. i. p. 71.)

The age of our own alphabet being thus indicated, we may postpone
further remark on its lineal descent, and pass to inquiry into the
primitive forms of which all alphabets are the abbreviated descendants,
and also to reference to some primitive methods for which they are
substitutes.

A survey of the long period which this development covers shows four
well-marked stages, although in these, as in aught else appertaining
to man's history, there are no true lines of division. The making
of these, like the apparent lines of longitude and latitude of the
cartographer, is justified by their convenience. These stages are:--

(_a_) The MNEMONIC, or memory-aiding, when some tangible
object is used as a message, or for record, between people at a
distance, and also for the purpose of accrediting the messenger. As
will be seen, it borders on the _symbolic_; indeed, it anticipates that
stage.

(_b_) The PICTORIAL, in which a picture of the thing is given,
whereby at a glance it tells its own story.

(_c_) The IDEOGRAPHIC, in which the picture becomes
representative, _i.e._ is converted into a symbol.

(_d_) The PHONETIC, in which the picture becomes a phonogram,
or sound-representing sign. The phonogram may be--(1) _verbal_, _i.e._
a sound-sign for a whole word; (2) _syllabic_, _i.e._ a sound-sign for
syllables; or (3) _alphabetic_, a sound-sign for each letter.

To recapitulate stages (_b_), (_c_), and (_d_):--

In stage (_b_) the sign as eye-picture suggests the thing;

In stage (_c_) the sign as eye-picture suggests the name;

In stage (_d_) the sign as ear-picture suggests the sound;

and it is in the passage from (_c_) to (_d_), whereby constant signs
are chosen to stand for constant sounds, that the progress of the human
race was assured, because only thereby was the preservation of all that
is of abiding value made possible.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Quipu, for Reckoning, &c.]

(_a_) _The Mnemonic Stage._--This is well represented by "quipus" or
knotted cords, and by wampums or shell-ornamented belts. The quipu
(fig. 7) has a long history, and is with us both in the rosary on which
the Roman Catholic counts his prayers, in the knot which we tie in
our handkerchief to help a weak memory, and in the sailor's log-line.
Herodotus tells us that when Darius bade the Ionians remain to guard
the floating bridge which spanned the Ister, he "tied sixty knots in
a thong, saying: 'Men of Ionia ... do ye keep this thong and do as I
shall say:--so soon as ye shall have seen me go forward against the
Scythians, from that time begin and untie a knot on each day; and if
within this time I am not here, and ye find that the days marked by the
knots have passed by, then sail away to your own lands'" (iv. 98). And
the same obviously handy device is of widespread use, reaching its more
elaborate form among the ancient Peruvians, from whose language the
term "quipu," meaning "knot," is borrowed. It consists of a main cord,
to which are fastened at given distances thinner cords of different
colours, each cord being knotted in divers ways for special purposes,
and each colour having its own significance. Red strands stood for
soldiers, yellow for gold, white for silver, green for corn, and so
forth, while a single knot meant ten, two single knots meant twenty,
double knots one hundred, and two double knots two hundred. Such
simple devices served manifold purposes. Besides their convenience in
reckoning, they were used for keeping the annals of the empire of the
Incas; for transmitting orders to outlying provinces; for registering
details of the army; and even for preserving records of the dead, with
whom the quipu was buried, as in old Egypt the biography or titles of
the deceased were set forth in hieroglyph and deposited in the tomb.
Quoting from Von Tschudi's _Peru_, Dr. E. B. Tylor says that each
town had its officer whose special function was to tie and interpret
the quipus. They were called Quipucamayocuna, or knot-officers; but
although they attained great facility in their work, they were seldom
able to read a quipu without the aid of an oral commentary. When one
came from a distant province, it was necessary to give notice with
it whether it referred to census, tribute, war, and so forth. But by
constant practice they so far perfected the system as to be able to
register with their knots the most important events of the kingdom,
and to set down its laws and ordinances. Although vain attempts to
read the quipus have been made in the present day, Dr. Tylor adds
that there are still Indians in Southern Peru "who are perfectly
familiar with the contents of certain historical quipus preserved
from ancient times; but they keep their knowledge a profound secret,
especially from the white men." (_Early History of Mankind_, p. 160.)
This knot-reckoning is in use among the Puna herdsmen of the Peruvian
plateaux. On the first strand of the quipu they register the bulls,
on the second the cows, these again they divide into milch-cows and
those that are dry; the next strands register the calves, the next
the sheep and so forth, while other strands record the produce; the
different colours of the cords and the twisting of the knots giving the
key to the several purposes. Akin to this is the practice among the
Paloni Indians of California, concerning whom Dr. Hoffman reports that
each year a certain number are chosen to visit the settlement at San
Gabriel to sell native blankets. "Every Indian sending goods provided
the salesman with two cords made of twisted hair or wool, on one of
which was tied a knot for every _real_ received, and on the other a
knot for each blanket sold. When the sum reached ten _reals_, or one
dollar, a double knot was made. Upon the return of the salesman, each
person selected from the lot his own goods, by which he would at once
perceive the amount due, and also the number of blankets for which the
salesman was responsible." The natives of Ardrah, in West Africa, use
small cords, each knot in which has a meaning; and among the Jebus, the
objects knotted into strings tell their separate tale, cowrie shells
placed face to face denoting friendship; an arrow, war; and so forth.
Other tribes have devised message-sticks somewhat after the well-known
native Australian type. More highly-developed knot-reckoning is found
among the Mexican Zuni, and in more primitive form among some North
American Indians; but, not tarrying to detail these, we cross the
Pacific, noting, on our passage, that a generation ago the Hawaiian
tax-gatherers kept accounts of the assessable property throughout the
island on lines of cordage from four to five hundred fathoms long.
Knots, loops, and tufts of different shape, size, and colour indicated
the several districts, and the amount of tax to be paid by each
inhabitant was defined by marks of the same character as those now
specified, with such variety as to prevent confusion. The Shû-King, a
sacred historical book of the Chinese, records the use of knotted cords
prior to the invention of writing. The number and distances of the
knots served as conventional mnemonics, and also as imperial records,
until written characters replaced them. "Legend refers the tying of
knots in strings to about 2800 B.C., when Fo-hi invented eight symbols,
and at the same time pictorial representations of these knotted strings
were taken to indicate the object thereby symbolised." These Morse-like
symbols are:--

[Illustration:

  Heaven   .
  Balance  .
  Water  . .
  Earthquake
  Wood   . .
  Sacrifice.
  Boundary .
  Earth  . .

(C. Gardner, _Journal Ethnological Society_, 1870, vol. ii. p. 5)]

Another Chinese legend says that "the most ancient forms were five
hundred and forty characters, formed by a combination of knotted
strings and the eight symbols, made in the form of birds' claws in
various states of tension, and that all these five hundred and forty
characters were suggested to the inventor by the marks (left by the
claws) upon the sand." The use of looped or knotted cords is depicted
in Egyptian hieroglyph, and among other tribes of the African continent
the Jebus of to-day evidence the survival of this primitive _memoria
technica_, while from Melanesia to Formosa the knotted cord, as in
Australia and Africa the message-stick, render service as means of
communication between man and his fellows. The nine incisions, with a
longer cut across them to denote ten, is a mode of decimal reckoning
and of record found alike among Red Indians and London bargees. The
same purpose explains the custom, in force well within the present
century, of our Exchequer in keeping certain accounts by means of
notched tallies. The tally was a squared stick of well-seasoned
hazel or willow, in one side of which notches of different breadth,
indicating pounds, shillings, and pence, were cut to mark the amount
of money lent by any person to the Government, the same amount being
cut in Roman numerals, together with the lender's name and date of
the loan, on the two opposite sides. The stick was then split down
the middle, and one half handed to the lender, the other half being
kept in the Exchequer. When the money fell due, the lender surrendered
his half for comparison with its fellow, and the two being found to
"tally," the loan was repaid. It was through the overheating of stoves
in the burning of heaps of accumulated tally-sticks that the Houses of
Parliament were destroyed in 1834. Fifty years ago in Scotland (and
the like may happen in out-of-the-way hamlets to-day), the baker's boy
took a "nick-stick" with his bread, and made a notch in the stick for
every loaf he left on his rounds. So it was, Dr. Hoffman tells us,
with the Pennsylvanian dairyman, who kept account of the milk which
he sold by marking notches for pints and quarts on a stick. As these
notches correspond to entries of transactions in our daybooks and
ledgers, so the once widely-used Clog Almanack corresponded to our
modern _Whitaker_. It consisted of a square-shaped "clog" or "block" of
wood (sometimes of metal), and was designed chiefly to show when the
Sundays and holidays fell, certain symbols or hieroglyphs being drawn
against saint and other festal days--as, for example, an axe for Saint
Paul, a true-lovers' knot for Saint Valentine, and a harp for Saint
David. With this may be compared the hieroglyphic wheels named "record
of the gods," formerly in use for recording time among the Indians
of Virginia. "These wheels had sixty spokes, each for a year, as if
to mark the ordinary age of man, and they were painted on skins kept
by the priests. They marked on each spoke or division a hieroglyphic
figure to show the memorable events of the year." (Tylor, p. 93.)

Wampum-belts are of much narrower geographical distribution than
quipus. They consist of hand-made beads or perforated shells arranged
in various more or less conventionalised patterns on bark filaments,
hemp, or deerskin strips or sinews, the ends of the belts being
selvedged by sinews or hempen fibres. The patterns are pictorial
symbols recording events in the history of the tribe or treaties
between tribes; the belts being also used to note land boundaries
or personal property, sometimes even passing, in the old days, as
shell-money in all parts of New England from one end of the coast
to the other. As illustrating a common purpose for which the wampum
record was used, Peter Clarke tells us, in his _Origin and Traditional
History of the Wyandotts_ (a tribe of the Huron-Iroquois stock),
that "in the last decade of the eighteenth century, the king or head
chief, Sut-staw-ra-tse, called a meeting at the house of Chief Adam
Brown, who had charge of the archives, which consisted of wampum
belts, parchments, &c., contained in a large trunk. One by one they
were brought out and shown to the assembled chiefs and warriors. Chief
Brown wrote on a piece of paper and tacked it to each wampum belt,
designating the compact or treaty it represented, after it had been
explained from memory by the chiefs appointed for that purpose. There
sat before them the venerable king, in whose head were stored the
hidden contents of each wampum belt, listening to the rehearsal, and
occasionally correcting the speaker and putting him on the right track
whenever he deviated." Clarke goes on to say that "when the majority
of the people removed to the south-west, they demanded to have the
belts, as these might be a safeguard to them. Some of these belts
recorded treaties of alliance or of peace with other tribes which
were now residing in that region, and it might be of great importance
to the Wyandotts to be able to produce and refer to them. The justice
of this claim was admitted, and they were allowed to have the greater
part of their belts." And modern inquirers tell us that, in so far as
the wampums still possess utility, it is as evidence of a subsisting
treaty or a title-deed. Few examples, however, of the vast number of
belts once in the possession of the North American tribes (and these
almost exclusively confined to the Iroquois country) survive, since
in the displacement of the red man by the white their value from the
land-right point of view has disappeared. Four interesting specimens,
known as the "Hale Series of Huron Wampum Belts," which were presented
by Dr. Tylor to the Pitt-Rivers Museum at Oxford in 1897, form the
subject of lengthy memoirs by the donor and the late Horatio Hale in
the _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_ (xxvi. 3, pp. 221-54).
Of these only the barest summary is needful. The first and oldest
example, dating from before the middle of the seventeenth century, is
named the "Double Calumet Treaty Belt" (figs. 8, 9). It is nine beads
in width, and although imperfect, is still nearly four feet long. On
a dark ground of the costly purple wampum there is the device of a
council-hearth in what was probably the centre of the belt, flanked on
one side by four and on the other side by three double calumets, _i.e._
double-headed peace-pipes, each possessing a bowl at both ends. Of
course a pipe of this sort is of no use for smoking. It is a creation
of the heraldic imagination, like the double-headed eagle of some
modern European powers. This, first appearing on the arms of the German
Emperor in the middle of the fourteenth century, may have been derived
through contact with the East from Hittite bas-reliefs, as the cherub
of our grave-stone cutters is derived through the Hebrews from the
Assyrians, and the symbolic design of the Good Shepherd from the old
type of Hermes, the ram-bearing god.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Double Calumet Wampum]

[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Double Calumet Council Hearth]

Returning to the "double calumet," Mr. Hale was told by Mandorong,
an Indian chief, that it was a peace-belt, representing an important
treaty or alliance of ancient times. The second example is called
Peace-Path Belt, which name indicates its purpose; the third, of which
a good portion has probably vanished, is named the Jesuit Missionary
Belt (fig. 10), and is believed "to commemorate the acceptance by the
Hurons of the Christian religion" as taught by the Jesuits.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Jesuit Missionary Wampum]

[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Four Nations' Alliance Wampum]

The figures are worked on fifteen rows of white beads on a dark ground,
the oval or lozenge-shaped design near the centre representing a
council. On each side of this are religious emblems--on one side the
dove, on the other side the lamb--and beyond each are Greek crosses
representing the Trinity. "The latest date which can be ascribed to
this belt is the year 1648, the eve of the expulsion of the Hurons by
the Iroquois." The fourth example (fig. 11), called the "Four Nations'
Alliance Belt," is sixty years younger, and, as denoted by the four
squares forming the chief device, is a land-treaty made between the
Wyandotts and three Algonquin tribes.

[Illustration: Fig. 11_a_.--Penn Wampum]

This reference to records which mark a certain approach to the
ideographic stage of writing would be incomplete if no account was
given of the most celebrated wampum record in existence (fig. 11_a_),
the Penn Belt, preserved in the archives of the Historical Society of
Pennsylvania. It derives its name from a well-authenticated tradition
that it is the identical belt given, probably in 1701, to William Penn
by the Iroquois "to confirm the friendly relations then permanently
established between them." It is composed of eighteen strings of white
wampum, thus evidencing its relation to an important transaction,
and has in the centre two figures delineated in dark- beads,
one an Indian grasping the hand of a man who, as wearing a hat, is
doubtless intended to represent a European. The oblique bands are the
symbol of the federation of Iroquois known as the "Five Nations,"
and represent by synecdoche (or the putting of a part for the whole)
the entire native Iroquois "long-house," as the communal dwelling is
called. "The Iroquois league is spoken of in their Book of Rites as
_Kanastat-sikowa_, the 'great framework.' It was this mighty structure,
which, when the belt in question was given, overshadowed the greater
part of North America, that was indicated by the rafters, shown as
oblique bands." (Hale, _J.A.I._ xxvi. p. 244.)

(_b_) _The Pictorial Stage._--The necessity of identifying personal
as well as tribal property, especially in land and live stock, led to
the employment of various characters more or less pictographic, which
have their representatives in signaries used in ancient commerce and in
manufacturers' trade marks. Professor Ernst of Caracas believes that he
can recognise survivals of Indian picture-writing in the marks used for
branding cattle; and among Mr. Arthur Evans's remarkable discoveries
of pre-Mycenæan relics in Crete, the significance of which will be
dealt with later on, are seal-stones engraved with signs which are
not merely fanciful or ornamental, but designed to convey information
about their owners. "For example, a boat with a crescent moon on either
side of the mast may have been the signet of an ancient mariner who
ventured on long voyages;" perchance a feat to be proud of, since even
a one-moon voyage seems to have been too much for the average Homeric
mariner (_cf._ _Iliad_, II. 292-4). "Another signet, with a gate and a
pig on one of its faces, would be proper to a well-to-do swineherd."
Other seals bearing the device of a fish may indicate a fisherman; of a
harp, a musician, and so on. (_The Mycenæan Age_, p. 270: Tsountas and
Manatt.) The painful operation of tattooing is known to have symbolic
and religious, even more than decorative, significance, as marking the
connection of the man with his clan-totem or individual totem. But it
has also a utilitarian purpose, as among certain Red Indian tribes,
who tattoo both sexes, so that in case of war the captured individuals
may be identified and ransomed. Totemic and mythic animals are
tattooed upon various parts of the body; in one case the design worn
by a landowner among the Kavuya Indians of California was used as his
property mark by being cut or painted upon boundary trees and posts, so
that his title to his possessions was proved by the portable title-deed
which he bore, reminding us of the leading incident in Rider Haggard's
_Mr. Meeson's Will_. "In New Zealand the facial decorations of a dead
man were reproduced upon the trees near his grave; while among the
Yakuts and Bushmen the facial marks, or even totems, were furthermore
employed as property marks, the Bushmen carving them upon growing
squashes and melons." (Hoffman, p. 39.) The various Indian tribes
appear to have made more frequent use of the totem name rather than of
the personal name, perhaps because of the common barbaric notion that
a man's name is an integral part of himself, through which, whether he
be living or dead, mischief may be wrought by the sorcerer who knows
the name--a notion the force of which would be lessened where the name
is generic and shared in common. On the grave-posts of both Australian
black fellows and North American Indians the totem symbol is reversed,
as in our mediæval chronicles the leopards of English kings are
reversed on the scutcheon drawn opposite the record of their death.
With this we may connect the classic symbol of the inverted torch which
the modern sculptor depicts on funereal monuments. In his great work on
the _History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes_, published
over fifty years ago (a work, however, which needs checking from other
authorities), Schoolcraft gives some illustrations of the red man's
grave-posts, of which three are here reproduced.

[Illustration: Figs. 12, 13.--Indian Grave-posts]

Fig. 12 shows the dead warrior's totem, a tortoise, and beside it a
headless man, which is a common symbol of death among Indian tribes.
Below the trunk are three marks of honour. The next and more elaborated
figure (13) records the achievements of Shingabawassin, a celebrated
chief of the St. Mary's band. His totem, the crane, is shown reversed.
The three marks on the left of the totem represent important general
treaties of peace to which he had been a party; the six strokes on the
right probably indicate the number of big battles which he fought.
The pipe appears to be a symbol of peace, and the hatchet a symbol of
war. In like manner head-boards erected over a woman have the various
articles used by her in life, as cutting and sewing instruments and
weaving utensils, depicted upon them. The third example (14) represents
the _adjedatig_ or tomb-board of Wabojeeg, a celebrated war chief, who
died on Lake Superior about 1793. His totem, the reindeer, is reversed,
and his own name, which means the White Fisher, is not recorded. The
seven strokes note the seven war parties whom he led; the three upright
strokes as many wounds received in battle. The horned head tells of a
desperate fight with a moose.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Tomb-board of Indian Chief]

[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Hunter's Grave-post]

Fig. 15 is a reduced copy (Hoffman) of the grave-board of an Innuit
hunter. The vocation of the dead man is shown in the _baidarka_, or
boat, in which he is depicted as rowing with a companion. The object
beneath represents a rack for drying fish and skins. Next to this are
figures of a fox and a land otter, and the network drawing at the
bottom is a copy of the hunter's summer dwelling. These temporary
structures denote the abode of a skin-hunter, those used by fishermen
being dome-shaped. Hoffman adds that "this differentiation in the shape
of roofs of habitations applies to their pictorial representation and
not to their actual form." In close connection with these mortuary
boards there is the ornamentation of door-posts which we find among
British Columbian, Polynesian, and Maori tribes; also the carvings on
canoes and other personal effects to mark ownership or to identify the
property with the totem. But to pursue this would take us into the
domain of savage art generally, reference to which is warranted here
only in its mnemonic uses as keeping alive knowledge of events which
would otherwise perish. Obviously, the examples given above can fulfil
only a limited purpose, because only the initiated can know their
meaning. As Dr. Tylor remarks, such mode of record "may be compared
to the elliptical forms of expression current in all societies whose
attention is given specially to some narrow subject of interest, and
where, as all men's minds have the same framework set up in them, it is
not necessary to go into an elaborate description of the whole state
of things; but one or two details are enough to enable the hearer to
understand the whole. Such expressions as 'new white at 48,' 'best
selected at 92' ('futures fairly active' is a good example), though
perfectly understood in the commercial circles where they are current,
are as unintelligible to any one who is not familiar with the course
of events in those circles, as an Indian record of a war-party would
be to an ordinary Londoner." (_Early History of Mankind_, p. 86.)
This applies with even greater force to the large group of symbolic
mnemonics whose purpose is more restricted, whether it be as help to
the singer in his verses, to the medicine-man in his incantation,
to the hunter in his quest, or, as among ourselves, to the tramp on
his rounds. The subjoined copy of a cadger's map (fig. 16), given in
Hotten's _Slang Dictionary_ (1869), is an addition to the number of
survivals which are found in so-called civilised communities, and has
fit place among the examples of pictorial mnemonics in matters of 1,
love; 2, sorcery; 3, the chase; 4, war; and 5, politics which follow it.

1. _Love._--Fig. 17 is a reduced copy of a love-letter, drawn upon
birch bark (a material used elsewhere, as among the Yukaghirs of
Siberia), which an Ojibwa girl sent to her sweetheart at White Earth,
Minnesota. She was of the "Bear" totem, he of the "Mud Puppy" totem;
hence the picture of these animals as representing the addresser and
the addressee. The two lines from their respective camps meet and are
continued to a point between two lakes, another trail branching off
towards two tents. Here three girls, Catholic converts, as denoted by
the three crosses, are encamped, the left-hand tent having an opening
from which an arm protrudes with beckoning gesture. The arm is that
of the writer of the letter, who is making the Indian sign of welcome
to her lover. "This is done by holding the palm of the hand down and
forward, and drawing the extended index finger towards the place
occupied by the speaker, thus indicating the path upon the ground to be
followed by the person called."

[Illustration: Fig. 16.--A Cadger's Map of a Begging District

_Explanation of the Hieroglyphics_

[Symbol] NO GOOD; too poor, and know too much.

[Symbol] STOP. If you have what they want, they'll buy. They
are pretty _fly_ (knowing).

[Symbol] GO THIS WAY: better than the other road. Nothing that
way.

[Symbol] BONE (good). Safe for a "cold tatur." _Cheese your
patter_ (don't talk much).

[Symbol] COOPER'D (spoilt) by too many calling there.

[Symbol] GAMMY (unfavourable); likely to have you taken up.
Mind the dog.

[Symbol] FLUMMUXED (dangerous); sure of a month in _quod_
(prison).

[Symbol] RELIGIOUS, but tidy on the whole.]

[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Ojibwa Love-letter]

[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Love-song]

Fig. 18 is the record of a love-song. 1, represents the lover; 2, he
is singing and beating a magic drum; in 3, he surrounds himself with a
secret lodge, denoting the effects of his necromancy; in 4, he and his
mistress are joined by a single arm to show that they are as one; in
5, she is on an island; in 6, she sleeps, and as he sings, his magical
power reaches her heart; and in 7, the heart itself is shown. To each of
these figures a verse of the song corresponds.

    1. It is my painting that makes me a god.
    2. Hear the sounds of my voice, of my song; it is my voice.
    3. I cover myself in sitting down by her.
    4. I can make her blush, because I hear all she says of me.
    5. Were she on a distant island I could make her swim over,
    6. Though she were far off, even on the other hemisphere.
    7. I speak to your heart.

[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Mnemonic Song of an Ojibwa Medicine-man.]

2. _Sorcery._--Fig. 19 is the song of an Ojibwa medicine-man incised
upon birch bark. These conjurers, who correspond to the Siberian
_shamans_, affect the usual mystery of the priestly craft all the
world over, and affirm, like those who know better, that their
thaumaturgic powers are the direct gift of the god. Him they name
Manabozho--probably some ancestral deity, since he is the great uncle
of the _anish'inabēg_ or "first people." In 1, Manabozho holds his bow
and arrow; 2, represents the medicine-man's drum and drumsticks used
in chanting and in initiation ceremonies; 3, a bar or rest observed
while chanting the incantation; 4, the medicine-bag, made of an otter
skin, in which is preserved the white cowrie shell as the sacred
emblem of the cult; 5, the medicine-man himself, horned to show his
superior power; 6, a funnel-like object, known as a "jugglery," used in
legerdemain and other hocus pocus; 7, a woman, signifying the admission
of her sex to "the society of the grand medicine"; 8, a bar or rest,
as at 3; 9, the sacred snake-skin medicine bag, which has magic power;
10, another woman; 11, another otter-skin "bag o' tricks," showing
that women members are allowed to use it; 12, a female figure, holding
a branch of some sacred plant used in the exorcism of the demon of
disease. In any reference to savage therapeutics it cannot be too often
insisted upon that diseases are never ascribed to natural causes. "The
Indians believed that diseases were caused by unseen evil beings and
by witchcraft, and every cough, every toothache, every headache, every
fever, every boil, and every wound, in fact all their ailments, were
attributed to such a cause. Their so-called medical practice was a
horrible system of sorcery, and to such superstition human life was
sacrificed on an enormous scale.... In fact, a natural death in a
savage tent is a comparatively rare phenomenon; but death by sorcery,
medicine, and blood-feud arising from a belief in witchcraft is
exceedingly common." (Professor Powell's _Indian Linguistic Families of
America North of Mexico_, p. 39.)

[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Wâbeno destroying an Enemy]

Fig. 20 records the destruction of an enemy by an Ojibwa wâbeno or
bad medicine-man. The box-like objects represent the four degrees
of the cult society to which the wâbeno belonged, the number of
posts indicating the series. The figure next to these is that of the
assistant to the wâbeno, who is shown with a waving line extending from
his mouth to the oval-like object intended to represent a lake upon an
island in which the victim lives. He is shown prostrate beneath the
wâbeno with a spot upon his breast, the small oblong figure between the
two being the sacred drum. (See 2 in the foregoing illustration.) The
meaning of the pictograph is that the wâbeno was employed to work black
magic on the man. He took a piece of birch bark and cut upon it the
effigy of the victim, then, after beating the drum to the chanting of
incantations, he pierced the breast of the effigy, applying red paint
to the puncture. This, under the principle of "sympathetic magic," was
believed to bring about the death of the victim, whom, through his
living on the island, the wâbeno could not reach.

[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Etching on Innuit Drill-bow]

White magic, in which the beneficent powers are at work, is illustrated
by the Innuit pictograph on an ivory drill-bow (fig. 21), on the right
of which are two huts, nearest to which stands the medicine-man who
has been called in to exorcise the disease from a couple of sufferers.
He is catching hold of the animal by whose help the disease-demon is
expelled, or to whom, mayhap, as a sort of scapegoat, the disease is
transferred. In the second exorcism, the medicine-man is grasping the
patient by the arm, while he chants the formulæ wherewith to cast out
the demon. The figure on the left is making a gesture of surprise at
his relief, while beyond him are two demons struggling to escape beyond
the power of the medicine man.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Ojibwa Hunting Record]

3. _The Chase._--Fig. 22 records a hunting expedition. The two lines
represent a wave-tossed river, on which floats a bark canoe, guided by
the owner. In the bow a piece of birch bark shields a fire of pine
knots to light up the course taken by the steersman. By this means the
game, as it comes to the water to drink, can be seen from the shaded
part of the canoe, in front of which two deer are shown. Next to these
is a circle representing a lake, from which peep the head and horns
of a third deer. To the right of the lake a doe appears, and beyond
her the two wigwams of the hunter. The four animals may represent the
quarry secured.

[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Hidatsa Pictograph on a Buffalo Shoulder-blade]

Fig. 23, drawn on a buffalo shoulder-blade by a Hidatsa Indian, tells
his efforts to track companions who had gone buffalo-hunting. The trail
of the animal and the pursuers is shown in the dotted lines. Of the
three heads the lowest is that of the seeker, who is depicted shouting
after his missing friends; then he is shown advancing and still
shouting, till his call is returned from the spot where the hunters
have camped.

