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Transcriber's Note:

  Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have
  been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.

  Italics in the footnote citations were inconsistently applied by the
  typesetter.

  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.

  The following changes were made or suggested:
  Page xlix: "Viena" is a possible typo for "Vienna"
  Page xlix: "Megico" is a possible typo for "Mejico"
  Page 18:   the opening quote mark is missing in the quote ending "in
             company,"
  Page 37:   "Aläsku" should possibly be "Aläksu"
  Page 104:  "von 10 bis 12 Pud" should possibly be "von 10 bis 12
             Pfund"
  Page 105:  "mit grellen Farben" should possibly be "die mit grellen
             Farben"
  Page 203:  Viaye changed to Viage
  Page 210:  "Some of women would with difficulty" is apparently missing
             a word
  Page 212:  Crane's Topog. Mem. possibly should be Cram's
  Page 283:  Farnham's Trav., pp. 81-; is missing an end page reference
  Page 401:  "galeon" should possibly be "galleon"
  Page 413:  Footnote 591 is missing its anchor
  Page 417:  Footnote 597 is missing its anchor
  Page 420:  Footnote 601 is missing its anchor
  Page 468:  "to the west fork of Walker's river the south.'" is
             apparently missing a word
  Page 606:  headquarters possibly should be headwaters
  Page 699:  gray colors possibly should be gay colors
  Page 763:  looses possibly should be loses




      THE WORKS
      OF
      HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT.

      VOLUME I.
      THE NATIVE RACES.

      VOL. I. WILD TRIBES.


      SAN FRANCISCO:
      A. L. BANCROFT & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS.
      1883.




      Entered according to Act of Congress in the Year 1882, by
      HUBERT H. BANCROFT,
      In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.


      _All Rights Reserved._

  [Illustration: THE WORLD:
   The white part showing THE PACIFIC STATES.]




PREFACE.


In pursuance of a general plan involving the production of a series of
works on the western half of North America, I present this delineation
of its aboriginal inhabitants as the first. To the immense territory
bordering on the western ocean from Alaska to Darien, and including the
whole of Mexico and Central America, I give arbitrarily, for want of a
better, the name Pacific States. Stretching almost from pole to equator,
and embracing within its limits nearly one tenth of the earth's surface,
this last Western Land offers to lovers of knowledge a new and enticing
field; and, although hitherto its several parts have been held somewhat
asunder by the force of circumstances, yet are its occupants drawn by
nature into nearness of relationship, and will be brought yet nearer by
advancing civilization; the common oceanic highway on the one side, and
the great mountain ramparts on the other, both tending to this result.
The characteristics of this vast domain, material and social, are
comparatively unknown and are essentially peculiar. To its exotic
civilization all the so-called older nations of the world have
contributed of their energies; and this composite mass, leavened by its
destiny, is now working out the new problem of its future. The modern
history of this West antedates that of the East by over a century, and
although there may be apparent heterogeneity in the subject thus
territorially treated, there is an apparent tendency toward ultimate
unity.


To some it may be of interest to know the nature and extent of my
resources for writing so important a series of works. The books and
manuscripts necessary for the task existed in no library in the world;
hence, in 1859, I commenced collecting material relative to the Pacific
States. After securing everything within my reach in America, I twice
visited Europe, spending about two years in thorough researches in
England and the chief cities of the Continent. Having exhausted every
available source, I was obliged to content myself with lying in wait for
opportunities. Not long afterward, and at a time when the prospect of
materially adding to my collection seemed anything but hopeful, the
_Biblioteca Imperial de Méjico_, of the unfortunate Maximilian,
collected during a period of forty years by Don José María Andrade,
litterateur and publisher of the city of Mexico, was thrown upon the
European market and furnished me about three thousand additional
volumes.

In 1869, having accumulated some sixteen thousand books, manuscripts,
and pamphlets, besides maps and cumbersome files of Pacific Coast
journals, I determined to go to work. But I soon found that, like
Tantalus, while up to my neck in water, I was dying of thirst. The facts
which I required were so copiously diluted with trash, that to follow
different subjects through this trackless sea of erudition, in the
exhaustive manner I had proposed, with but one life-time to devote to
the work, was simply impracticable. In this emergency my friend, Mr
Henry L. Oak, librarian of the collection, came to my relief. After many
consultations, and not a few partial failures, a system of indexing the
subject-matter of the whole library was devised, sufficiently general to
be practicable, and sufficiently particular to direct me immediately to
all my authorities on any given point. The system, on trial, stands the
test, and the index when completed, as it already is for the twelve
hundred authors quoted in this work, will more than double the practical
value of the library.

Of the importance of the task undertaken, I need not say that I have
formed the highest opinion. At present the few grains of wheat are so
hidden by the mountain of chaff as to be of comparatively little benefit
to searchers in the various branches of learning; and to sift and select
from this mass, to extract from bulky tome and transient journal, from
the archives of convent and mission, facts valuable to the scholar and
interesting to the general reader; to arrange these facts in a natural
order, and to present them in such a manner as to be of practical
benefit to inquirers in the various branches of knowledge, is a work of
no small import and responsibility. And though mine is the labor of the
artisan rather than that of the artist, a forging of weapons for abler
hands to wield, a producing of raw materials for skilled mechanics to
weave and color at will; yet, in undertaking to bring to light from
sources innumerable essential facts, which, from the very shortness of
life if from no other cause, must otherwise be left out in the physical
and social generalizations which occupy the ablest minds, I feel that I
engage in no idle pastime.


A word as to the Nations of which this work is a description, and my
method of treating the subject. Aboriginally, for a savage wilderness,
there was here a dense population; particularly south of the thirtieth
parallel, and along the border of the ocean north of that line. Before
the advent of Europeans, this domain counted its aborigines by millions;
ranked among its people every phase of primitive humanity, from the
reptile-eating cave-dweller of the Great Basin, to the Aztec and
Maya-Quiché civilization of the southern table-land,--a civilization, if
we may credit Dr Draper, "that might have instructed Europe," a culture
wantonly crushed by Spain, who therein "destroyed races more civilized
than herself."

Differing among themselves in minor particulars only, and bearing a
general resemblance to the nations of eastern and southern America;
differing again, the whole, in character and cast of features from every
other people of the world, we have here presented hundreds of nations
and tongues, with thousands of beliefs and customs, wonderfully
dissimilar for so segregated a humanity, yet wonderfully alike for the
inhabitants of a land that comprises within its limits nearly every
phase of climate on the globe. At the touch of European civilization,
whether Latin or Teutonic, these nations vanished; and their unwritten
history, reaching back for thousands of ages, ended. All this time they
had been coming and going, nations swallowing up nations, annihilating
and being annihilated, amidst human convulsions and struggling
civilizations. Their strange destiny fulfilled, in an instant they
disappear; and all we have of them, besides their material relics, is
the glance caught in their hasty flight, which gives us a few customs
and traditions, and a little mythological history.

To gather and arrange in systematic compact form all that is known of
these people; to rescue some facts, perhaps, from oblivion, to bring
others from inaccessible nooks, to render all available to science and
to the general reader, is the object of this work. Necessarily some
parts of it may be open to the charge of dryness; I have not been able
to interlard my facts with interesting anecdotes for lack of space, and
I have endeavored to avoid speculation, believing, as I do, the work of
the collector and that of the theorizer to be distinct, and that he who
attempts to establish some pet conjecture while imparting general
information, can hardly be trusted for impartial statements. With
respect to the territorial divisions of the first volume, which is
confined to the Wild Tribes, and the necessity of giving descriptions of
the same characteristics in each, there may be an appearance of
repetition; but I trust this may be found more apparent than real.
Although there are many similar customs, there are also many minor
differences, and, as one of the chief difficulties of this volume was to
keep it within reasonable limits, no delineation has been repeated where
a necessity did not appear to exist. The second volume, which treats of
the Civilized Nations, offers a more fascinating field, and with ample
space and all existing authorities at hand, the fault is the writer's if
interest be not here combined with value. As regards Mythology,
Languages, Antiquities, and Migrations, of which the three remaining
volumes treat, it has been my aim to present clearly and concisely all
knowledge extant on these subjects; and the work, as a whole, is
intended to embody all facts that have been preserved concerning these
people at the time of their almost simultaneous discovery and
disappearance. It will be noticed that I have said little of the natives
or their deeds since the coming of the Europeans; of their wars against
invaders and among themselves; of repartimientos, presidios, missions,
reservations, and other institutions for their conquest, conversion,
protection, or oppression. My reason for this is that all these things,
so far as they have any importance, belong to the modern history of the
country and will receive due attention in a subsequent work.

In these five volumes, besides information acquired from sources not
therein named, are condensed the researches of twelve hundred writers, a
list of whose works, with the edition used, is given in this volume. I
have endeavored to state fully and clearly in my text the substance of
the matter, and in reaching my conclusions to use due discrimination as
to the respective value of different authorities. In the notes I give
liberal quotations, both corroborative of the text, and touching points
on which authors differ, together with complete references to all
authorities, including some of little value, on each point, for the use
of readers or writers who may either be dissatisfied with my
conclusions, or may wish to investigate any particular branch of the
subject farther than my limits allow.

I have given full credit to each of the many authors from whom I have
taken material, and if, in a few instances, a scarcity of authorities
has compelled me to draw somewhat largely on the few who have treated
particular points, I trust I shall be pardoned in view of the
comprehensive nature of the work. Quotations are made in the languages
in which they are written, and great pains has been taken to avoid
mutilation of the author's words. As the books quoted form part of my
private library, I have been able, by comparison with the originals, to
carefully verify all references after they were put in type; hence I
may confidently hope that fewer errors have crept in than are usually
found in works of such variety and extent.

The labor involved in the preparation of these volumes will be
appreciated by few. That expended on the first volume alone, with all
the material before me, is more than equivalent to the well-directed
efforts of one person for ten years. In the work of selecting, sifting,
and arranging my subject-matter, I have called in the aid of a large
corps of assistants, and, while desiring to place on no one but myself
any responsibility for the work, either in style or matter, I would
render just acknowledgment for the services of all; especially to the
following gentlemen, for the efficient manner in which, each in his
special department, they have devoted their energies and abilities to
the carrying out of my plan;--to Mr T. Arundel-Harcourt, in the
researches on the manners and customs of the Civilized Nations; to Mr
Walter M. Fisher, in the investigation of Mythology; to Mr Albert
Goldschmidt, in the treatise on Language; and to Mr Henry L. Oak, in the
subject of Antiquities and Aboriginal History.




CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME.


      CHAPTER I.

      ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.

                                                                  PAGE.

      Facts and Theories--Hypotheses concerning Origin--Unity of
      Race--Diversity of Race--Spontaneous Generation--Origin of
      Animals and Plants--Primordial Centres of Population--
      Distribution of Plants and Animals--Adaptability of Species
      to Locality--Classification of Species--Ethnological
      Tests--Races of the Pacific--First Intercourse with
      Europeans                                                       1


      CHAPTER II.

      HYPERBOREANS.

      General Divisions--Hyperborean Nations--Aspects of
      Nature--Vegetation--Climate--Animals--The Eskimos--Their
      Country--Physical Characteristics--Dress--Dwellings--Food--
      Weapons--Boats--Sledges--Snow-Shoes--Government--Domestic
      Affairs--Amusements--Diseases--Burial--The Koniagas, their
      Physical and Social Condition--The Aleuts--The Thlinkeets--
      The Tinneh                                                     35


      CHAPTER III.

      COLUMBIANS.

      Habitat of the Columbian Group--Physical Geography--Sources
      of Food Supply--Influence of Food and Climate--Four extreme
      Classes--Haidahs--Their Home--Physical Peculiarities--
      Clothing--Shelter--Sustenance--Implements--Manufactures--
      Arts--Property--Laws--Slavery--Women--Customs--Medicine--
      Death--The Nootkas--The Sound Nations--The Chinooks--The
      Shushwaps--The Salish--The Sahaptins                          150


      CHAPTER IV.

      CALIFORNIANS.

      Groupal Divisions; Northern, Central, and Southern
      Californians, and Shoshones--Country of the Californians--
      The Klamaths, Modocs, Shastas, Pitt River Indians, Eurocs,
      Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Weeyots, Tolewahs, and Rogue River
      Indians and their Customs--The Tehamas, Pomos, Ukiahs,
      Gualalas, Sonomas, Petalumas, Napas, Suscols, Suisunes,
      Tamales, Karquines, Tulomos, Thamiens, Olchones, Runsiens,
      Escelens, and others of Central California--The Cahuillos,
      Diegueños, Islanders, and Mission Rancherías of Southern
      California--The Snakes or Shoshones proper, Utahs,
      Bannocks, Washoes and other Shoshone Nations                  322


      CHAPTER V.

      NEW MEXICANS.

      Geographical Position of this Group, and Physical Features
      of the Territory--Family Divisions; Apaches, Pueblos, Lower
      Californians, and Northern Mexicans--The Apache Family:
      Comanches, Apaches proper, Hualapais, Yumas, Cosninos,
      Yampais, Yalchedunes, Yamajabs, Cruzados, Nijoras, Navajos,
      Mojaves, and their customs--The Pueblo Family: Pueblos,
      Moquis, Pimas, Maricopas, Pápagos, and their Neighbors--The
      Cochimis, Waicuris, Pericuis, and other Lower Californians--
      The Seris, Sinaloas, Tarahumares, Conchos, Tepehuanes,
      Tobosos, Acaxees, and others in Northern Mexico              471


      CHAPTER VI.

      WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.

      Territorial Aspects--Two Main Divisions; Wild Tribes of
      Central Mexico, and Wild Tribes of Southern Mexico--The
      Coras and others in Jalisco--Descendants of the Aztecs--The
      Otomís and Mazahuas Adjacent to the Valley of Mexico--The
      Pames--The Tarascos and Matlaltzincas of Michoacan--The
      Huaztecs and Totonacos of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas--The
      Chontales, Chinantecs, Mazatecs, Cuicatecs, Chatinos,
      Miztecs, Zapotecs, Mijes, Huaves, Chiapanecs, Zoques,
      Lacandones, Choles, Mames, Tzotziles, Tzendales, Chochones
      and others of Southern Mexico                                615


      CHAPTER VII.

      WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.

      Physical Geography and Climate--Three Groupal Divisions;
      First, the nations of Yucatan, Guatemala, Salvador, Western
      Honduras, and Nicaragua; Second, The Mosquitos of Honduras;
      Third, the nations of Costa Rica and the Isthmus of
      Panamá--The Popolucas, Pipiles and Chontales--The
      Descendants of the Maya-Quiché Races--The Natives of
      Nicaragua--The Mosquitos, Poyas, Ramas, Lencas, Towkas,
      Woolwas, and Xicaques of Honduras--The Guatusos of the Rio
      Frio--The Caimanes, Bayamos, Dorachos, Goajiros, Mandingos,
      Savanerics, Sayrones, and Viscitas living in Costa Rica and
      on the Isthmus                                               684




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      THE NATIVE RACES
      OF THE
      PACIFIC STATES.

      WILD TRIBES.




CHAPTER I.

ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.

      FACTS AND THEORIES--HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN--UNITY OF
      RACE--DIVERSITY OF RACE--SPONTANEOUS GENERATION--ORIGIN OF
      ANIMALS AND PLANTS--PRIMORDIAL CENTRES OF POPULATION--
      DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS--ADAPTABILITY OF SPECIES
      TO LOCALITY--CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES--ETHNOLOGICAL TESTS--
      RACES OF THE PACIFIC--FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS.


Facts are the raw material of science. They are to philosophy and
history, what cotton and iron are to cloth and steam-engines. Like the
raw material of the manufacturer, they form the bases of innumerable
fabrics, are woven into many theories finely spun or coarsely spun,
which wear out with time, become unfashionable, or else prove to be
indeed true and fit, and as such remain. This raw material of the
scholar, like that of the manufacturer, is always a staple article; its
substance never changes, its value never diminishes; whatever may be the
condition of society, or howsoever advanced the mind, it is
indispensable. Theories may be only for the day, but facts are for all
time and for all science. When we remember that the sum of all knowledge
is but the sum of ascertained facts, and that every new fact brought to
light, preserved, and thrown into the general fund, is so much added to
the world's store of knowledge,--when we consider that, broad and far as
our theories may reach, the realm of definite, tangible, ascertained
truth is still of so little extent, the importance of every
never-so-insignificant acquisition is manifest. Compare any fact with
the fancies which have been prevalent concerning it, and consider, I
will not say their relative brilliance, but their relative importance.
Take electricity, how many explanations have been given of the lightning
and the thunder, yet there is but one fact; the atmosphere, how many
howling demons have directed the tempest, how many smiling deities moved
in the soft breeze. For the one all-sufficient First Cause, how many
myriads of gods have been set up; for every phenomenon how many causes
have been invented; with every truth how many untruths have contended,
with every fact how many fancies. The profound investigations of
latter-day philosophers are nothing but simple and laborious inductions
from ascertained facts, facts concerning attraction, polarity, chemical
affinity and the like, for the explanation of which there are countless
hypotheses, each hypothesis involving multitudes of speculations, all of
which evaporate as the truth slowly crystallizes. Speculation is valuable
to science only as it directs the mind into otherwise-undiscoverable
paths; but when the truth is found, there is an end to speculation.

So much for facts in general; let us now look for a moment at the
particular class of facts of which this work is a collection.

  [Sidenote: TENDENCY OF PHILOSOPHIC INQUIRY.]

The tendency of philosophic inquiry is more and more toward the origin
of things. In the earlier stages of intellectual impulse, the mind is
almost wholly absorbed in ministering to the necessities of the present;
next, the mysterious uncertainty of the after life provokes inquiry, and
contemplations of an eternity of the future command attention; but not
until knowledge is well advanced does it appear that there is likewise
an eternity of the past worthy of careful scrutiny,--without which
scrutiny, indeed, the eternity of the future must forever remain a
sealed book. Standing as we do between these two eternities, our view
limited to a narrow though gradually widening horizon, as nature unveils
her mysteries to our inquiries, an infinity spreads out in either
direction, an infinity of minuteness no less than an infinity of
immensity; for hitherto, attempts to reach the ultimate of molecules,
have proved as futile as attempts to reach the ultimate of masses. Now
man, the noblest work of creation, the only reasoning creature, standing
alone in the midst of this vast sea of undiscovered truth,--ultimate
knowledge ever receding from his grasp, primal causes only thrown
farther back as proximate problems are solved,--man, in the study of
mankind, must follow his researches in both of these directions,
backward as well as forward, must indeed derive his whole knowledge of
what man is and will be from what he has been. Thus it is that the study
of mankind in its minuteness assumes the grandest proportions. Viewed in
this light there is not a feature of primitive humanity without
significance; there is not a custom or characteristic of savage nations,
however mean or revolting to us, from which important lessons may not be
drawn. It is only from the study of barbarous and partially cultivated
nations that we are able to comprehend man as a progressive being, and
to recognize the successive stages through which our savage ancestors
have passed on their way to civilization. With the natural philosopher,
there is little thought as to the relative importance of the manifold
works of creation. The tiny insect is no less an object of his patient
scrutiny, than the wonderful and complex machinery of the cosmos. The
lower races of men, in the study of humanity, he deems of as essential
importance as the higher; our present higher races being but the lower
types of generations yet to come.

Hence, if in the following pages, in the array of minute facts incident
to the successive peoples of which we speak, some of them appear small
and unworthy of notice, let it be remembered that in nature there is no
such thing as insignificance; still less is there anything connected
with man unworthy of our most careful study, or any peculiarity of
savagism irrelevant to civilization.


  [Sidenote: ORIGIN OF MAN.]

Different schools of naturalists maintain widely different opinions
regarding the origin of mankind. Existing theories may be broadly
divided into three categories; in the first two of which man is
considered as a special creation, and in the third as a natural
development from some lower type. The special-creation school is divided
on the question of unity or diversity of race. The first party holds by
the time-honored tradition, that all the nations of the earth are
descended from a single human pair; the second affirms, that by one
creative act were produced several special creations, each separate
creation being the origin of a race, and each race primordially adapted
to that part of the globe which it now inhabits. The third theory, that
of the development school, denies that there ever were common centres of
origin in organic creation; but claims that plants and animals generate
spontaneously, and that man is but the modification of some preexisting
animal form.

  [Sidenote: HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN.]

The first hypothesis, the doctrine of the monogenists, is ably supported
by Latham, Prichard, and many other eminent ethnologists of Europe, and
is the favorite opinion of orthodox thinkers throughout Christendom. The
human race, they say, having sprung from a single pair, constitutes but
one stock, though subject to various modifications. Anatomically, there
is no difference between a <DW64> and a European. The color of the skin,
the texture of the hair, the convolutions of the brain, and all other
peculiarities, may be attributed to heat, moisture, and food. Man,
though capable of subduing the world to himself, and of making his home
under climates and circumstances the most diverse, is none the less a
child of nature, acted upon and molded by those conditions which he
attempts to govern. Climate, periodicities of nature, material
surroundings, habits of thought and modes of life, acting through a long
series of ages, exercise a powerful influence upon the human physical
organization; and yet man is perfectly created for any sphere in which
he may dwell; and is governed in his condition by choice rather than by
coercion. Articulate language, which forms the great line of demarcation
between the human and the brute creation, may be traced in its leading
characteristics to one common source. The differences between the races
of men are not specific differences. The greater part of the flora and
fauna of America, those of the circumpolar regions excepted, are
essentially dissimilar to those of the old world; while man in the new
world, though bearing traces of high antiquity, is specifically
identical with all the races of the earth. It is well known that the
hybrids of plants and of animals do not possess the power of
reproduction, while in the intermixture of the races of men no such
sterility of progeny can be found; and therefore, as there are no human
hybrids, there are no separate human races or species, but all are one
family. Besides being consistent with sound reasoning, this theory can
bring to its support the testimony of the sacred writings, and an
internal evidence of a creation divine and spiritual, which is
sanctioned by tradition, and confirmed by most philosophic minds. Man,
unlike animals, is the direct offspring of the Creator, and as such he
alone continues to derive his inheritance from a divine source. The
Hebraic record, continue the monogenists, is the only authentic solution
of the origin of all things; and its history is not only fully sustained
by science, but it is upheld by the traditions of the most ancient
barbarous nations, whose mythology strikingly resembles the Mosaic
account of the creation, the deluge, and the distribution of peoples.
The Semitic family alone were civilized from the beginning. A peculiar
people, constantly upheld by special act of Providence from falling into
paganism, they alone possessed a true knowledge of the mystery of
creation. A universal necessity for some form of worship, a belief
inherent in all mankind, in an omnipotent deity and a life beyond the
grave, point to a common origin and prophesy a common destiny. This much
for the monogenists.

The second hypothesis, that of the polygenists, holds that there was not
one only, but several independent creations, each giving birth to the
essential, unchangeable peculiarities of a separate race; thus
constituting a diversity of species with primeval adaptation to their
geographical distribution. Morton, Agassiz, Gliddon, and others in
America, stand sponsors for this theory. The physiological differences
of race, they say, which separate mankind into classes, do not result
from climatic surroundings, but are inherited from original progenitors.
They point to marked characteristics in various peoples which have
remained unchanged for a period of four thousand years. In place of
controverting divine revelation, they claim that Mosaic history is the
history of a single race, and not the history of all mankind; that the
record itself contains an implied existence of other races; and that the
distribution of the various species or races of men, according to their
relative organisms, was part of the creative act, and of no less
importance than was the act of creation.

The third hypothesis, derived mainly from the writings of Lamarck,
Darwin, and Huxley, is based upon the principle of evolution. All
existing species are developments of some preëxisting form, which in
like manner descended by true generation from a form still lower. Man,
say they, bears no impress of a divine original that is not common to
brutes; he is but an animal, more perfectly developed through natural
and sexual selection. Commencing with the spontaneous generation of the
lowest types of vegetable and animal life,--as the accumulation of mold
upon food, the swarming of maggots in meat, the infusorial animalcules
in water, the generation of insect life in decaying vegetable
substances,--the birth of one form arising out of the decay of another,
the slow and gradual unfolding from a lower to a higher sphere, acting
through a long succession of ages, culminate in the grandeur of
intellectual manhood. Thus much for this life, while the hope of a like
continued progress is entertained for the life to come. While the
tendency of variety in organic forms is to decrease, argue these
latter-day naturalists, individuals increase in a proportion greater
than the provisional means of support. A predominating species, under
favorable circumstances, rapidly multiplies, crowding out and
annihilating opposing species. There is therefore a constant struggle
for existence in nature, in which the strongest, those best fitted to
live and improve their species, prevail; while the deformed and
ill-favored are destroyed. In courtship and sexual selection the war for
precedence continues. Throughout nature the male is the wooer; he it is
who is armed for fight, and provided with musical organs and ornamental
appendages, with which to charm the fair one. The savage and the wild
beast alike secure their mate over the mangled form of a vanquished
rival. In this manner the more highly favored of either sex are mated,
and natural selections made, by which, better ever producing better, the
species in its constant variation is constantly improved. Many
remarkable resemblances may be seen between man and the inferior
animals. In embryonic development, in physical structure, in material
composition and the function of organs, man and animals are strikingly
alike. And, in the possession of that immaterial nature which more
widely separates the human from the brute creation, the 'reasonable
soul' of man is but an evolution from brute instincts. The difference in
the mental faculties of man and animals is immense; but the high culture
which belongs to man has been slowly developed, and there is plainly a
wider separation between the mental power of the lowest zoöphyte and
the highest ape, than between the most intellectual ape and the least
intellectual man. Physically and mentally, the man-like ape and the
ape-like man sustain to each other a near relationship; while between
the mammal and the mollusk there exists the greatest possible
dissimilarity. Articulate language, it is true, acting upon the brain,
and in turn being acted upon to the improvement of both, belongs only to
man; yet animals are not devoid of expedients for expressing feeling and
emotion. It has been observed that no brute ever fashioned a tool for a
special purpose; but some animals crack nuts with a stone, and an
accidentally splintered flint naturally suggests itself as the first
instrument of primeval man. The chief difficulty lies in the high state
of moral and intellectual power which may be attained by man; yet this
same progressive principle is likewise found in brutes. Nor need we
blush for our origin. The nations now most civilized were once
barbarians. Our ancestors were savages, who, with tangled hair, and
glaring eyes, and blood-besmeared hands, devoured man and beast alike.
Surely a respectable gorilla lineage stands no unfavorable comparison.

Between the first and the last of these three rallying points, a whole
continent of debatable land is spread, stretching from the most
conservative orthodoxy to the most scientific liberalism. Numberless
arguments may be advanced to sustain any given position; and not
unfrequently the same analogies are brought forward to prove
propositions directly oppugnant. As has been observed, each school ranks
among its followers the ablest men of science of the day. These men do
not differ in minor particulars only, meeting in general upon one broad,
common platform; on the contrary, they find themselves unable to agree
as touching any one thing, except that man is, and that he is surrounded
by those climatic influences best suited to his organization. Any one of
these theories, if substantiated, is the death-blow of the others. The
first denies any diversity of species in creation and all immutability
of race; the second denies a unity of species and the possibility of
change in race; the third denies all special acts of creation and, like
the first, all immutability of race.