[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Alaskan Hunting Record]

[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Record of Starving Hunter]

Fig. 24, incised on an ivory drill-bow, is a pictograph of an Alaskan
sea-lion hunt. In 1, the speaker points with his left hand in the
direction to be taken, and, 2, holds a paddle to show that a voyage is
intended. In 3, the right hand to the side of the head denotes sleep,
while the left hand with one finger elevated means one night. The
circle with two dots in the middle, 4, signifies an island with huts;
5 is the same as 1; 6 is another island; 7 is the same as 3, but with
two fingers elevated to indicate two nights. In 8 the speaker with
his harpoon makes the sign of a sea-lion with his left hand, which he
thrusts outward and downward in a slight curve to represent the animal
swimming; 9, 10, a sea-lion shot at with bow and arrow; 11, two men in
a boat, the paddles pushed downwards; and 12, the speaker's hut. The
native account, as translated, reads thus: "I there go that island,
one sleep there; then I go another that island, there two sleeps; I
catch one sea-lion, then return mine." (Colonel Mallery, quo. Hoffman,
_Transactions of the Anthropological Society_, Washington, vol. ii.
p. 134, 1883.) "Hunters who have been unfortunate, and are starving,
scratch or draw upon a piece of wood characters like those in fig. 25,
and place the lower end of the stick in the ground on the trail where
it is most likely to be discovered," the stick being inclined towards
the hunter's dwelling. The horizontal line 1, denotes a canoe, 2,
the gesture of the man with both arms extended, signifies "nothing,"
while the uplifting of the right hand to the mouth, 3, means "food"
or "to eat," and the left hand outstretched points to 4, the hut of
the famished man. Here we are actually within the ideographic stage,
and, as will be shown in due course, handling material identical in
character with that found in Egypt and other nations of antiquity. But,
as already remarked, and as will be evidenced in abundance throughout
these pages, there are no well-marked divisions between the stages of
development.

A varied interest attaches to fig. 26, which depicts some general
features of Alaskan life on a piece of walrus tusk. In 1, a native is
resting against his house, and on his right stands a pole surmounted by
a bird, apparently a totem-post. 2. A reindeer. 3. One man shooting at
another with an arrow. 4. An expedition in a dog-sledge, and, 5, in a
boat with sail and paddle. 6. A dog-sledge, with the sun above; perhaps
indicating the coming of summer. 7. A sacred lodge. The four figures
at each outer corner represent young men armed with bows and arrows to
keep off the uninitiated from the forbidden precincts. The members of
the occult society are dancing round a fire in the centre of the lodge.
8. A pine tree up which a porcupine is climbing. 9. Another pine tree,
from which a woodpecker is extracting larvæ. 10. A bear. 11, 12. Men
driving fish into, 13, the net, above them being a captured whale, with
harpoon and line attached.

[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Alaskan Hunting Life]

4. _War._--Schoolcraft, who has been already drawn upon for an example
(page 53), records the finding of the bark letter copied in fig. 27. It
was fastened to the top of a pole so as to attract the notice of other
Indians who might happen to be passing. Beginning on the right of the
middle row we have 1, the officer in command, sword in hand; 2, his
secretary, and 3, the geologist of the party, indicated by his hammer.
Then follow 4, 5, two attachés; 6, the interpreter; and 7, 8, two
Chippewa guides. In the top row is 9, 10, a group of seven soldiers,
armed with muskets. A prairie hen and tortoise, 11, 12, represent the
animals secured for food.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Indian Expedition]

[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Biography of Indian Chief]

Fig. 28 gives the biography of Wingemund, a noted Delaware chief.
To the left is 1, the tortoise totem of the tribe; then 2, the
chief-totem; and 3, the sun, beneath which are ten strokes representing
the ten expeditions in which Wingemund took part. On the opposite side
are indicated, 4, 5, 6, 7, the prisoners of both sexes taken, and also
the killed, these last being drawn as headless. In the centre are the
several positions attacked, 8, 9, 10, 11; and the slanting strokes at
the bottom denote the number of Wingemund's followers.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.--War-song]

Fig. 29 is a war-song. Wings are given to the warrior, 1, to show that
he is swift-footed; in 2 he stands under the morning star, and in 3
under the centre of heaven, with his war-club and rattle; in 4, the
eagles of carnage are flying round the sky; in 5, the warrior lies
slain on the battlefield; while in 6 he appears as a spirit in the sky.
The words of the song are as follows:--

    1. I wish to have the body of the swiftest bird.
    2. Every day I look at you; the half of the day I sing my song.
    3. I throw away my body.
    4. The birds take a flight in the air.
    5. Full happy am I to be numbered with the slain.
    6. The spirits on high repeat my name.

5. _Political and Social._--The frontispiece is a copy of a petition
sent by a group of Indian tribes to the United States Congress for
fishing rights in certain small lakes near Lake Superior. The leading
clan is represented by Oshcabawis, whose totem is 1, the crane; then
follow 2, Waimitligzhig; 3, Ogemagee; and 4, a third, all of the marten
totem; 5, Little Elk, of the bear totem; 6, belongs to the manfish
totem; 7, to the catfish totem.

From the eye and heart of each of the animals runs a line connecting
them with the eye and heart of the crane to show that they are all of
one mind, and the eye of the crane has also a line connecting it with
the lakes on which the tribes want to fish, while another line runs
towards Congress.

Fig. 30 is a copy of a letter found above St. Anthony's Falls in 1820.
"It consisted of white birch bark, and the figures had been carefully
drawn. 1, Denotes the flag of the Union; 2, the cantonment then
recently established at Cold Spring, on the western side of the cliffs;
4 is the symbol of Colonel Leavenworth, the commanding officer, under
whose authority a mission of peace had been sent into the Chippewa
country; 11 is the symbol of Chakope, the leading Sioux chief, under
whose orders the party moved; 8 is the second chief, named Wabedatunka,
or, 10, the Black Dog, who has fourteen lodges, 7 is a chief also
subordinate to Chakope, with thirteen lodges, and 9 is a bale of goods
devoted by the Government to the objects of the peace. The name of 6,
whose wigwam is 5, with thirteen subordinate lodges, was not given."

The letter was written to make known the fact that Chakope and his
followers, accompanied or supported by the American officer, had come
to the spot to make peace with the Chippewa hunters. "The Chippewa
chief, Babesacundabee, who found the letter, read off its meaning
without doubt or hesitation." (Schoolcraft, vol. i. p. 352.)

[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Letter offering Treaty of Peace]

Fig. 31 represents the census roll of an Indian band at Mille Lac, in
the territory of Minnesota, sent in to the United States agent by
Nagonabe, a Chippewa Indian, during the annuity payments in 1849.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Census Roll of an Indian Band]

As the Indians were all of the same totem, Nagonabe "designated each
family by a sign denoting the common name of the chief. Thus 5 denotes
a catfish, and the six strokes indicate that the Catfish's family
consisted of six individuals; 8 is a beaver skin; 9, a sun; 13, an
eagle; 14, a snake; 22, a buffalo; 34, an axe; 35, the medicine-man,
and so on." (Lubbock, _Origin of Civilisation_, p. 47.)

[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Record of Departure (Innuit)]

Fig. 32 supplies a striking example of the cumbersomeness of the
pictograph as contrasted with the sound-symbol. It is a copy of
a record which an Innuit placed over the door of his dwelling to
notify to his friends that he had gone on a journey. The persons thus
notified are indicated in 1, 3, 5, 7; 2 is the speaker, who denotes the
direction in which he is leaving by his extended left hand; 4 is the
gesture sign for "many," and 6 for sleep, the upraising of the left
hand showing that he will be some distance away; 8, his intended return
is denoted by the right hand being pointed homeward, while the left arm
is bent to denote return.

(_c_) _The Ideographic Stage._--As the characters pass from the
pictorial to the emblematic or the symbolic, their meaning, obviously,
becomes more obscure, save to the initiated. "They do not," as Colonel
Mallery remarks, "depict, but suggest objects; do not speak directly
through the eye to the intelligence, but presuppose in the mind
knowledge of an event or fact which the sign recalls. The symbols of
the ark, dove, olive-branch, and rainbow would be wholly meaningless to
people unfamiliar with the Mosaic or some similar cosmology, as would
be the cross and the crescent to those ignorant of history." And even
in pictography, as the same excellent authority observes, "it is very
difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between historical and
traditional accounts obtained from Indians. The winter counts (_i.e._
the reckoning of time by winters, and the applying of names instead of
numbers to them, as, _e.g._, 'catching-wild-horses winter,' the device
for which was a lasso), while having their chief value as calendars,
contain some material that is absolute and verifiable tribal history."
The difficulties of interpretation, as the examples given evidence,
are in the larger number being "merely mnemonic records, and treated
in connection with material objects formerly, and perhaps still, used
mnemonically." (Mallery, "On the Pictographs of the North American
Indians," _Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, 1886.)

The signs of advance from the pictorial to the ideographic stage which
are to be noted among the Red Indians, are more sharply marked in
the hieroglyphs and phonetic characters on the stone monuments and
manuscripts found among the relics of the vanished peoples of Mexico
and Yucatan.

A number of fatuous theories about the connection of Central American
culture with that of the Old World have been broached, from the time
when Lord Kingsborough published his lavishly-illustrated book to prove
that the ancient Mexicans were the descendants of the lost Ten Tribes
of Israel to the present day, when Dr. Augustus Le Plongeon brings us
his "proofs" that Yucatan was the primitive home of Adam, and avers
that he has discovered not only the grave of Abel, but disinterred his
heart therefrom, and found the knife wherewith Cain slew him! (_Queen
Moo and the Egyptian Sphinx_, p. 138.) Now, among the certainties
which modern research has reached is that of the independent origin
and development of civilisation in the New World. Man himself, whether
or not descended from a single pair, had his origin in one region,
probably the Indo-Malaysian, since there we find his nearest congeners,
the anthropoid apes, while the pliocene beds of Java have recently
yielded a remarkable corroboration of the theory in the fossil bones
which bring man near to the common stem whence the highest animals have
diverged. At a period when the general temperature of the globe was
milder than now, the ancestors of the existing four leading groups--the
Ethiopic, Mongolic, American, and Caucasic--spread themselves over the
several zones of the habitable world, the American group migrating from
Asia and Europe across the then existing land-connection between those
continents and the New World, where those various stages of development
which are still to be witnessed from the Arctic regions to Cape
Horn were reached. Of these the Mexican plateau affords interesting
and valuable material in the chipped flint implements evidencing a
Stone Age, and in the marvellous buildings which vie both in their
cyclopean dimensions and ornamented features with the palaces, tombs,
and temples of Egypt and Assyria, testifying to the relatively high
culture of the races that raised them. These peoples, usually grouped
together as the ancient Mexicans, are known as Mayas and Aztecs. The
duration of the empire or confederation of the Mayas is unknown, but
about two hundred years before the Spanish conquest of America they
appear to have been invaded and subdued by the Aztecs, whose rule
extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific in the countries now forming
Mexico and portions of the United States. The remains of the two
races are both imperfect and entangled, so that any coherent story is
not to be extracted from them. But the evidence points to the Mayas
as the intellectually superior race; the Aztecs, who still form the
bulk of the population of South Mexico, borrowing largely from them,
especially in the matter of the gods. "If written language be a test of
intelligence, the Mayas were ahead not only of the Mexican people, but
also of the Peruvians. The latter are believed to have made no nearer
advance towards writing than the tying of tally-knots on strings, and
the Mexicans, while they had invented paper, wrote down their ideas,
save in the cases of a few phonetic signs, as children would, by means
of pictures; but the Mayas, like the Egyptians, had proceeded beyond
pictures to hieroglyphs, where symbols, more or less arbitrary, stand
for words or syllables, and the mind prepares itself to invent an
alphabet." (Mercer's _Hill Caves of Yucatan_, p. 73.) Some of the more
remarkable hieroglyphic-bearing monuments of the Mayas have been found
in the palace of Palenque, the Spanish name of the old Yucatan capital.
They are on stucco slabs above figures some of which show curious
correspondence to Egyptian statues, wearing the pleasant but immobile
expression of the latter, and decorated with a similar headdress, while
in one case (fig. 33), a cartouche enclosing an inscription is carved
on the plinth. The concluding panels of one of the codices form what
may be called the Mexican Book of the Dead. It enforces the scheme of
duty which precedes by vividly depicting the trial and judgment of the
soul after death, and detailing the perils of the journey on the way to
Mictlan (Payne, ii. 407).

[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Statue from Palenque]

Time and fanaticism have made sad havoc with the manuscripts, and no
satisfactory key to their decipherment has been found, only a few words
here and there being interpreted. They were executed in bright and
varied colours, with a feather pencil, on prepared skins, paper, or
rolls of cotton or aloe-fibre cloth, and the pictographic system thus
created was applied to the purposes of ordinary life, and served as a
species of writing. Matters of only passing importance were recorded
on fibrous paper made from the leaves of the maguey plant; "records
intended to be permanently kept were painted on the prepared skins of
animals, those of the deer and bear being more commonly used. These
paintings or 'pinturos' are usually executed on both sides of the
skin, which was oblong in shape and often of great length, having the
ends protected by boards." (Payne's _History of the New World called
America_, vol. ii. p. 404.) These boards are called _analtees_, a word
which may be translated _annals_. The earlier hieroglyphic characters
were executed by priests, who were required to be old men, widowers,
and under vows of chastity and seclusion. Such writing was known only
to the initiated.

Tradition says that the Aztecs destroyed many of the Maya picture
records because they recalled the grandeur of the conquered people. But
the Spaniards in their turn destroyed much more. Zumárraga, Bishop of
Mexico, and Landa, Bishop of Yucatan, made such bonfires of carvings,
statues, paintings on wood, and of priceless picture and hieroglyph
writings on native paper and deerskin, that only about half-a-dozen
fragments of the Yucatan books have ever been found since. Bishop
Landa, probably from knowledge obtained from Maya priests, attempted
the framing of a key of interpretation, his aim being the translation
of certain religious and devotional writings for the use of converts.
In this he indicates a certain number of alphabetic characters, but
the key did not work, and Dr. Isaac Taylor draws the conclusion that
"the systems of picture-writing which were invented and developed
by the tribes of Central America are so obscure, and so little is
really known about their history, that they must be regarded rather as
literary curiosities than as affording suitable materials for enabling
us to arrive at any general conclusions as to the nature of the early
stages of the development of the graphic art." (_Hist. Alph._, i. 24.)
Notwithstanding this somewhat sweeping verdict, the Maya-Aztec scripts
have value, if only for purposes of comparison. There is preserved in
the museum at Mexico a whole series of pictographs exhibiting incidents
as varied as the migrations of tribes, the annals of the people,
sacrifices to the gods, and the education of children, the tasks set
them, the punishments inflicted on them, and the food given them. To
the hieroglyph there succeeds the gradually conventionalised sign, of
which examples from Red Indian scripts have been given:--the arrow,
to denote an enemy; several arrows, several enemies; the direction
of the arrow's point, the direction taken by the enemy; a piece of
maize cake protruding from the mouth, to denote eating; the symbol
for water between the lips, to signify drinking; horizontal lines,
with arrow-headed characters on them, to denote the hoed or cultivated
ground, some of these ideographs being  to correspond with the
thing suggested; and, as an example of the more abstruse, the extended
arms, probably to denote negation,--all marking the advance to phonetic
syllabic writing. The names of persons and places are sometimes
indicated by symbolic figures; _e.g._ Chapultepec, or "grasshopper
hill," is represented by a hill and a grasshopper; Tzompanco, "the
place of skulls," by a skull on a bar between two posts, as enemies'
skulls used to be set up; and Macuilxochitl, the "five flowers," by
five dots and a flower. Sometimes we find the species of pun known as
the _rebus_ adopted. A picture is made to stand for the sound of the
word, as _e.g._ among ourselves in guessing games, when a whisk broom
and a key stand for "whiskey," or in the series of pictures of an eye,
a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose, and a berry, which stand for the
sentence, "I saw a boy swallow a goose-berry." In Abbot Islip's Chapel
in Westminster Abbey his name is rebused as an eye and the slip of
a tree with the hand apparently of a slipping man hanging to it. In
Bishop Oldham's chantry in Exeter Cathedral his name is represented by
an owl (Owle-dom, the old spelling of the name); and in St. Saviour's
Church the name of Prior Burton is sculptured as a cask with a thistle
on it, "burr-tun."

[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Itzcoatl]

[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Rebus of Itzcoatl]

(_d_) _The Phonetic Stage._--The ancient Mexican script supplies
examples of the change from the pictographic to the phonetic stage.
The name of one of the kings was Itzcoatl, or "Knife-Snake." In the
manuscript known as the Le Tellier Codex this king's name (fig. 34) is
represented by a serpent (_coatl_) with stone knives (_itzli_) upon its
back. This is mere picture-writing, but in the Vergara Codex we find
the rebus form (fig. 35). "The first syllable, _itz_, is represented by
a weapon armed with blades of obsidian, _itz_ (_tli_), but the rest of
the word, _coatl_, though it means snake, is written, not by a picture
of a snake, but by an earthen pot, _co_ (_mitl_), and above it the
sign of water, _a_ (_tl_). Here we have real phonetic writing, for the
name is not to be read, according to sense, 'knife-kettle-water,' but
only according to the sound of the Aztec words, Itz-co-atl." Dr. Tylor
adds that there is no sufficient reason to make us doubt that this
purely phonetic writing was of native Mexican origin, and that after
the Spanish Conquest it was turned to account in a new and curious way.
The Spanish missionaries, when embarrassed by the difficulty of getting
the converts to remember their _Ave Marias_ and _Paternosters_, seeing
that the words were, of course, mere nonsense to them, were helped out
by the Indians themselves, who substituted Aztec words as near in sound
as might be to the Latin, and wrote down the pictured equivalents for
these words, which enabled them to remember the required formulas.
Torquemada and Las Casas have recorded two instances of this device.
_Pater noster_ was written by a flag (_pantli_) and a prickly pear
(_nochtli_), while the sign of water, _a_ (_tl_) combined with that
of aloe, _me_ (_tl_), made a compound word, _ametl_, which would
mean "water-aloe," but in sound made a very tolerable substitute for
Amen. M. Aubin found the beginning of a _Paternoster_ of this kind
in the metropolitan library of Mexico (fig. 36), made with a flag,
_pan_ (_tli_), a stone, _te_ (_tl_), a prickly pear, _noch_ (_tli_),
and again a stone, _te_ (_tl_), which would read Pa-te-noch-te, or
perhaps Pa-tetl-noch-tetl. After the conquest, when the Spaniards
were hard at work introducing their own religion and civilisation
among the conquered Mexicans, they found it convenient to allow the
old picture-writing still to be used, even in legal documents. It
disappeared in time, of course, being superseded in the long run by
the alphabet, and it is to this transition period that we owe many,
perhaps most, of the picture documents still preserved. "One of the
picture-writings in the museum at Mexico is very probably the same that
was sent up to Vera Cruz, to Montezuma, with figures of newly-arrived
white men, their ships and horses, and their cannon with fire and smoke
issuing from their mouths." (Tylor, _Anahuac_, p. 232.) In the general
history of the development of writing, the Mexican script therefore
supplies us only with an example of approximation to the phonetic
system, its advance to the final alphabetic stage being probably
arrested by the subjugation of the Mayas to an intellectually inferior
conqueror, who, borrowing much, and contributing nothing of advantage,
himself yielded to the superior force of Spain.

[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Paternoster Rebus]




CHAPTER IV

THE CHINESE, JAPANESE, AND COREAN SCRIPTS

China, whose inertia is being aroused by foreign "pin-pricks," is
the land of arrested developments, and consequently its writing has
remained for probably two thousand years at a rudimentary stage,
furnishing an interesting object-lesson on the early processes of
advance, after the disuse of knotted cords (see p. 43), from the
_Ku-wăn_, or "ancient pictures," to the _Ling-shing_, or "pictures and
sounds." The language has never got beyond the monosyllabic stage; it
has no terminations to denote number, case, tense, mood, or person,
the same word without change of form being used as a noun, verb, or
other "part of speech," so that a sentence can be construed only by
the place of the several words composing it. As Dr. Marshman tersely
puts it, "the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position." For
example, while the root-meaning of _ta_ is "being great," it may, as
a noun, mean "greatness"; as an adjective, "great"; as a verb, "to be
great," or "to make great"; and as an adverb, "greatly." And, moreover,
not only position, but also tone and gesture, contribute to the
interpretation of the spoken language.

[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Chinese Picture-writing and Later Uncial]

The characters fall into six _wen_ or classes:--1, _pictorial_, giving
a picture of the thing itself; 2, _indicative_, _i.e._ designed
by their form and the relation of their parts to suggest the idea
in the mind of their inventor; 3, _composite_, _i.e._ made up of
two characters, the meanings of which blend in the meanings of the
compounds; 4, _inverted_, or, as the term implies, topsy-turvy;
5, _borrowed_, _i.e._ having another meaning attached to them; 6,
_phonetic_, _i.e._ one part indicating the sense and another part
the sound. In Chinese phrase the ideogram is the "mother of meaning"
and the phonogram the "mother of sound." The materials used largely
determine the form which writing takes, and in the modern or cursive
characters which are shown underneath the primitive forms we see the
result of use of the rabbit's-hair pencil of the Chinese scribe.
Respecting the first class, it suffices to say little, because it
explains itself (fig. 37). The sun was drawn as a circle, the moon as
a crescent, a mountain was indicated by three peaks, rain by drops
under an arch, and so forth. But, as has been sufficiently shown,
such devices carry us a very little way; there is no literature
possible under a mere graphic system. The third, or composite class,
is the most interesting as supplying the key to the common idea of
the character represented. Sometimes the characters indicate a dry
humour. A "wife" is denoted by the signs for "female" and "broom,"
a sort of metonymy for a woman's household work; for a male child
the signs "field" and "strength" are used, because he will till the
soil. The Chinese, it will be remembered, are a purely agricultural
people, and the compound for "profit" is "grain" and "a knife." The
characters for "mountain" and "man" signify "hermit"; an "eye" and
"water" mean "tears"; and the verb "to listen" is indicated by an ear
between two doors. The signs for the noonday sun are the "sun" and
"to reign"; "light" as an abstract quality is represented by figures
of the sun and moon placed side by side; a "man" and "two" stand for
mankind; a couple of women stand for "strife," three for "intrigue,"
while a "woman under two trees" means "desire" or "covetousness." But
the inadequacy of these and the other symbols to supply characters
for the demands of a language in which the same sound has to stand
for a multitude of ideas gave rise to the phonetic group, whose
development from picture-writing more or less ideographic took place
many centuries B.C. The primary symbols or combinations of vowels and
consonants number about four hundred and fifty. The variations in tone
in pronouncing these sounds increase the total of monosyllabic words
to be understood by the ear to something over twelve hundred. But the
Chinese dictionaries contain above forty thousand words, and it is the
symbols for each of these which are provided by the phonetic symbols.
These were compound signs, the first character, as shown above, being
a phonogram or sound-word, and the second character a determinative,
_i.e._ ideogram or sense-word. They are, as Professor Whitney says,
"rather an auxiliary language than a reduction of speech to writing."
The sign for "man" has nearly six hundred combinations, all denoting
something relating to man; that for "tree" has about nine hundred,
to indicate various kinds of trees and wood, things made of wood,
and so forth; while, to borrow a concrete example, _pe_, which means
"white," has, with a "tree" prefixed, the meaning of "cypress"; with
the sign for "man" it means "elder brother"; with the sign for "manes"
it means the vital principle that survives death; and so forth. _Chow_
is the Chinese word for "ship," so a picture of a ship stands for the
sound _chow_. But the word _chow_ means several other things, and the
determinative or "key" sign indicates these. "Thus the ship joined with
the sign of water stands for _chow_, 'ripple'; with that of speech
for _chow_, 'loquacity'; with that of fire for _chow_, 'flickering of
flame,' and so on for 'waggon-pole,' 'fluff,' and several other things
which have little in common but the name of _chow_" (Tylor, p. 102).
Although, theoretically, the Chinaman has to make an enormous number of
characters before he can write his own language, so that, at the age
of twenty-five, a diligent student has barely acquired the same amount
of facility in reading and writing which is usually attained by an
English child--using the twenty-six characters of his alphabet--at the
age of ten; practically some four or five thousand characters suffice
for average needs, and the convenience of "a system enabling those who
speak mutually unintelligible idioms, to converse together, using the
pencil instead of the tongue," caused the abandonment of an attempt to
make nearer approach to an alphabetic system which was promoted by the
Chinese Government some centuries ago.

In contrast to this, the Japanese, with that pliability which has
helped to put them in the van of Oriental peoples, selected, as
a result of contact with Buddhism, which came to them by way of
China, certain signs from the wilderness of Chinese characters, and
constituted these as their alphabet or _irofa_ so called, on the
acrologic principle (p. 104), from the names of its first signs, like
our alphabet from _alpha_, _beta_. Their language being polysyllabic,
involved the result that whatever signs were used must be syllabic,
and hence the adoption of a syllabary was easy. But, of course, like
all syllabaries, this has the defect of necessitating the use of that
larger number of signs with which the alphabet dispenses. The origin
of the Japanese syllabaries, of which there are two, dates from the
end of the ninth century of our Lord. One, the Hirakana, derived from
a cursive form of Chinese called the _tsau_ or "grass" character,
contains about three hundred syllabic sound-signs; the other, known as
the Katakana, is derived from the _kyai_ or "model" type of the Chinese
character, and is the simpler of the two in having only a single
character for each of the forty-seven syllabic sounds in the Japanese
language. But neither demands detailed treatment here, since with the
intrusion of the Roman alphabet among Western imports into Japan its
substitution for the cumbrous syllabaries is probably only a matter of
brief time, and the Japanese script may then take its place with the
Maya and the Aztec as a graphic curiosity.

Chinese is the official script of Corea, but the lower classes use
a phonetic alphabet which, in the judgment of some authorities, is
derived from a cursive form of the Nâgari script of India, having, so
it is thought, been introduced by Buddhist teachers. Both past and
present times afford striking examples of the influence of religion in
the diffusion of alphabets, missionaries obviously making use of their
own alphabet in the translation of their sacred books into the language
of their converts. Whatever connection there may have been between
Corean and Indian scripts is not, however, traceable, owing to the
changes in the former. But in truth we know little about the matter,
and there is something to be said in support of an old tradition that
King Se-jo, who reigned five hundred years ago, commanded his chief
grammarian, Song Sammun, to devise an alphabet that should supersede
the cumbersome Chinese; whereupon that scholar took the Tibetan
characters as foundation, but as those were only consonantal, he turned
to the ancient Chinese and transformed six of its simplest radicals
into the Corean vowels, naming the vowels and consonants "mother" and
"child" respectively. The letters were "bunched together" so as to look
like the Chinese characters (fig. 38), the purpose being "to facilitate
the transliteration of the Chinese text in a parallel column." There is
a curious tradition, reminding us of the Chinese legend of the origin
of writing, that the Corean characters were suggested by the straight
and oblique lattice-work of the native doors.

[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Chinese and Tibetan Triglot]




CHAPTER V

CUNEIFORM WRITING

Thus far curiosity alone gives the stimulus to acquaintance with
ancient scripts--a feeling of aloofness attending all that we learn of
Chinese, Maya, and other systems having no historical connection (for
the derivation of Chinese from pre-Babylonian writing is not proved)
with those from which our alphabet is probably derived. With the story
of these the real interest begins, because within some of them lie the
sources of the alphabets of the civilised world, while all of them
have borne a share in the preservation of intellectual and spiritual
treasures, the loss of which would have arrested the progress of the
vigorous sections of mankind.

Dealing first with those of Mesopotamia, a romance, not lacking
excitement, gathers round the wedge-shaped or cuneiform characters
(Lat. _cuneus_, "a wedge") inscribed on clay tablets and cylinders, and
on the great monuments of Assyria, Babylon, and other Oriental empires
of past renown. The very existence of these relics was forgotten for
some sixteen hundred years, and when they were unearthed from the
rubbish-heaps of centuries, no one dreamed that any serious meaning
was to be attached to the fantastic angular-shaped characters which
covered bricks and tablets. In 1621, Pietro della Valle, a Spanish
traveller, visited the famous ruins of Persepolis, and he appears
to have been the first to suspect that the arrow-headed signs were
inscriptions, although he was unable to decipher them. He, however,
made the shrewd observation that as the thick end of the supposed
letters was never at the right but at the left of the oblique
characters, the signs must have been written from left to right.

"Built on a great platform, artificially constructed for the purpose,
which commands a wide plain, and has a lofty mountain shaped like
an amphitheatre at its rear, the stranger ascends the spot by a
magnificent staircase, or pair of staircases, which separate in
opposite directions to meet at the summit. Here are the gigantic
remains of several palaces, great porticos with winged bulls and
reliefs representing, gods and princes. In the live rock of the
mountains at the rear tombs have been hewn, evidently to receive the
occupants of the palaces, and all the rocks and walls are covered with
the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions, consisting of very simple
elements, which are nothing but thin wedges and angles [Symbol] but
with these elements combined in wonderful variety.... But no record of
the language or its import had survived, and the ignorant inhabitants
of the neighbourhood looked upon the texts with greater awe than
they did the winged monsters that loomed over the plain. They were to
them symbols of magic import, which, if duly pronounced, would unlock
the hidden treasures guarded by the lions and the bulls." (Mahaffy's
_Prolegomena to Ancient History_, p. 168.)

The savants of the seventeenth century were not "wiser in their
generation" than the rude nomads who pitched their tents under the
shadow of the stone monsters. Many years after Della Valle's visit the
Oriental scholar, Hyde, in a book on the Ancient Persian Religion,
soberly suggested that the signs were designed by some fantastic
architect to show into how many combinations the same kind of stroke
would enter. It is a wonder that he did not, with equal sobriety,
suggest that they were related to the well-known Norman "hatchet-work."
And so the guessing went on. One antiquary contended that they were
talismanic signs; another that they were mystic formulæ of the priests,
or astrological symbols of the old Chaldean star-worshippers; another
saw in them a species of revealed digital language wherewith the
Creator talked to Adam, whence the primitive speech of mankind was
derived; while others conjectured them to be Chinese, or Samaritan,
or Runic, or Ogam characters. Most fantastic of all, one ingenious
theorist saw in them the action of numberless generations of worms!

But by the middle of the eighteenth century a sane school of
investigators had found its leader. A great traveller, Carsten
Niebuhr, father of the famous historian of early Rome, was the first
to divine the true character of the inscriptions. He agreed with Della
Valle that they were written from left to right, and he saw that they
were made up of three different sets of characters, each meaning the
same thing. But beyond showing, in his careful transcript published
in 1764, that one of the three scripts was simpler in character than
the others--all, as he assumed, being alphabetic varieties of one
language--he could not go. The meaning still remained a mystery. Thirty
years later, Münter, a Danish philologist, correctly guessed that the
diagonal bar [Symbol], which occurred frequently, was a sign for the
separation of words, and, next, he discovered the vowel signs, which,
as distinct characters, are absent from the Hebrew and other Semitic
languages. This was a great step towards final decipherment. Herodotus
(i. 125, &c.) speaks of the Achæmenid dynasty of Persian kings who were
the lords of Asia in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. The
ruins of Persepolis are identified as the remains of their palaces. Of
this royal house the famous Darius was a member, and Herodotus tells
how that monarch, "having gazed upon the Bosphorus, set up two pillars
by it of white stone with characters cut upon them, on the one Assyrian
and on the other Hellenic, being the names of all the nations which he
was leading with him" (iv. 87). The engraving of the same inscription
in two or more different languages (of course necessitated by making
their decrees known to the various peoples whom they ruled) was thus
shown to be a custom of the Persian kings.

Put upon the quest, a French scholar, M. de Sacy, born at Paris in
1758, copied some inscriptions of the Sassanid dynasty, which reigned
in Persia A.D. 226-651. These were written in a known alphabet
which is a mixture of Persian and Aramaic, called Pehlevi, and were
shown by De Sacy to run in the following form:--"I, (M or W,) king of
kings, son of (X,) king of kings, did thus and thus." Then, grouping
together the several facts, came Dr. Georg Friedrich Grotefend, to
formulate the theory that the Persepolitan inscriptions were written in
three languages, and not three alphabets of one language, as Carsten
Niebuhr had surmised. The recurrence of certain groups of characters
led him to the inference that "the inscriptions were a fixed formula,
only differing in the proper names." If these inscriptions began, like
those read by De Sacy, with the formula, _X, the king of kings, son
of D, the king of kings_, then it was clear that D was X's father;
and, further, that D's father was not a king, because his name was
not followed by that title, D being therefore the founder of a royal
race. Now, Hystaspes, father of Darius, was not king, but satrap
under Cambyses; and, joining his knowledge of history to his skill in
philology, Grotefend found the key to the royal name. He lived for
thirty years after this discovery, but added nothing to his triumph
save "a fortunate guess of the name Nebuchadnezzar in one of the
Assyrian inscriptions." Other decipherments followed; but it was
reserved for the genius and industry of our countryman, the late Sir
Henry Rawlinson, to discover the key whereby the ancient languages
of Persia, Babylon, and Assyria can be read, and thus "a chapter of
the world's history that had been well-nigh wholly lost made known to
mankind." That eminent scholar in no wise exaggerated the importance
of his work in claiming that its value in the interpretation of
cuneiform writing is almost equal to that of the discovery of the
Rosetta Stone in the interpretation of the hieroglyphic texts of Egypt
(_Archæologia_, xxxiv. p. 75).

[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Rock Inscription at Behistun]

The story of Rawlinson's achievement is warrant of the claim. About
sixty years ago, being then a lieutenant, he was sent to Persia to
drill the army of the Shah. His interest in Oriental history and
antiquities was already keen, and he was glad to find himself in
regions rich in materials the obscurity of whose meaning quickened
inquiry. Among these was a trilingual inscription, dating from the
early part of the sixth century B.C., cut on the face of a bare
precipitous rock at Behistun, about twenty miles from Kirmanshah, a
district abounding in monuments of the past (fig. 39). At the risk of
life and limb he climbed the face of the steep cliff to make copies of
such portions of the inscriptions as were accessible with the means
at his command, and after a series of efforts, continued at intervals
through several years, he finally secured a complete transcript of so
much of the writing as time had left uninjured. The inscription is in
three languages--Babylonian, Mede or Scythian, and Persian--arranged in
parallel columns containing above one thousand lines. It commemorates
"the life and acts of Darius Hystaspes, his conquests, and the nations
under his sway." Bas-reliefs portray that monarch, bow in hand, sitting
with his feet on the prostrate usurper, Gaumates, while a train of
nine rebel princes, whose names are inscribed above their effigies,
stand before the "king of kings," chained together by the neck. Two of
the monarch's soldiers are in the rear. Over Gaumates is written: "This
is Gaumates, the Magian; he lied; he said, I am Smerdis, son of Cyrus."
The same formula occurs over the heads of each of the nine captives.
"This is (M); he lied; he said he was king of (N)." The inscription
begins with a solemn invocation to Ormuzd, the old Persian god of light
and purity, and passes on to detail the claim of Darius to the throne
of the Achæmenids and the possessions of the Persian crown. It tells of
the defeat of Smerdis, and of the revolt of Susiana, a province lying
between Persia and Babylonia. "I sent thither an army, and the rebel
Atrina was brought in chains before me; I slew him." The same story
is narrated concerning other rebellious subjects. Of one Phraortes,
it is told that his nose, ears, and tongue were cut off, and that he
was "crucified at Ecbatana, together with his accomplices." Then the
inscription proceeds:

  "King Darius saith: These countries rebelled against my power. By
  lies they were separated from me. The men thou seest here deceived my
  people. My army took them, according to my orders. King Darius saith:
  Oh, thou that shalt be king hereafter, see that thou art not guilty
  of deceit. Him that is wicked, judge as he should be judged, and if
  thou reignest thus thy kingdom will be great. King Darius saith:
  What I did, I did ever by the grace of Ormuzd. Thou that readest
  upon this stone my deeds, think not that thou hast been deceived,
  neither be thou slow to believe them. King Darius saith: Ormuzd be
  my witness that I have not spoken these things with lying lips." (Cf.
  _Transactions of Royal Asiatic Society_, 1844-46, 1851; also _Life of
  Sir Henry Rawlinson_, pp. 146, 153, 326.)

As Professor Mahaffy points out, the exact correspondence of this
record, "especially in the many proper names it contains, with the
names of persons and provinces described by Herodotus, is a convincing
proof of the accuracy of the deciphering. It will give some notion
of the style of the documents that have been preserved. It will also
prove the accuracy of the accounts given by Herodotus and Xenophon
of the character of the ancient Persians, in whom an honest love of
truth and hatred of lies was the prominent feature--a feature which
we justly honour more than any other in a nation, but in which most
Oriental nations, and indeed the Greeks also, were woefully deficient."
(_Prolegomena_, p. 186.)

Sir Henry Rawlinson's decipherment of the great inscription of Behistun
did perhaps more than aught else to open the long-closed door to
the secret of Mesopotamian culture. The Persian inscription is in a
language which is the mother-tongue of modern Persian, and its meaning
being discovered, the interpretation of the Medic or Scythic, and of
the Babylonian, the oldest of the three, followed, while the several
characters supplied a valuable object-lesson in the stages of the
development of writing from the ideographic through the syllabic, and
thence of approach to the alphabetic.

Cuneiform writing appears to have been originally inscribed upon a
vegetable substance called _likhusi_, but the abundant clay of the
alluvial country afforded material whose convenience and permanence
brought it into general use. Upon this the characters were impressed
by a reed or square-shaped stylus, the clay-books being afterwards
baked or sun-dried. For inscriptions on stone or metal a chisel was
used. The writing of the Assyrian scribes is often exceedingly minute,
the tablets containing a mass of matter in a tiny space. The work was
trying enough to sometimes require the use of a magnifying-glass,
and among Sir Austin Layard's discoveries at Nineveh was that of a
lathe-turned crystal lens which was probably used for the purpose.
Obviously the substances chosen account for the angular form of the
characters; as the dyer's hand is "subdued to what it works in," so
the nature of the material in which the sculptor seeks to express his
conceptions largely determines for him the limits of that expression.
Phidias himself could not have produced his Pallas Athene from the
stubborn granite of Syene; and, as the outcome of the Egyptian
temperament, the sphinxes of the Nile valley might have worn a less
relentless look had they been fashioned of the marble of Pentelicus.
Much as the abrupt cuneiform character tends, however, to obscure
the traces of its derivation, there are sufficing proofs that it is
of pictographic origin, although no examples of picture-writing in
Mesopotamia corresponding in primitiveness to those already given from
barbaric sources have been discovered. In the linear Babylonian, as it
is called, the hieroglyph for "sun" is a diamond-shaped figure [Symbol]
which later on became [Symbol], and in the latest cuneiform, [Symbol].
Evidently the earliest sign was a circle, which could not be easily
traced on the stone or clay, and hence appears as the angular character
shown above. The annexed table, which is a copy of one supplied by Mr.
Pinches to Professor Keane, and published in his admirable monograph,
_Man Past and Present_, gives a set of typical examples of the
derivation of cuneiform characters from the earliest known pictographs.

EVOLUTION OF THE AKKADIAN CUNEIFORMS.

  1000 B.C.     About 2500      Oldest known line forms,
  and later.    to 1500 B.C.    3000 B.C. and earlier.

  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "bird."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "sheep"
                                             (probably a sheep-fold).
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "ox."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "to go,"
                                                       "to stand."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "hand."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "man."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "dagger."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "fish."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "reed."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "reed."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "corn"
                                                   ("ear of corn").
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "god,"
                                                       "heaven."
  [Symbol]      [Symbol]        [Symbol]     [Symbol]  "constellation,"
                                                         "star."

As an illustration bearing upon the specimens set forth in the table
we have the ideogram of Nineveh [Symbol].The archaic form of this
character [Symbol] proves that it was compounded of the ideographic
picture of a house, enclosing the ideogram of the fish [Symbol],
thus preserving record of the instructive fact that imperial Nineveh
was at first, as its name implies (_nun_, "fish," is the name of the
fourteenth letter of the Semitic alphabet), a collection of fishermen's
huts (_cf._ Taylor, i. 41). The frequent mixture of old and new forms
in cuneiform writings and the different values sometimes given to
the same sign, have increased the difficult task of interpretation.
As in the earlier stages of other languages, determinatives were
used; _e.g._ all names of men were preceded by a single upright
wedge, of countries by three horizontal wedges, and so on. But in the
examples given in the table, the gradual conventionalising of the
signs is seen, as in that for "ox," wherein the modification of the
head and horns of the animal into the phonogram is obvious, while
the Behistun inscription exhibits well-defined stages of approach to
simplification. The cumbrous cuneiform which fills the third column
has five hundred symbols, ideograms, phonograms, and homophones; the
Medic, which occupies the second column, is written in ninety-six pure
syllabic signs; while the Persian tells the same story in thirty-six
alphabetic signs, four only of the primitive ideograms being retained.
This survival of use of ideograms, it may be noticed in passing,
has illustration among ourselves in many ways. As certain parts of
the body, _e.g._ hand, foot, bosom (in Anglo-Saxon _fæthem_, _i.e._
"fathom," or the space of both arms extended), and forearm (Latin
_ulna_, Anglo-Saxon _eln_, whence "ell"), became and remain standards
of measurement, so it is with certain modes of reckoning. The digits,
I, II, III, IIII (Latin _digitus_, "a finger") are unquestionably
pictures of fingers, and Grotefend contends with good reason that
V is a picture of the four fingers closed and the thumb extended,
while X would represent the two hands, IV the subtraction and VI
the addition of a finger. The use of a primitive decimal notation
is widespread among barbaric peoples. In chess problems the several
pieces are pictorially represented; in the planetary signs, [Symbol] is
the caduceus or wand of Mercury; ♀ is the mirror of Venus, while the
entomologist, in cataloguing his specimens, uses these symbols for
the male and female respectively. In ♂ we have the shield and spear of
Mars; in [Symbol], the sign for Jupiter, the arm wields a thunderbolt;
and the mower's scythe [Symbol] is the symbol of Saturn (connected with
Latin _sero_, _satum_, "to sow"), the god of agriculture. The signs
of the Zodiac, which were mapped out by the old Chaldeans, supply a
still more cogent example. In the form in which they are depicted on
the ancient temple of Denderah, in Egypt, there may be traced evidence
of their primitive pictorial character, a character still recognised
in the headings of the months in our almanacks (cf. _Whitaker's_), and
to be detected in current symbols. For example, the curved horns of
the ram survive in [Symbol], the sign for Aries; the head and horns of
the bull in [Symbol], the sign for Taurus; the arrow and a portion of
the bow in [Symbol], the sign for Sagittarius; while, as Dr. Taylor
points out, "the curious symbol [Symbol] is found to preserve the whole
outline of Capricornus, the small circle being the head of the goat,
with the forelegs below, and the body and tail extending to the left."
Then in such entries in the almanack as "[Symbol] rises 4h. 25m.,"
"[Symbol] 11h. 54m.," "[Symbol] 10th 9.32 morn.," "[Symbol] 3420" in
tables of the configuration of Jupiter's satellites, as also in the
symbols for money, weights, measures, and so forth, the not wholly
dispensed with picture-writing may be detected. The well-nigh vanished
trade signs doubtless served a useful purpose as pictographs in guiding
the illiterate to the shops of which they were in quest; and here and
there the barber's pole with its spiral bandages reminds us of the
phlebotomy of the past; the golden balls of the great financiers of
Florence hang out from pawnbrokers' shops their delusive signal to the
thriftless; while the "grasshopper" of Messrs. Martin, the "leather
bottell" of Messrs. Hoare, and other remnants of goldsmiths' trade
signs, remind us how many of these swung before the shops of Cheape and
Lombard Street in olden time.

To return to the cuneiform. It will be remembered that in the case
of the _monosyllabic_ Chinese, with its dictionary of forty thousand
words, the symbols of these are compounds of phonograms or sound-words
with determinatives as keys to the precise meaning to be attached
to the phonograms. Now the languages of the ancient peoples of the
Euphrates valley are _polysyllabic_, and hence arose the necessity
for signs denoting full syllables, both complex, "in which several
consonants may be distinguished, or simple syllables composed of
only one consonant and one vowel or _vice versâ_." (Maspero's _Dawn
of Civilization_, p. 728.) And among the libraries of Babylon there
were discovered a number of little grammatical documents on bricks,
called _syllabaria_, where a list of characters is given, with the
phonetic sign explained in simple syllables at one side, and, when used
ideographically, at the other. When a syllabary had thus been adopted,
the grouping into words was effected by combining the syllables. "But
a polysyllabic language did not lend itself so readily as the Chinese
monosyllabic to syllabism," and Halévy explains how the difficulty
was met. It was met, at least in some degree, by the adoption of the
principle of Acrology (Greek _akron_, "extreme" = at the top or start),
_i.e._ by the choice of a name from the likeness which it suggested
between the form of the letter and some familiar thing whose name
began with the letter in question. This re-naming of letters by a word
beginning with them occurred in the Egyptian, Russian, Runic, and
other alphabets. For example, in Russian, the letter _b_ is not called
_beta_ but _buki_, "a beech," while _d_ has lost the old name of delta
and acquired that of _dobro_, "an oak." In the Runic letters of our
forefathers _b_ is named _beorc_ or "birch," and _th_ "thorn," while
the acrologic system comes nearer home to us in the old nursery rhymes:
"A was an Archer, who shot at a frog; B was a Butcher, who had a big
dog," &c.

Now this advance to syllabism had been effected, long before the
Babylonians appear on the scene, by the older inhabitants of
Mesopotamia, the Akkadians, or, more correctly, the Akkado-Sumerians,
the Akkadians being settled on the highlands, and the Sumerians on
the plains, of that region. The racial affinities of either are not
determined, some ethnologists holding that they are of Finno-Turkic
origin, others that they belong to the Tatar-Mongolic branch. Neither
is it known at what period they immigrated into Chaldea, since at the
dawn of history they are already merged in the Semitic conquering race.
Some thousands of years B.C. Chaldea had been invaded by
the people afterwards known as Babylonians, whose primitive home, in
common with that of other Semites, as the Hebrews, Phœnicians, &c., is
conjectured to have been in South Arabia. The Babylonians, mixing their
blood with that of the subject peoples, settled as agriculturists on
the rich alluvial lowlands, while an offshoot from them, the Assyrians,
occupied the mountainous and wooded country to the north of the great
rivers, keeping their Semitic purity of descent. These "Romans of the
East," as they have been called, were soldiers and merchants, strong in
the conviction that "trade follows the flag," and hence embarking in
many an aggressive enterprise to beat the Phœnician and other rivals in
commerce. But, resting on the sword alone, the Assyrian empire perished
by the sword.

As for the Akkadians (using this term to include the pre-Semite
inhabitants), they had passed the barbaric stage when they invaded
Chaldea. They knew the use of metals: they were skilful architects,
and; what was of importance in the marshy districts where dams and
canals were indispensable, good engineers; their laws mark an advanced
social organisation; their writing, as has been seen, had become
syllabic; and their literature, besides recording the details of their
daily life, supplies the key to a religion which profoundly influenced
the Babylonians, and, through them, the Hebrews, ultimately affecting
the whole of Christendom. That religion was a blend of higher and
lower ideas. At base it was Shamanistic. Natural phenomena--sun,
moon, stars, the earth, and so forth--were worshipped, but, as in all
religions, that which touches man more closely in his affairs and
relations has the firmer hold, and hence there was an active belief in
magic, with its allied apparatus of charms, spells, and incantations.
Side by side with formulæ embodying superstitions common to barbaric
folk all the world over, we find penitential psalms, appeals to the
great gods, and spiritual utterances, some of which are on a plane with
Hebrew sacred poetry. All this body of literature, secular and sacred,
made up the vast store of books in the libraries whose interpretation
is one of the brilliant successes of modern scholarship, and whose
contents bring home to us the priceless value of the art of writing to
mankind.

Up to a recent date, the oldest known example of cuneiform writing was
supplied by a porphyry cylinder seal of the Semite king, Sargon I., who
flourished 3800 B.C. (fig. 40). It bears this inscription:--"Sargon,
King of the city of Akkad, to the Sun-god (Sarnas) in the city of
Sippara I approached." It is this same king concerning whom a myth,
which may have been the origin of the myth about the infant Moses in
the bulrushes, is recorded on a tablet preserved, together with the
seal, in the British Museum.

[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Cylinder Seal of Sargon I.]

Another famous cuneiform relic is the Stele of the Vultures, a
large portion of which is in the Louvre. It dates from about 4500
B.C., and besides its sculptured panels, one of which depicts
vultures carrying away the heads of the slain in battle (whence
its name), it records the victory of E-anna-du, priest-king of
Sirpurra, over the "people of the land of the Bow," on the Elamite
frontier, a tribute of corn being imposed on the conquered state.
Other inscriptions testify that "in the fourth millennium before the
Christian era art was fully developed, statues set up, the chariot used
in war, silver and copper worked, weaving and the making of pottery
known, and an elaborate system of calculation into thousands evolved."
But the antiquity of these witnesses pales before that evidenced by the
rubbish-mounds of the city of Nuffar or Nippur, in Northern Babylonia.
Several records of Sargon I. were found among the thousands of tablets
dug from the later deposits, but discoveries were made beneath these
on which Dr. Peters, in reporting on the epigraphic material secured
by Mr. Haynes, writes as follows:--"We found that Nippur was a great
and flourishing city, and its temple, the temple of Bel, the religious
centre of the dominant people of the world at a period as much prior
to the time of Abraham as the time of Abraham is prior to our own
day. We discovered written records no less than six thousand years
old, and proved that writing and civilisation were then by no means
in their infancy. Further than that, our explorations have shown that
Nippur possessed a history extending backward of the earliest written
documents found by us, at least two thousand years." (_Nippur; the
Narrative of the University of Pennsylvania's Expedition_, vol. ii. p.
241.) Upon which Dr. Hilprecht comments: "I do not hesitate to date
the founding of the temple of Bel and the first settlements in Nippur
somewhere between 6000 and 7000 B.C., and possibly earlier."
(_Academy_, 30th April 1898, p. 465.)

[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Tell-el-Amarna Tablet (_circa_ 1450
B.C.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 42.--First Creation Tablet]

Although they are nearly five thousand years later, deeper interest
attaches to the three hundred and twenty clay tablets, inscribed with
the cuneiform character (fig. 41), which were discovered in 1887 among
the ruins of Tell-el-Amarna, the Arabic name of a village on the east
bank of the Nile, about one hundred and eighty miles south of the once
renowned city of Memphis. The village stands on the site of a city
founded by Amenophis III., so that the date of the documents, among
which are letters received by that king, is known to range from 1500 to
1450 B.C. Two of the tablets contain legends, and one gives
a hymn to the war-god, but the larger number comprise communications
passing between the kings of Egypt and the kings of Western Asia, many
of them being docketed with the date and name of the sender written
in Egyptian hieroglyph. One tablet from a Hittite prince is written
in the old Akkadian tongue. They furnish valuable information upon
the political and commercial relations between Egypt and Babylonia,
and upon negotiations between the kings both for wives and subsidies.
"Being all in the cuneiform character, they were unlikely to be
readily deciphered at the Egyptian court. Hence it was the custom of
the Babylonian kings to send interpreters with them, and reference is
made to such messengers in several of the letters. But a scribe able
to read and write the cuneiform was undoubtedly kept by the Pharaohs
for purposes of translation and for inditing replies. Some of the
tablets are copies of such replies, written in cuneiform, but retained
for reference, just as we in the present day keep copies of important
letters."

[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Deluge Tablet (Chaldean Epic) OBVERSE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Deluge Tablet (Chaldean Epic) REVERSE.]

The actual contents of the Tell-el-Amarna tablets are of secondary
importance to the fact that cuneiform writing was in use in Palestine
fifteen hundred years before Christ, and, therefore, that Babylonian
myths and legends had, in all probability, circulated freely there
centuries before the Book of Genesis took shape. Thus the legends of
the Creation, the Fall, and the Deluge, the Chaldean origin of which
is established (figs. 42, 43, 44), "can very well have existed in
Palestine at the time it was invaded by the Israelites, who would have
learned them from the people they subdued, and would have found plenty
of time to modify them into the forms in which they appear in Hebrew
literature." (_The Witness of Assyria_, p. 11, by Chilperic Edwards.)




CHAPTER VI

EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS

With the foregoing references to some of the most venerable documents
that have yet come to light, we may leave Assyria for Egypt, no longer
a land of marvel and of mystery, with its past hidden as the sources
of the great river of which that land is "the gift" were long hidden.
For the discovery of the key to that past, and of the vast waters
that feed the Nile, alike lie within the present century. Till then
the veil of Isis hung over the significance of the inscriptions on
coffin, sepulchral box, stele, tomb, obelisk, and temple, and over the
interpretation of characters written on papyri rolls centuries before
the foundations of Athens were laid. Of these records, be it noted,
Death, which sweeps away man and the memory of him from his fellows,
has been more than aught else--in Egypt, and indeed, all the world
over, but notably in Egypt--the preserver. And this because there all
that appertained to the departed was guarded with the most jealous
care. The tomb, as often elsewhere, was modelled on the plan of the
house, and supplied with utensils, food, and drink, or adorned with
the painted representations of these things on the walls, for the
needs of the _ka_, or double, _sahn_, or spirit, or some other of the
eight Egyptian ontological divisions of the individual.

Like the other pictographic systems already surveyed, the Egyptian
interests us because it has preserved the traces of its origin, adding
its "cloud of witnesses" to the identity of the several stages of
development marking the scripts of all literate peoples. Until very
recently, its chief interest lay in the belief that it is the parent
of the family of alphabets of the civilised world; but, as will be
shown later on, the theory is no longer tenable. Although the earliest
known examples of Egyptian hieroglyphs (Greek _hieros_, "sacred," and
_glypho_, "to carve," so called in the belief that they were used
solely by the priests) contain alphabetic characters, they have come
down as highly elaborated types of picture-writing, the changes in
which during the long period covered by the records being so slight
that, to cite Professor Whitney, "it is like a language which has never
forgotten the derivations of its words, or corrupted their etymological
form, however much it may have altered its meaning." Therefore,
although the Egyptians had developed alphabet-signs five thousand
years B.C. they never advanced to the stage of their sole and
independent use, partly because of the conservative instincts of the
race, which, fostering veneration for the old, was reluctant to alter
anything, and partly because, as Professor Flinders Petrie has pointed
out, their "treatment of everything was essentially decorative,
the love of form and drawing being in Egypt a greater force than
amongst any other ancient people. Babylon and China, from want of
sufficient artistic taste, allowed their pictorial writing to sink
into a mere string of debased and conventional forms; the Egyptians,
on the contrary, preserved the purely pictorial and artistic character
of their hieroglyphs to the end. The hieroglyphs were a decoration
in themselves; their very position in the sentence was subordinate
to the decorative effect. The Egyptian could not be guilty of the
barbarism seen on some of the Assyrian sculpture, where inscriptions
were scrawled right across the work without regard to design. So far
was this idea carried that many words or ideas were represented by
two distinct characters, one wide and the other narrow and deep, so
that the harmony of the design should not be broken by an unsuitable
element. The result was that the Egyptians were rewarded by having the
most beautiful writing in the world." (_Egyptian Decorative Art_, p. 4.)

This writing exists in three groups of characters (fig. 45): (_a_)
_Hieroglyphic_, (_b_) _Hieratic_, (_c_) _Demotic_. The demotic is
derived from the hieratic, and the hieratic from the hieroglyphic.

[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic Signs for
Man]

(_a_) Pictogram, ideogram, and phonogram--in other words, signs
representative of word, idea, and sound--make up the seventeen hundred
_hieroglyphs_ which, in the older signs, preserve the traces of
their origin in rude picture-writing. They were chiselled on stone
of various kinds, cut or painted on wood or plaster, and written on
papyrus or skin; the characters being arranged in vertical columns.

With the quickened zeal of modern excavators discoveries come apace, so
that before these words are printed, some additional find, throwing all
others into the shade, may come to light. Such, for example, would be
the production of epigraphic evidence as to the sojourn and oppression
of the Israelites in Egypt, and their escape from that "house of
bondage." For a long time the earliest known example of hieroglyphic
writing which the Gizeh and Ashmodean Museums could show (each
institution possessing fragments of the relic) was a mutilated stele
or monumental tablet to the memory of Shera, a priest or grandson of
Sent, the fifth king of the Second Dynasty, which, adopting Professor
Flinders Petrie's chronology, flourished about four thousand five
hundred years B.C. In this record three alphabetic characters
are employed to spell that monarch's name. But in November 1897, Dr.
Borchardt reported the important discovery that the royal tomb found by
M. de Morgan in the spring of that year at Nagada, situated opposite
Coptos, a little north of Thebes, is that of Menes, the founder of
the First Dynasty, whose date Professor Flinders Petrie fixes at 4777
B.C., "with a possible error of a century." Calcined remains of
the body are now in the Gizeh Museum, and, among other objects, the
broken fragments of an ivory plaque which, when joined, showed the
_ka_ name of Aha (the _ka_ being the "double" or "other self" of the
deceased which abode with the mummy), and, attached thereto, the name
MN = Menes, borne by the Pharaoh during his lifetime. Assuming that Dr.
Borchardt's interpretation is accepted by Egyptologists, it proves that
the hieroglyphic system of writing was then already fully developed.
It may be remarked, incidentally, that among the remains of the
pre-dynastic race discovered by Professor Flinders Petrie in 1895, in
the district north of Thebes, no hieroglyphs or traces of other writing
were found. There was evidence of knowledge of metals, but not of the
potter's wheel. It therefore seems probable that writing came in with
the First Dynasty, which, according to M. de Morgan, was descended from
Chaldean Semites.