  [Sidenote: PLANTS AND ANIMALS.]

The question respecting the origin of animals and plants has likewise
undergone a similar flux of beliefs, but with different result. Whatever
the conclusions may be with regard to the origin of man, naturalists of
the present day very generally agree, that there was no one universal
centre of propagation for plants and animals; but that the same
conditions of soil, moisture, heat, and geographical situation, always
produce a similarity of species; or, what is equivalent, that there were
many primary centres, each originating species, which spread out from
these centres and covered the earth. This doctrine was held by early
naturalists to be irreconcilable with the Scripture account of the
creation, and was therefore denounced as heretical. Linnæus and his
contemporaries drew up a pleasing picture, assigning the birth-place of
all forms of life to one particular fertile spot, situated in a genial
climate, and so diversified with lofty mountains and declivities, as to
present all the various temperatures requisite for the sustenance of the
different species of animal and vegetable life. The most exuberant types
of flora and fauna are found within the tropical regions, decreasing in
richness and profusion towards either pole; while man in his greatest
perfection occupies the temperate zone, degenerating in harmony of
features, in physical symmetry, and in intellectual vigor in either
direction. Within this temperate zone is placed the hypothetical cradle
of the human race, varying in locality according to religion and
tradition. The Caucasians are referred for their origin to Mount
Caucasus, the Mongolians to Mount Altai, and the Africans to Mount
Atlas. Three primordial centres of population have been assigned to the
three sons of Noah,--Arabia, the Semitic; India, the Japetic; and Egypt,
the Hamitic centre. Thibet, and the mountains surrounding the Gobi
desert, have been designated as the point from which a general
distribution was made; while the sacred writings mention four rich and
beautiful valleys, two of which are watered by the Tigris and Euphrates,
as the birth-place of man. It was formerly believed that in the
beginning, the primeval ocean covered the remaining portion of the
globe, and that from this central spot the waters receded, thereby
extending the limits of terrestrial life.

Admitting the unity of origin, conjecture points with apparent reason to
the regions of Armenia and of Iran, in western Asia, as the cradle of
the human race. Departing from this geographical centre, in the
directions of the extremities of the continent, the race at first
degenerated in proportion to distance. Civilization was for many ages
confined within these central limits, until by slow degrees, paths were
marked out to the eastward and to the westward, terminating the one upon
the eastern coast of Asia, and the other upon the American shores of the
Pacific.

  [Sidenote: PRIMORDIAL CENTERS.]

Concerning the distribution of plants and animals, but one general
opinion is now sustained with any degree of reason. The beautifully
varied systems of vegetation with which the habitable earth is clothed,
springing up in rich, spontaneous abundance; the botanical centres of
corresponding latitudes producing resemblance in genera without identity
of species; their inability to cross high mountains or wide seas, or to
pass through inhospitable zones, or in any way to spread far from the
original centre,--all show conclusively the impossibility that such a
multitude of animal and vegetable tribes, with characters so diverse,
could have derived their origin from the same locality, and disappearing
entirely from their original birth-place, sprung forth in some remote
part of the globe. Linnæus, and many others of his time, held that all
telluric tribes, in common with mankind, sprang from a single pair, and
descended from the stock which was preserved by Noah. Subsequently this
opinion was modified, giving to each species an origin in some certain
spot to which it was particularly adapted by nature; and it was supposed
that from these primary centres, through secondary causes, there was a
general diffusion throughout the surrounding regions.

A comparison of the entomology of the old world and the new, shows that
the genera and species of insects are for the most part peculiar to the
localities in which they are found. Birds and marine animals, although
unrestricted in their movements, seldom wander far from specific
centres. With regard to wild beasts, and the larger animals,
insurmountable difficulties present themselves; so that we may infer
that the systems of animal life are indigenous to the great zoölogical
provinces where they are found.

On the other hand, the harmony which exists between the organism of man
and the methods by which nature meets his requirements, tends
conclusively to show that the world in its variety was made for man, and
that man is made for any portion of the earth in which he may be found.
Whencesoever he comes, or howsoever he reaches his dwelling-place, he
always finds it prepared for him. On the icy banks of the Arctic Ocean,
where mercury freezes and the ground never softens, the Eskimo, wrapped
in furs, and burrowing in the earth, revels in grease and train-oil,
sustains vitality by eating raw flesh and whale-fat; while the naked
inter-tropical man luxuriates in life under a burning sun, where ether
boils and reptiles shrivel upon the hot stone over which they attempt to
crawl. The watery fruit and shading vegetation would be as useless to
the one, as the heating food and animal clothing would be to the other.

The capability of man to endure all climates, his omnivorous habits, and
his powers of locomotion, enable him to roam at will over the earth. He
was endowed with intelligence wherewith to invent methods of migration
and means of protection from unfavorable climatic influence, and with
capabilities for existing in almost any part of the world; so that, in
the economy of nature the necessity did not exist with regard to man for
that diversity of creation which was deemed requisite in the case of
plants and animals.

The classification of man into species or races, so as to be able to
designate by his organization the family to which he belongs, as well as
the question of his origin, has been the subject of great diversity of
opinion from the fact that the various forms so graduate into each
other, that it is impossible to determine which is species and which
variety. Attempts have indeed been made at divisions of men into classes
according to their primeval and permanent physiological structure, but
what uniformity can be expected from such a classification among
naturalists who cannot so much as agree what is primeval and what
permanent?

The tests applied by ethnologists for distinguishing the race to which
an individual belongs, are the color of the skin, the size and shape of
the skull,--determined generally by the facial angle,--the texture of
the hair, and the character of the features. The structure of language,
also, has an important bearing upon the affinity of races; and is, with
some ethnologists, the primary criterion in the classification of
species. The facial angle is determined by a line drawn from the
forehead to the front of the upper jaw, intersected by a horizontal line
passing over the middle of the ear. The facial angle of a European is
estimated at 85°, of a <DW64> at 75°, and of the ape at 60°.
Representations of an adult Troglodyte measure 35°, and of a Satyr 30°.
Some writers classify according to one or several of these tests, others
consider them all in arriving at their conclusions.

  [Sidenote: SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATIONS.]

Thus, Virey divides the human family into two parts: those with a facial
angle of from eighty-five to ninety degrees,--embracing the Caucasian,
Mongolian, and American; and those with a facial angle of from
seventy-five to eighty-two degrees,--including the Malay, <DW64>, and
Hottentot. Cuvier and Jaquinot make three classes, placing the Malay
and American among the subdivisions of the Mongolian. Kant makes four
divisions under four colors: white, black, copper, and olive. Linnæus
also makes four: European, whitish; American, coppery; Asiatic, tawny;
and African, black. Buffon makes five divisions and Blumenbach five.
Blumenbach's classification is based upon cranial admeasurements,
complexion, and texture of the hair. His divisions are Caucasian or
Aryan, Mongolian, Ethiopian, Malay, and American. Lesson makes six
divisions according to colors: white, dusky, orange, yellow, red, and
black. Bory de St Vincent arranges fifteen stocks under three classes
which are differenced by hair: European straight hair, American straight
hair, and crisped or curly hair. In like manner Prof. Zeune designates
his divisions under three types of crania for the eastern hemisphere,
and three for the western, namely, high skulls, broad skulls, and long
skulls. Hunter classifies the human family under seven species; Agassiz
makes eight; Pickering, eleven; Desmoulins, sixteen; and Crawford,
sixty-three. Dr Latham, considered by many the chief exponent of the
science of ethnology in England, classifies the different races under
three primary divisions, namely: Mongolidæ, Atlantidæ, and Japetidæ.
Prichard makes three principal types of cranial conformation, which he
denominates respectively, the civilized races, the nomadic or wandering
races, and the savage or hunting races. Agassiz designates the races of
men according to the zoölogical provinces which they respectively
occupy. Thus the Arctic realm is inhabited by Hyperboreans, the Asiatic
by Mongols, the European by white men, the American by American Indians,
the African by black races, and the East Indian, Australian and
Polynesian by their respective peoples.

Now when we consider the wide differences between naturalists, not only
as to what constitutes race and species,--if there be variety of species
in the human family,--but also in the assignment of peoples and
individuals to their respective categories under the direction of the
given tests; when we see the human race classified under from one to
sixty-three distinct species, according to individual opinions; and when
we see that the several tests which govern classification are by no
means satisfactory, and that those who have made this subject the study
of their lives, cannot agree as touching the fundamental characteristics
of such classification--we cannot but conclude, either that there are no
absolute lines of separation between the various members of the human
family, or that thus far the touchstone by which such separation is to
be made remains undiscovered.

  [Sidenote: ALL TESTS FALLACIOUS.]

The color of the human skin, for example, is no certain guide in
classification. Microscopists have ascertained that the normal
colorations of the skin are not the results of organic differences in
race; that complexions are not permanent physical characters, but are
subject to change. Climate is a cause of physical differences, and
frequently in a single tribe may be found shades of color extending
through all the various transitions from black to white. In one people,
part occupying a cold mountainous region, and part a heated lowland, a
marked difference in color is always perceptible. Peculiarities in the
texture of the hair are likewise no proof of race. The hair is more
sensibly affected by the action of the climate than the skin. Every
degree of color and crispation may be found in the European family
alone; and even among the frizzled locks of <DW64>s every gradation
appears, from crisped to flowing hair. The growth of the beard may be
cultivated or retarded according to the caprice of the individual; and
in those tribes which are characterized by an absence or thinness of
beard, may be found the practice, continued for ages, of carefully
plucking out all traces of beard at the age of puberty. No physiological
deformities have been discovered which prevent any people from
cultivating a beard if such be their pleasure. The conformation of the
cranium is often peculiar to habits of rearing the young, and may be
modified by accidental or artificial causes. The most eminent scholars
now hold the opinion that the size and shape of the skull has far less
influence upon the intelligence of the individual than the quality and
convolutions of the brain. The structure of language, especially when
offered in evidence supplementary to that of physical science, is most
important in establishing a relationship between races. But it should be
borne in mind that languages are acquired, not inherited; that they are
less permanent than living organisms; that they are constantly changing,
merging into each other, one dialect dying out and another springing
into existence; that in the migrations of nomadic tribes, or in the
arrival of new nations, although languages may for a time preserve their
severalty, they are at last obliged, from necessity, to yield to the
assimilating influences which constantly surround them, and become
merged into the dialects of neighboring clans. And on the other hand, a
counter influence is exercised upon the absorbing dialect. The dialectic
fusion of two communities results in the partial disappearance of both
languages, so that a constant assimilation and dissimilation is going
on. "The value of language," says Latham, "has been overrated;" and
Whitney affirms that "language is no infallible sign of race;" although
both of these authors give to language the first place as a test of
national affinities. Language is not a physiological characteristic, but
an acquisition; and as such should be used with care in the
classification of species.

Science, during the last half century, has unfolded many important
secrets; has tamed impetuous elements, called forth power and life from
the hidden recesses of the earth; has aroused the slumbering energies of
both mental and material force, changed the currents of thought,
emancipated the intellect from religious transcendentalism, and spread
out to the broad light of open day a vast sea of truth. Old-time
beliefs have had to give place. The débris of one exploded dogma is
scarcely cleared away before we are startled with a request for the
yielding up of another long and dearly cherished opinion. And in the
attempt to read the book of humanity as it comes fresh from the impress
of nature, to trace the history of the human race, by means of moral and
physical characteristics, backward through all its intricate windings to
its source, science has accomplished much; but the attempt to solve the
great problem of human existence, by analogous comparisons of man with
man, and man with animals, has so far been vain and futile in the
extreme.

I would not be understood as attempting captiously to decry the noble
efforts of learned men to solve the problems of nature. For who can tell
what may or may not be found out by inquiry? Any classification,
moreover, and any attempt at classification, is better than none; and in
drawing attention to the uncertainty of the conclusions arrived at by
science, I but reiterate the opinions of the most profound thinkers of
the day. It is only shallow and flippant scientists, so called, who
arbitrarily force deductions from mere postulates, and with one sweeping
assertion strive to annihilate all history and tradition. They attempt
dogmatically to set up a reign of intellect in opposition to that of the
Author of intellect. Terms of vituperation and contempt with which a
certain class of writers interlard their sophisms, as applied to those
holding different opinions, are alike an offense against good taste and
sound reasoning.

Notwithstanding all these failures to establish rules by which mankind
may be divided into classes, there yet remains the stubborn fact that
differences do exist, as palpable as the difference between daylight and
darkness. These differences, however, are so played upon by change, that
hitherto the scholar has been unable to transfix those elements which
appear to him permanent and characteristic. For, as Draper remarks,
"the permanence of organic forms is altogether dependent on the
invariability of the material conditions under which they live. Any
variation therein, no matter how insignificant it might be, would be
forthwith followed by a corresponding variation in form. The present
invariability of the world of organization is the direct consequence of
the physical equilibrium, and so it will continue as long as the mean
temperature, the annual supply of light, the composition of the air, the
distribution of water, oceanic and atmospheric currents, and other such
agencies, remain unaltered; but if any one of these, or of a hundred
other incidents that might be mentioned, should suffer modification, in
an instant the fanciful doctrine of the immutability of species would be
brought to its true value."

  [Sidenote: ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS.]