But more interesting, for the light thrown on early Egyptian thought,
than inscriptions on stele or plaque are the copies of portions of the
sacred literature entitled "Chapters of the Coming Forth by Day," and
also the "Chapters of Making Strong the Beatified Spirit," but commonly
known as the _Book of the Dead_. This venerable embodiment of human
conceptions about an after life, and of human hope and consolation this
side the grave, contains the hymns, prayers, and magic formulæ against
all opposing foes and evil spirits, to be recited by the dead Osiris
(the soul was conceived to have such affinity with the god Osiris as
to be called by his name) in his journey to Amenti, the underworld
that led to the Fields of the Blessed. It lies outside both our scope
and space to give an account of the contents of the several chapters,
and, fortunately, the entire text, translated by Dr. Wallis Budge,
with admirable facsimiles of illustrations, is within the reach of
a moderate purse. But one curious and prominent feature should have
reference, because it shows the persistence of barbaric ideas about
names as integral parts of things. (On this subject, see the author's
_Tom Tit Tot; an Essay on Savage Philosophy in Folk-Tale_, 1898.) The
Osiris has not only to be able to recite the names and titles of the
gods, but of every part of the boat, "from truck to keel," as the
nautical phrase goes, in which he desires to cross the great river
flowing to Amenti. And then, before he can enter the Hall of the Two
Truths--that is, of Truth and Justice, where the god Osiris and the
forty-two judges of the dead are seated--the jackal-headed Anubis
requires him to tell the names of every part of the doors, posts,
and woodwork generally. These correctly given, the soul declares its
innocence in language whose moral tone has never been surpassed, while
it throws a light on the virtues and vices of old Egyptian society
which makes clear how poor a guide to the past are its monuments
compared with its literature.

The age of the composition of this remarkable book is unknown. But so
old is it that the earliest copies we possess show that when they were
made, some six thousand years ago, the exact meaning of parts of the
text had become obscure to the transcribers. Fragments of it have been
found in those ancient tombs, the Pyramids; chapters or long extracts
were written on stone and wooden coffins; but after the expulsion of
the Hyksos, or Shepherd Dynasty, by the kings of Thebes, about 1580
B.C., papyrus came more into use for the purpose.

One of the most superbly-illustrated examples is that known as the
_Papyrus of Ani_, belonging to what is called the Theban recension of
the text, which was much used from the Eighteenth to the Twentieth
Dynasty (1587-1060 B.C.). It will suffice, as evidence of
the magical qualities attributed to the written word, to quote the
following from the seventy-second chapter, as translated into sonorous
English by Dr. Wallis Budge:--

  "If this writing be known (by the deceased) upon earth, and this
  chapter be done into writing upon (his) coffin, he shall come forth
  by day in all the forms of existence which he desireth, and he shall
  enter into (his) place, and be not rejected. Bread and ale and meat
  shall be given unto Osiris, the scribe Ani upon the altar of Osiris
   ... there shall wheat and barley be given unto him; there shall he
  flourish as he did upon earth, and he shall do whatsoever pleaseth
  him, even as do the gods who are in the underworld, for everlasting
  millions of ages, world without end."

Under Dr. Wallis Budge's editorship, the Ani papyrus has recently been
supplemented by the issue of facsimiles and translations of papyri
and other texts connected with the _Book of the Dead_. Among these is
a _Book of Breathings_, written in a late hieratic, and dating from
late pre-Christian times. It contains a ritual to be said by the priest
for or over the dead, and teaches belief in a resurrection of the body
and a state of material bliss on earth. "Thy soul shall live," and, so
runs the text, "thy corruptible body shall burst into life, and thou
shalt never decay." ... "Grant that his soul may go into every place
wheresoever it would be, and let him live upon earth for ever and ever."

Up to a point the story of Egyptian writing illustrates the stages of
development of writing generally so clearly that its recital, even at
the cost of some repetition, will be helpful, and the more so as it
falls into line with the story of other scripts.

"It goes without saying" that the representation of an object was
a simple matter enough, the rudest draughtsmanship sufficing for a
picture that should tell its own meaning at a glance. But as soon as
the need arose to graphically express ideas, for example, such as vice
and virtue, time and space, health and sickness, symbolism came in. To
the illustrations of this supplied by the scripts already dealt with
may be added a few examples from Egyptian ideography, into which, at
the stage that we first meet it, the whole system of hieroglyphics
may be said to have become modified. The bee was a symbol of kingship
and also of industry; a roll of papyrus denoted knowledge; an ostrich
feather, justice, because these feathers were supposed to be of equal
length; a palm branch, one year, because that tree was popularly
believed to put forth a fresh branch every new moon--although, as Mr.
Gliddon suggests, a more plausible reason is in the annual cutting of
the lower leaves close to the trunk. The ideograph for a priest was
a jackal--not, as may be cynically hinted, because of his "devouring
widows' houses," but because of his watchfulness; for a mother, a
vulture, because that bird was believed to nourish its young with its
own blood. Thirst was represented by a calf running towards water;
power by a brandished whip; and battle by two arms, the one holding
a shield and the other a javelin. Among the Dakotah Indians combat
is indicated by two arms pointed at each other. The ideograph for
night, a star pendant from a curve, is like the Ojibwa; while among
the ancient Mexicans night was represented by a semicircle with eyes,
as stars, attached to it. Signs for hunger, thirst, supplication, and
so forth, among both Innuit Indian and ancient Egyptian--as indeed
many other signs among peoples, both in the old world and the new,
whose writing has not reached a purely phonetic stage--have that
correspondence to be expected when things common to all men are
graphically represented (fig. 46). Running water, for example, remains
necessarily a pictograph, but water depicted in connection with rites
represents, by one symbol or another, the varying nature of the latter.
Both in Egypt and Mexico it is represented flowing from a vessel, the
Egyptian ideograph having a kneeling figure with arms uplifted, as
if in adoration or gratitude. There appears, also, some resemblance
between the symbol for negation between these two, but this has the
doubt attaching to all metaphysical interpretation of signs.

[Illustration:

  Night           (Egyptian).
  Night           (Maya).
  Supplication    (Egyptian).
  Supplication    (Ojibwa).
  Negation        (Egyptian).
  Negation        (Californian Indian).
  Negation        (Maya).
  Medicine Man    (Ojibwa).
  God of Medicine (Easter Island).

Fig. 46.--Comparative Ideographs]

Obviously, this presentment of ideas through graphic designs into
which metaphor often bordering on enigma had to be read, implied good
memories and clear grasp of association on the part of the interpreter.
Any doubt or ambiguity, with resulting confusion, as to the meaning
of the symbol, rendered it worse than useless. Hence the addition of
"determinants," concerning which something was said when treating of
the Chinese script (see p. 85). These are of two classes--the special
and more numerous, whose use was confined to one word or idea; and the
general, numbering about two hundred, which, like the Chinese "keys,"
refer to whole groups of words.

But ideas have to be arranged in sentences, and these are made up
of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech for which
symbolism, however ingenious, can make no provision. Moreover, while
the characters are limited in their application, the ideas to be
expressed graphically are ever growing, and hence, in course of time,
there are not enough symbols "to go round." A way of escape opened
itself, and thereby led to an invention undreamed of, when recourse was
had to the use of pictures of things which were different in sense,
but the names of which had the same _sound_; in other words, to the
pictorial pun known as the rebus (see p. 79). As an amusing instance
of the formation of a compound phonogram out of syllabic signs, Canon
Taylor quotes from an inscription of Ptolemy XV. at Edfu, in which, as
he says, "it seems not impossible to detect a faint flavour of ancient
Egyptian humour. The name of _lapis lazuli_ was _khesteb_. Now the
word _khesf_ meant 'to stop,' and the syllable _teb_, 'a pig.' Hence
the rebus 'stop-pig' was invented to express graphically the name of
_lapis lazuli_, which is figured by the picture of a man stopping a pig
by pulling at its tail." Probably the Canon is right, but in western
lands that action is often intended to make the pig move on. Another
example of the rebus occurs in the name of Osiris, which in Egyptian
is _Hesiri_ (Wallis Budge gives it as _Ausir_). The god, on this
showing, is represented, presumably, by a figure on a seat, _hes_, and
by an eye, _iri_. But with the constant revision of interpretations by
Egyptologists, it behoves us to quote with caution. There is a stock
illustration as to the adoption of the supposed picture of a lute
(used by the Egyptian scribes to denote "excellence"), as a phonogram
to express the word _nefer_, "good." But it seems that what was thought
to be a lute is the picture of a heart and windpipe!

At last, we know not when, and we cannot, speaking of Egypt alone,
guess where, there dawned upon some mind the fact that all the words
which men uttered are expressed by a few sounds. Hence, what better
plan than to select from the big and confused mass of ideograms,
phonograms, and all their kin, a certain number of signs to denote,
unvaryingly, certain sounds?

That was the birth of the ALPHABET, one of the greatest and
most momentous triumphs of the human mind. The earliest phonograms
represented syllables, not individual letters, the distinguishing signs
for vowels and consonants being of yet later introduction; in fact,
some alphabets, notably the Hebrew and other Semitic, have no true
vowels, but only distinguishing marks, diacritical points as they are
called, to denote them. To recapitulate, we have 1, picture-writing; 2,
ideograms; 3, phonograms representing words; 4, phonograms representing
syllables; 5, alphabetic characters. From their four hundred verbal
phonograms and syllabic signs the Egyptians of a remote age--for it is
literally true "that the letters of the alphabet are older than the
Pyramids"--appear to have selected at the outset forty-five symbols
for alphabetic use, but the rare occurrence or special use of some of
these caused a further reduction to twenty-five letters. "All that
remained to be done was to take one simple step--boldly to discard all
the non-alphabetic elements, at once to sweep away the superfluous
lumber, rejecting all the ideograms, the homophones, the polyphones,
the syllables, and the symbolic signs to which the Egyptian scribes
so fondly clung, and so to leave revealed in its grand simplicity
the nearly perfect alphabet, of which, without knowing it, the
Egyptians had been virtually in possession for almost countless ages."
(Taylor, i. 68.) That step they never took, but continued the use of
eye-pictures side by side with that of ear-pictures, instead of passing
to the use of fixed signs for certain sounds.

(_b_) The cursive writing known as _Hieratic_ was an abridged and
conventionalised form of the hieroglyphic. The use of the latter
became mainly restricted to monumental and kindred purposes, while the
hieratic was employed by the priests in copying literary compositions,
notable among which was the _Book of the Dead_, papyrus being the
material most commonly used. This was made from the _byblus hieraticus_
or _Cyperus papyrus_, a plant which flourished in the marshy districts
of the Nile. There it has long been extinct, and is now found only
in Sicily. It would seem to have served as many useful purposes to
the ancient Egyptians as the bamboo serves to-day to the Chinese and
other Orientals. "The roots were used for firewood, parts of the plant
were eaten, and other and coarser parts were made into paper, boats,
ropes, mats, &c." In preparing it for writing material, the outer rind
was removed and the pith then cut into strips; which were laid side
by side, with another set of strips across them fastened by a thin
solution of gum, thus forming a sheet, which was pressed, dried in the
sun, and polished to a smooth surface. The sheets were often joined to
make a roll, which was sometimes above one hundred feet long and varied
in width from six to seventeen inches. The finest papyri of the _Book
of the Dead_ are about fifteen inches wide, and, when they contain a
tolerably large number of chapters, are from eighty to ninety feet
long. Dipping his reed, which was either bruised at the end to make
it brush-like, or cut, pen-like, to a point, in the ink-wells of his
stone, wooden, or sometimes ivory palette, which was often dedicated to
the god Thoth, "lord of divine words," the professional scribe wrote
the text in varying colours, chiefly black or red, but also in other
tints imitative of the subject dealt with, as blue for sky, yellow for
woman, and so forth.

The earliest known specimen of hieratic writing is a papyrus containing
chronicles of the reign of King Asa, whose date, according to a
moderate estimate of Egyptian chronology, is about 3580 B.C.
To the same period the most perfect literary work which has come
down to us is usually assigned, although the copy preserved in the
Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, whither it was brought by M. Prisse
d'Avennes from Thebes, seems to have been written between 2700 and
2500 B.C. This valuable relic, commonly known after its donor
as the _Papyrus Prisse_, is entitled the "Precepts of Ptah-Hetep," and
its contents justify the judgment of Dr. Wallis Budge, that "if all
other monuments of the great civilisation of Egypt were wanting, it
alone would show the moral worth of the Egyptians, and the high ideals
of man's duties which they had formed nearly five thousand five hundred
years ago."

(_c_) The _Demotic_ or _Enchorial_ characters preserve but slight
traces of their derivation from picture-writing. As the term _hieratic_
(Greek _hieratikos_, sacerdotal) denotes the class by whom that writing
was used, so the terms _demotic_ (Greek _demotikos_, of the people)
and _enchorial_ (Greek _enchōrios_, of the country) denote that this
writing was in popular use, being adapted to the purposes of daily
life. It appears to have come into use about 900 B.C., and
so continued till the fourth century of our era. It has been shown
that in the time of Darius and other rulers of the Achæmean dynasty,
proclamations and documents of general importance were set forth in
three languages--Babylonian, Medic, and Persian. So, in the time of
the Ptolemies, who inherited the Egyptian possessions of Alexander
the Great and ruled in the Nile Valley till it fell under the sway of
Rome, all matters of public importance were made known in hieroglyphic,
demotic, and Greek characters. The hieroglyphic was called the "writing
of divine words"; the demotic, "writing of letters"; and the Greek,
"writing of the Greeks."




CHAPTER VII

THE ROSETTA STONE

The expressions given above occur on the famous Rosetta Stone, an
inscribed slab of black basalt, which has proved to be of priceless
value in supplying the key to the interpretation of Egyptian
hieroglyphs, thus fulfilling a purpose corresponding to that of the
Behistun rock inscriptions in the interpretation of cuneiform writing.
The slab--which is preserved in the British Museum--takes its name
from its discovery among the ruins of a fort near the Rosetta mouth
of the Nile, where it was found by a French officer in 1799. On the
capitulation of Alexandria to the British, the stone, whose importance
had been detected by the savants attached, by the foresight of
Napoleon, to his expedition, came by good fortune under the charge of
Sir William Hamilton, whose interest in Egyptian antiquities was keen.
It is not perfect, but enough has survived to suffice for decipherment
of the general tenor of the inscriptions. Speculation as to the meaning
of the hieroglyphs had been rife for centuries, for although they
remained in use one hundred and fifty years after the Ptolemies began
to reign (305 B.C.), and although the names of Roman emperors
were written in them as late as the third century A.D., only
a few among the classical writers whose works we possess have anything
of value to say on the matter. It was not until the early decades of
the present century that the ingenuity of two Egyptologists, Young
and Champollion, working independently (as, years later, Adams and
Leverrier worked at the problem of the discovery of Neptune), wrested
their secret from the hieroglyphs. Honour lies only in lesser degree
with some immediate predecessors, among them Zoëga, who rightly
conjectured that the oblong rings enclosed royal names, because these
"cartouches," as they are called, appeared above the series of sitting
figures in temple sculptures; and Akerblad, who published an alphabet
of the demotic characters on the Rosetta Stone.

Dr. Thomas Young was a very remarkable man. Born of Quaker parents
in 1773, he gave his youth to literature, languages, and mechanics,
and at thirty won the Fellowship of the Royal Society, having two
years before then accepted the Professorship of Natural Philosophy at
the Royal Institution. Made easy in circumstances by a legacy from
a relative, he applied himself yet more strenuously to physics and
philology. The result of his labours in the one was the discovery of
the undulatory nature of light (which has its analogy in sound-waves),
in opposition to Newton's corpuscular or emission theory; and, in the
other, a partial decipherment of the demotic characters, and correct
identification of the names of a few of the Egyptian gods--Rā, Nut,
Thoth, Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys--and of the names Ptolemy and
Berenice. He died in 1829.

Jean François Champollion, of whom Dr. Wallis Budge speaks as "the
immortal discoverer of a correct system of decipherment of Egyptian
hieroglyphics," was born in 1790. Like Young, he betook himself early
to the study of languages, and at the age of thirteen was "master of a
fair knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldee." In his twenty-second
year he became Professor of Ancient History to the Faculty of Letters
at Grenoble, and, with a certain impulse to the quest given by
acquaintance with the labours of Young and others, he revised their
system and developed his own, making tours to the museums of Turin,
Rome, and Naples for the study of papyri, and passing thence to Egypt,
where he secured a large body of materials. Death overtook him in
1832, but not before he had accomplished the chief aim of his life in
demonstrating that the hieroglyphic characters are partly pictures of
objects and partly signs of sounds.

Although the Rosetta Stone was the base of decipherment of Egyptian
hieroglyphics, the success following Champollion's labours is largely
due to the discovery of a small obelisk in the island of Philæ. This
obelisk was said to have been fixed in a socket bearing a Greek
inscription containing a petition of the priests of Isis at Philæ,
addressed to Ptolemy, to Cleopatra his sister, and to Cleopatra his
wife. The hieroglyphic inscription upon the obelisk itself included
certain characters within a cartouche which were identical with those
within the only cartouche occurring on the Rosetta Stone. Here, then,
was a clue, which was the more easily followed up because the names of
Ptolemy and Cleopatra have, in the Greek, certain letters in common
which could be used for comparison with the hieroglyphics. "If the
characters which are similar in these two names express the same sound
in each cartouche, their purely phonetic character is at once made
clear," and the recovery of the Egyptian alphabet was only a question
of time (figs. 47, 48, 49).

[Illustration: Fig. 47.--PTOLEMY]

[Illustration: Fig. 48.--CLEOPATRA]

[Illustration:

  KAISARS (CÆSAR)
  A. TAKRTR (AUTOKRATOR)

Fig. 49.]

The Rosetta Stone is inscribed with fragments of fourteen lines of
hieroglyphics, thirty-two lines of demotic, and fifty-four lines of
Greek. These have for their subject-matter a decree of the priesthood
assembled at Memphis in honour of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, King of Egypt,
B.C. 195. They set forth the beneficent deeds of that monarch,
in his consecration of revenues of silver and corn to the temples,
his abolition of certain taxes and reduction of others, his grant of
privileges to the priests and soldiers, and his undertaking at his
own cost, in the eighth year of his reign, when the Nile rose to so
great a height as to flood all the plains, the task of damming it and
directing the overflow of its waters into proper channels, to the great
gain and benefit of the agricultural classes. Besides his remissions
of taxes, he gave handsome gifts to the temples, and subscribed to
the various ceremonies connected with public worship. In return for
these gracious acts, the priests assembled at Memphis decreed that a
statue of the king should be set up in a conspicuous place in every
temple of Egypt, and inscribed with the names and titles of "Ptolemy,
the saviour of Egypt." Royal apparel was to be placed on the statues,
and ceremonies were to be performed before them three times a day.
It was also decreed that a gilded wooden shrine, containing a gilded
wooden statue of the king, should be placed in each temple, and that
these were to be carried out with the shrines of the other kings in
the great panegyrics. It was also decreed that ten golden crowns of a
peculiar design should be made and laid upon the royal shrine; that
the birthday and coronation day of the king should be celebrated each
year with great pomp and show; that the first five days of the month of
Thoth should each year be set apart for the performance of a festival
in honour of the king; and, finally, that a copy of this decree,
engraved upon a tablet of hard stone in hieroglyphic, demotic, and
Greek Characters, should be set up in each of the temples of the first,
second, and third orders, near the statue of the ever-living Ptolemy.
Dr. Wallis Budge adds that "the Greek portion of the inscriptions
appears to be the original document, and the hieroglyphic and demotic
versions merely translations of it." (_The Mummy_, pp. 110, 111.)

As the principle of interpretation is the same for all the
inscriptions, and as the key to that interpretation is knowledge of
one of the languages in which the inscription occurs, brief reference
to another historical tablet often bracketed with the Rosetta Stone
will suffice. This is known as the Stele of Canopus, which also bears
inscriptions in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. It is about half a
century earlier than the Rosetta Stone, and was set up at Canopus in
the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III. to record a decree made by
the priesthood there assembled in honour of the king. It recites acts
similar in their beneficent character to those recounted of Ptolemy V.,
and decrees what honours shall be paid him and his consort Berenice,
whose famous hair, dedicated in the temple of Arsinoë at Zephyrium in
gratitude for Ptolemy's safe return from his Syrian expedition, was
said to have been metamorphosed into the constellation known as _Coma
Berenices_.




CHAPTER VIII

EGYPTIAN WRITING IN ITS RELATION TO OTHER SCRIPTS

The interpretation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics being thus settled
once and for all, the next problem to be attacked was their relation,
if any, to the sound-signs whence are derived the alphabets of the
civilised world. We travel backwards along clearly-marked lines from
our alphabet to the Roman, and thence to the Greek, which tradition
attributed to the Phœnicians. Herodotus says upon this matter: "Now
these Phœnicians who came with Cadmos, of whom were the Gephyraians,
brought in among the Hellenes many arts when they settled in this
land of Bœotia, and especially letters, which did not exist, as it
appears to me, among the Hellenes before this time; and at first they
brought in those which are used by the Phœnician race generally, but
afterwards, as time went on, they changed with their speech the form
of the letters also. During this time the Ionians were the race of
Hellenes who dwelt near them in most of the places where they were;
and these, having received letters by instruction of the Phœnicians,
changed their form slightly and so made use of them, and in doing so
they declared them to be called 'phœnicians,' as was just, seeing that
the Phœnicians had introduced them into Hellas. Also, the Ionians from
ancient time call paper 'skins,' because formerly, paper being scarce,
they used skins of goats and sheep; nay, even in my own time many of
the Barbarians wrote on such skins" (v. 58).

Pliny, in his _Natural History_ (v. 12, 13), gives the credit of
the invention of the alphabet to the Phœnicians, and other ancient
authors repeat what must have been an old tradition. The honesty of
these writers is unimpeachable, however much their competency may be
questioned; and no slight confirmation of their testimony appears,
in the judgment of many modern scholars, to be furnished by the
correspondence in number, name (the sibilants _s_ and _z_ excepted),
and order, although not in form, between the letters of the Greek and
the Semitic alphabets. "In default of further evidence, the very word
ALPHABET," Canon Taylor remarks, "might suffice to disclose
the secret of its origin. It is obviously derived from the names of the
two letters _alpha_ and _beta_, which stand at the head of the Greek
alphabet, and which are plainly identical with the names _aleph_ and
_beth_ borne by the corresponding Semitic characters. These names,
which are meaningless in Greek, are significant Semitic words, _aleph_
denoting an 'ox,' and _beth_ a 'house.'" The following table shows the
names and order of the Greek and Semitic letters, the Hebrew being
selected as the type of a Semitic alphabet, because it is more familiar
than any other (_cf._ Taylor's _History of the Alphabet_, vol. i. p.
75).

  +-----------------------+-----------------------------------+
  |       HEBREW.         |            GREEK.                 |
  +------------+----------+-----------------------------------+
  |    Name.   | Meaning. |             Name.                 |
  +------------+----------+-----------------------------------+
  |  א  Aleph  |  ox      |  A   α            Alpha           |
  |  ב  Beth   | house    |  B   β  ϐ         Beta            |
  |  ג  Gimel  | camel    |  Γ   γ            Gamma           |
  |  ד  Daleth | door     |  Δ   δ            Delta           |
  |  ה  He     | window   |  E   ε            Epsilon         |
  |  ו  Vau    | hook     |  (Vau--obsolete)                  |
  |  ז  Zayin  | weapons  |  Z   ζ            Zeta            |
  |  ח  Cheth  | fence    |  H   η            Eta             |
  |  ט  Teth   | serpent? |  Θ   ϑ  θ         Theta           |
  |  י  Yod    | hand     |  I   ι            Iota            |
  |  ך  Kaph   | palm of  |  K   κ            Kappa           |
  |            |    hand  |                                   |
  |  ל  Lamed  | ox-goad  |  Λ   λ            Lambda          |
  |  ם  Mem    | waters   |  M   μ            Mu              |
  |  נ  Nun    | fish     |  N   ν            Nu              |
  |  ס  Samekh | post     |  Ξ   ξ            Xi              |
  |  ע  'Ayin  | eye      |  O   ο            Omicron         |
  |  פ  Pe     | mouth    |  Π   π            Pi              |
  |  צ  Tsade  | javelin? |  (San--lost)                      |
  |  ק  Qoph   | knot?    |  (Koppa--obsolete)                |
  |  ר  Resh   | head     |  Ρ   ρ            Rho             |
  |  ש  Shin   | teeth    |  Σ   σ  ς         Sigma           |
  |  ת  Tau    | mark     |  T   τ            Tau             |
  |            |          |  Υ   υ            Upsilon}        |
  |            |          |  Φ   φ            Phi    } of     |
  |            |          |  Χ   χ            Chi    } later  |
  |            |          |  Ψ   ψ            Psi    } origin.|
  |            |          |  Ω   ω            Omega  }        |
  +------------+----------+-----------------------------------+

Assuming the theory of the Phœnician origin of the alphabet to be
established, the next question is, was that alphabet an independent
invention, or was it adapted from another set of characters? As has
been seen, all evidence goes to show that sound-signs have been derived
from pictographs, and, if the Phœnician script be no exception to this,
search must be made for its earlier forms. Tradition asserted that "the
Phœnicians did not claim to be themselves the inventors of the art of
writing, but admitted that it was obtained by them from Egypt." So says
Eusebius, and the same tradition has currency among classic authorities
from Plato to Tacitus, while the fact of the active intercourse which
long prevailed between Phœnicia and Egypt goes far in its support. The
Phœnicians were of Semitic race, "dwelling in ancient time, as they
themselves report, upon the Erythrean Sea" (_i.e._ in the neighbourhood
of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf), "and thence they passed over and
dwelt in the country along the sea coast of Syria; and this part of
Syria and all as far as Egypt is called Palestine" (Herodotus, vii.
89). But of their origin and primitive migrations, in truth, little is
known. Tyre, whose king, Hiram, gave Solomon aid in the building of his
famous temple, and Sidon, are familiar names in the Bible, but that of
the "Phœnicians" does not once occur, reference to them being probably
included in the term "Canaanite." Professor Huxley, always felicitous
in his phrases as he was supreme in exposition, aptly called them the
"colossal pedlars" of the ancient world. The narrow strip of Syrian
seaboard which they occupied when we first meet them in history was
a meeting-place between East and West, and the nursery of a maritime
enterprise which looms large in history. Their ships traded westward
beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and eastward to the Indian Ocean; their
colonists settled on both shores of the Mediterranean, on the Euxine,
and were scattered over Asia Minor. Like the Romans, the Phœnicians
had little creative instinct. Designing or discovering little, but
skilfully manufacturing and circulating much, they were distributors of
the wares of their own and neighbouring countries, and founded emporia
in many a city of the ancient world, as _e.g._ at Memphis, "round about
whose sacred enclosure, on that side of the temple of Hephaistos which
faces the north wind, dwell Phœnicians of Tyre, this whole region being
called the camp of the Tyrians," or, as we should say, the Tyrian
quarter (Herodotus, ii. 112).