The American Indians, their origin and consanguinity, have, from the
days of Columbus to the present time proved no less a knotty question.
Schoolmen and scientists count their theories by hundreds, each
sustaining some pet conjecture, with a logical clearness equaled only by
the facility with which he demolishes all the rest. One proves their
origin by holy writ; another by the writings of ancient philosophers;
another by the sage sayings of the Fathers. One discovers in them
Phoenician merchants; another, the ten lost tribes of Israel. They are
tracked with equal certainty from Scandinavia, from Ireland, from
Iceland, from Greenland, across Bering Strait, across the northern
Pacific, the southern Pacific, from the Polynesian Islands, from
Australia, from Africa. Venturesome Carthaginians were thrown upon the
eastern shore; Japanese junks on the western. The breezes that wafted
hither America's primogenitors are still blowing, and the ocean currents
by which they came cease not yet to flow. The finely spun webs of logic
by which these fancies are maintained would prove amusing, did not the
profound earnestness of their respective advocates render them
ridiculous. Acosta, who studied the subject for nine years in Peru,
concludes that America was the Ophir of Solomon. Aristotle relates that
the Carthaginians in a voyage were carried to an unknown island;
whereupon Florian, Gomara, Oviedo, and others, are satisfied that the
island was Española. "Who are these that fly as a cloud," exclaims
Esaias, "or as the doves to their windows?" Scholastic sages answer,
Columbus is the _columba_ or dove here prophesied. Alexo Vanegas shows
that America was peopled by Carthaginians; Anahuac being but another
name for Anak. Besides, both nations practiced picture-writing; both
venerated fire and water, wore skins of animals, pierced the ears, ate
dogs, drank to excess, telegraphed by means of fires on hills, wore all
their finery on going to war, poisoned their arrows, beat drums and
shouted in battle. Garcia found a man in Peru who had seen a rock with
something very like Greek letters engraved upon it; six hundred years
after the apotheosis of Hercules, Coleo made a long voyage; Homer knew
of the ocean; the Athenians waged war with the inhabitants of Atlantis;
hence the American Indians were Greeks. Lord Kingsborough proves
conclusively that these same American Indians were Jews: because their
"symbol of innocence" was in the one case a fawn and in the other a
lamb; because of the law of Moses, "considered in reference to the
custom of sacrificing children, which existed in Mexico and Peru;"
because "the fears of tumults of the people, famine, pestilence, and
warlike invasions, were exactly the same as those entertained by the
Jews if they failed in the performance of any of their ritual
observances;" because "the education of children commenced amongst the
Mexicans, as with the Jews, at an exceedingly early age;" because
"beating with a stick was a very common punishment amongst the Jews," as
well as among the Mexicans; because the priesthood of both nations "was
hereditary in a certain family;" because both were inclined to pay great
respect to lucky or unlucky omens, such as the screeching of the owl,
the sneezing of a person in company," etc., and because of a hundred
other equally sound and relevant arguments. Analogous reasoning to this
of Lord Kingsborough's was that of the Merced Indians of California.
Shortly after the discovery of the Yosemite Valley, tidings reached the
settlers of Mariposa that certain chiefs had united with intent to drop
down from their mountain stronghold and annihilate them. To show the
Indians the uselessness of warring upon white men, these chieftains were
invited to visit the city of San Francisco, where, from the number and
superiority of the people that they would there behold, they should
become intimidated, and thereafter maintain peace. But contrary to the
most reasonable expectations, no sooner had the dusky delegates returned
to their home than a council was called, and the assembled warriors were
informed that they need have no fear of these strangers: "For," said the
envoys, "the people of the great city of San Francisco are of a
different tribe from these white settlers of Mariposa. Their manners,
their customs, their language, their dress, are all different. They wear
black coats and high hats, and are not able to walk along the smoothest
path without the aid of a stick."

There are many advocates for an Asiatic origin, both among ancient and
modern speculators. Favorable winds and currents, the short distance
between islands, traditions, both Chinese and Indian, refer the peopling
of America to that quarter. Similarity in color, features, religion,
reckoning of time, absence of a heavy beard, and innumerable other
comparisons, are drawn by enthusiastic advocates, to support a Mongolian
origin. The same arguments, in whole or in part, are used to prove that
America was peopled by Egyptians, by Ethiopians, by French, English,
Trojans, Frisians, Scythians; and also that different parts were settled
by different peoples. The test of language has been applied with equal
facility and enthusiasm to Egyptian, Jew, Phoenician, Carthaginian,
Spaniard, Chinese, Japanese, and in fact to nearly all the nations of
the earth. A complete review of theories and opinions concerning the
origin of the Indians, I propose to give in another place; not that
intrinsically they are of much value, except as showing the different
fancies of different men and times. Fancies, I say, for modern scholars,
with the aid of all the new revelations of science, do not appear in
their investigations to arrive one whit nearer an indubitable
conclusion.

It was obvious to the Europeans when they first beheld the natives of
America, that these were unlike the intellectual white-skinned race of
Europe, the barbarous blacks of Africa, or any nation or people which
they had hitherto encountered, yet were strikingly like each other. Into
whatsoever part of the newly discovered lands they penetrated, they
found a people seemingly one in color, physiognomy, customs, and in
mental and social traits. Their vestiges of antiquity and their
languages presented a coincidence which was generally observed by early
travelers. Hence physical and psychological comparisons are advanced to
prove ethnological resemblances among all the peoples of America, and
that they meanwhile possess common peculiarities totally distinct from
the nations of the old world. Morton and his confrères, the originators
of the American homogeneity theory, even go so far as to claim for the
American man an origin as indigenous as that of the fauna and flora.
They classify all the tribes of America, excepting only the Eskimos who
wandered over from Asia, as the American race, and divide it into the
American family and the Toltecan family. Blumenbach classifies the
Americans as a distinct species. The American Mongolidæ of Dr Latham are
divided into Eskimos and American Indians. Dr Morton perceives the same
characteristic lineaments in the face of the Fuegian and the Mexican,
and in tribes inhabiting the Rocky Mountains, the Mississippi Valley,
and Florida. The same osteological structure, swarthy color, straight
hair, meagre beard, obliquely cornered eyes, prominent cheek bones, and
thick lips are common to them all. Dr Latham describes his American
Mongolidæ as exercising upon the world a material rather than a moral
influence; giving them meanwhile a color, neither a true white nor a jet
black; hair straight and black, rarely light, sometimes curly; eyes
sometimes oblique; a broad, flat face and a retreating forehead. Dr
Prichard considers the American race, psychologically, as neither
superior nor inferior to other primitive races of the world. Bory de St
Vincent classifies Americans into five species, including the Eskimos.
The Mexicans he considers as cognate with the Malays. Humboldt
characterizes the nations of America as one race, by their straight
glossy hair, thin beard, swarthy complexion, and cranial formation.
Schoolcraft makes four groups; the first extending across the northern
end of the continent; the second, tribes living east of the Mississippi;
the third, those between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains; and
the fourth, those west of the Rocky Mountains. All these he subdivides
into thirty-seven families; but so far as those on the Pacific Coast are
concerned, he might as reasonably have made of them twice or half the
number.

All writers agree in giving to the nations of America a remote
antiquity; all admit that there exists a greater uniformity between them
than is to be found in the old world; many deny that all are one race.
There is undoubtedly a prevailing uniformity in those physical
characteristics which govern classification; but this uniformity goes as
far to prove one universal race throughout the world, as it does to
prove a race peculiar to America. Traditions, ruins, moral and physical
peculiarities, all denote for Americans a remote antiquity. The action
of a climate peculiar to America, and of natural surroundings common to
all the people of the continent, could not fail to produce in time a
similarity of physiological structure.

  [Sidenote: INDIVIDUALITY OF RACE.]

The impression of a New World individuality of race was no doubt
strengthened in the eyes of the Conquerors, and in the mind of the
train of writers that followed, by the fact, that the newly discovered
tribes were more like each other than were any other peoples they had
ever before seen; and at the same time very much unlike any nation
whatever of the old world. And so any really existing physical
distinctions among the American stocks came to be overlooked or
undervalued. Darwin, on the authority of Elphinstone, observes that in
India, "although a newly arrived European cannot at first distinguish
the various native races, yet they soon appear to him entirely
dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any difference
between the several European nations."

It has been observed by Prof. von Martius that the literary and
architectural remains of the civilized tribes of America indicate a
higher degree of intellectual elevation than is likely to be found in a
nation emerging from barbarism. In their sacerdotal ordinances,
privileged orders, regulated despotisms, codes of law, and forms of
government are found clear indications of a relapse from civilization to
barbarism. Chateaubriand, from the same premises, develops a directly
opposite conclusion, and perceives in all this high antiquity and
civilization only a praiseworthy evolution from primeval barbarism.

Thus arguments drawn from a comparison of parallel traits in the moral,
social, or physical condition of man should be received with allowance,
for man has much in common not only with man, but with animals.
Variations in bodily structure and mental faculties are governed by
general laws. The great variety of climate which characterizes America
could not fail to produce various habits of life. The half-torpid
Hyperborean, the fierce warrior-hunter of the vast interior forests, the
sluggish, swarthy native of the tropics, and the intelligent Mexican of
the table-land, slowly developing into civilization under the refining
influences of arts and letters,--all these indicate variety in the unity
of the American race; while the insulation of American nations, and the
general characteristics incident to peculiar physical conditions could
not fail to produce a unity in their variety.

  [Sidenote: RACES OF THE PACIFIC.]

The races of the Pacific States embrace all the varieties of species
known as American under any of the classifications mentioned. Thus, in
the five divisions of Blumenbach, the Eskimos of the north would come
under the fourth division, which embraces Malays and Polynesians, and
which is distinguished by a high square skull, low forehead, short broad
nose, and projecting jaws. To his fifth class, the American, which he
subdivides into the American family and the Toltecan family, he gives a
small skull with a high apex, flat on the occiput, high cheek bones,
receding forehead, aquiline nose, large mouth, and tumid lips. Morton,
although he makes twenty-two divisions in all, classifies Americans in
the same manner. The Polar family he characterises as brown in color,
short in stature, of thick, clumsy proportions, with a short neck, large
head, flat face, small nose, and eyes disposed to obliquity. He
perceives an identity of race among all the other stocks from Mount St
Elias to Patagonia; though he designates the semi-civilized tribes of
Mexico and Peru as the Toltecan family, and the savage nations as the
Appalachian branch of the American family. Dr Prichard makes three
divisions of the tribes bordering the Pacific between Mount St Elias and
Cape St Lucas: the tribes from the borders of the Eskimos southward to
Vancouver Island constitute the first division; the tribes of Oregon and
Washington, the second; and the tribes of Upper and Lower California,
the third. Pickering assigns the limits of the American, Malay, or
Toltecan family to California and western Mexico. He is of the opinion
that they crossed from southeastern Asia by way of the islands of the
Pacific, and landed upon this continent south of San Francisco, there
being no traces of them north of this point; while the Mongolians found
their way from northeastern Asia across Bering Strait. The Californians,
therefore, he calls Malays; and the inhabitants of Vancouver Island,
British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon, he classifies as Mongolians.
Californians, in the eyes of this traveler, differ from their northern
neighbors in complexion and physiognomy. The only physiological test
that Mr Pickering was able to apply in order to distinguish the
Polynesian in San Francisco from the native Californian, was that the
hair of the former was wavy, while that of the latter was straight. Both
have more hair than the Oregonian. The skin of the Malay of the
Polynesian Islands, and that of the Californian are alike, soft and very
dark. Three other analogous characteristics were discovered by Mr
Pickering. Both have an open countenance, one wife, and no tomahawk! On
the other hand, the Mongolian from Asia, and the Oregonian are of a
lighter complexion, and exhibit the same general resemblances that are
seen in the American and Asiatic Eskimos.

In general the Toltecan family may be described as of good stature, well
proportioned, rather above medium size, of a light copper color; as
having long black obliquely pointed eyes, regular white teeth, glossy
black hair, thin beard, prominent cheek bones, thick lips, large
aquiline nose, and retreating forehead. A gentle expression about the
mouth is blended with severity and melancholy in the upper portion of
the face. They are brave, cruel in war, sanguinary in religion, and
revengeful. They are intelligent; possess minds well adapted to the
pursuit of knowledge; and, at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards,
were well advanced in history, architecture, mathematics, and astronomy.
They constructed aqueducts, extracted metals, carved images in gold,
silver, and copper; they could spin, weave, and dye; they could
accurately cut precious stones; they cultivated corn and cotton; built
large cities, constructing their buildings of stone and lime; made roads
and erected stupendous tumuli.

Certain ethnological zones have been observed by some, stretching across
the continent in various latitudes, broken somewhat by intersecting
continental elevations, but following for the most part isothermal lines
which, on coming from the east, bend northward as the softer air of the
Pacific is entered. Thus the Eskimos nearly surround the pole. Next come
the Tinneh, stretching across the continent from the east, somewhat
irregularly, but their course marked generally by thermic lines, bending
northward after crossing the Rocky Mountains, their southern boundary,
touching the Pacific, about the fifty-fifth parallel. The Algonkin
family border on the Tinneh, commencing at the mouth of the St Lawrence
River, and extending westward to the Rocky Mountains. Natural causes
alone prevent the extension of these belts round the entire earth.
Indeed, both philologists and physiologists trace lines of affinity
across the Pacific, from island to island, from one continent to the
other; one line, as we have seen, crossing Bering Strait, another
following the Aleutian Archipelago, and a third striking the coast south
of San Francisco Bay.

  [Sidenote: SAVAGE HUMANITY.]

It is common for those unaccustomed to look below the surface of things,
to regard Indians as scarcely within the category of humanity.
Especially is this the case when we, maddened by some treacherous
outrage, some diabolic act of cruelty, hastily pronounce them
incorrigibly wicked, inhumanly malignant, a nest of vipers, the
extermination of which is a righteous act. All of which may be true;
but, judged by this standard, has not every nation on earth incurred the
death penalty? Human nature is in no wise changed by culture. The
European is but a white-washed savage. Civilized venom is no less
virulent than savage venom. It ill becomes the full grown man to scoff
at the ineffectual attempts of the little child, and to attempt the cure
of its faults by killing it. No more is it a mark of benevolent wisdom
in those favored by a superior intelligence, with the written records
of the past from which to draw experience and learn how best to shape
their course for the future, to cry down the untaught man of the
wilderness, deny him a place in this world or the next, denounce him as
a scourge, an outlaw, and seize upon every light pretext to assist him
off the stage from which his doom is so rapidly removing him. We view
man in his primitive state from a wrong stand-point at the outset. In
place of regarding savages as of one common humanity with ourselves, and
the ancestors perhaps of peoples higher in the scale of being, and more
intellectual than any the world has yet seen, we place them among the
common enemies of mankind, and regard them more in the light of wild
animals than of wild men.

And let not him who seeks a deeper insight into the mysteries of
humanity despise beginnings, things crude and small. The difference
between the cultured and the primitive man lies chiefly in the fact that
one has a few centuries the start of the other in the race of progress.
Before condemning the barbarian, let us first examine his code of
ethics. Let us draw our light from his light, reason after his fashion;
see in the sky, the earth, the sea, the same fantastic imagery that
plays upon his fancy, and adapt our sense of right and wrong to his
social surroundings. Just as human nature is able to appreciate divine
nature only as divine nature accords with human nature; so the
intuitions of lower orders of beings can be comprehended only by
bringing into play our lower faculties. Nor can we any more clearly
appreciate the conceptions of beings below us than of those above us.
The thoughts, reasonings, and instincts of an animal or insect are as
much a mystery to the human intellect as are the lofty contemplations of
an archangel.

  [Sidenote: PACIFICATION OF TIERRA FIRME.]

      Three hundred and thirty-six years were occupied in the
      discovery of the western border of North America. From the
      time when, in 1501, the adventurous notary of Triana,
      Rodrigo de Bastidas, approached the Isthmus of Darien, in
      search of gold and pearls, till the year 1837, when Messrs
      Dease and Simpson, by order of the Hudson's Bay Company,
      completed the survey of the northern extremity, which
      bounds the Arctic Ocean, the intervening territory was
      discovered at intervals, and under widely different
      circumstances. During that time, under various immediate
      incentives, but with the broad principle of avarice
      underlying all, such parts of this territory as were
      conceived to be of sufficient value were seized, and the
      inhabitants made a prey to the rapacity of the invaders.
      Thus the purpose of the worthy notary Bastidas, the first
      Spaniard who visited the continent of North America, was
      pacific barter with the Indians; and his kind treatment was
      rewarded by a successful traffic. Next came Columbus, from
      the opposite direction, sailing southward along the coast
      of Honduras on his fourth voyage, in 1502. His was the
      nobler object of discovery. He was striving to get through
      or round this _tierra firme_ which, standing between
      himself and his theory, persistently barred his progress
      westward. He had no time for barter, nor any inclination to
      plant settlements; he was looking for a strait or passage
      through or round these outer confines to the more opulent
      regions of India. But, unsuccessful in his laudable effort,
      he at length yielded to the clamorous cupidity of his crew.
      He permitted his brother, the Adelantado, to land and take
      possession of the country for the king of Spain, and, in
      the year following, to attempt a settlement at Veragua.

  [Sidenote: FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS.]

      In 1506-8, Juan de Solis with Pinzon continued the search
      of Columbus, along the coast of Yucatan and Mexico, for a
      passage through to the southern ocean. The disastrous
      adventures of Alonzo de Ojeda, Diego de Nicuesa, and Juan
      de la Cosa, on the Isthmus of Darien, between the years
      1507 and 1511, brought into more intimate contact the steel
      weapons of the chivalrous hidalgos with the naked bodies of
      the savages. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, after a toilsome
      journey across the Isthmus in 1513, was rewarded by the
      first view of the Pacific Ocean, of which he took
      possession for the king of Spain on the twenty-fifth of
      September. The white sails of Córdova Grijalva, and Garay,
      descried by the natives of Yucatan and Mexico in 1517-19,
      were quickly followed by Cortés and his keen-scented band
      of adventurers, who, received by the unsuspecting natives
      as gods, would have been dismissed by them as fiends had
      not the invasion culminated in the conquest of Mexico.
      During the years 1522-24, Cortés made expeditions to
      Tehuantepec, Panuco, and Central America; Gil Gonzales and
      Cristobal de Olid invaded Nicaragua and Honduras. Nuño de
      Guzman in 1530, with a large force, took possession of the
      entire northern country from the city of Mexico to the
      northern boundary of Sinaloa; and Cabeza de Vaca crossed
      the continent from Texas to Sinaloa in the years 1528-36.
      Journeys to the north were made by Cortés, Ulloa, Coronado,
      Mendoza, and Cabrillo between the years 1536 and 1542.
      Hundreds of Roman Catholic missionaries, ready to lay down
      their lives in their earnest anxiety for the souls of the
      Indians, spread out into the wilderness in every direction.
      During the latter part of the sixteenth century had
      place,--the expedition of Francisco de Ibarra to Sinaloa in
      1556, the campaign of Hernando de Bazan against the Indians
      of Sinaloa in 1570, the adventures of Oxenham in Darien in
      1575, the voyage round the world of Sir Francis Drake,
      touching upon the Northwest Coast in 1579; the expedition
      of Antonio de Espejo to New Mexico in 1583; Francisco de
      Gali's return from Macao to Mexico, by way of the Northwest
      Coast, in 1584; the voyage of Maldonado to the imaginary
      Straits of Anian in 1588; the expedition of Castaño de Sosa
      to New Mexico in 1590; the voyage of Juan de Fuca to the
      Straits of Anian in 1592; the wreck of the 'San Agustin'
      upon the Northwest Coast in 1595; the voyage of Sebastian
      Vizcaino towards California in 1596; the discoveries of
      Juan de Oñate in New Mexico in 1599, and many others.
      Intercourse with the natives was extended during the
      seventeenth century by the voyage of Sebastian Vizcaino
      from Mexico to California in 1602; by the expedition of
      Francisco de Ortega to Lower California in 1631; by the
      journey of Thomas Gage from Mexico to Guatemala in 1638; by
      the voyage round the world of William Dampier in 1679; by
      the reckless adventures of the Buccaneers from 1680 to
      1690; by the expedition of Isidor de Otondo into Lower
      California in 1683; by the expedition of Father Kino to
      Sonora and Arizona in 1683; by the expeditions of Kino,
      Kappus, Mange, Bernal, Carrasco, Salvatierra, and others to
      Sonora and Arizona in 1694-9; and by the occupation of
      Lower California by the Jesuits, Salvatierra, Ugarte, Kino,
      and Piccolo, from 1697 to 1701. Voyages of circumnavigation
      were made by Dampier in 1703-4; by Rogers in 1708-11; by
      Shelvocke in 1719-22, and by Anson in 1740-4. Frondac made
      a voyage from China to California in 1709.

      The first voyage through Bering Strait is supposed to have
      been made by Semun Deschneff and his companions in the year
      1648, and purports to have explored the Asiatic coast from
      the river Kolyma to the south of the river Anadir, thus
      proving the separation of the continents of Asia and
      America. In 1711, a Russian Cossack, named Popoff, was sent
      from the fort on the Anadir river to subdue the rebellious
      Tschuktschi of Tschuktschi Noss, a point of land on the
      Asiatic coast near to the American continent. He there
      received from the natives the first intelligence of the
      proximity of the continent of America and the character of
      the inhabitants; an account of which will be given in
      another place. In 1741, Vitus Bering and Alexei Tschirikoff
      sailed in company, from Petropaulovski, for the opposite
      coast of America. They parted company during a storm, the
      latter reaching the coast in latitude fifty-six, and the
      former landing at Cape St Elias in latitude sixty degrees
      north. The earliest information concerning the Aleutian
      Islanders was obtained by the Russians in the year 1745,
      when Michael Nevodtsikoff sailed from the Kamtchatka river
      in pursuit of furs. A Russian commercial company, called
      the Promyschleniki, was formed, and other hunting and
      trading voyages followed. Lasareff visited six islands of
      the Andreanovski group in 1761; and the year following was
      made the discovery of the Alaskan Peninsula, supposed to be
      an island until after the survey of the coast by Captain
      Cook. Drusinin made a hunting expedition to Unalaska and
      the Fox Islands in 1763; and, during the same year, Stephen
      Glottoff visited the island of Kadiak. Korovin, Solovieff,
      Synd, Otseredin, Krenitzen, and other Russian fur-hunters
      spent the years 1762-5 among the Aleutian Islands,
      capturing sea-otters, seals, and foxes, and exchanging,
      with the natives, beads and iron utensils, for furs.

  [Sidenote: OCCUPATION OF CALIFORNIA.]

      A grand missionary movement, growing out of the religious
      rivalries of the two great orders of the Catholic Church,
      led to the original occupation of Upper California by
      Spaniards. The work of Christianizing Lower California was
      inaugurated by the Jesuits, under Fathers Salvatierra and
      Kino, in 1697. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico
      in 1767, their missions were turned over to the
      Franciscans. This so roused the zeal of the Dominicans that
      they immediately appealed to Spain, and in 1769 obtained an
      edict, giving them a due share in the missions of Lower
      California. The Franciscans, thinking it better to carry
      their efforts into new fields than to contend for
      predominance at home, generously offered to cede the whole
      of Lower California to the Dominicans, and themselves
      retire to the wild and distant regions of Upper California.
      This being agreed upon, two expeditions were organized to
      proceed northward simultaneously, one by water and the
      other by land. In January, 1769, the ship 'San Carlos,'
      commanded by Vicente Vila, was dispatched for San Diego,
      followed by the 'San Antonio,' under Juan Perez, and the
      'San José,' which was unfortunately lost. The land
      expedition was separated into two divisions; the first
      under Rivera y Moncada departed from Mexico in March, and
      arrived at San Diego in May; the second under Gaspar de
      Portolá and Father Junípero Serra reached San Diego in
      July, 1769. Portolá with his companions immediately set out
      by land for the Bay of Monterey; but, unwittingly passing
      it by, they continued northward until barred in their
      progress by the magnificent Bay of San Francisco. Unable to
      find the harbor of Monterey, they returned to San Diego in
      January, 1770. In April, Portolá made a second and more
      successful attempt, and arrived at Monterey in May.
      Meanwhile Perez and Junípero Serra accomplished the voyage
      by sea, sailing in the 'San Carlos.' In 1772, Pedro Fages
      and Juan Crespi proceeded from Monterey to explore the Bay
      of San Francisco. They were followed by Rivera y Moncada in
      1774, and Palou and Ezeta in 1775; and in 1776, Moraga
      founded the Mission of Dolores. In 1775, Bodega y Quadra
      voyaged up the Californian coast to the fifty-eighth
      parallel. In 1776, Dominguez and Escalante made an
      expedition from Santa Fé to Monterey. Menonville journeyed
      to Oajaca in New Spain in 1777. In 1778, Captain Cook, in
      his third voyage round the world, touched along the Coast
      from Cape Flattery to Norton Sound; and in 1779, Bodega y
      Quadra, Maurelle, and Arteaga voyaged up the western coast
      to Mount St Elias. During the years 1785-8, voyages of
      circumnavigation were made by Dixon and Portlock, and by La
      Pérouse, all touching upon the Northwest Coast.

      French Canadian traders were the first to penetrate the
      northern interior west of Hudson Bay. Their most distant
      station was on the Saskatchewan River, two thousand miles
      from civilization, in the heart of an unknown wilderness
      inhabited by savage men and beasts. These _coureurs des
      bois_ or wood-rangers, as they were called, were admirably
      adapted, by their disposition and superior address, to
      conciliate the Indians and form settlements among them.
      Unrestrained, however, by control, they committed excesses
      which the French government could check only by
      prohibiting, under penalty of death, any but its authorized
      agents from trading within its territories. British
      merchants at New York soon entered into competition with
      the fur princes of Montreal. But, in 1670, a more
      formidable opposition arose in the organization of the
      Hudson's Bay Company, by Prince Rupert and other noblemen,
      under a charter of Charles II. which granted exclusive
      right to all the territory drained by rivers flowing into
      Hudson Bay. Notwithstanding constant feuds with the French
      merchants regarding territorial limits, the company
      prospered from the beginning, paying annual dividends of
      twenty-five and fifty per cent. after many times increasing
      the capital stock. In 1676, the Canadians formed the
      _Compagnie du Nord_, in order the more successfully to
      resist encroachment. Upon the loss of Canada by the French
      in 1762, hostilities thickened between the companies, and
      the traffic for a time fell off. In 1784, the famous
      Northwest Company was formed by Canadian merchants, and the
      management entrusted to the Frobisher brothers and Simon
      M'Tavish. The head-quarters of the company were at
      Montreal, but annual meetings were held, with lordly state,
      at Fort William, on the shore of Lake Superior. The company
      consisted of twenty-three partners, and employed over two
      thousand clerks and servants. It exercised an almost feudal
      sway over a wide savage domain, and maintained a formidable
      competition with the Hudson's Bay Company, with which they
      were for two years in actual war. In 1813, they purchased,
      from the partners of John Jacob Astor, the settlement of
      Astoria on the Columbia River. In 1821, they united with
      the Hudson's Bay Company; and the charter covering the
      entire region occupied by both was renewed by act of
      Parliament. In 1762, some merchants of New Orleans
      organized a company which was commissioned by D'Abadie,
      director-general of Louisiana, under the name of Pierre
      Ligueste Laclède, Antoine Maxan, and Company. Their first
      post occupied the spot upon which the city of St Louis is
      now situated; and, under the auspices of the brothers
      Chouteau, they penetrated northwestward beyond the Rocky
      Mountains. In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company was formed at
      St Louis, consisting of the Chouteaus and others; and an
      expedition under Major Henry was sent across the Rocky
      Mountains, which established the first post on the Columbia
      River. Between the years 1825 and 1830, the Rocky Mountain
      Fur Company of St Louis extended their operations over
      California and Oregon, but at a loss of the lives of nearly
      one half of their employés. John Jacob Astor embarked in
      the fur trade at New York in 1784, purchasing at that time
      in Montreal. In 1808, he obtained a charter for the
      American Fur Company, which was, in 1811, merged into the
      Southwest Company. In 1809, Mr Astor conceived the project
      of establishing a transcontinental line of posts. His
      purpose was to concentrate the fur trade of the United
      States, and establish uninterrupted communication between
      the Pacific and the Atlantic. He made proposals of
      association to the Northwest Company, which were not only
      rejected, but an attempt was made by that association to
      anticipate Mr Astor in his operations, by making a
      settlement at the mouth of the Columbia River. In 1810, the
      Pacific Fur Company was founded by Mr Astor, and an
      expedition dispatched overland by way of St Louis and the
      Missouri River. At the same time a vessel was sent round
      Cape Horn to the mouth of the Columbia; but, their
      adventure in that quarter proving unsuccessful, the
      company was dissolved, and the operations of Mr Astor were
      thereafter confined to the territory east of the Rocky
      Mountains.