Obviously, one of the pressing needs of a people thus brimful of
commercial activity, to whom "time was money," would be some swift
and concise mode of record of transactions. Hence the supersession
or abbreviation of cumbrous and elaborated characters, with their
apparatus of determinatives, ideograms, and the like, by a simple
"shorthand" sort of script. But of _what_ characters? Influenced partly
by the traditions already referred to, partly by the fact of the
intimate relations between Phœnicia and Egypt, and doubtless by that
principle of development the application of which was extending in
all directions, a French Egyptologist, Emanuel de Rougé, read a paper
on the history of the alphabet before the Académie des Inscriptions
in 1859 (the year of publication of Darwin's _Origin of Species_),
which, in the judgment of many scholars, appeared conclusive as to
the derivation of the Phœnician (and, through that, of all other
alphabets now in use) from the Egyptian characters. The success which
appeared to attend M. de Rougé's researches "must be attributed to his
clear perception of the fact, itself antecedently probable, that the
immediate prototypes of the Semitic letters must be sought, not, as
had hitherto been vainly attempted, among the hieroglyphic pictures
of the Egyptian monuments, but among the cursive characters which
the Egyptians had developed out of their hieroglyphs, and which were
employed for literary and secular purposes, the hieroglyphic writing
being reserved for monumental and sacred uses" (Taylor, i. p. 90).
The method which he adopted was admirable. He took the oldest known
forms of the Semitic letters that he could discover, and compared
these with the oldest known forms of hieratic writing, confining that
comparison to the twenty-five letters of the so-called "Egyptian
Alphabet." The materials at his command were of the scantiest. On the
_Egyptian_ side hieratic papyri of the new Empire (which began about
1587 B.C.) existed in plenty, but the characters in which
they are written are comparatively late. Fortunately, however, among
the very few examples of the oldest form of hieratic was the _Papyrus
Prisse_ (fig. 50), and this precious relic supplied M. de Rougé with
the cursive characters which made formulation of his theory possible.
On the _Semitic_ side there are the Egyptian words which are given in
Semitic form in the Old Testament, and the Semitic names of Syrian
towns which are found in the Egyptian annals of conquests under the new
Empire, through which the sounds severally represented by the Semitic
and hieratic characters are arrived at. The chief source of epigraphic
evidence was an inscription (fig. 51) on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar,
king of Sidon, dating from the fifth century B.C., or about
two thousand years later than the _Papyrus Prisse_, and therefore
representing a late form of the Phœnician alphabet.

[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Facsimile of Hieratic Papyrus Prisse]

The sarcophagus, which is preserved in the Louvre, was found in a
rock-tomb near the site of ancient Sidon. The interpretation of the
inscription upon it has exercised the skill of a host of scholars,
and given rise to an enormous body of literature. Eshmunazar, whose
mask and mummy are sculptured on the sarcophagus, speaks in the first
person. He calls himself "king of the Sidonians, son of Tabnit," and
tells how he and his mother, the priestess of Ashtaroth, had built
temples to Baal Sidon, Ashtaroth, and Emun. He beseeches the favour
of the gods, and prays that Dora, Joppa, and the fertile corn-lands
of Sharon may ever remain part of his kingdom. Well-nigh in the words
of Shakespeare's epitaph, he lays a curse upon him who would molest
his grave; such an one "shall have no funeral couch with the Rephaim,"
that haunt the vasty halls of death. "I am cut off before my time; few
have been my days, and I am lying in this coffin and in this tomb in
the place which I have built. Oh, then, remember this! may no royal
race, may no man open my funeral couch, and may they not seek after
treasure, for no one has hidden treasures here, nor move the coffin out
of my funeral couch, nor molest me in this funeral bed by putting in it
another tomb." (_Records of the Past_, vol. ix.)

[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Inscription on the Eshmunazar Sarcophagus]

Such, broadly speaking, were M. de Rougé's materials for observation
and comparison, and there have been few more striking examples of
ingenuity of classification and inference than those which, his
work supplies. In his excellent summary of that work which Canon
Taylor gives in the first volume of his indispensable _History of
the Alphabet_ (pp. 98-116), he refers the student who desires full
details to M. de Rougé's posthumous _Mémoire sur l'origine Égyptienne
de l'alphabet Phénicien_, and suggests that those readers who care
only for results may even skip his summary. That summary necessarily
includes much technical matter which will interest only the trained
philologist; and in the superficial survey of the subject which is only
possible, and perhaps desirable, in these pages, any details would be
out of place. Nevertheless, the accompanying tabulated form of M. de
Rougé's results may be followed by an example or two of the method
which secured them, and also by reference to some earlier Semitic
inscriptions which have come to light since 1859.

   M. DE ROUGÉ'S THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET.

     I. Egyptian Hieroglyphics, facing to the left.
    II. Egyptian Hieratic characters, facing to the right.
   III. The oldest Phœnician letters, mostly from the Baal
          Lebanon inscription.
    IV. The oldest Greek letters, from inscriptions at Thera
          and Athens, reading from right to left.
     V. The lapidary Greek alphabet at the time of the Persian
          war, reading from left to right.
    VI. Greek uncials, from the Codex Alexandrinus, about 400 A.D.
   VII. Greek minuscules.
  VIII. The old alphabet of Italy.
    IX. Lapidary Latin alphabet at the time of Cicero.
     X. Latin uncials and minuscules.
    XI. Modern square Hebrew, derived from the Phœnician
          letters in Col. III.

[Illustration: Egyptian, Pœnician, Greek Latin and Hebrew Alphabet
symbols.]

Our examples of M. de Rougé's method may be taken from the letters _b_
and _h_.

_b._ The Egyptians had two signs for this, the "leg," [Symbol] which
is the normal sign, and the "crane" (see fig. 2 in foregoing table),
which letter should be taken as the prototype of the Phœnician (see
fig. 2, col. iii.). The reason may be that the sound of the first
symbol seems to have been nearer to _v_ than to _b_, the "crane" being
used as the equivalent of _beth_ in the translation of several Semitic
names, such as Berytus (Beyrout) and Khirba. The hieratic trace of
the "leg" would, moreover, be easily confused with that of some other
letters, such as the "chick" and the "arm," and would therefore be
inconvenient for adoption. The Semitic character [Symbol] differs from
its hieratic prototype [Symbol] in having acquired a closed loop. The
closed form is so much easier to write that the change presents no
difficulty. But there is a curious bit of indirect evidence which seems
to show that the Semitic in its earlier form was open, something in the
shape of an [Symbol]. The Greek alphabet used at Corinth, one of the
earliest Phœnician colonies in Hellas, must have been derived from a
type of the Semitic alphabet more archaic than that which appears on
the Moabite Stone (see p. 147). Now, in the old Corinthian alphabet the
letter _beta_ is not closed, but open, [Symbol], its form being almost
identical with the hieratic prototype.

_h._ The letter _he_ corresponds to the "mæander" and the "knotted
cord." The hieratic forms show that the former must be taken as the
prototype. In the _Papyrus Prisse_ there are two of this character;
one, which is comparatively rare, is open at the bottom, [Symbol], and
corresponds to the Moabite [Symbol]. It is much more usual, however, to
find the character completely closed. The name of the Semitic letter,
which is generally supposed to mean a "window," would indicate that the
previous form of the letter agreed with the more usual hieratic trace.
This conjecture is curiously confirmed by the evidence afforded by the
early inscriptions of Corinth, which, as we have seen in the case of
_beta_, occasionally preserve alphabetic forms of a more archaic type
than those found on the Moabite Stone itself. Now, in the primitive
alphabet of Corinth we find, instead of the usual form of _epsilon_, a
closed character [Symbol] which is nearly identical with the form of
the "mæander," most usual in the _Papyrus Prisse_. (Taylor, i. pp. 102,
114.)

Among the more important Semitic inscriptions, other than that on the
Eshmunazar sarcophagus, are: (1) the inscription on fragments of sacred
vessels of bronze from the temple of Baal Lebanon, which is assigned
to the eleventh century B.C.; (2) the inscription of Mesha,
king of Moab, on a slab of black basalt, known as the Moabite Stone,
which is assigned to the ninth century B.C.; (3) the lion
weights from Nineveh, bearing the names of Assyrian kings who reigned
during the second half of the eighth century B.C.; and (4)
the inscription on a tablet in a tunnel which conveys water from
the Virgin's Pool in the Kedron Valley to the Pool of Siloam in the
Tyropæon. The date of this inscription lies between the eighth and the
sixth centuries B.C.

[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Inscription on Sacred Bowls (Baal Lebanon)]

1. _The Baal Lebanon Vessels._ In 1876 M. Clermont-Ganneau bought from
a Cypriote dealer some fragments of bronze plates bearing Phœnician
characters (fig. 52). They were traced to a peasant who had found them
when digging, and who had broken up the metal in the hope that it was
of gold. The industry and skill of MM. Renan and Clermont-Ganneau
pieced the fragments together in such wise as to warrant the inference
that they were portions of sacred bowls, an inference confirmed by the
longest of the inscriptions, which declared that "this vessel of good
bronze was offered by a citizen of Carthage, servant of Hiram, king of
the Sidonians, to Baal Lebanon, his Lord," whose temple was one of the
"high places" dedicated to the god.

[Illustration: Fig. 53.--The Moabite Stone]

2. _The Moabite Stone_ (fig. 53). This, perhaps the most famous, and,
certainly, one of the most important, of Semitic relics, was discovered
in 1868 by Dr. Klein, a German missionary, during his travels in Moab.
The Arabs who escorted him took him to see an inscribed stone, the
Phœnician characters on which were beautifully cut in thirty-four
lines. The doctor copied a few words, and resumed his journey. On
reaching Jerusalem he made known his discovery, whereupon competition
was started between the French and German Consulates for purchase of
the coveted treasure. This aroused the suspicion of the Arabs, to whom
the stone had become a sort of talisman on which the fertility of
their crops depended--that is, when they had industry enough to plant
them. Messengers sent by M. Clermont-Ganneau succeeded in taking a
squeeze of the inscription, which made the Arabs still more hostile,
and in the end, after the Turkish governor of Nablus had vainly tried
to secure the stone for himself--of course to sell at a profit to the
"infidel"--the Arabs put a fire under it, then poured cold water over
it, and smashed it into fragments, which were distributed as charms
among the tribe. But the tact of M. Clermont-Ganneau recovered nearly
all the pieces, so that, a few lines excepted, the inscription is
complete. The original is preserved in the Louvre, and a very good cast
of it may be seen in the Phœnician department of the British Museum.

The inscription, which is written in a language resembling closely the
Hebrew of the Old Testament, gives Mesha's account of his rebellion
against the King of Israel, to whom he had hitherto paid yearly tribute
of the wool of a hundred thousand lambs and a hundred thousand rams.
Historically the monument is of high value. Mesha speaks of himself
as the son of Chemoshmelek, whose position as the national god of
the petty kingdom of Moab corresponds to that of Yahweh or Jehovah
among the Israelites. The reference to Chemosh throws light on the
correspondences in belief between the several Semitic peoples. The
"high place" or altar of the god, his anthropomorphic character as
angry, as urging his votaries to battle and to slaughter of their
foes, giving them no quarter--all this is identical with the Hebrew
conception of deity, so that the inscription, _mutatis mutandis_,
reads like a transcript from the warlike annals of the Old Testament.
From the epigraphic standpoint, which alone concerns us here, the
inscription is regarded by Canon Taylor and other scholars as
supporting the theory of M. de Rougé.

3. _The Lion Weights_ (fig. 54). Several examples of these were found
by the late Sir Austin Layard in his first excavations at Nineveh.
They are bilingual, the names of the Assyrian kings being usually
in cuneiform writing, while the weights are indicated in Phœnician
characters. Of course this evidences intimate trading relations
between Assyria and Phœnicia, and the commercial dominance of the
latter in the adoption of its weights and measures as the metrical
standard of the former, and in the general use of the Phœnician
alphabet for business purposes. The action of time has largely
obliterated the inscriptions, but among the names of Assyrian kings
which have been identified are Tiglath-Peser, Shalmaneser IV.,
Sargon II., and Sennacherib. The similarity between the Phœnician
and Assyrian characters is shown in the inscription here reproduced,
which is to scale of the original. It is on the eleventh lion,
which weighs a little over twenty ounces, and therefore represents
a maneh, a Hebrew weight used in estimating gold and silver, and
believed to contain one hundred shekels of the former and sixty of
the latter. The reading is M_a_N_e_H M_e_L_e_K, "a maneh of the king."
The name is not very legible, but is read by Professor Sayce as
Shalmaneser, who reigned in the seventh century B.C.

[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Maneh Weight]

4. _The Siloam Inscription._--The tunnel in which this was found was
doubtless constructed to secure the water supply of Jerusalem in the
event of a siege, the Virgin's Pool being outside the city walls,
while the Pool of Siloam is inside the boundaries of the old rampart.
Encrustations of carbonate of lime made the decipherment of the letters
very difficult on their first discovery in 1880, but enough was seen
to prove their high importance for the study of the development of
the Hebrew alphabet in its passage from the Phœnician to the Aramean
type, whence the modern characters are derived. "It was recognised at
once that a Hebrew inscription of a date prior to the Captivity had
at last been discovered, and that the uncertainties as to the nature
of the alphabet of Israel would now be set at rest." The letters were
carefully cleared of their accretion; squeezes, tracings, and casts
were obtained, and the Hebrew record, engraved in Phœnician characters
nearly resembling those on the Moabite Stone, thus Englished, of course
more or less conjecturally in detail, by Professor Sayce:--

  (1) (Behold the) excavation! Now this is the history of the tunnel.
  While the excavators (were lifting up)

  (2) the pick each to his neighbour, and while there were yet three
  cubits (to be broken through) ... the voice of one call-

  (3)-ed to his neighbour, for there was (an excess?) in the rock on
  the right. They rose up ... they struck on the west of the

  (4) excavation, the excavators struck each to meet his neighbour pick
  to pick, and there flowed

  (5) the waters from their outlet to the Pool for the distance of 1000
  cubits and (three-fourths?)

  (6) of a cubit was the height of the rock at the head of the
  excavation here.

The inscription is interesting if only as showing how modern methods
of tunnelling were anticipated by these ancient engineers. One gang
of men began boring at one end and another gang at the other end,
thus advancing till both met, and the failure to make the connection
which is spoken of in "the (excess) in the rock on the right" has
confirmation in the existence of two "blind alleys" in the tunnel,
showing how the borings overlapped. The accuracy with which, aided
by the most recent appliances worked by compressed air, the passages
through miles of rock have been bored until the men at either end meet
face to face in the middle, is among the romantic achievements of
modern science. The Samaritan alphabet is the sole surviving lineal
descendant of the Phœnician, which in whatever degree the parent of all
extant alphabets, became extinct with the decline of Phœnicia herself,
and the characters are now recoverable only through the inscriptions of
which examples have been given.

M. de Rougé's theory of the source of that alphabet, and of the
variants to which it has given rise, has not passed unchallenged.
It belongs to the class of hypotheses which lend themselves to the
straining of facts in their support, and therefore demand evidence
amounting to demonstration. The superficial resemblances between the
written characters are cited as proof of relation, no play being given
to that independence of origin of which numerous examples occur in
other branches of human development. In his article on Hieroglyphics
in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, Mr. Reginald Poole remarks that "the
hieratic forms vary, like all cursive forms of writing, with the hand
of each scribe. Consequently, the writers who desire to establish their
identity with Phœnician can scarcely avoid straining the evidence."
Moreover, the long lapse of time between the materials for comparison
invites caution. The _Papyrus Prisse_ is, at least, two thousand years
older than the Eshmunazar inscription, and on these two hang the
validity of M. de Rougé's theory. Another contention is that certain
Semitic letters represent sounds which are peculiar to that language,
and for which no equivalent signs could be adopted from the Egyptian,
to which, however, the reply is that in the borrowing of characters it
suffices to select those representing similar, although not the same,
sounds. The objection that the names of the Semitic letters are not
those of the hieroglyphs is met by the principle of acrology (see pp.
86, 104). The question is also asked, Why did not the Phœnicians borrow
the hieroglyphic instead of the hieratic characters? Mr. Arthur Evans
thinks that in some cases this was done, a few of the letters of the
Phœnician alphabet coming direct from the pictorial symbols, as _Alpha_
(_Alef_ = an ox), from the hieroglyph of an ox's head; _Zeta_ (_zayin_
= weapons), from the two-edged axe; _Sigma_ (_samech_ = a post), from
the sign of a tree; _Omikron_ (_Ain_ = an eye), from the circle used
to represent the eye; _Eta_ and _E-psilon_ (_cheth_ = a fence and _He_
= a window), from signs for a wall or door or window. Canon Taylor,
however, argues that the derivation must have been on the lines laid
down by M. de Rougé, the Semitic alphabet originating among a colony of
aliens of that race settled in Lower Egypt, either as slaves, traders,
frontier guards, or conquerors. In any case these intruders would be
strangers to the religion and the language of the Egyptians. It would,
therefore, be more likely that they should make use of the cursive and
easy hieratic, which was ordinarily employed in Egypt for secular and
commercial purposes, than that they should adopt the difficult sacred
script which was reserved by the Egyptian priesthood for monumental
and religious uses. This supposition is confirmed by the singular
absence of any hieroglyphic monument which can be assigned to the three
dynasties of Semitic rulers known as the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, who
were expelled from Lower Egypt by the Theban Ramesides.

Canon Taylor admits that if, among the objections raised by Professor
Lagarde, that based on the want of adequate resemblance between
the Semitic letters and the hieratic forms can be sustained, M. de
Rougé's theory falls to the ground. The Canon, a staunch, although
perfectly candid, supporter of that theory, very properly lays stress
on the tendency of things borrowed to partake of the character of the
borrower. That they are borrowed at all implies a certain adaptableness
in them which permits modification of type, especially when the writing
has to be inscribed on another kind of material. The early hieratic
writing was traced on papyrus with a soft reed-stump, while the Semitic
was cut upon a stone with a chisel, to the loss of flowing lines and
curves. "Looking broadly at the two scripts, Hieratic and Moabite,
we see in the first place that the Semitic writing is distinguished
by greater symmetry and greater simplicity. The letters have become
more regular and uniform: more angular, more firm, and more erect;
the differences in relative size have diminished; the complicated and
difficult characters especially being straightened or curtailed."
(_History of the Alphabet_, i. 125.) Summing up the several objections,
of which only the more important have been noted here, Canon Taylor,
amending nothing in the recent reprint of his book, remains satisfied
as to the soundness of M. de Rougé's theory. "Not only is it on _a
priori_ grounds the probable solution, not only does it agree with the
ancient tradition, not only does it supply a possible and reasonable
explanation of the facts, not only is it confirmed by all sorts of
curious coincidences, but no objection has been urged against it to
which a sufficient answer cannot be found. If we reject M. de Rougé's
explanation of the origin of the alphabet, there is practically no
rival theory on which to fall back. There are only three other possible
sources, none of which can, at present, be regarded in any higher light
than as a mere guess. If the Semitic letters were not derived from
Egypt they must have been invented by the Phœnicians, or they must have
been developed either out of the Hittite hieroglyphics, or out of one
of the cuneiform syllabaries." (_Ib._, p. 130.) The possible relation
of the still undeciphered Hittite hieroglyphs to other scripts will
have reference presently, and perhaps Deecke's theory of the derivation
of the Phœnician from the Assyrian cuneiform has some measure of truth
in it. For cuneiform appears to be essentially a Semitic script, and
the Phœnicians in their contact with other Semitic peoples would, it
may be assumed, have retained and adapted some, if not all, of the
cuneiform characters long before they became familiar with Egyptian
hieroglyphic or hieratic. Granting, however, all that the upholders
of M. de Rougé's theory may demand, their inference as to the direct
connection between the Greek and other alphabets and the Phœnician
alphabet is not necessarily to be accepted. On this question of
relation new and important light is thrown by recent discoveries, whose
significance will be dealt with in the following section.




CHAPTER IX

THE CRETAN AND ALLIED SCRIPTS

When treating of the sources whence civilisation flowed westward
centuries before Greece and Rome appear, the historian turns to the
valleys of the Nile and the Euphrates. For Egypt and Chaldea have
meant so much to us all in our search after the chief influences on
man's intellectual and spiritual history, and this with increasing
warrant, because the more widely investigation is pushed, the more
venerable is the past of both countries found to have been. In the
case of Babylon we have seen that the art of writing--that index of
culture--had passed the pictographic stage long before eight thousand
years ago, while the Egyptian hieroglyphs, which probably came in with
the dynasties, and therefore date from the reign of Menes, the first
historical king, are some thirteen hundred years later, so far as
their use in the Nile Valley is concerned. Hence the Babylonian script
carries the palm in point of age. Fortunately the records of both
these ancient civilisations are fairly continuous, of Babylonia to the
downfall of the empire, and of Egypt to the present time. Assessing the
contributions of each to human progress, the verdict appears to be in
favour of Babylonia, and "we now know that, high as was the development
of Egyptian civilisation in certain directions, it was by no means the
fertile mother of other civilisations. All modern writers are agreed
that religious cults and national customs are exactly what the Greeks
did not borrow from Egypt, any more than the Hebrews borrowed thence
their religion, or the Phœnicians their commerce." (Mr. Percy Gardner's
_New Chapters in Greek History_, p. 193.) But if Egypt was no "house
of bondage" to Israel, it has been the enslaver of Christendom. It
fettered a faith, which had flourished in the freedom of the spirit,
with Trinitarianism, Mariolatry, and Monasticism. Out of one or
another of its triads emerged the dogma of the Christian Trinity, and
in the child Horus, seated in the lap of Isis, we see the profound
significance of the words, "Out of Egypt have I called my Son." The
obelisk that fronts St. Peter's at Rome symbolises the historical fact
that approach to the Christian Church is through the pronaos of the
Egyptian temple.

Explorations in Greece and the surrounding archipelago within the last
few years have brought to light a third venerable centre of culture.
About thirty years ago Dr. Schliemann, digging in prehistoric soil,
believed that he had found the palace of Odysseus and the towers of
Ilios. "The bones of Agamemnon are a show." The world laughed at him,
but, if it takes a more sober view of his discoveries than Schliemann
did, it has come to recognise their value and to prosecute his work.
The remarkable result of these discoveries is, in the words of Mr.
D. G. Hogarth, to show that "man in Hellas was more highly civilised
before history than when history begins to record his state; and there
existed human society in the Hellenic area, organised and productive,
to a period so remote that its origins were more distant from the age
of Pericles than that age is from our own. We have probably to deal
with a total period of civilisation in the Ægean not much shorter than
in the Nile Valley." (_Authority and Archæology_, p. 230.) The general
subject cannot be pursued here, and we have to keep to the narrower
track opened up within the past five years in the island of Crete by
Mr. Arthur J. Evans. His discoveries there establish (1) the fact of
an indigenous culture, and (2) of an active intercourse between Crete
and Greece, Egypt, Syria, and other countries centuries before the
Phœnicians launched their craft upon the midland sea and trafficked
with Cypriote and Cretan, or sailed beyond the Pillars of Hercules.
Full accounts of Mr. Evans's important work have for the most part
been contributed by him from time to time to the memoirs of learned
societies, but no statement in popular form has yet appeared. What now
follows will therefore be in large degree an abstract of his paper on
"Primitive Pictographs and a Præ-Phœnician Script from Crete and the
Peloponnese," published in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vol.
xiv., Part II., 1894, pp. 270-372, and reprinted under the title
_Cretan Pictographs_, 1895.

During a visit to Greece in 1893, Mr. Evans came across some small
stones bearing engraved symbols which appeared to be hieroglyphic in
character, approximating in form to Hittite, but having features of
their own. They were traced to a Cretan source, and inquiry in Berlin
elicited the fact that the Imperial Museum there possessed stones of
corresponding character, which also came from Crete. With this and
other corroborative evidence in hand, Mr. Evans decided to follow up
his inquiries on Cretan soil, and began his investigations there in
the spring of 1894. He chose the eastern part of the island as the
more likely district for discovery of prehistoric remains, because,
up to the dawn of history, it had been occupied by the "Eteocretes,"
or primitive non-Hellenic folk. At Praesos he obtained some stones
inscribed with hieroglyphic or pictorial, and also with linear, or
quasi-alphabetic, characters, the preservation of those objects through
the vast lapse of time since they were engraved being largely due to
their use as charms by the Cretan women, who wear these "milk-stones,"
as they call them, during the period of child-bearing. Where, owing
to this superstition, Mr. Evans was unable to secure the stones
themselves, he obtained impressions of the characters on them. In
exploring Goulás, the ruins of which are larger than those of any
other prehistoric site, whether in Greece or Italy, Mr. Evans acquired
important additions to his collection in the shape (1) of a cornelian
gem bearing the image of a rayed sun and a sprig of foliage; (2) of
an ox in terra-cotta; and (3) a clay cup on which were three graffito
(_i.e._ rudely scribbled) characters, two of them being identical with
the Cypriote _pa_ and _lo_. A neighbouring hamlet, Prodromos Botzano,
yielded a plain terra-cotta vase of primitive aspect with incised
hatching round its neck, and three more graffito symbols of the same
kind, one of which seemed to represent the double axe-head occurring
among the hieroglyphic forms reduced to a linear outline; while the
last, as in the clay cup from Goulás, was identical with _lo_. At
another village near Goulás, Mr. Evans procured a double-headed bronze
axe with an engraved symbol, with which he compares signs on a bronze
axe from Delphi, the first of these looking like a rude outline of
a duck or some other aquatic bird. Some of the walls at Knôsos bear
certain marks which were at first passed by as mere scratchings by
masons, but which Mr. Evans is satisfied are taken from a regular
script, and fit on, in fact, to the same system as the characters on
the pottery and seals, the various positions in which the signs, as
_e.g._ the double axe, appear, warranting the inference that they were
engraved on the blocks before these were placed _in situ_. Neither
these nor the signs graven on the steatite and other small stones
are the outcome of mere fancy, or of that _cacoêthes scribendi_, or
"scribbling itch," which wantonly defaces the monuments of past and
present times. "Limited as is the number of stones that we have to
draw from, it will be found that certain symbols are continually
recurring, as certain letters or syllables or words would recur in
any form of writing. Thus the human eye appears four times and on as
many different stones, the 'broad arrow' seven times, and another
uncertain instrument eleven times. The choice of symbols is evidently
restricted by some practical consideration, and while some objects
are of frequent occurrence, others equally obvious are conspicuous
by their absence. But an engraver filling the space on the seals for
merely decorative purposes would not thus have been trammelled in his
selection." (_Jo. Hellenic Studies_, p. 300.) Some of the symbols are
abbreviated, _e.g._ the head indicating the whole animal, or a flower
the whole plant, thus showing an approach to the ideographic stage of
writing. In further example of this there is the expression of ideas
and emotions in graphic form, as in the various positions of the arms
and hands, and so forth. The symbols also frequently occur in groups of
from two to seven, indicating that a syllabic value was given to them,
and certain fixed principles of arrangement appear to govern the place
of certain signs. Altogether, the conclusion seems warranted that the
symbols are not haphazard, but purposive, although, until the materials
for judgment have largely increased, the purposes are not easy to
particularise. Generally, like all other writing, their object was to
tell something, perchance, as already shown (p. 51), information about
the avocations of their owners, thus ranking as primitive "merchants'
marks."

[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Vase with incised Characters (Crete)]

[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Incised Characters on Cup (Crete)]

[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Characters on Vase (Crete)]

[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Signs on Bronze Axe (Delphi)]

[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Signs on Blocks of Mycenæan Buildings (Knôsos)]

[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Symbols on Three-sided Cornelian (Crete)]

[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Symbols on Four-sided Stone (Crete)]

[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Symbols on Four-sided Stones, with larger
faces (Central Crete)]

[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Symbol on Single-faced Cornelian (Eastern
Crete)]

[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Symbol on Stone of ordinary Mycenæan type
(Athens)]

The stones thus bearing symbols of a system of writing in use within
the limits of the Mycenæan world in pre-Phœnician times are arranged in
five groups by Mr. Evans: (1) three-sided or prism-shaped (fig. 60);
(2) four-sided equilateral (fig. 61); (3) four-sided with larger faces
(fig. 62); (4) with one engraved side, the upper part being ornamented
with a convoluted relief (fig. 63); (5) stones of ordinary Mycenæan
type (fig. 64).