  [Sidenote: THE GREAT NORTHWEST.]

      Samuel Hearne, an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company, was
      the first European to reach the Arctic Ocean through the
      interior of the continent. He descended Coppermine River to
      its mouth in the year 1771. The Upper Misinipi River was
      first visited by Joseph Frobisher in 1775. Three years
      later, one Peter Pond penetrated to within thirty miles of
      Athabasca Lake, and established a trading post at that
      point. Four canoe-loads of merchandise were exchanged by
      him for more fine furs than his canoes could carry. Other
      adventurous traders soon followed; but not long afterwards
      the inevitable broils which always attended the early
      intercourse of Europeans and Indians, rose to such a height
      that, but for the appearance of that terrible scourge, the
      small-pox, the traders would have been extirpated. The
      ravages of this dire disease continued to depopulate the
      country until 1782, when traders again appeared among the
      Knisteneaux and Tinneh. The most northern division of the
      Northwest Company was at that time the Athabascan Lake
      region, where Alexander Mackenzie was the managing partner.
      His winter residence was at Fort Chipewyan, on Athabasca
      Lake. The Indians who traded at his establishment informed
      him of the existence of a large river flowing to the
      westward from Slave Lake. Thinking thereby to reach the
      Pacific Ocean, Mr Mackenzie, in the year 1789, set out upon
      an expedition to the west; and, descending the noble stream
      which bears his name, found himself, contrary to his
      expectations, upon the shores of the Arctic Sea. In 1793,
      he made a journey to the Pacific, ascending Peace River,
      and reaching the coast in latitude about fifty-two. The
      first expedition organized by the British government for
      the purpose of surveying the northern coast, was sent out
      under Lieutenants Franklin and Parry in 1819. During the
      year following, Franklin descended Coppermine River, and
      subsequently, in 1825, he made a journey down the
      Mackenzie. In 1808, D. W. Harmon, a partner in the
      Northwest Company, crossed the Rocky Mountains, at about
      the fifty-sixth parallel, to Fraser and Stuart Lakes. The
      accounts of the natives given by these travelers and their
      companions are essentially the same, and later voyagers
      have failed to throw much additional light upon the
      subject. John Meares, in 1788, visited the Straits of Fuca,
      Nootka Sound, and Cook Inlet; and, during the same year,
      two ships, sent out by Boston merchants, under Robert Gray
      and John Kendrick, entered Nootka Sound. Estevan Martinez
      and Gonzalo Haro, sent from Mexico to look after the
      interest of Spain in these regions, explored Prince William
      Sound, and visited Kadiak. During the same year, the
      Russians established a trading post at Copper River. In
      1789, Joseph Billings visited the Aleutian Islands, and the
      Boston vessels explored the Eastern coast of Queen
      Charlotte Island. In 1790, Salvador Fidalgo was sent by the
      Mexican government to Nootka; and Monaldo explored the
      Straits of Juan de Fuca. In 1791, four ships belonging to
      Boston merchants, two Spanish ships, one French and several
      Russian vessels touched upon the Northwest Coast. The
      Spanish vessels were under the command of Alejandro
      Malespina; Etienne Marchand was the commander of the French
      ship. The 'Sutil y Mexicana' entered Nootka Sound in 1792;
      and during the same year, Vancouver commenced his
      explorations along the coast above Cape Flattery. In
      1803-4, Baron Von Humboldt was making his searching
      investigations in Mexico; while the captive New Englander,
      Jewett, was dancing attendance to Maquina, king of the
      Nootkas. Lewis and Clark traversed the continent in 1805.
      In 1806, a Mr Fraser set out from Canada, and crossed the
      Rocky Mountains near the headwaters of the river which
      bears his name. He descended Fraser River to the lake which
      he also called after himself. There he built a fort and
      opened trade with the natives. Kotzebue visited the coast
      in 1816; and the Russian expedition under Kramchenko,
      Wasilieff, and Etolin, in 1822. Captain Morrel explored the
      Californian coast from San Diego to San Francisco in 1825;
      Captains Beechey and Lütke, the Northwest Coast in 1826;
      and Sir Edward Belcher in 1837. J. K. Townsend made an
      excursion west of the Rocky Mountains in 1834. In 1837,
      Dease and Simpson made an open boat voyage from the
      Mackenzie River, westward to Point Barrow, the farthest
      point made by Beechey from the opposite direction, thus
      reaching the _Ultima Thule_ of northwestern discovery. Sir
      George Simpson crossed the continent in 1841, Fremont in
      1843, and Paul Kane in 1845. Kushevaroff visited the coast
      in 1838, Laplace in 1839, Commodore Wilkes in 1841, and
      Captain Kellett in 1849. Following the discovery of gold,
      the country was deluged by adventurers. In 1853-4,
      commenced the series of explorations for a Pacific railway.
      The necessities of the natives were examined, and remnants
      of disappearing nations were collected upon reservations
      under government agents. The interior of Alaska was first
      penetrated by the employés of the Russian-American Fur
      Company. Malakoff ascended the Yukon in 1838; and, in 1842,
      Derabin established a fort upon that river. In 1849, W. H.
      Hooper made a boat expedition from Kotzebue Sound to the
      Mackenzie River; and, in 1866, William H. Dall and
      Frederick Whymper ascended the Yukon.

      I have here given a few only of the original sources whence
      my information is derived concerning the Indians. A
      multitude of minor voyages and travels have been performed
      during the past three and a half centuries, and accounts
      published by early residents among the natives, the bare
      enumeration of which I fear would prove wearisome to the
      reader. Enough, however, has been given to show the
      immediate causes which led to the discovery and occupation
      of the several parts of this western coast. The Spanish
      cavaliers craved from the Indians of the South their lands
      and their gold. The Spanish missionaries demanded from the
      Indians of Northern Mexico and California, faith. The
      French, English, Canadian, and American fur companies
      sought from the Indians of Oregon and New Caledonia,
      peltries. The Russians compelled the natives of the
      Aleutian Islands to hunt sea-animals. The filthy
      raw-flesh-eating Eskimos, having nothing wherewith to tempt
      the cupidity of the superior race, retain their primitive
      purity.

  [Sidenote: CUPIDITY AND ZEAL.]

      We observe then three original incentives urging on
      civilized white men to overspread the domain of the Indian.
      The first was that thirst for gold, which characterized the
      fiery hidalgos from Spain in their conquests, and to
      obtain which no cruelty was too severe nor any sacrifice of
      human life too great; as though of all the gifts vouchsafed
      to man, material or divine, one only was worth possessing.
      The second, following closely in the footsteps of the
      first, and oftentimes constituting a part of it, was
      religious enthusiasm; a zealous interest in the souls of
      the natives and the form in which they worshiped. The
      third, which occupied the attention of other and more
      northern Europeans, grew out of a covetous desire for the
      wild man's clothing; to secure to themselves the peltries
      of the great hyperborean regions of America. From the south
      of Europe the Spaniards landed in tropical North America,
      and exterminated the natives. From the north of Europe the
      French, English, and Russians crossed over to the northern
      part of America; and, with a kinder and more refined
      cruelty, no less effectually succeeded in sweeping them
      from the face of the earth by the introduction of the
      poisonous elements of a debased cultivation.

      Fortunately for the Indians of the north, it was contrary
      to the interests of white people to kill them in order to
      obtain the skins of their animals; for, with a few
      trinkets, they could procure what otherwise would require
      long and severe labor to obtain. The policy, therefore, of
      the great fur-trading companies has been to cherish the
      Indians as their best hunters, to live at peace with them,
      to heal their ancient feuds, and to withhold from them
      intoxicating liquors. The condition of their women, who
      were considered by the natives as little better than
      beasts, has been changed by their inter-social relations
      with the servants of the trading companies; and their more
      barbarous practices discontinued. It was the almost
      universal custom of the employés of the Hudson's Bay
      Company to unite to themselves native women; thus, by means
      of this relationship, the condition of the women has been
      raised, while the men manifest a kinder feeling towards the
      white race who thus in a measure become one with them.

      The efforts of early missionaries to this region were not
      crowned with that success which attended the Spaniards in
      their spiritual warfare upon the southern nations, from the
      fact that no attention was paid to the temporal necessities
      of the natives. It has long since been demonstrated
      impossible to reach the heart of a savage through abstract
      ideas of morality and elevation of character. A religion,
      in order to find favor in his eyes, must first meet some of
      his material requirements. If it is good, it will clothe
      him better and feed him better, for this to him is the
      chiefest good in life. Intermixtures of civilized with
      savage peoples are sure to result in the total
      disappearance of refinement on the one side, or in the
      extinction of the barbaric race on the other. The downward
      path is always the easiest. Of all the millions of native
      Americans who have perished under the withering influences
      of European civilization, there is not a single instance on
      record, of a tribe or nation having been reclaimed,
      ecclesiastically or otherwise, by artifice and argument.
      Individual savages have been educated with a fair degree of
      success. But, with a degree of certainty far greater, no
      sooner is the white man freed from the social restraint of
      civilized companionship, than he immediately tends towards
      barbarism; and not infrequently becomes so fascinated with
      his new life as to prefer it to any other. Social
      development is inherent: superinduced culture is a
      failure. Left alone, the nations of America might have
      unfolded into as bright a civilization as that of Europe.
      They were already well advanced, and still rapidly
      advancing towards it, when they were so mercilessly
      stricken down. But for a stranger to re-create the heart or
      head of a red man, it were easier to change the color of
      his skin.




  [Illustration: NATIVE RACES OF THE PACIFIC STATES
   HYPERBOREAN GROUP]


CHAPTER II.

HYPERBOREANS.

      GENERAL DIVISIONS--HYPERBOREAN NATIONS--ASPECTS OF
      NATURE--VEGETATION--CLIMATE--ANIMALS--THE ESKIMOS--THEIR
      COUNTRY--PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS--DRESS--DWELLINGS--
      FOOD--WEAPONS--BOOTS--SLEDGES--SNOW-SHOES--GOVERNMENT--DOMESTIC
      AFFAIRS--AMUSEMENTS--DISEASES--BURIAL--THE KONIAGAS, THEIR
      PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITION--THE ALEUTS--THE
      THLINKEETS--THE TINNEH.


I shall attempt to describe the physical and mental characteristics of
the Native Races of the Pacific States under seven distinctive groups;
namely, I. Hyperboreans, being those nations whose territory lies north
of the fifty-fifth parallel; II. Columbians, who dwell between the
fifty-fifth and forty-second parallels, and whose lands to some extent
are drained by the Columbia River and its tributaries; III.
Californians, and the Inhabitants of the Great Basin; IV. New Mexicans,
including the nations of the Colorado River and northern Mexico; V. Wild
Tribes of Mexico; VI. Wild Tribes of Central America; VII. Civilized
Nations of Mexico and Central America. It is my purpose, without any
attempt at ethnological classification, or further comment concerning
races and stocks, plainly to portray such customs and characteristics as
were peculiar to each people at the time of its first intercourse with
European strangers; leaving scientists to make their own deductions, and
draw specific lines between linguistic and physiological families, as
they may deem proper. I shall endeavor to picture these nations in their
aboriginal condition, as seen by the first invaders, as described by
those who beheld them in their savage grandeur, and before they were
startled from their lair by the treacherous voice of civilized
friendship. Now they are gone,--those dusky denizens of a thousand
forests,--melted like hoar-frost before the rising sun of a superior
intelligence; and it is only from the earliest records, from the
narratives of eye witnesses, many of them rude unlettered men, trappers,
sailors, and soldiers, that we are able to know them as they were. Some
division of the work into parts, however arbitrary it may be, is
indispensable. In dealing with Mythology, and in tracing the tortuous
course of Language, boundaries will be dropped and beliefs and tongues
will be followed wherever they lead; but in describing Manners and
Customs, to avoid confusion, territorial divisions are necessary.

  [Sidenote: GROUPINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS.]

In the groupings which I have adopted, one cluster of nations follows
another in geographical succession; the dividing line not being more
distinct, perhaps, than that which distinguishes some national
divisions, but sufficiently marked, in mental and physical
peculiarities, to entitle each group to a separate consideration.