The HIEROGLYPHIC symbols engraved on the twenty-one stones
described and depicted by Mr. Evans number eighty-two, and comprise
pictorial and ideographic forms, summarised by him as follows:--

   1. The human body and its parts             6
   2. Arms, implements, and instruments       17
   3. Parts of houses and household utensils   8
   4. Marine subjects                          3
   5. Animals and birds                       17
   6. Vegetable forms                          8
   7. Heavenly bodies and derivatives          6
   8. Geographical or topographical signs      1
   9. Geometrical figures                      4
  10. Uncertain symbols                       12
                                              --
                                       Total: 82

From the foregoing, all of which are represented in Mr. Evans's
monograph, these may be selected as examples:--

  1. _a._ Ideògraph of a man with arms held downwards, perhaps to
  denote ownership. Human figures in like position, are frequent on
  Cypriote cylinders.

  _b._ Ideograph of gesture which may indicate ten or any multiple of
  ten.

  2. _a._ This type of double axe is non-Egyptian. As a Hittite
  hieroglyph it has been found on an inscription; it is seen repeated
  in pairs on a Cypriote cylinder, and it also forms the principal type
  of some Mycenæan gems found at Crete, in the caves of which island
  bronze axes of this shape are common in the votive deposits.

[Illustration: 1_a_]

[Illustration: 1_b_]

[Illustration: 2_a_]

[Illustration: 2_b_]

  _b._ The "arrow" with a short shaft is frequent, one variety showing
  the feather shaft. Similar figures are occasionally seen in the field
  of Mycenæan gems found in the island, where they represent arrows of
  the chase about to strike wild goats or other animals. The Hittite
  hieroglyphic series presents some close parallels.

[Illustration: 3]

[Illustration: 4_a_]

[Illustration: 4_a_]

[Illustration: 4_b_]

  3. Gate, door, or part of a fence.

  4. _a._ The first of these vessels is accompanied with two crescents,
  one on either side of the mask, perhaps a sign of time as applied
  to the duration of the voyage (see p. 51). One ship has seven
  oars visible, the other six. In form these vessels show a great
  resemblance to those which appear as the principal type on a class of
  Mycenæan lentoid gems.

  _b._ Apparently a tunny-fish. Fish as hieroglyphic symbols are common
  to Egypt and Chaldæa.

  5. _a._ Head of he-goat. This symbol presents a remarkable similarity
  to the Hittite hieroglyph of the same object [Symbol] The Egyptian
  goat's-head sign is of a different character, the neck being given as
  well as the head, which is beardless. [Symbol]

[Illustration: 5_a_]

[Illustration: 5_b_]

[Illustration: 5_c_]

  _b._ Bull or ox. The seal on which it occurs is of primitive type.

  _c._ Bird standing. Birds in a somewhat similar position occur among
  the Hittite symbols at Jerabis and Bulgar Maden, and are frequent in
  Egyptian hieroglyphics.

[Illustration: 6_a_]

[Illustration: 6_a_]

[Illustration: 6_a_]

[Illustration: 6_b_]

  6. _a._ Vegetable forms, similar to those found on Hittite monuments.

  _b._ Floral symbol. The dot above both examples probably represents
  the head of a stamen or pistil, as of the lily.

  7. _a._ Day-star, or sun, with eight revolving rays.

  _b._ Rays. Star-like symbols occur on Syrian and Asianic seal-stones.

[Illustration: 7_a_]

[Illustration: 7_b_]

[Illustration: 7_c_]

  _c._ This symbol, with its swastika-like offshoots, may be of solar
  import. The concentric circles may be compared with the Egyptian
  [Symbol], Sun with twelve rays, _Sep_=times, and with the Chinese
  hieroglyph for sun with its central dot.

[Illustration: 8a]

[Illustration: 8b]

  8. Apparently hieroglyphics of mountains and valleys, hence "country"
  or "land." The Egyptian [Symbol] _men_=mountain, is applied in the
  same way as a determinative for "districts" and "countries." As
  [Symbol] _snut_=granary, it reappears, with one or two heaps of
  corn in the middle, in the simple sense of a "plot of ground." The
  Akkadian symbol, which also means a plot of ground, exhibits a form
  [Symbol] similar to the above.

  "In this connection," says Mr. Evans, "a truly remarkable coincidence
  is observable between the pictographic symbolism of old Chaldæa and
  that of the Cretans of the Mycenæan period. The linear form of the
  Akkadian _Ut-tu_ [Symbol] shows a sun above the symbol of the ground
  with a plant growing out of it. But on specimens of Mycenæan gems
  observed by me in Eastern Crete are seen symbolic or conventional
  representations of the plant growing out of the ground." (_Jo. Hell.
  Stud._, p. 313.)

The LINEAR signs, although treated separately for purposes of
convenience, are regarded by Mr. Evans (see Table I) as fundamentally
connected with the hieroglyphic, the one, as in other scripts,
overlapping the other. As to this connection, however, some doubt
exists. The thirty-two characters which Mr. Evans has detected are
increased to thirty-eight by Dr. Tsountas (_Mycenæan Age_, p. 279),
while the materials yielding these results received an important
addition through Mr. Evans's discovery, in the spring of 1896, of an
inscribed steatite slab, associated with numerous votive objects,
in the great cave of Mount Dikta, the fabled birthplace of Zeus.
"It consists of a fragment of what may be described as a 'Table of
Offerings,' bearing part of what appears to be a dedication of nine
letters of probably syllabic values, answering to the same early
Cretan script that is seen on the seals, and with two punctuations."
(Address of Arthur J. Evans to Section H, Anthropology, of the British
Association, 1896; _Nature_, 1st Oct. 1896, p. 531.)

[Illustration: TABLE I]

These linear forms are inscribed on three-sided seal stones, in every
respect resembling those bearing the pictographic signs; on steatite
pendants and whorls; and, as already shown, in graffiti on pottery,
or inscribed blocks, and so forth, from all which sources Mr. Evans
has put together the thirty-two characters shown in Table II, adding
corresponding characters from Cypriote and Egyptian scripts. Table III
gives examples of the characters--doubtless syllabic--occurring in
groups of two or more.

[Illustration: TABLE II]

The hieroglyphic-bearing signet stones have been found solely in the
region east of Knôsos, and the use of these characters appears not
to have passed beyond the island; in fact it may have been limited
to the less advanced portions. This tells against the direct descent
of the Cretan linear from the Cretan pictographic, and, moreover, it
is contended by Dr. Tsountas that the pictographic system exercised
slight, if any, influence on the Hellenic portion of Greece. But, in
the absence of materials which excavations now being prosecuted may
bring to light, any definite conclusions are premature, and only the
broadest general views permissible. (The archæological exploration of
Crete promises to yield materials of the first importance for knowledge
of the history of civilisation in the Eastern Mediterranean area, and
the appeal for funds which Mr. Evans and Mr. Hogarth are making should
have generous response. Some details of this appeal are printed at
the end of this book.) Of the eighty-two pictographic symbols sixteen
approach to Egyptian and sixteen to Hittite forms, but all have, none
the less, an independent character stamping them as indigenous.
Although the coincidences are at times of such a character as to
suggest a real affinity, it must be remembered that the similarity in
many of the objects to be depicted explains the correspondences between
the picture-writing of different peoples. "Some Cretan types present a
surprising analogy with the Asianic; on the other hand, many of the
most recent of the Hittite symbols are conspicuous by their absence.
The parallelism can best be explained by supposing that both systems
had grown up in a more or less conterminous area out of still more
primitive pictographic elements. In the early picture-writing of a
region geographically continuous there may well have been originally
many common elements, such as we find among the American Indians at
the present day; and when, later, on the banks of the Orontes and the
highlands of Cappadocia on the one side, or on the Ægean shores on the
other, a more formalised "hieroglyphic" script began independently
to develop itself out of these simpler elements, what more natural
than that certain features common to both should survive in each?
Later inter-communication may have also contributed to preserve this
common element. But the symbolic script with which we have here to
deal is essentially _in situ_. The Cretan system of picture-writing is
inseparable from the area dominated by the Mycenæan form of culture.
Geographically speaking it belongs to Greece." (_Jo. Hellen. Stud._, p.
317.)

[Illustration: TABLE III]

While, as remarked above, the hieroglyph-bearing stones are found only
in Crete, examples of the linear character have been found at Mycenæ,
Nauplia, and other prehistoric sites in Greece and Egypt. Moreover, as
already noted, some of the signs have marked affinities with Cypriote,
Hittite, and Semitic.

Among the antiquities which make the Fayum so renowned a district
are the remains of two cities; Kahun, which dates from the twelfth
dynasty, _i.e._ 2500 B.C., and Gurob, which is some twelve
centuries later, both sites yielding evidence of Asian and Ægean
settlers. When digging there ten years ago Professor Flinders Petrie
discovered fragments of Mycenæan, or, as he calls it, Ægean, pottery
inscribed with characters resembling, and in some cases identical with,
those found in Greece. Both the Professor and Mr. Evans agree that the
relics unearthed at Kahun are as old as that city; while, speaking of
the signs known to be in use 1200 B.C., in a place occupied
by people of the Ægean and Asia Minor, Turseni, Akhaians, Hittites,
and others, Professor Flinders Petrie remarks that "it will require
a very certain proof of the supposed Arabian source of the Phœnician
alphabet before we can venture to deny that we have here the origin
of the Mediterranean alphabets." (_Ten Years' Digging in Egypt_, p.
134.) Conversely, scarabs of the twelfth dynasty have been found in
Crete, notable among these being one in steatite with a spiral ornament
peculiar to that period.

Passing to excavations in the huge mound of Tell-el-Hesy, in Palestine,
made up of the ruins of eleven different cities heaped up one above
another, we have the discovery, amongst remains of the fourth city,
dating about 1450 B.C., of potsherds inscribed with signs
similar to the Ægean.

While about twenty per cent. of the Cretan hieroglyphs approach those
of the Egyptian in character, twenty out of the thirty-two linear signs
there are practically identical with those found in Egypt. Mr. Evans
adds that "the parallelism with Cypriote forms is also remarkable, some
fifteen agreeing with letters of the Cypriote syllabary."

[Illustration: Fig. 65 EGYPTIAN SCARABS, XIITH DYNASTY AND EARLY CRETAN
SEAL-STONES]

[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Signs on Potsherds at Tell-el-Hesy compared
with Ægean Forms]

This syllabary, as its name implies, is found in the island of Cyprus,
which, lying only sixty miles from Asia Minor, might be expected to
yield many traces of active intercourse therewith from prehistoric
times. The affinity of its ancient script with those of Western Asia,
which may be looked upon as settled, had, therefore, much to commend it
at the outset of the inquiry. It stands in nearest relation, possibly
as its direct descendant, to the syllabary of the Hittites. References
to these people come apace nowadays, and their history has been padded
out in portly volumes, but, in truth, we know no more about them than
we do about the Phœnicians and Phrygians, which means that we know very
little indeed. Through the mists of the past, with the help of such
light as is thrown by tablets from Tell-el-Amarna, sculptures from
Karnak, and by Hebrew and other records, we have glimpses of a great
and powerful empire which stretched from the Euphrates to the Euxine,
pushing its borders to the confines of Egypt, against which, on the one
hand, and Assyria on the other, it waged war for a thousand years. In
1270 B.C. Rameses III. had to face the onrush of the Hittites
and other confederated peoples, whom he defeated at Migdol. They "had
overrun Syria. The islands and shores of the Mediterranean gave forth
their piratical hordes; the sea was covered with their light galleys,
and swept by their strong oars." (Rawlinson's _History of Ancient
Egypt_, vol. ii. p. 271.) According to Dr. Wright, the Hittites appear
in history for the first time "in the inscription of Sargon I., King
of Agané, about 1900 B.C., and disappear from history in the
inscriptions of Sargon 717 B.C." (_Empire of the Hittites_,
p. 122.) Until some thirty years ago no monumental remains had come to
light concerning an empire whose high place among ancient nations is
attested by the discovery of a treaty (the oldest known example of its
kind) with Egypt, in which each recognised the other as a power equal
in rank to itself, and agreed to help it in case of need. The first
Hittite relic, a block of basalt engraved with strange hieroglyphic
signs, was found by the traveller Burckhardt in 1812 at Hamah, on the
Orontes, but he could not decipher the characters, and the matter was
forgotten till 1870, when the stone was rediscovered, and similar
relics brought to light. But to this day the key of interpretation is
lacking, and scholars await the unearthing of some bilingual monument
which shall do for the Hittite hieroglyphs what the Rosetta Stone
did for the Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Behistun rock for cuneiform
writing. Till this, and more, is effected, we remain in the realm
of conjecture about the mighty nation whose beardless soldiers are
depicted with daggers in their belts and double-headed axes in their
hands on the sculptures of the Nile Valley. Minimising, however, our
knowledge of the Hittites to the uttermost, their widely distributed
relics evidence their proficiency in certain departments of the arts.
They smelted silver and wrought in bronze, they were skilful lapidaries
and carvers in ivory, and "the independent system of picture-writing
which they possessed offers an obvious source from which the Asianic
syllabary might have been obtained." In the Hamah inscriptions the
characters are raised, and run in parallel transverse lines.

[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Hittite Inscription at Hamah]

"The lines of inscriptions and their boundaries are clearly defined by
raised bars about four inches apart. The interstices between the bars
and characters have been cut away." The inscriptions are read from
right to left and _vice versâ_ in "boustrophedon" style (_bous_, "an
ox," and _strephō_, "to turn," therefore, as an ox ploughs), as in
ancient Greek modes of writing.

Returning to Crete, we have to consider its relation to the Mycenæan
type of civilisation, under which term is included civilisation in
pre-Homeric Greece and the Ægean Sea, crossing thence to Hissarlik,
the ancient Troy. The spade has made havoc with some of our standard
"authorities." Grote refers to the city of Mycenæ only once in his
well-known work, and then incidentally speaks of it as the seat of
a legendary dynasty. Sir George Cox, in his _Mythology of the Aryan
Nations_, endorses Professor Max Müller's theory (to which, in part,
the veteran philologist still adheres), that the siege of Troy "is a
reflection of the daily siege of the East by the solar powers that
every evening are robbed of their brightest treasures in the West,"
and adds that this theory is "supported by a mass of evidence which
probably hereafter will be thought ludicrously excessive in amount."
The laugh is on the other side now. Schliemann and his successors
have broken into the areas within Cyclopean walls whose massive
blocks aroused wonder long ages back, giving birth to tales of giant
hands that reared them. They have disinterred relics proving an
historic element in old traditions, and a nucleus of fact beneath the
encrustation of fable over famous names. Like the Empress Helena, who,
in searching for the True Cross, of course found that for which she
looked, Schliemann too readily assumed that he had discovered the bones
of Agamemnon, and the cup from which Nestor drank. But he brought to
light the relics of a culture, knowledge of which involves neither
more nor less than the re-writing of the history of man in the Eastern
Mediterranean, and, by consequence, in Western Europe.

[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Signs on Vase-handle (Mycenæ)]

[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Signs on Amphora-handle (Mycenæ)]

Dealing, as the limits of the subject compel, only with the traces
of inscriptions on remains from Mycenæ itself, the earliest to be
noted is a stone pestle with one incised character which resembles a
Cypriote sign. But one sign does not make an alphabet, and hence the
satisfaction at the recent discovery of the handle of a stone vase,
apparently of a local material, which has four or five signs engraved
upon it, and of the handle of a clay amphora from a chambered tomb
in the lower town of Mycenæ with three characters, while a tomb at
Prousia, near Nauplia, yielded a genuine Mycenæan vessel with three
ears, on each of which is graven a sign resembling the Greek H. These
may not suffice to demonstrate the existence of a pre-Phœnician system
of writing in Greece, but, taken in conjunction with the numerous
discoveries of inscribed signs in Crete, they go far in support of it.
What, then, are the facts as thus far, ascertained?

There have been discovered in Crete a number of objects bearing two
sorts of writing, one hieroglyphic or pictographic; the other linear
and approaching the alphabetic. The pictographic is the older of the
two, dating from the earlier part of the third millennium before
Christ. It was probably derived from a primitive picture-writing by the
non-Hellenic inhabitants of the island, who were called Eteocretans,
or "true Cretans," by the Dorians, whose invasion dates, according to
the traditional Greek chronology, from about the middle of the twelfth
century B.C. These "true Cretans" may not, however, be the
aboriginal inhabitants, although as to this, and as to their language,
we are in ignorance. The recent discovery of an inscription in an
unknown language, written in archaic Greek characters, among the ruins
of Præsos, the chief Eteocretan settlement, warrants the inference
that the old script of the language had been abandoned for the Greek
alphabet. That script, the use of which never passed outside the
island, obviously had no influence on Mycenæan civilisation.

The linear system is syllabic; perhaps, in some degree, alphabetic.
Its possible derivation from the hieroglyphic has been indicated, but
although it is a conventionalised form of pictograph, Dr. Tsountas is
positive in denying its connection with the Eteocretan. He suggests
that its simplification took place in the East, and among a people or
peoples not Greek. Thence it was carried into Greek lands, spreading
more in the islands, at least in Crete, than in the Peloponnesus or
other portions of the mainland, where, as shown above, the number of
inscribed objects is exceedingly small. The question is far from ripe
for solution, but Professor Flinders Petrie, with whom lies a large
share of honour in contributing towards a settlement, courteously
permits me to quote the following from a letter on the subject,
dated 2nd September 1899: "A great signary (not hieroglyphic, but
geometric in appearance, if not in origin) was in use all over the
Mediterranean 5000 B.C. It is actually found in Egypt at
that period, and was split in two, Western and Eastern, by the cross
flux of hieroglyphic systems in Egypt and among the Hittites. This
linear signary was developed variously, but retained much in common
in different countries. It was first systematised by the numerical
values assigned to it by Phœnician traders, who carried it into
Greece, whereby the Greek signary was delimited into an alphabet.
But the fuller form of the signary survived in Karia with thirty-six
signs, and seven more in Iberia, thus giving values to forty-three.
This connection of the Iberian with the Karian is striking; so is
that of the Egyptian with the West rather than with the East. Signs
found in Egypt have thirteen in common with the early Arabian,
fifteen in common with Phœnician, and thirty-three in common with
Karian and Kelt-Iberian. This stamps the Egyptian signary of the
twelfth and eighteenth dynasties as closely linked with the other
Mediterranean systems." In an important paper read at the meeting of
the British Association, 1899, Professor Flinders Petrie remarks: "We
stand therefore now in an entirely new position as to the sources
of the alphabet, and we see them to be about thrice as old as had
been supposed. That the signs were used for written communications
of spelled-out words in the early stages, or as an alphabet, is far
from probable. It was a body of signs, with more or less generally
understood meanings; and the change of attributing a single letter
value to each, and only using signs for sounds to be built into words,
is apparently a relatively late outcome of the systematising due to
Phœnician commerce." (_Jo. Anthrop. Inst._, Aug.-Nov., 1899, p. 205.)

Connecting the results of explorations in Asia Minor, Egypt, Crete,
Cyprus, Rhodes, Thera, Melos, and other islands of the Eastern
Mediterranean with those in the Peloponnesus, the existence of a
pre-Phœnician civilisation, of which Mycenæ may be conveniently
regarded as the centre, appears to be demonstrated.

That civilisation, so far as its connection with the prehistoric stages
of man's development goes, falls in, like aught else in this wide and
ancient world, with the doctrine of continuity, but for purposes of
time-reckoning dates at latest far back in the third millennium before
our era. Mycenæan vases have been found in Egypt, and Egyptian scarabs
in Mycenæan deposits. They prove an intimate intercourse between the
two countries two thousand five hundred years before Christ. And there
was intercourse farther afield. The imitations of Babylonian cylinders,
the sculptured palms and lions, the figures of Astarte and her doves,
show that fifteen hundred years before the date ascribed to the Homeric
poems Assyria and Greece had come into contact. But the examples of
Oriental art which had found their way to the soil of Argolis remained
more or less exotic, the independent features of Mycenæan art being
retained unaltered. Now the cumulative effect of this evidence, which
is only baldly summarised here, is to shatter to pieces current
theories as to the Phœnician origin of European civilisation, and,
consequently, what mainly concerns us here, of the Phœnician origin of
the European alphabets through the Egyptian hieratic. For that evidence
shows that the Mycenæan civilisation is (1) earlier in time, and (2)
indigenous in character.

(1) The evidence as to priority can be summarily stated. Civilisation
in the Ægean and on the Greek mainland dates from beyond 3000, B.C.,
and reached its meridian between the sixteenth and the twelfth
centuries of that era. Almost all that we know about the Phœnicians
is at second-hand, since, if they ever had a literature or native
chronicles, these have not survived. Piecing together classical
tradition and references in Egyptian and Hebrew records, we gather
that for some three centuries onwards from 1600 B.C. Phœnicia was a
dependency of the Pharaohs. There was a Tyrian quarter at Memphis 1250
B.C. Hiram appears to have refounded Tyre 1028 B.C., from which time
its commercial importance dates; while the refounding of its future
great rival Carthage is assigned to the early years of the eighth
century B.C. The decay of the Mycenæan civilisation, which followed as
one of the many results of the Dorian invasion in the twelfth century
B.C., gave the Phœnicians their chance. They overran the Ægean, and
remained the dominant power in the Mediterranean until the Greeks,
reviving their ancient traditions, expelled the Phœnicians from their
waters, and broke their supremacy when Tyre was sacked by Alexander
the Great, 332 B.C. Between their rise and fall, their commercial
pre-eminence enabled them to impose upon the Greeks the alphabet which
was the vehicle of preservation of the intellectual wealth of the
Hellenes, and of all literature that followed theirs. What were the
probable sources of that alphabet will be considered presently.

(2) After allowing full play for Asian and Egyptian influences, the
fact abides that there was a well-developed native Mycenæan art.
The decoration of the pottery is non-Oriental and non-Egyptian; the
seaweeds and marine creatures depicted are home-products of the
island world of Greece; and where sacred trees and pillars appear,
we have no Semitic element, but the outcome, as Mr. Evans puts it,
of a "religious stage widely represented on primitive European soil,
and nowhere more persistent than in the West." But if there were
stepping-stones between Argolis and Syria in the islands that lay
between, there was continuous passage on the western side, making
Mycenæ a link between East and West. The breaks formerly assumed
between the Old and the New Stone Ages of prehistoric Europe have
been filled up by the accumulation of evidence as to man's continuous
tenure of that continent since his primitive ancestors crossed thither
by now vanished land-routes from Northern Africa. In like manner
the _Mirage Orientale_, as M. Salomon Reinach happily terms it, of
a metal-introducing people from the East, who, in successive racial
waves, swept the older settlers before them into the remotest corners
of the north-west, has vanished. When once peopled, Europe, like Asia
and America, ran on independent lines of development, which, however,
were not isolated from connecting lines approaching from the East.
The striking facts of the use of common trade-signs along both shores
of the Mediterranean, and of the existence of remains of Mycenæan
monuments in Sardinia, are in keeping with other facts, showing how
close was the contact between one part of Europe and another centuries
before the Phœnicians had left the shores of the Persian Gulf for the
Syrian seaboard. They prepare us for acceptance of the new theory of
"an Ægean culture rising in the midst of a vast province extending
from Switzerland and Northern Italy through the Danubian basin and the
Balkan peninsula, and continued through a large part of Anatolia, till
it finally reaches Cyprus." (Evans, Address Brit. Assoc.; _Nature_, 1st
Oct. 1896, p. 529.) They prepare us for the fact that in the Bronze
Age, if Scandinavia and its borderlands were the source of amber, the
supply of gold for Northern and Central Europe was drawn not from the
Ural, but from Ireland.

The centre whence this "Ægean" culture is held to have been diffused
is denoted by its name. That name, however, covers the Eastern
Mediterranean region, and the question arises whether or not some
precise place in that area can be indicated as the cradleland.
"Hellas," says Herodotus, "was formerly called Pelasgix" (ii. 56), and
this pre-Hellenic Greece was inhabited by Barbarians or Pelasgians, as
they are, with equal vagueness, called. There were "Pelasgians" on the
mainland and the islands; "the whole of Peloponnesus took the name of
Pelasgia; the kings of Tiryns were Pelasgians, and Æschylus calls Argos
a Pelasgian city; Pausanias (viii. 4, 6) says that the Arcadians spoke
of Pelasgus as the first man who lived in that country, wherefore, in
his reign, it was called Pelasgia; an old wall at Athens was attributed
to the Pelasgians, and the people of Attica had from all time been so
called. <DW26>s also was called Pelasgia, and Homer knew of Pelasgians
in the Troad. Their settlements are further traced to Egypt, to Rhodes,
Cyprus, Epirus--where Dodona was their ancient shrine--and, lastly,
to various parts of Italy." (Keane's _Man Past and Present_, p. 505.)
Herodotus has little to say in favour of the Barbarians (which he uses
as a descriptive and not a contemptuous term, the name being given by
Greeks to all foreigners whose language was not Greek); he speaks of
them as rude, of uncouth speech, and worshippers of repellent deities.
Wachsmuth, in his _Historical Antiquities of the Greeks_, published
over sixty years ago, says that "numerous traditionary accounts, of
undoubted authenticity, describe them as a brave, moral, and honourable
people, which was less a distinct stock and tribe than a race united by
a resemblance in manners and the forms of life." Professor Keane fitly
calls these "remarkable words," in view of the recent discoveries in
prehistoric Greece, which warrant us in ascribing to the Pelasgians the
development of culture in the Ægean Sea. But in what island, or on what
part of the mainland? The important character of the finds at Mycenæ
directs quest thither at the start. The débris of that city, and of her
elder-sister city, Tiryns, have yielded varied relics of an ancient
culture, from gold-masked skeletons in vaulted tombs to gorgeously
decorated palaces and Cyclopean ruins of walls and fortresses. But
there are traditions that these Argolic cities are of later date than
Homer's "great city of Knossos" in Crete, wherein "Minos, when he was
nine years old, began to rule, he who held converse with the great
Zeus, and was the father of my father, even of Deucalion, high of
heart," traditions pointing to the existence of an important Cretan
kingdom which flourished before Agamemnon ruled in Mycenæ.

Water is the birthplace of civilisation, as of life itself, and the
original home of the Ægean or Mycenæan civilisation is probably
to be found in the island of Crete. It is crammed with remains of
pre-Hellenic culture. It is a big stepping-stone from Greece to Asia
Minor, Karpathos and Rhodes lying between. It is in the line of
communication with Cyprus, Syria, and Egypt on the East, and with
Sicily and the coastlines of the Western Mediterranean. The earliest
Greek tradition looks back to Crete "as the home of divinely inspired
legislation and the first centre of maritime dominion." And, what is
of the highest moment to remember, so far as the origin of the art of
navigation in Ægean waters goes, there can be no question between the
old claims on behalf of the Phœnicians and the present claims on behalf
of Crete. The Syrian seaboard is harbourless and unsheltered; the men
who first braved the "unvintaged wine dark" waters (how fine are all
the Homeric sea-words) were island-dwellers, shooting forth from snug
creek and harbour on quick and sudden enterprise, and growing bolder
and bolder as they sailed by the rising and setting of the stars and
the recurring moon. "The early sea-trade of the inhabitants of the
island world of the Ægean gave them a start over their neighbours,
and produced a higher form of culture, which was destined to react
on that of a vast European zone, nay, even upon that of the older
civilisations of Egypt and Asia." (Evans, Address, B. Assoc., p. 530.)
For the diffusion of culture throughout the Ægean was followed by
expeditions to the East. While Cyprus yielded the metal to which it has
given its name, the gold of Asia Minor was poured into the lap of the
pre-Hellenes, and moulded into forms of beauty through which their own
artistic skill challenged comparison with that of the Oriental. In his
comment on the source of the Mycenæan civilisation Mr. Frazer aptly
remarks that "the existence at this early date of a great maritime
power in Crete, which by its central position between Greece and the
empires of the East was well fitted to receive and amalgamate the
characteristics of both, is just what is needed to explain the rise and
wide diffusion of a type of civilisation like the Mycenæan, in which
Oriental influences seem to be assimilated and transmuted by a vigorous
and independent nationality endowed with a keen sense of its own for
art. The spade will probably one day decide the question of priority
between Argolis and Crete, but in the meantime the probability appears
to be that the Mycenæan civilisation rose in Crete and spread from it
as a centre, and that it was not until the Cretan power was on the
wane that the palmy days of Tiryns and Mycenæ began." (_Commentary_ on
Pausanias, vol. iii. p. 151.) The Mycenæan civilisation perished in a
great catastrophe. Somewhere near the middle of the twelfth century
B.C. the Dorian invaders in their southward march reached the
walls of Tiryns and Mycenæ, and sacked and gave those cities to the
flames. Then began for Greece "the long dark ages, the mediæval epoch,
out of which she emerges only in the Homeric Renaissance." The flower
of the survivors of that dread time sought a new home east of the Ægean
on the isles and shores of Ionia. There these exiles from Argolis laid
the foundation of a culture whose influence will abide while the world
stands, because Ionia remains the fatherland of all who hold dear what
man has reached in art and literature, in science and philosophy.

The fall of Mycenæ gave Phœnicia her opportunity, and she was quick
to seize it in establishing depôts throughout the Ægean, and in
securing the overlordship of the Mediterranean. But through her lack
of political unity, and her dependence on mercenary aid when troubles
came, finally she succumbed to the strong arm of the reinvigorated
Greek. Between their rise and decline the Phœnicians had put the
alphabet into, practically, its present form, and secured its adoption
by the Greeks. But if they did not derive it from the Egyptian
hieratic, whence came it?

No definite answer is forthcoming, and perhaps never will be. Canon
Rawlinson is not alone in thinking that it will probably never be
settled whether the Phœnician characters are modifications of the
Egyptian or the Hittite or of Cypriote, or mere abbreviated forms of a
picture-writing peculiar to the Phœnicians. That opinion was expressed
before the discovery of the Cretan pictographs and linear signs, and
these have not settled the question. The Phœnicians came under various
influences, and their adaptive character readily took the impress of
their surroundings. Probably they had a long history before they appear
in Syria. As Semites, they were presumably familiar with cuneiform.
The Tyrian quarter at Memphis was one of many settlements where the
Egyptian characters would be in use, or, at least, familiar. And
when the Phœnicians came into the Ægean they found an ancient script
whereby intercourse was facilitated along the Mediterranean, a script
of which so pliant a people, eager for trade, would avail themselves.
In view of all these probabilities, Mr. Evans remarks that it is at
least worth while weighing "the possibility that the rudiments of the
Phœnician writing may after all have come in part at least from the
Ægean side. The more the relics of Mycenæan culture are revealed to
us, the more we see how far ahead of their neighbours on the Canaanite
coasts was the Ægean population in arts and civilisation." The spread
of their commerce led them to seek plantations in the Nile Valley
and the Mediterranean outlets of the Arabian and Red Sea trade. The
position was the reverse of that which meets our eye at a later date.
It was not Sidon that was then planting mercantile settlements on the
coasts and islands of Greece." (_Jo. Hellen. Stud._, p. 368.) Whether,
_per contra_, a Semitic element had been introduced into the Ægean
is uncertain, but could this be proved, the presence of similarities
between the respective scripts would have easy explanation. Putting
together, however, what is no longer conjectural, it would seem that
the Phœnician alphabet was a compound from various sources, the
selection and modification of the several characters being ruled by
convenience, and that, primarily and essentially, commercial. Like
all business people immersed in many transactions, their method was
brevity, and so they aimed as near "shorthand" as they could. They got
rid of surplus signs, of the lumber of determinatives and the like,
and invented an alphabet which if it was not perfect (as no alphabet
can be, because the letters are not revised from time to time to
represent changes in sound), was of such signal value as to have been
accepted by the civilised world of the past, and to have secured, with
but slight modifications, a permanence assured to no other invention
of the human race. Therefore, the debt that we owe these old traders
is in nowise lessened because the current theory of derivation of
our alphabet is doubted. This theory as to the nature of the service
rendered by the Phœnicians has corroboration in an ancient Cretan
tradition recorded by Diodôros, a contemporary of Julius Cæsar and
Augustus, to which Mr. Evans makes reference in the reprint of his
essay. According to that tradition, the Phœnicians had not invented
written characters, but had simply "changed their shapes." In other
words, they had not done more than improve on an existing system, which
is precisely what recent evidence goes to show. "We may infer from the
Cretan contention recorded by Diodôros that the Cretans claimed to
have been in possession of a system of writing before the introduction
of the Phœnician alphabet. The present discovery on Cretan soil both
of a pictographic and a linear script dating from times anterior to
any known Phœnician contact thus affords an interesting corroboration
of this little regarded record of an ancient writer." (_Cretan
Pictographs_, p. 372.)




CHAPTER X

GREEK PAPYRI

The Greeks succeeded to the sovereignty of the sea after they had
driven the Phœnicians from the Ægean. They were skilful shipbuilders
and navigators, and their maritime enterprise, in which, as has been
shown, they preceded the Phœnicians, took a new lease of life from
the eighth century B.C. Their factories and colonies were
planted from east to west, from Odessa to Marseilles, where, as
their farthermost point, we find them settled 600 B.C. The
assistance given by Ionians and Carians to Psammetichus, the first
king of the twenty-sixth dynasty (666 B.C.) in his war with
the Assyrians was rewarded by the assignment of permanent settlements
in Egypt, and in the reign of his son, Necho II., the cities of Sais
and Naucratis (about both of which Herodotus has much to say, ii. 97,
135, 169, 178, &c.) was full of Greek colonists, to whose commercial
and intellectual activity the then prosperous state of Egypt was
mainly due. The footing which they obtained there was secured when,
three hundred years later, Alexander the Great marked his conquest
in the founding of the city which bears his name. It is well to
keep these facts in mind, because in our assessment of the debt of
the civilised world to Greece we are apt to forget that it was not
wholly intellectual, but also social and industrial. And these facts
have bearing on our immediate subject in explaining the spread of the
Greek alphabet, or, more precisely, the Western or Chalcidian form
of it, whence the Latin, and through it the alphabets of Europe and
America, are derived. Although the name was limited to the districts
in the south of Italy, in the larger sense of the term Græcia Major
corresponds to Greater Britain. As with the area of our home islands
compared with that of our colonies, so was it with Hellas and her
expansion along the sea whose waters laved the coasts of the civilised
world. And the spread of the English language and the English alphabet
over half the civilised globe may be compared with "the diffusion of
Hellenic culture and Hellenic scripts throughout the Mediterranean
region, originating in the pre-Christian centuries various derived
alphabets--Iberian, Gaulish, Etruscan, Latin, and Runic, followed at a
later time by the Mæso-Gothic, Albanian, &c." (Taylor, ii. 125.)

Palæography, or the decipherment of documents, and Epigraphy, or the
decipherment of inscriptions, have been indispensable keys to the
history of the alphabet. But the materials with which each has to
deal would demand a volume, and, moreover, reference to them here
has warrant only in their immediate bearings on the development and
diffusion of alphabets. But, as with the _Papyrus Prisse_ and the
_Book of the Dead_, there is a deep interest attaching to some of
the venerable records. They are, in the modern phrase, and in the
best sense of it, "human documents." Such are the Greek papyri, the
oldest-known specimens of which are found in Egypt, and have a range
of a thousand years, _i.e._ from the third century B.C. to
the seventh century A.D., so that, as Mr. Kenyon remarks in
his monograph on the subject, "we may fairly say that we know how
men wrote in the days of Aristotle and Menander, but we have not yet
got back to Pindar and Æschylus, much less to Homer or (if a less
contentious name be preferred) Hesiod." The use of papyrus as a writing
material stretches back in Egypt to a remote antiquity; but we cannot
be certain that it was used by the Greeks before the early part of
the fifth century B.C., while "with the Arab conquest of
Egypt (640 A.D.) the practice of Greek writing on papyrus
received its death-blow." By far the larger number of documents thus
far discovered are non-literary, dealing with official and commercial
matters, as tax-collectors' receipts (although many of these are
scratched on potsherds, or _ostraca_, literally "oyster shells,"
whence _ostracize_, the inscribing of the name of a person obnoxious
to the state on a shell), acknowledgments of repayment of dowry after
divorce, wills, reports of public physicians on autopsy, house-keeping
bills, surety deeds, registration of title to inheritance, wedding
and dinner invitations, of which last here is an example eighteen
hundred years old: "Chæron requests your company at dinner at the table
of Lord Serapis in the Serapæum to-morrow, the 15th, at 9 o'clock"
(_i.e._ about 3 P.M.). Then there are domestic letters, one,
touching human hearts across the centuries, from a father to his son:
"Tell me anything I can do for you. Good-bye, my boy;" and another
crudely written, and with faulty spelling and grammar, from a boy to
his father. "Theon to his father Theon, greeting: It was a fine thing
of you not to take me with you to Alexandria. I won't write a letter
or speak to you, or say good-bye to you, and if you go to Alexandria
I won't take your hand, nor ever greet you again. That is what will
happen if you won't take me.... Send me a lyre, I implore you; if you
don't, I won't eat, I won't drink. There, now!"

The first discovery of Greek papyri was made at Herculaneum in 1752.
They consist of above eighteen hundred charred rolls, which were
enclosed in a wooden cabinet, and doubtless formed a portion of the
library of one Lucius Piso Cæsonius, in the ruins of whose villa
they were found. The condition of the papyri made the unrolling and
decipherment of them a very tedious operation, and the work is not even
yet completed. "They are written in small uncial letters, and possess
little beyond palæographic value, comprising worthless treatises on
physics, music, rhetoric, and kindred subjects by Philodemus and other
third-rate philosophers of the Epicurean school." A quarter of a
century later some rolls of papyrus were found in Egypt, probably in
the Fayum. Of these only one, containing a list of peasants employed
in the corvée, survived destruction by the natives, and it was not
till 1820 that the discovery of a number of rolls on the site of the
Serapeum at Memphis supplied the key to knowledge of Greek writing of
the second century B.C. Since then, at varying intervals,
the finds have increased in number and importance. The earliest known
examples, dating from the third century B.C., were discovered
by Professor Flinders Petrie in 1889 in a number of mummy cases at
Gurob. Most of these papyri were non-literary--wills, petitions, and
such-like documents--but two valuable relics came to light in fragments
of Plato's _Phædo_ and the lost _Antiope_ of Euripides. Then followed
the discovery of another lost work, Aristotle's Αθηναίων Πολιτεία;
of the _Mimes_ of Herodas--an almost unknown writer of the Alexandrian
age--part of another oration of Hyperides; a long medical treatise,
and fragments of Homer, Demosthenes, and Isocrates. The _Mimes_, two
thousand years old, are as young as yesterday. "Though," Mr. Whibley
remarks in a charming paper upon these recovered treasures, "they have
survived the searching test of time, they have been unseen of mortal
eyes for countless centuries. The emotions which Herodas delineates
are not Greek, but human, and no preliminary cramming in archæology is
necessary for their appreciation. As the world was never young, so it
will never grow old. The archæologist devotes years of research to
compiling a picture of Greek life, and the result is _Charicles_--a
cold and unrelieved mass of 'local colour.' There is no proportion,
no atmosphere, no background; all is false save the details, and they
merely overload the canvas. Herodas presents not a picture, but an
impression, and one mime reveals more of life as it was lived two
thousand years ago, than the complete works of Becker, Ebers, and the
archæologists." (_Nineteenth Century_, Nov. 1891, p. 748.) Here is one
scene by which Mr. Whibley justifies his appreciation. The _dramatis
personæ_ are Metriche, a grass-widow; Threissa, her maid; and Gyllis,
an old lady.

  _Metriche._ Threissa, there is a knock at the door; go and see if it
  is a visitor from the country.

  _Threissa._ Please push the door. Who are you that are afraid to come
  in?

  _Gyllis._ All right, you see, I am coming in.

  _Threissa._ What name shall I say?

  _Gyllis._ Gyllis, the mother of Philainis. Go indoors, and announce
  me to Metriche.

  _Threissa._ A caller, ma'am.

  _Metriche._ What, Gyllis, dear old Gyllis! Turn the chair round a
  little, girl. What fate induced you to come and see me, Gyllis? An
  angel's visit, indeed! Why, I believe it's five months since any one
  dreamt of your knocking at my door.

  _Gyllis._ I live such a long way off, and the mud in the lane is up
  to your knees. I am ever anxious to come, for old age is heavy upon
  me, and the shadow of death is at my side.

  _Metriche._ Cheer up! don't malign Father Time; old age is wont to
  lay his hand on others too.

  _Gyllis._ Joke away; though young women can find something better
  to do than that. But, my dear girl, what a long time you've been a
  widow. It's ten months since Mandris was despatched to Egypt, and he
  hasn't sent you a single line; doubtless he has forgotten you, and
  is drinking at a new spring; for in Egypt you may find all things
  that are or ever were--wealth, athletics, power, fine weather, glory,
  goddesses, philosophers, gold, handsome youths, the shrine of the god
  and goddess, the most excellent king, the finest museum in the world,
  wine, all the good things you can desire, and women, by Persephone,
  countless as the stones and beautiful as the goddesses that appealed
  to Paris.

Metriche protests, and Gyllis, suggesting that Mandris is dead, reveals
the purpose of her visit.

  Now listen to the news I have brought you after this long time. You
  know Gyllus, the son of Matachene, who was such a famous athlete at
  school, got a couple of blues at his university, and is now amateur
  champion bruiser? Then he is so rich, and he leads the quietest life;
  see, here is his signet-ring. Well, he saw you the other day in the
  street, and was smitten to the heart. And, my dear girl, he never
  leaves my house day or night, but bemoans his fate, and calls upon
  your name; he is positively dying of love.

Metriche becomes righteously indignant when Gyllis suggests that she
return this love.

  By the fates, Gyllis, your white hairs blunt your reason. There is
  no cause yet to deplore the fate of Mandris. By Demeter, I shouldn't
  like to have heard this from another woman's lips. And you, my dear,
  never come to my house with such proposals again. For none may make
  mock of Mandris.... But, if what the world says be true, I needn't
  speak to Gyllis like this. Threissa, let us have some refreshments;
  bring the decanter and some water, and give the lady something to
  drink. Now, Gyllis, drink, and show that you aren't angry.

And so with delightful interchange of civilities the quarrel is brought
to an end.

Passing by other discoveries, some of these including fragments of a
play by Menander, of whose hundred comedies none are perfect, we come
to the thousands of Greek papyri found in 1896-97 by Messrs. Grenfell
and Hunt on the site of the ancient Oxyrhynchus, the capital of a
nome of Middle Egypt. The full list of these relics has not yet been
published, and it will take some years to decipher them all; but among
the literary portion are fragments of works known and unknown. Among
the latter is a papyrus of the second century, containing a collection
of _Logia_, or _Sayings_, of Jesus Christ, some of which are familiar,
whilst others are wholly new. The following translation of these,
made by the Rev. A. C. Headlam, is based on the text as provisionally
settled by Professors Lock and Sanday.

  1. (Jesus saith, Cast out first the beam out of thine own eye), and
  then shalt thou see to cast out the mote in thy brother's eye.

  2. Jesus saith, Except ye fast to the world, ye shall not find the
  kingdom of God; and unless ye keep the true Sabbath, ye shall not see
  the Father.

  3, 4. Jesus saith, I stood in the midst of the world, and in my flesh
  I was seen of them, and I found all men drunken, not one found I
  thirsty among them; and my soul is weary for the sons of men, for
  they are blind in their heart, and see (not, poor and know not) their
  poverty.

  5. Jesus saith, Wherever there be (two, they are not without) God,
  and if anywhere there be one, I am with him; raise the stone and
  there thou shalt find me; cleave the wood, and there am I.

  6. Jesus saith, A prophet is not received in his own country, nor
  doth a physician heal his neighbours.

  7. Jesus saith, A city built on the summit of a lofty mountain, and
  firmly established, cannot fall nor be hidden.

  8. Jesus saith, Thou hearest with (one ear), but the other hast thou
  closed.

Discoveries of this sort bring with them temptation to dwell on their
significance, but that must be resisted. There is also temptation
to refer to other materials bearing on the history of the Greek
alphabet--notably to the inscriptions on the stupendous statue at
Abu Simbel, near the second cataract of the Nile--the mere abstract
of which would fill this little volume. But the excerpts--varied
enough--already given will suffice to indicate what wealth of
literature for our knowledge of the past these venerable relics yield,
and how poor beyond redemption would the world be if shorn of those
records of human thought and feeling, of those grave and gay pictures
of life, so closely resembling our own, whereby, too, we learn how
superficial have been the changes in human nature throughout the ages
of man's tenancy of the earth.


THE DIFFUSION OF THE "PHŒNICIAN" ALPHABET

In the remaining pages the course of the history of the Phœnician
alphabet, as we may for convenience still call it, must now be
outlined, and for this purpose the following table, an abstract of that
given in Canon Isaac Taylor's _History of the Alphabet_ (i. 81), is a
convenient guide.

The several alphabets, it will be seen, are grouped under three
principal heads: (_a_) ARAMEAN, whence most of the alphabets
of Western Asia are derived; (_b_) SABÆAN, the source of the
alphabets of India; and (_c_) HELLENIC, the source of the
alphabets of Europe.


  /---------------------------- Phœnician. ---------------------------\


              /------------------ Sabæan. ------------\


            /---------- Indian. -----------\

  Hellenic.  Dravidian.  Nagari.     Pali.    Ethiopic.  Aramean.

   Greek.     Tamil.     Tibetan.   Burmese.   Amharic.   Hebrew.
   Latin.     Telugu.    Kashmiri.  Siamese.              Syriac.
   Russian.   Canarese.  Gujarati.  Javanese.             Mongolian.
   Coptic.               Marathi.   Singalese.            Arabic.
                         Bengali.   Corean.               Pehlevi.
                         Malayan.                         Armenian.
                                                          Georgian.

(_a_) ARAMEAN, so called from "Aram," the hilly district of
Mesopotamia, became, from the seventh century B.C., the
commercial script of Asia, Aram lying in the line of trade between
Egypt and Babylonia. Later on that script was used for official
purposes at the Babylonian court, and "ultimately broke up into a
number of national alphabets, for which, owing to religious causes, a
separate existence became possible. The later alphabets--Parsi, Hebrew,
Syriac, Mongolian, and Arabic--were at first local varieties of the
Aramean. Owing to accidental circumstances they became the sacred
scripts of the five great faiths of Asia--Zoroastrianism, Judaism,
Christianity, Northern Buddhism, and Islam. Hence the descendants of
the Aramean alphabet occupy a space on the map second only to that
filled by the Latin alphabet itself." (Taylor, i. 249.) They are,
as indicated in the table: (1) the _Hebrew_, in whose modern square
characters copies of the Scriptures in that language are printed, and
the rolls of the Law inscribed; (2) the _Syriac_, once an important
script of Christian literature, but now only in use among some obscure
sects; (3) the _Mongolian_, which has a curious history, narrated at
length in Canon Taylor's volumes (i. pp. 297-312). It is derived from
the Syriac, which was carried by Nestorian missionaries throughout
Asia. Condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 431 A.D. for
certain heresies concerning the dual nature of Christ, these Nestorians
fled to Persia, and thence travelling eastward, preached their gospel
with such success that the alphabet in which it was written became
the dominant script until its supersession by Arabic on the spread
of Mohammedanism. (4) The history of _Arabic_, which is more nearly
allied to Syriac than to any other member of the Aramean group,
exhibits the aggressive spirit of the Prophet, whose scriptures are
transcribed in its beautiful flowing characters. It has exterminated
its fellow-Semitic scripts, "expelled the Greek alphabet from Asia
Minor, Thrace, Syria, and Egypt, and the Latin alphabet from Northern
Africa, and is now used over regions inhabited by more than one
hundred millions of the human race." The transactions of the East are
recorded in the alphabet of the Koran, so that it would seem, in the
world's history, that if "trade follows the flag," the alphabet follows
religion.

The so-called "Arabic" numerals are probably of Indian origin, having
been brought by Arab traders from the East and introduced by them
into Spain in the Middle Ages, whence they spread over Europe, coming
into use in England perhaps about the eleventh century. But whether
India invented them, or borrowed them from Greek or other traders from
the West, is unknown. Counting with the fingers, the most primitive
mode of reckoning, and recording by strokes, a method still in vogue,
have their limits, and hence (to say nothing of the use of pebbles
and beans, and of the abacus) the invention of written signs for the
higher numbers; or the adoption of the letters of the alphabet in
their order as number-signs, the numerical value increasing with each
successive letter; or the use of the initial letter of the word itself
for the number. Examples of special symbols for tens, hundreds, and so
forth are supplied by Egyptian and Assyrian records, as shown in the
following figures:--

[Illustration: EGYPTIAN NUMERATION]

[Illustration: ASSYRIAN NUMERATION]

We have examples of the use of letters in their "abecedarian" or
acrostic order in the sections of the one hundred and nineteenth and
one hundred and forty-fifth Psalms, which bear the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet, and in the books of the _Iliad_, which bear the
letters of the Greek alphabet. That alphabet also supplies illustration
of the acrologic method, as _e.g._ Π = Πέντε, for 5; Δ = Δέκα, for
10; H (the old sign for the rough breathing in Ἑκατον), for 100; X =
Ξίλιοι, for 1000; Π with Λ (= 5 x 10) inscribed in it standing for 50.
A more ingenious method was adopted by both Greeks and Hebrews in the
division of the alphabet into three groups: the first to represent
units; the second, tens; and the third, hundreds. The use of "Arabic"
numerals, besides encountering opposition at the start, was limited
until the fifteenth century to the paging of books and mathematical
formulæ, but their convenience as compared with the cumbrous Roman
figures won them general adoption. Their stages of modification
were pictorially suggested by Canon Taylor in a communication to
the _Academy_ 28th January 1882, from which the table on p. 212 is
borrowed, but the question of origin remains unsettled.

An age to which, more than to its predecessors, with their more sedate
lives, "time is money," may appreciate what service they wrought who
invented the few numerals, the relative places of which serve the
purpose of recording the commerce of the world. But perhaps the greater
admiration is due to the genius which devised the nought or cipher
(Arab. _sifr_, "empty"), without which the labour of calculation and
recording would have taxed energy beyond endurance.

The (5) _Pehlevi_, (6) _Armenian_, and (7) _Georgian_ alphabets are
derived from the Aramean group through the Persian or Iranian. The
Pehlevi has abiding interest as the script of the sacred books of
the Zend or Parsi religion; but the Armenian and Georgian, with the
addition of three or four Greek letters, are bereft of significance
except as the surviving representatives of the ancient Persian. The
Indo-Bactrian alphabet should have reference here as of Iranian
descent, and especially because it is the script of the famous edicts
of Asoka, the first royal Buddhist convert, inscribed on a rock near
Peshawar.

[Illustration: Arabic Ciphers-page 212]

(_b_) The Sabæan (from "Sheba") or Himyaritic (from Himyar, the
eponymous hero of the Himyarites) group is classed among South Semitic
alphabets. The early alphabet of Abyssinia, called Ethiopic or Amharic,
is derived from it, and, wherein lies its main importance, also the
alphabets of India, the number of which, comprising more than half of
the alphabets now in use, would, in detailed treatment, "demand a space
wholly disproportionate to any interest which they might possess save
to an extremely limited band of specialists." That is Canon Taylor's
excuse for passing them over with brevity, and those who care to
pursue a subject yielding to few in dryness will find it summarised in
the tenth chapter of his work. For the present purpose, the list of
alphabets set down in the table will suffice.

(_c_) THE HELLENIC.--It was a happy chance that, in the
westward course of the Phœnician alphabet, the Greeks were the first
to receive it. For while the various scripts of Asia and the Malayan
Archipelago, which are derived from that alphabet, have retained, in
the main, its consonantal character, leaving the vowels to be only
partially indicated, the Greeks, with master-touch, shaped it to
relative perfection in adding separate letters to represent the vowels,
so that there might be a visible sign for every audible sound of the
human voice. Besides this, they put some of the superfluous gutturals
and sibilants to new uses, simplified other characters, and ultimately
transposed the Semitic mode of writing from right to left by writing
from left to right. These, and other changes both in the Greek and its
derived alphabets, were made slowly and almost imperceptibly, "descent
with modification," to apply the Darwinian phrase concerning plants and
animals to the scripts of the world, being as much a feature in their
history as in that of organisms generally. To complete the parallel,
when a certain stage of adaptation is reached, there is, as _e.g._ in
the case of our own alphabet, mainly through the invention of printing,
arrest of development. Nature may aim at perfection, but is content
with adjustment, and the works of man abide only as they are, in Stoic
maxim, "according to nature."

The alphabets derived from the Hellenic are (1) _Greek_, (2) _Russian_,
(3) _Coptic_, (4) _Latin_.

(1) _Greek._--To the ancient Greek Hellas meant no defined country,
but simply the abode of the Hellenes, whether in Smyrna, Syracuse,
Athens, or wherever else they might be found. The mountainous character
of Greece explains its division into a crowd of petty states, many
of which were no bigger than a modern township. This accorded with
Aristotle's view that the area of the state should not be wider than
an orator's voice would carry. The physical separation of the peoples
explains that political disunion which was the curse of the country
from first to last, and accounts for the forty local alphabets which
made for discord. But the federation at the time of the Persian
invasion, when the victories of Marathon and Salamis fostered
conceptions of a common fatherland, was followed by the rise of
Athens, and her intellectual supremacy determined that of one of the
alphabets. These had settled into two leading groups, the Ionian (in
which the Corinthian may be included) and the Chalcidian. The Ionian,
which was developed in the famous colony of that name, deviated more
from the Phœnician type than the Chalcidian. It was adopted by Athens
483 B.C., and became the classic alphabet of Greece. From
it there sprang the Slavonic, Coptic, and other alphabets, while the
Chalcidian gave birth to the alphabets of Western Europe.

(2) _Russian._--A quaint and probably trustworthy tradition tells how
the Greek alphabet was imported into Russia. "Formerly," says John,
Exarch of Bulgaria, who wrote in the ninth century, "the Slavonians
had no books, but they read and made divinations by means of pictures
and figures cut on wood, being pagans. After they had received baptism
they were compelled, without any proper rules, to write their Slavonic
tongue by means of Greek and Latin letters. But how could they write
well in Greek letters such words as Bog, Zhivot, Zelo, or Tserkov,
and others like these? And so many years passed by. But then God,
loving the human race, had pity on the Slavonians, and sent them St.
Constantine, the Philosopher, called Cyril, a just and true man, who
made for them an alphabet of thirty-eight letters, of which some were
after the Greek style, and some after the Slavonic language." The
variety of sounds in Slavonic involved the addition of ten characters
to Cyril's alphabet, and although that number was afterwards reduced,
the Russian remains the most cumbersome and ungainly of alphabets.

(3) _Coptic_, or, more correctly, the Coptic script of Egypt under
the Romans. Notwithstanding the advent of Cæsar Augustus as Prefect
of Egypt, Greek influence prevailed, and the native Christians, in
transcribing the Coptic version of the Bible, used the Greek alphabet,
borrowing some half-dozen of the ancient Egyptian demotic signs
to express sounds unrepresented by the Greek. But, as throughout
Mohammedan countries, Arabic has supplanted Coptic, which is now used
only for liturgical purposes, "perhaps little if at all understood by
the priests who have to use it in the services of the Church."

(4) _Latin._--This is, far and away, the most important of all
alphabets. As stated above, it is derived from the Chalcidian type
of the Hellenic, so called because in use at Chalcis, in Eubœa, an
island of the Ægean, whence migrated one of the several Greek colonies
planted in Southern Italy. As the oldest Italic scripts--copying
the older method of the Greek--read from right to left, and as the
first thing aimed at by the colonists would be the use of common
sound-signs and numerals, there is good warrant for fixing the date of
the introduction of the Greek alphabet into Italy at about the eighth
century before Christ. The various derived scripts--Umbrian, Oscan,
Etruscan, and others--have all, the Latin alone excepted, passed away.
The ultimate dominance of the Latins brought about the abolition of
every other alphabet than their own, which, becoming the alphabet
of the Roman Empire, and then of Christendom, secured an everlasting
supremacy. It was the vehicle of Greek and Roman culture to Western
Europe; it is the vehicle of all the culture of the progressive races
of the world. Although essentially identical with the Greek, it took
its own line, and that, compared with the Slavonic, a simple one. The
earliest Indo-European or "Aryan" language contained, so far as can be
discovered, twelve consonants and three vowels (_i_, _a_, _u_), and
to these last the Latin added _e_ and _o_. It at first rejected the
Greek K, and used C for the sounds of both _k_ and _g_, but later on
added a bar to the lower end of C, converting it into G. Similarly, R
is but a variation of P, by the addition of a stroke below the crook.
And while the later Greek rejected Q, the Latin retained it. But not to
multiply examples, citations of which are confusing in the absence of
explanations of the causes necessitating changes of form, explanations
too technical for admission here (see for examples Taylor, ii. 140), it
may suffice to give a few specimens of variations between the older and
newer Latin and Greek forms.