The only distinction of race made by naturalists, upon the continents of
both North and South America, until a comparatively recent period, was
by segregating the first of the above named groups from all other people
of both continents, and calling one Mongolians and the other Americans.
A more intimate acquaintance with the nations of the North proves
conclusively that one of the boldest types of the American Indian
proper, the Tinneh, lies within the territory of this first group,
conterminous with the Mongolian Eskimos, and crowding them down to a
narrow line along the shore of the Arctic Sea. The nations of the second
group, although exhibiting multitudinous variations in minor traits, are
essentially one people. Between the California Diggers of the third
division and the New Mexican Towns-people of the fourth, there is more
diversity; and a still greater difference between the savage and
civilized nations of the Mexican table-land. Any classification or
division of the subject which could be made would be open to criticism.
I therefore adopt the most simple practical plan, one which will present
the subject most clearly to the general reader, and leave it in the best
shape for purposes of theorizing and generalization.

In the first or HYPERBOREAN group, to which this chapter is devoted, are
five subdivisions, as follows: The _Eskimos_, commonly called Western
Eskimos, who skirt the shores of the Arctic Ocean from Mackenzie River
to Kotzebue Sound; the _Koniagas_ or Southern Eskimos, who, commencing
at Kotzebue Sound, cross the Kaviak Peninsula, border on Bering Sea from
Norton Sound southward, and stretch over the Alaskan[1] Peninsula and
Koniagan Islands to the mouth of the Atna or Copper River, extending
back into the interior about one hundred and fifty miles; the _Aleuts_,
or people of the Aleutian Archipelago; the _Thlinkeets_, who inhabit the
coast and islands between the rivers Atna and Nass; and the _Tinneh_, or
Athabascas, occupying the territory between the above described
boundaries and Hudson Bay. Each of these families is divided into
nations or tribes, distinguished one from another by slight dialectic or
other differences, which tribal divisions will be given in treating of
the several nations respectively.

Let us first cast a glance over this broad domain, and mark those
aspects of nature which exercise so powerful an influence upon the
destinies of mankind. Midway between Mount St Elias and the Arctic
seaboard rise three mountain chains. One, the Rocky Mountain range,
crossing from the Yukon to the Mackenzie River, deflects southward, and
taking up its mighty line of march, throws a barrier between the east
and the west, which extends throughout the entire length of the
continent. Between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, interposes
another called in Oregon the Cascade Range, and in California the Sierra
Nevada; while from the same starting-point, the Alaskan range stretches
out to the southwest along the Alaskan Peninsula, and breaks into
fragments in the Aleutian Archipelago. Three noble streams, the
Mackenzie, the Yukon, and the Kuskoquim, float the boats of the inland
Hyperboreans and supply them with food; while from the heated waters of
Japan comes a current of the sea, bathing the icy coasts with genial
warmth, tempering the air, and imparting gladness to the oily watermen
of the coast, to the northernmost limit of their lands. The northern
border of this territory is treeless; the southern shore, absorbing more
warmth and moisture from the Japan current, is fringed with dense
forests; while the interior, interspersed with hills, and lakes, and
woods, and grassy plains, during the short summer is clothed in
luxuriant vegetation.

Notwithstanding the frowning aspect of nature, animal life in the Arctic
regions is most abundant. The ocean swarms with every species of fish
and sea-mammal; the land abounds in reindeer, moose, musk-oxen; in
black, grizzly, and Arctic bears; in wolves, foxes, beavers, mink,
ermine, martin, otters, raccoons, and water-fowl. Immense herds of
buffalo roam over the bleak grassy plains of the eastern Tinneh, but
seldom venture far to the west of the Rocky Mountains. Myriads of birds
migrate to and fro between their breeding-places in the interior of
Alaska, the open Arctic Sea, and the warmer latitudes of the south. From
the Gulf of Mexico, from the islands of the Pacific, from the lakes of
California, of Oregon, and of Washington they come, fluttering and
feasting, to rear their young during the sparkling Arctic summer-day.

  [Sidenote: MAN AND NATURE.]

The whole occupation of man throughout this region, is a struggle for
life. So long as the organism is plentifully supplied with
heat-producing food, all is well. Once let the internal fire go down,
and all is ill. Unlike the inhabitants of equatorial latitudes, where,
Eden-like, the sheltering tree drops food, and the little nourishment
essential to life may be obtained by only stretching forth the hand and
plucking it, the Hyperborean man must maintain a constant warfare with
nature, or die. His daily food depends upon the success of his daily
battle with beasts, birds, and fishes, which dispute with him possession
of sea and land. Unfortunate in his search for game, or foiled in his
attempt at capture, he must fast. The associate of beasts, governed by
the same emergencies, preying upon animals as animals prey upon each
other, the victim supplying all the necessities of the victor, occupying
territory in common, both alike drawing supplies directly from the
storehouse of nature,--primitive man derives his very quality from the
brute with which he struggles. The idiosyncrasies of the animal fasten
upon him, and that upon which he feeds becomes a part of him.

Thus, in a nation of hunters inhabiting a rigorous climate, we may look
for wiry, keen-scented men, who in their war upon wild beasts put forth
strength and endurance in order to overtake and capture the strong;
cunning is opposed by superior cunning; a stealthy watchfulness governs
every movement, while the intelligence of the man contends with the
instincts of the brute. Fishermen, on the other hand, who obtain their
food with comparatively little effort, are more sluggish in their
natures and less noble in their development. In the icy regions of the
north, the animal creation supplies man with food, clothing, and
caloric; with all the requisites of an existence under circumstances
apparently the most adverse to comfort; and when he digs his dwelling
beneath the ground, or walls out the piercing winds with snow, his
ultimate is attained.

The chief differences in tribes occupying the interior and the
seaboard,--the elevated, treeless, grassy plains east of the Rocky
Mountains, and the humid islands and shores of the great
Northwest,--grow out of necessities arising from their methods of
procuring food. Even causes so slight as the sheltering bend of a
coast-line; the guarding of a shore by islands; the breaking of a
seaboard by inlets and covering of the strand with sea-weed and polyps,
requiring only the labor of gathering; or the presence of a bluff coast
or windy promontory, whose occupants are obliged to put forth more
vigorous action for sustenance--all govern man in his development. Turn
now to the most northern division of our most northern group.


  [Sidenote: THE ESKIMOS.]

THE ESKIMOS, Esquimaux, or as they call themselves, _Innuit_, 'the
people,' from _inuk_, 'man,'[2] occupy the Arctic seaboard from eastern
Greenland along the entire continent of America, and across Bering[3]
Strait to the Asiatic shore. Formerly the inhabitants of our whole
Hyperborean sea-coast, from the Mackenzie River to Queen Charlotte
Island--the interior being entirely unknown--were denominated Eskimos,
and were of supposed Asiatic origin.[4] The tribes of southern Alaska
were then found to differ essentially from those of the northern coast.
Under the name Eskimos, therefore, I include only the Western Eskimos of
certain writers, whose southern boundary terminates at Kotzebue
Sound.[5]

  [Sidenote: ESKIMO LAND.]

Eskimo-land is thinly peopled, and but little is known of tribal
divisions. At the Coppermine River, the Eskimos are called
_Naggeuktormutes_, or deer-horns; at the eastern outlet of the
Mackenzie, their tribal name is _Kittegarute_; between the Mackenzie
River and Barter Reef, they go by the name of _Kangmali Innuit_; at
Point Barrow they call themselves _Nuwungmutes_; while on the Nunatok
River, in the vicinity of Kotzebue Sound, they are known as
_Nunatangmutes_. Their villages, consisting of five or six families
each,[6] are scattered along the coast. A village site is usually
selected upon some good landing-place, where there is sufficient depth
of water to float a whale. Between tribes is left a spot of unoccupied
or neutral ground, upon which small parties meet during the summer for
purposes of trade.[7]

The Eskimos are essentially a peculiar people. Their character and their
condition, the one of necessity growing out of the other, are peculiar.
First, it is claimed for them that they are the anomalous race of
America--the only people of the new world clearly identical with any
race of the old. Then they are the most littoral people in the world.
The linear extent of their occupancy, all of it a narrow seaboard
averaging scarcely one hundred miles in width, is estimated at not less
than five thousand miles. Before them is a vast, unknown, icy ocean,
upon which they scarcely dare venture beyond sight of land; behind them,
hostile mountaineers ever ready to dispute encroachment. Their very
mother-earth, upon whose cold bosom they have been borne, age after age
through countless generations,[8] is almost impenetrable, thawless ice.
Their days and nights, and seasons and years, are not like those of
other men. Six months of day succeed six months of night. Three months
of sunless winter; three months of nightless summer; six months of
glimmering twilight.

About the middle of October[9] commences the long night of winter. The
earth and sea put on an icy covering; beasts and birds depart for
regions sheltered or more congenial; humanity huddles in subterraneous
dens; all nature sinks into repose. The little heat left by the
retreating sun soon radiates out into the deep blue realms of space; the
temperature sinks rapidly to forty or fifty degrees below freezing; the
air is hushed, the ocean calm, the sky cloudless. An awful, painful
stillness pervades the dreary solitude. Not a sound is heard; the
distant din of busy man, and the noiseless hum of the wilderness alike
are wanting. Whispers become audible at a considerable distance, and an
insupportable sense of loneliness oppresses the inexperienced
visitor.[10] Occasionally the aurora borealis flashes out in prismatic
coruscations, throwing a brilliant arch from east to west--now in
variegated oscillations, graduating through all the various tints of
blue, and green, and violet, and crimson; darting, flashing, or
streaming in yellow columns, upwards, downwards; now blazing steadily,
now in wavy undulations, sometimes up to the very zenith; momentarily
lighting up in majestic grandeur the cheerless frozen scenery, but only
to fall back with exhausted force, leaving a denser obscurity. Nature's
electric lantern, suspended for a time in the frosty vault of
heaven;--munificent nature's fire-works; with the polar owl, the polar
bear, and the polar man, spectators.

In January, the brilliancy of the stars is dimmed perceptibly at noon;
in February, a golden tint rests upon the horizon at the same hour; in
March, the incipient dawn broadens; in April, the dozing Eskimo rubs his
eyes and crawls forth; in May, the snow begins to melt, the impatient
grass and flowers arrive as it departs.[11] In June, the summer has
fairly come. Under the incessant rays of the never setting sun, the snow
speedily disappears, the ice breaks up, the glacial earth softens for a
depth of one, two, or three feet; circulation is restored to
vegetation,[12] which, during winter, had been stopped,--if we may
believe Sir John Richardson, even the largest trees freezing to the
heart. Sea, and plain, and rolling steppe lay aside their seamless
shroud of white, and a brilliant tint of emerald overspreads the
landscape.[13] All Nature, with one resounding cry, leaps up and claps
her hands for joy. Flocks of birds, lured from their winter homes, fill
the air with their melody; myriads of wild fowls send forth their shrill
cries; the moose and the reindeer flock down from the forests;[14] from
the resonant sea comes the noise of spouting whales and barking seals;
and this so lately dismal, cheerless region, blooms with an exhuberance
of life equaled only by the shortness of its duration. And in token of a
just appreciation of the Creator's goodness, this animated medley--man,
and beasts, and birds, and fishes--rises up, divides, falls to, and ends
in eating or in being eaten.

  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.]

The physical characteristics of the Eskimos are: a fair complexion, the
skin, when free from dirt and paint, being almost white;[15] a medium
stature, well proportioned, thick-set, muscular, robust, active,[16]
with small and beautifully shaped hands and feet;[17] a pyramidal
head;[18] a broad egg-shaped face; high rounded cheek-bones; flat nose;
small oblique eyes; large mouth; teeth regular, but well worn;[19]
coarse black hair, closely cut upon the crown, leaving a monk-like ring
around the edge,[20] and a paucity of beard.[21] The men frequently
leave the hair in a natural state. The women of Icy Reef introduce false
hair among their own, wearing the whole in two immense bows at the back
of the head. At Point Barrow, they separate the hair into two parts or
braids, saturating it with train-oil, and binding it into stiff bunches
with strips of skin. Their lower extremities are short, so that in a
sitting posture they look taller than when standing.

  [Sidenote: IMPROVEMENTS UPON NATURE.]

Were these people satisfied with what nature has done for them, they
would be passably good-looking. But with them as with all mankind, no
matter how high the degree of intelligence and refinement attained, art
must be applied to improve upon nature. The few finishing touches
neglected by the Creator, man is ever ready to supply.

Arrived at the age of puberty, the great work of improvement begins. Up
to this time the skin has been kept saturated in grease and filth, until
the natural color is lost, and until the complexion is brought down to
the Eskimo standard. Now pigments of various dye are applied, both
painted outwardly and pricked into the skin; holes are cut in the face,
and plugs or labrets inserted. These operations, however, attended with
no little solemnity, are supposed to possess some significance other
than that of mere ornament. Upon the occasion of piercing the lip, for
instance, a religious feast is given.

On the northern coast the women paint the eyebrows and tattoo the chin;
while the men only pierce the lower lip under one or both corners of the
mouth, and insert in each aperture a double-headed sleeve-button or
dumb-bell-shaped labret, of bone, ivory, shell, stone, glass, or wood.
The incision when first made is about the size of a quill, but as the
aspirant for improved beauty grows older, the size of the orifice is
enlarged until it reaches a width of half or three quarters of an
inch.[22] In tattooing, the color is applied by drawing a thread under
the skin, or pricking it in with a needle. Different tribes, and
different ranks of the same tribe, have each their peculiar form of
tattooing. The plebeian female of certain bands is permitted to adorn
her chin with but one vertical line in the centre, and one parallel to
it on either side, while the more fortunate noblesse mark two vertical
lines from each corner of the mouth.[23] A feminine cast of features, as
is common with other branches of the Mongolian race, prevails in both
sexes. Some travelers discover in the faces of the men a characteristic
expression of ferociousness, and in those of the women, an extraordinary
display of wantonness. A thick coating of filth and a strong odor of
train-oil are inseparable from an Eskimo, and the fashion of labrets
adds in no wise to his comeliness.[24]

  [Sidenote: ESKIMO DRESS.]