[Illustration: FINAL LATIN AND GREEK FORMS COMPARED WITH THEIR
PROTOTYPES IN THE OLDER ALPHABETS]

In the early empire the Romans used two sorts of characters, Capital
and Cursive. The Capitals were square-shaped or rustic, _i.e._ slightly
ornamented. They were used for inscriptions and other writing demanding
prominence, as we use capitals nowadays, borrowing the old Roman forms.
The Cursive or running characters are the originals of our small
types, and were used for correspondence and other purposes where rapid
writing was an object, abbreviations, which are the forerunners of
our modern "shorthand," being sometimes employed. Out of this cursive
hand there arose a variety of hand-writings, the most important among
these being the Irish "semi-uncial." The appearance of this script in
that island is one of the problems of graphiology. "No Irish hand is
known out of which it could have arisen. And yet in the sixth century
Ireland suddenly becomes the chief school of Western calligraphy,
and the so-called Irish uncial blazes forth in full splendour as the
most magnificent of all mediæval scripts. Only one conclusion seems
possible. Some time in the fifth century a fully-formed, book-hand must
have been introduced by St. Patrick (432-458 A.D.), doubtless
from Gaul, where he received his consecration. And this must have been
cultivated as a calligraphic script in the Irish monasteries, which at
this time enjoyed comparative immunity from the ravages of the Teutonic
invaders, who, in the fifth century, desolated Italy, Gaul, and Spain."
(Taylor, ii. 173.) Irish monks introduced it into Northumbria, and in
course of time there was derived from it the "Caroline minuscule," as
it is called, because it was introduced in the reign of Charlemagne
in the famous school at Tours founded by Alcuin of York, a celebrated
scholar of the eighth century, and friend of the Emperor. As a clear
hand, compressible into a small space, it grew rapidly in favour till
the end of the twelfth century, when a period of decadence, of which
the ugly "Black Letter" was the result, set in and held sway in Western
Europe for a generation after the discovery of printing with movable
types. The Black-letter characters were imitations of the coarse thick
characters of the monkish manuscripts, and it was not till the early
part of the sixteenth century that they were displaced in England by
the Roman letters, whose basis is the Caroline minuscule (see p.
37). Here, however, we are on the threshold of the "chapel," and must
retrace our steps for brief survey of the few changes introduced into
the Latin alphabet in adapting it to the requirements of the English
language. These are shown in the admirable table borrowed from Canon
Taylor. (_History of the Alphabet_, i. 72.) The order of the letters
(an unexplained problem in the history of the alphabet) approximates to
that of the Phœnicians, and their names are based on the same principle
as that of the Latin. Running our eye down the table we note that our
alphabet provides for certain phonetic variations by turning the Latin
I into I and J, and VV or UV into double U = W. The Anglo-Saxon, which
appears to be partly Roman and partly Irish in origin, had borrowed two
useful characters from the Runic, Þ = w, named _wen_, and Þ = th, named
_thorn_, which for a time formed part of the English alphabet. The
_thorn_ has been revived of late, as a bastard archaic, in the printing
of _the_ as _y^e_, with consequent mispronunciation of that word by
those who see it thus changed. Both Y and Z were late importations from
the Greek into the Latin, being used only in Greek loan-words to denote
sounds peculiar to the Greek; hence, as the most recent arrivals, their
appearance at the end of the alphabet. Some of our letters are of
little use; K makes C superfluous, and Q and X are of no more service
to us than they were to the Romans. So that, for practical purposes,
we have only twenty-three letters wherewith to indicate at least
thirty-two sounds. Thus our alphabet, like our spelling (which is ever
at war with our pronunciation, to the bewilderment of school children
and foreigners), is what it is from the lack of any consistent rule.
Nevertheless, so workable a set of signs has secured a footing which,
made firmer by the art of printing, is not likely to be disturbed by
any processes of phonetic change which mark the course of speech. To
that art of printing is also due those modifications in handwriting
which distinguish the penmanship of past and present times. As has been
seen, while Germany remained in fetters to the eye-distracting Black
letter, we freed ourselves by adoption of the clear Roman type; hence
the disappearance, save in legal documents and a few show art-books,
of the cramped hand which prevailed down to the sixteenth century.
So the handwriting of to-day (good, bad, and indifferent, as the
personal equation of each one of us shapes it), which we learned at
school through the stages of "pot-hooks and hangers" to the grandest
flourishes of copy-book "maxims," is derived from the same source as
the printed alphabet.

[Illustration: GENEALOGY OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.]




CHAPTER XI

RUNES AND OGAMS

The Runic alphabet originated among the Scandinavians, who probably
adapted it from some other script, since no traces of any pictographic
characters whence it may have been derived have been found. Some
scholars hold that it is derived from the "Phœnician" alphabet; others
say that it comes from the Latin. Canon Taylor has a definite theory
that it is a degraded form of the Greek alphabet; for in the sixth
century B.C. the Goths swarmed in the region south of the
Baltic and east of the Vistula, and in their trading relations with
Greek colonists north of the Black Sea may readily have obtained a
knowledge of the Greek alphabet. The question, however, of origin
remains, and is likely to remain, unsettled.

The sharp, angular form of the runes proves that they were incised on
wood, stone, or some such rigid material, and these characters persist
in the few manuscripts which have been found. The primitive Gothic
alphabet is named, on the acrologic principle, "futhorc," after the
first six letters, _f_, _u_, _th_, _o_, _r_, _c_. It was divided into
three parts or "aetts," named after the first letter of each "aett" or
family--"Frey's aett," "Hagl's aett," and "Tyr's aett"--as shown in
the following illustration from an article on Runes by Miss Gertrude
Rawlings (_Knowledge_, 1st October, 1896).

[Illustration: RUNE ALPHABET]

The Scandinavian, Anglian, and Manx runes are local variants of this
oldest form. Runic inscriptions--monumental and sepulchral--have a
wide, although exclusive, range. They are found in the valley of the
Danube, but not in Germany; in America, but not in Ireland; in the Isle
of Man, but not in Wales--thus evidencing their restriction within
Scandinavian lines of migration. The oldest was found at Sandwich, in
Kent; but an especially interesting example is the well-known Ruthwell
Cross in Dumfriesshire, on which is inscribed a poem, "The Dream of
the Holy Rood," ascribed to Cædmon, the herdsman poet of the seventh
century. The early voyage of the Vikings to Vineland, as they named
America, has illustration in a Runic epitaph cut in a rock on the
Potomac. "Here lies Syasi, the fair one of Western Iceland, the widow
of Koldr, sister of Thorgr, by her father, aged twenty-five years.
God be merciful to her." The old alphabet was displaced by the Latin
on the conversion of the peoples of Northern Europe to Christianity,
but not before Ulphilas, the Bishop of the Goths, had woven some of
its characters into the compound script which was the vehicle of his
memorable translation of the Gospels, the lovely manuscript of which,
in gold and silver letters on purple vellum, is worth a visit to the
University of Upsala to see.

The curious Ogam alphabet, which may date from the fifth century A.D.,
and the use of which did not extend outside the British Isles, is held
by some scholars to be derived from the Runic, but its characters
indicate that more probably it is a debased copy of the Roman. Ogam,
according to Professor Rhys, the highest authority on the subject,
probably means "skilled use of words." The letters are formed by
straight or slanting strokes drawn above, or beneath, or right through
horizontal or perpendicular lines. The alphabet is divided into four
aicmes or groups, each containing five letters: the first aicme, B, L,
F, S, N being placed under the line (assuming this to be horizontal);
the second aicme, H, T, D, C, Qn, above it; the third aicme, M, G, Ng,
F(?) R, diagonally through it; and the fourth aicme, comprising the
vowels A, O, U, E, I, intersecting it at right angles. Canon Taylor
sees in the ogams an adaptation of the runes to the needs of the
engraver, "notches cut with a knife on the edge of a squared staff
being substituted for the ordinary runes." And he thinks that the
derivation of the ogams from runes is shown in the fact that their
names agree with the names of runes of corresponding value, and that
they are found exclusively in regions where Scandinavian settlements
were established. Professor Rhys regards them as "probably, the work of
a grammarian acquainted with Roman writing, but too proud to adopt it."
The larger number of Ogam inscriptions occur in Ireland; others are
scattered over Scotland, Wales, and the south-west of England.

It may be thought that any survey of the history of the Alphabet,
however free from overcrowding in detail, and however popular in
treatment, would outline the story of the origin of, and changes in,
each of the twenty-six letters which are, for the English-speaking
races, the vehicle of communication and the depository of knowledge.
But, probably, enough has been said to show that the information which
would alone warrant such table of derivations is not yet forthcoming,
and, perhaps, never will be. The most plausible theory that the wit of
man, supported by a set of facts that seemed to hang well together,
could devise, was formulated by M. de Rougé, and it has been seen that
the epigraphic material found in the Ægean renders his apparently
well-based and coherent theory no longer tenable.

Neither would there be advantage in cataloguing the two hundred and
fifty alphabets which have come into being since prehistoric man
scratched his rude pictographs on the faces of cliffs and on fragments
of slate or bone. Some fifty of these alphabets have survived, and of
these about half are found in India, but, whatever of historical value
they may hold, their use is restricted and local. The rest are, in the
main, variations of three scripts--Roman, Arabic, and Chinese--and
an outlook on the world's course makes it no matter of doubt that it
is with the Roman, as the vehicle of culture of the most advancing
races of mankind, that there lies the maintenance of supremacy and the
extension of its sway.

    +Aabcdefghijklmnoprſstuvwxyz&
                 aeiou

      ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWYZ

     a  e  i  ó  u |  a  e  i  o  u
    ab eb ib ob ub | ba be bi bo bu
    ac ec ic oc uc | ca ce ci co cu
    ad ed id od ud | da de di do du

  In the Name of the Father, and of the Son,
  and of the Holy Ghost.  _Amen._

  OUR Father, which art in Heaven,
  hallowed be thy Name; thy kingdom come,
  thy Will be done on Earth, as it is in Heaven.
  Give us this Day our daily Bread;
  and forgive us our trespasses,
  as we forgive them that trespass against us:
  And lead us not into Temptation,
  but deliver us from Evil.        _Amen._

                  HORN BOOK,
           ONCE THE UNIVERSAL PRIMER

(_Now so excessively rare that a good example fetches £20 and
upwards_).




                 INDEX
  Abu Simbel, 206
  Acrology, 86, 104, 153, 210, 223
  Ægean civilisation, 159, 187-194
  Akerblad, 129
  Akkadian civilisation, 105
     "     cuneiform, 100, 170
     "     religion, 105
  Alaskan life, pictograph of, 65, 66
  Algerian rock-paintings, 33
  Almanack symbols, 102
  Alphabet, Abyssinian, 213
     "      Arabic, 209
     "      Aramean, 207-8
     "      Armenian, 211
     "      birth of the, 124
     "      Chalcidian, 199, 215, 216
     "      Coptic, 216
     "      Corean, 87
     "      Dravidian, 207
     "      English, 37, 220-222
     "      Ethiopic, 213
     "      Georgian, 211
     "      Greek, 136, 213
     "      Hebrew, 136, 151, 208, 213
     "      Hellenic, 207, 213
     "      Indian, 213
     "      Indo-Bactrian, 211, 212
  Alphabet, Ionian, 215
     "      Irish, 218
     "      Latin, 38, 199, 216, 217
     "      Mongolian, 208
     "      Ogam, 225
     "      Pehlevi, 93, 211
     "      Phœnician, 188, 194, 196, 207, 213
     "      Pictograph and, 26
     "      Runic, 220, 223
     "      Russian, 215
     "      Sabæan, 212
     "      Samaritan, 152
     "      stages of development of, 38, 39
     "      Syriac, 208
     "      variations in English, 220
  Amenophis III., 110
  America, development of man in, 74
  Arabic numerals, 209, 212
  Art, prehistoric, 24, 25
  Asoka, 211
  Assyrian numerals, 210
  Australian aborigines, 27
      "      grave-posts of, 52
      "      rock-paintings of, 29
  Ave Maria, 80
  Aztecs, 75

  Baal Lebanon, vessels from, 145, 146
  Babylonian characters, 99, 186
  Babylonians, 105, 157, 208
  Bark, picture-writing on, 58, 59, 67, 68
  Behistun rock-inscription, 94, 95, 101, 128, 181
  Belts, wampum, 45-51
  Benefit of clergy, 22
  "Bible," etymology of, 10
  Bible as charm, 19
  Bite, written charm against centipede, 19
  Black letter, 219
  Body, parts of, used for measurements, 101
  "Book," etymology of, 10
  "Book of Breathings," 119
  "Book of the Dead," 117, 125, 200
  Borchardt, Dr., 116
  Brahma, 16, 17
  Budge, Dr. Wallis, 119, 123, 127, 130, 133
  Burckhardt, 180
  Bushman rain-charm, 34
  Bushmen rock-paintings, 30-32

  Cadger's Map, 57
  Cadmus, 17
  Cædmon, 224
  Cave-man, art of, 24, 25
  Census-roll, Indian, 71
  Champollion, 129, 130
  Charms, written, 16, 17, 19, 20, 119
  Chinese characters, 83
     "    determinatives, 85
     "    picture-writing, 83, 84, 103
  Clay tablets, 89
  Cleopatra, 130, 131
  Clermont-Ganneau, M., 146
  Clog almanack, 45
  "Code," etymology of, 10
  Cords, knotted, 39, 43, 82
  Corean alphabet, 87
  Creation tablet, 110
  Cretan hieroglyphs, 167, 184, 195
    "    linear characters, 171, 173, 175, 184
  Crete, Mycenæ and, 182
    "    origin of Ægean civilisation in, 192-94
    "    relics of script in, 51
    "    Syria, Egypt, and, 159
  Cuneiform writing, 89-112
      "        "     discovery of, 93-97
      "        "     meaning of, 89
      "        "     mode of, 98
  Cursive characters, 217
  Cypriote's syllabary, 178
  Cyprus, civilisation in, 179

  Darius, 93, 95, 127
  Della Valle, 90
  Delphi, 162
  Deluge tablet, 111
  Demotic writing, 115, 127, 216
  De Rougé 139, 142-45, 226
  De Sacy, 93
  Determinatives, 85, 100, 103, 122, 170
  "Digits," etymology of, 101
  Dikta, Mount, slab from, 171
  Diodôros, 196
  "Diploma," etymology of, 11
  Disease, barbaric theory of, 60

  Edwards, Chilperic, 112
  Egypt and Babylonia, 112
  Egyptian art, 115
     "     demotic, 115, 127, 216
     "     hieratic, 115, 125-127, 139, 155, 194
     "     hieroglyphs, 41, 114-124
     "     numerals, 210
     "     writing, stages of, 115
  Enchorial writing, 127
  Eshmunazar, sarcophagus of, 140, 153
  Eteocretans, 184
  Europe, continuity of man in, 24, 189
  Eusebius, 137
  Evans, Arthur, 25, 51, 154, 159, 177, 189, 193, 195

  Fingers as pictographs, 101
  Flinders Petrie, Professor, 116, 177, 185, 186, 202
  Frazer, J. G., 193

  Gardner, Prof. P., 158
  Goulás, 162
  Græcia Major, 199
  Graffito, 161
  Grave-posts, Indian, 53-55
  Greek alphabet, 199
    "   papyri, 198-206
    "   settlements, 198
    "   signary, 185
  Grotefend, Dr., 93, 101
  Gurob, 177, 202

  Haddon, Professor, 19
  Halévy, 104
  Haynes, 108
  Herculaneum papyri, 201
  Herodas, mimes of, 202-204
  Herodotus, 39, 92, 97, 134, 137, 138, 190, 199
  Hieratic writing, 115, 125-27, 139, 155, 194
  Hieroglyphic wheels, 45
  Hieroglyphs, Cadger's, 57
      "        Egyptian, 114-124
      "        Hittite, 150, 168, 173, 181, 195
      "        Mexican, 73
  Hilprecht, Dr., 108
  Hittites, 179-81, 185
  Hoffman, Dr., 45, 52, 54, 64
  Hogarth, D. G., 159
  Horus, 158
  Hunting expedition, pictograph of, 62, 64
  Hutchinson, Mark, 32
  Hyksos, 119, 154

  Iberian signary, 185
  Ideographic stage of alphabet, 38, 72-79
  Ideographs, 101, 115, 120-21, 167
      "       comparative, 124
  Indian and stolen loaves, 16
    "    census roll, 71
    "    chief, pictograph of life of, 67
    "    grave-posts, 53, 54
    "    petition for fishing rights, 69
  Innuit record of departure, 72
  Inscriptions, cuneiform, 90
  Ionia, 194
  Iroquois, 50
  Isis, 130, 158
  Itzcoatl, 79

  Japanese writing, 86
  Jesus, "Sayings" of, 205

  Kahun, 177
  Karian signary, 185
  Keane, Professor, 99, 191
  Kenyon, Mr., 200
  Klein, Dr., 147
  Knôsos, 162, 191
  Knotted cords as records, 39, 82

  Latin alphabet, 38, 199, 216-17
  Layard, Sir A., 98
  Legends in Genesis, origin of, 112
  "Letters," etymology of, 10
  "Libel," etymology of, 10
  "Library," etymology of, 10
  Linear signs, Cretan, 171, 175
  Lion weights from Nineveh, 146, 149
  Love-letter, pictorial, 58
  Love-song, pictorial, 58

  Magic through writing, 16
  Mahaffy, Professor, 91, 97
  Malacca, East, 19
  Mallery, Colonel, 64, 73
  Man in America, 74
  Maneh, 150
  Mariner, William, 14, 15
  Marshman, Dr., 82
  Masons' marks, 163
  Maspero, 103
  Mathews, R. H., 29
  Max Müller, Prof., 9, 182
  Mayas, script of the, 75-79
  Medicine-man, song of, 59
     "          bad, 61
  Mediterranean signary, 185, 189, 195
  Memory-aids, 37
  Memphis, 138, 188, 202
  Menes (?), tomb of, 116
  Mexican hieroglyphs, 73
  Military expedition, pictograph of, 67, 70
  Milk-stones, 160
  Minuscule, 37, 219
  Mnemonic stage, 38, 39-51
  Moabite Stone, 144, 145, 147
  Moses, legend of, 106
  Mycenæan civilisation, 186-188, 193
      "    relics, 51, 176, 183
      "    relics in Sardinia, 189

  Nâgari, 17, 87, 207
  Nebo, 16
  Nebuchadnezzar, 94
  Nestorians, 208
  New Zealand totem-marks, 52
  Niebuhr, Carsten, 92
  Nineveh, 98, 99, 146
  Nippur, discovery of oldest-known writing at, 108
  Nuffar (_see_ Nippur)
  Number of words from letters, 9
  Numerals, 209, 212

  Odin, 17
  Ogam characters, 225
  Ogmios, 17
  Ormuzd, 96
  Osiris, 117
  Oxyrhynchus, 205

  Palæography, Greek, 199-206
  "Paper," etymology of, 10
  Papyrus, 10, 125, 126, 200
     "     Papyrus of Ani," 119
     "     Prisse, 126, 140, 145, 153, 200
  "Parchment," etymology of, 11
  Paternoster, 80
  Pausanias, 190, 193
  Payne, 76, 77
  Pelasgians, 190
  Pen, antiquity of metal, 11
  Persepolis, 90
  Peruvians, 40, 75
  Philæ, obelisk at, 130
  Phœnician alphabet, 152, 188, 194, 196, 206, 213
        "      characters, 135, 137, 148, 151, 154, 177, 185
  Phœnicians, 179, 188, 194, 195
  Phonetic stage of alphabet, 38, 79-81
  Phonogram, 39
  Pictograph parent of alphabet, 26
  Pictographs of man, 36
  Pictorial stage of alphabet, 38, 51-72
  Picture-writing as charm, 19
  Picture-writing, illustrations of, 35, 58, 59,
               61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 83
  Pinturos, Maya, 77
  Planetary signs, 101
  Pliny, 135
  Poole, R., 153
  Præsos, 160, 184
  Precepts of Ptah-Hetep, 127
  Prehistoric art, 24
  Pre-Phœnician civilisation, 186
  Prousia, 183
  Ptolemy III., 133
  Ptolemy V., 131, 133
  Ptolemy XV., 123

  Quipu, 39, 40

  Rain-charms, 33-35
  Rameses III., 180
  Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 94, 97
  Rebus, 79, 123
  Reinach, M., 189
  Renan, M., 146
  Rhys, Professor, 226
  Rock-paintings of Australian natives, 27-29
  Rock-paintings of Bushmen, 30, 31
  Rock-paintings of North Africa (Algeria), 33
  Roman alphabet, 37, 217
    "   capitals, 37, 217
    "   type, 37
  Rosary, 39
  Rosetta Stone, 94, 128-33, 181
  Rosetta Stone, inscription on, 132
  Runic alphabet, 215, 220, 223-25
  Runic letters, 104
  Russian alphabet, 215
     "    letters, 104

  St. Patrick, 219
  Sardanapalus V., 16
  Sardinia, 189
  Sargon I., 106, 107, 180
  Sassanid inscriptions, 93
  Schliemann, Dr., 158, 182
  Schoolcraft, 53
  Seal-stones, engraved, 51, 160, 167
  Semang rain-charm, 35
  Semitic characters, 140
  Signary, Greek and Mediterranean, 185, 195
  Siloam, Pool of, 146, 151
  Skin disease, charm against, 20
  Spencer and Gillen, 29
  Stele of Canopus, 133
    "   Shera, 116
    "   the Vultures, 106
  "Style," etymology of, 11
  Syllabaria, 103
  Syllabaries, 39, 103, 173, 178
  Symbols, 38, 73, 102, 120, 164-66
  Sympathetic magic, 21, 61

  "Tablet," etymology of, 11
  Tallies or tally-sticks, 44
  Tasmanians, 27
  Tattooing, 51
  Taylor, Canon Isaac, 38, 78, 99, 102, 123, 125,
       135, 139, 142, 145, 149, 154, 199, 206, 219, 223, 225
  Tell-el-Amarna tablets, 109, 110
  Tell-el-Hesy, 177, 179
  Thoth, 16, 126, 132
  Tiryns, 191, 194
  Tonga Islands, 14
  Totem-marks, 52
  Trade marks, 51
    "   signs, 102
  Trench, Archbishop, 10
  Ts'ang Chien, 16
  Tsountas, Dr., 171, 173, 185
  Tylor, Dr., 41, 45, 55, 80, 81, 86
  Tyre, 137

  Ulphilas, Bishop, 225
  Uncial letters, 37, 219

  Virgin's Pool, 146, 151
  "Volume," etymology of, 11
  Von Tschudi, 41
  Vowel signs, 92, 124, 213

  Wachsmuth, 191
  Wampum belts, 45-51
  War-song, pictograph of, 68
  Wheels, hieroglyphic, 45
  Whitney, Professor, 85, 114
  Writing as magic charm, 16
     "   belief in divine origin of, 16
     "   value of invention of, 13

  Yahweh, 17, 149
  Young, Dr. Thomas, 129
  Yucatan script, 73

  Zodiacal signs, 102
  Zoëga, 129

GEORGE NEWNES, LIMITED, LONDON




THE CRETAN EXPLORATION FUND.

  Patron: H.R.H. PRINCE GEORGE OF GREECE,
 =High Commissioner of the Powers in Crete=.

  Directors:
  ARTHUR J. EVANS, M.A., F.S.A.,
 _Ashmole's Keeper, and Hon. Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford_.
  DAVID G. HOGARTH, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.,

 _Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Director of the British School
  at Athens_.

  Hon. Treasurer:
  GEORGE A. MACMILLAN, Esq.,
 _Hon. Secretary of the Society for Promoting Hellenic Studies_.

  Hon. Secretary:
  JOHN L. MYRES, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.,
 _Student of Christ Church, Oxford_.

_The following Appeal has been issued by the Directors_:--

  The new conditions in which Crete is placed, and the final
  emancipation of the island from Turkish rule, have, at last, rendered
  it possible to organise a serious effort to recover the evidences of
  her early civilisation.

  How important are the results which a thorough-going investigation
  in this field holds out to archæological science may be gathered
  from what has already been brought to light in far less favourable
  circumstances. The path of Cretan exploration was opened out by
  the English travellers Pashley and Spratt. Their exploratory
  labours have been followed, in more recent years, by the striking
  discoveries of Halbherr and Fabricius. The great inscription
  containing the early laws of Gortyna stands alone as a monument
  of Greek civic legislation. The bronzes of the Idaean cave have
  afforded a unique revelation of the beginnings of classical Greek
  art. Further researches, to which English investigation has once
  more contributed, have brought into relief the important part played
  by the still earlier civilisation of Mycenae, the wide diffusion of
  its remains, and even the existence in the island of an indigenous
  system of sign-writing anterior to the use of the Phœnician alphabet.
  Additional indications, indeed, have come to light which carry back
  the chronology of the earlier relics of Cretan culture far beyond the
  date of Schliemann's great discoveries on the mainland of Greece, and
  attest an intercourse with Egypt going back to the third and, it may
  be, even the fourth millennium before our era. We have here in Crete
  the first stepping-stone of European civilisation.

  The better to solve the many interesting problems thus opened up
  it has been decided to form a "Cretan Exploration Fund," under the
  direction of the above named and in co-operation with the British
  School at Athens, in order to carry out a series of comprehensive
  excavations.

  In order fully to realise this scheme it will be necessary to
  raise a sum of at least £5000. The object has a real claim on
  British enterprise. From a national point of view, this task of
  scientific exploration in Crete is a fitting sequel to the joint
  work of political emancipation in which we have taken part. It may
  be mentioned in this connection that the French School at Athens
  is already organising plans of excavation on other Cretan sites,
  and that a mission with a similar object is being despatched by the
  Italian Government.




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   By JOHN MUNRO.
   With 4 Maps.

  =THE STORY OF THE MIND.=
   By Prof. J. M. BALDWIN.

  =THE STORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY: How the World Became Known.=
   By JOSEPH JACOBS.
   With 24 Maps, &c.

  =THE STORY OF THE COTTON PLANT.=
   By F. WILKINSON, F.G.S.
   With 38 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF RELIGIONS.=
   By the Rev. E. D. PRICE, F.G.S.

  =THE STORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY.=
   By A. T. STORY.
   With 38 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF LIFE IN THE SEAS.=
   By SYDNEY J. HICKSON, F.R.S.
   With 42 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE BRITISH COINAGE.=
   By G. B. RAWLINGS.
   With 108 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE POTTER.=
   By C. F. BINNS.
   With 57 Illustrations of Ancient and Modern Pottery.

  =THE STORY OF GERM LIFE: Bacteria.=
   By H. W. CONN.
   With 34 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE.=
   By DOUGLAS ARCHIBALD.
   With 44 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE WEATHER.=
   By G. F. CHAMBERS, F.R.A.S.
   With 50 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF FOREST AND STREAM.=
   By JAMES RODWAY, F.L.S.
   With 27 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.=
   By M. M. PATTISON MUIR, M.A.

  =THE STORY OF EXTINCT CIVILISATIONS OF THE EAST.=
   By R. E. ANDERSON, M.A.
   With Maps.

  =THE STORY OF ELECTRICITY.=
   By J. MUNRO.
   With 100 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF A PIECE OF COAL.=
   By E. A. MARTIN, F.G.S.
   With 38 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.=
   By G. F. CHAMBERS, F.R.A.S.
   With 28 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE EARTH IN PAST AGES.=
   By H. G. SEELEY, F.R.S.
   With 40 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE PLANTS.=
   By GRANT ALLEN.
   With 49 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF PRIMITIVE MAN.=
   By EDWARD CLODD.
   With 88 Illustrations.

  =THE STORY OF THE STARS=.
   By G. F. CHAMBERS, F.R.A.S.
   With 24 Illustrations.

  _Other Volumes in the Press._






End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of the Alphabet, by Edward Clodd

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