For covering to the body, the Eskimos employ the skin of all the beasts
and birds that come within their reach. Skins are prepared in the
fur,[25] and cut and sewed with neatness and skill. Even the intestines
of seals and whales are used in the manufacture of water-proof
overdresses.[26] The costume for both sexes consists of long stockings
or drawers, over which are breeches extending from the shoulders to
below the knees; and a frock or jacket, somewhat shorter than the
breeches with sleeves and hood. This garment is made whole, there being
no openings except for the head and arms. The frock of the male is cut
at the bottom nearly square, while that of the female reaches a little
lower, and terminates before and behind in a point or scollop. The tail
of some animal graces the hinder part of the male frock; the woman's has
a large hood, in which she carries her infant. Otherwise both sexes
dress alike; and as, when stripped of their facial decorations, their
physiognomies are alike, they are not unfrequently mistaken one for the
other.[27] They have boots of walrus or seal skin, mittens or gloves of
deer-skin, and intestine water-proofs covering the entire body. Several
kinds of fur frequently enter into the composition of one garment. Thus
the body of the frock, generally of reindeer-skin, may be of bird, bear,
seal, mink, or squirrel skin; while the hood may be of fox-skin, the
lining of hare-skin, the fringe of wolverine-skin, and the gloves of
fawn-skin.[28] Two suits are worn during the coldest weather; the inner
one with the fur next the skin, the outer suit with the fur outward.[29]
Thus, with their stomachs well filled with fat, and their backs covered
with furs, they bid defiance to the severest Arctic winter.[30]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS OF THE ESKIMOS.]

In architecture, the Eskimo is fully equal to the emergency; building,
upon a soil which yields him little or no material, three classes of
dwellings. Penetrating the frozen earth, or casting around him a frozen
wall, he compels the very elements from which he seeks protection to
protect him. For his _yourt_ or winter residence he digs a hole of the
required dimensions, to a depth of about six feet.[31] Within this
excavation he erects a frame, either of wood or whalebone, lashing his
timbers with thongs instead of nailing them. This frame is carried
upward to a distance of two or three feet above the ground,[32] when it
is covered by a dome-shaped roof of poles or whale-ribs turfed and
earthed over.[33] In the centre of the roof is left a hole for the
admission of light and the emission of smoke. In absence of fire, a
translucent covering of whale-intestine confines the warmth of
putrifying filth, and completes the Eskimo's sense of comfort. To gain
admittance to this snug retreat, without exposing the inmates to the
storms without, another and a smaller hole is dug to the same depth, a
short distance from the first. From one to the other, an underground
passage-way is then opened, through which entrance is made on hands and
knees. The occupants descend by means of a ladder, and over the entrance
a shed is erected, to protect it from the snow.[34] Within the entrance
is hung a deer-skin door, and anterooms are arranged in which to deposit
frozen outer garments before entering the heated room. Around the sides
of the dwelling, sleeping-places are marked out; for bedsteads, boards
are placed upon logs one or two feet in diameter, and covered with
willow branches and skins. A little heap of stones in the centre of the
room, under the smoke-hole, forms the fireplace. In the corners of the
room are stone lamps, which answer all domestic purposes in the absence
of fire-wood.[35] In the better class of buildings, the sides and floor
are boarded. Supplies are kept in a store house at a little distance
from the dwelling, perched upon four posts, away from the reach of the
dogs, and a frame is always erected on which to hang furs and fish.
Several years are sometimes occupied in building a hut.[36]

Mark how nature supplies this treeless coast with wood. The breaking-up
of winter in the mountains of Alaska is indeed a breaking-up. The
accumulated masses of ice and snow, when suddenly loosened by the
incessant rays of the never-setting sun, bear away all before them. Down
from the mountain-sides comes the avalanche, uprooting trees, swelling
rivers, hurrying with its burden to the sea. There, casting itself into
the warm ocean current, the ice soon disappears, and the driftwood which
accompanied it is carried northward and thrown back upon the beach by
the October winds. Thus huge forest-trees, taken up bodily, as it were,
in the middle of a continent, and carried by the currents to the
incredible distance, sometimes, of three thousand miles, are deposited
all along the Arctic seaboard, laid at the very door of these people, a
people whose store of this world's benefits is none of the most
abundant.[37] True, wood is not an absolute necessity with them, as many
of their houses in the coldest weather have no fire; only oil-lamps
being used for cooking and heating. Whale-ribs supply the place of trees
for house and boat timbers, and hides are commonly used for boards. Yet
a bountiful supply of wood during their long, cold, dark winter comes in
no wise amiss.[38] Their summer tents are made of seal or untanned deer
skins with the hair outward, conical or bell-shaped, and without a
smoke-hole as no fires are ever kindled within them. The wet or frozen
earth is covered with a few coarse skins for a floor.[39]

  [Sidenote: SNOW HOUSES.]

But the most unique system of architecture in America is improvised by
the Eskimos during their seal-hunting expeditions upon the ice, when
they occupy a veritable crystal palace fit for an Arctic fairy. On the
frozen river or sea, a spot is chosen free from irregularities, and a
circle of ten or fifteen feet in diameter drawn on the snow. The snow
within the circle is then cut into slabs from three to four inches in
thickness, their length being the depth of the snow, and these slabs are
formed into a wall enclosing the circle and carried up in courses
similar to those of brick or stone, terminating in a dome-shaped roof. A
wedge-like slab keys the arch; and this principle in architecture may
have first been known to the Assyrians, Egyptians, Chinese or
Eskimos.[40] Loose snow is then thrown into the crevices, which quickly
congeals; an aperture is cut in the side for a door; and if the thin
wall is not sufficiently translucent, a piece of ice is fitted into the
side for a window. Seats, tables, couches, and even fireplaces are made
with frozen snow, and covered with reindeer or seal skin. Out-houses
connect with the main room, and frequently a number of dwellings are
built contiguously, with a passage from one to another. These houses are
comfortable and durable, resisting alike the wind and the thaw until
late in the season. Care must be taken that the walls are not so thick
as to make them too warm, and so cause a dripping from the interior. A
square block of snow serves as a stand for the stone lamp which is their
only fire.[41]

"The purity of the material," says Sir John Franklin, who saw them build
an edifice of this kind at Coppermine River, "of which the house was
framed, the elegance of its construction, and the translucency of its
walls, which transmitted a very pleasant light, gave it an appearance
far superior to a marble building, and one might survey it with feelings
somewhat akin to those produced by the contemplation of a Grecian
temple, reared by Phidias; both are triumphs of art, inimitable in their
kind."[42]

Eskimos, fortunately, have not a dainty palate. Everything which
sustains life is food for them. Their substantials comprise the flesh of
land and marine animals, fish and birds; venison, and whale and seal
blubber being chief. Choice dishes, tempting to the appetite, Arctic
epicurean dishes, Eskimo nectar and ambrosia, are daintily prepared,
hospitably placed before strangers, and eaten and drunk with avidity.
Among them are: a bowl of coagulated blood, mashed cranberries with
rancid train-oil, whortleberries and walrus-blubber, alternate streaks
of putrid black and white whale-fat; venison steeped in seal-oil, raw
deer's liver cut in small pieces and mixed with the warm half-digested
contents of the animal's stomach; bowls of live maggots, a draught of
warm blood from a newly killed animal.[43] Fish are sometimes eaten
alive. Meats are kept in seal-skin bags for over a year, decomposing
meanwhile, but never becoming too rancid for our Eskimos. Their winter
store of oil they secure in seal-skin bags, which are buried in the
frozen ground. Charlevoix remarks that they are the only race known who
prefer food raw. This, however, is not the case. They prefer their food
cooked, but do not object to it raw or rotten. They are no lovers of
salt.[44]

  [Sidenote: MIGRATIONS FOR FOOD.]

In mid-winter, while the land is enveloped in darkness, the Eskimo dozes
torpidly in his den. Early in September the musk-oxen and reindeer
retreat southward, and the fish are confined beneath the frozen covering
of the rivers. It is during the short summer, when food is abundant,
that they who would not perish must lay up a supply for the winter. When
spring opens, and the rivers are cleared of ice, the natives follow the
fish, which at that time ascend the streams to spawn, and spear them at
the falls and rapids that impede their progress. Small wooden fish are
sometimes made and thrown into holes in the ice for a decoy; salmon are
taken in a whalebone seine. At this season also reindeer are captured on
their way to the coast, whither they resort in the spring to drop their
young. Multitudes of geese, ducks, and swans visit the ocean during the
same period to breed.[45]

August and September are the months for whales. When a whale is
discovered rolling on the water, a boat starts out, and from the
distance of a few feet a weapon is plunged into its blubbery carcass.
The harpoons are so constructed that when this blow is given, the shaft
becomes disengaged from the barbed ivory point. To this point a
seal-skin buoy or bladder is attached by means of a cord. The blows are
repeated; the buoys encumber the monster in diving or swimming, and the
ingenious Eskimo is soon able to tow the carcass to the shore. A
successful chase secures an abundance of food for the winter.[46] Seals
are caught during the winter, and considerable skill is required in
taking them. Being a warm-blooded respiratory animal, they are obliged to
have air, and in order to obtain it, while the surface of the water is
undergoing the freezing process, they keep open a breathing-hole by
constantly gnawing away the ice. They produce their young in March, and
soon afterward the natives abandon their villages and set out on the ice
in pursuit of them. Seals, like whales, are also killed with a harpoon
to which is attached a bladder. The seal, when struck, may draw the
float under water for a time, but is soon obliged to rise to the surface
from exhaustion and for air, when he is again attacked and soon obliged
to yield.

The Eskimos are no less ingenious in catching wild-fowl, which they
accomplish by means of a sling or net made of woven sinews, with ivory
balls attached. They also snare birds by means of whalebone nooses,
round which fine gravel is scattered as a bait. They manoeuvre
reindeer to near the edge of a cliff, and, driving them into the sea,
kill them from canoes. They also waylay them at the narrow passes, and
capture them in great numbers. They construct large reindeer pounds, and
set up two diverging rows of turf so as to represent men; the outer
extremities of the line being sometimes two miles apart, and narrowing
to a small enclosure. Into this trap the unsuspecting animals are
driven, when they are easily speared.[47]

  [Sidenote: BEAR-HUNTING.]

To overcome the formidable polar bear the natives have two strategems.
One is by imitating the seal, upon which the bear principally feeds, and
thereby enticing it within gunshot. Another is by bending a piece of
stiff whalebone, encasing it in a ball of blubber, and freezing the
ball, which then holds firm the bent whalebone. Armed with these frozen
blubber balls, the natives approach their victim, and, with a discharge
of arrows, open the engagement. The bear, smarting with pain, turns upon
his tormentors, who, taking to their heels, drop now and then a blubber
ball. Bruin, as fond of food as of revenge, pauses for a moment, hastily
swallows one, then another, and another. Soon a strange sensation is
felt within. The thawing blubber, melted by the heat of the animal's
stomach, releases the pent-up whalebone, which, springing into place,
plays havoc with the intestines, and brings the bear to a painful and
ignominious end. To vegetables, the natives are rather indifferent;
berries, acid sorrel leaves, and certain roots, are used as a relish.
There is no native intoxicating liquor, but in eating they get
gluttonously stupid.

Notwithstanding his long, frigid, biting winter, the Eskimo never
suffers from the cold so long as he has an abundance of food. As we have
seen, a whale or a moose supplies him with food, shelter, and raiment.
With an internal fire, fed by his oily and animal food, glowing in his
stomach, his blood at fever heat, he burrows comfortably in ice and snow
and frozen ground, without necessity for wood or coal.[48] Nor are those
passions which are supposed to develop most fully under a milder
temperature, wanting in the half-frozen Hyperborean.[49] One of the
chief difficulties of the Eskimo during the winter is to obtain water,
and the women spend a large portion of their time in melting snow over
oil-lamps. In the Arctic regions, eating snow is attended with serious
consequences. Ice or snow, touched to the lips or tongue, blisters like
caustic. Fire is obtained by striking sparks from iron pyrites with
quartz. It is a singular fact that in the coldest climate inhabited by
man, fire is less used than anywhere else in the world, equatorial
regions perhaps excepted. Caloric for the body is supplied by food and
supplemented by furs. Snow houses, from their nature, prohibit the use
of fire; but cooking with the Eskimo is a luxury, not a necessity. He
well understands how to utilize every part of the animals so essential
to his existence. With their skins he clothes himself, makes houses,
boats, and oil-bags; their flesh and fat he eats. He even devours the
contents of the intestines, and with the skin makes water-proof
clothing. Knives, arrow-points, house, boat, and sledge frames,
fish-hooks, domestic utensils, ice-chisels, and in fact almost all their
implements, are made from the horns and bones of the deer, whale, and
seal. Bowstrings are made of the sinews of musk-oxen, and ropes of
seal-skin.[50] The Eskimo's arms are not very formidable. Backed by his
ingenuity, they nevertheless prove sufficient for practical purposes;
and while his neighbor possesses none better, all are on an equal
footing in war. Their most powerful as well as most artistic weapon is
the bow. It is made of beech or spruce, in three pieces curving in
opposite directions and ingeniously bound by twisted sinews, so as to
give the greatest possible strength. Richardson affirms that "in the
hands of a native hunter it will propel an arrow with sufficient force
to pierce the heart of a musk-ox, or break the leg of a reindeer."
Arrows, as well as spears, lances, and darts, are of white spruce, and
pointed with bone, ivory, flint, and slate.[51] East of the Mackenzie,
copper enters largely into the composition of Eskimo utensils.[52]
Before the introduction of iron by Europeans, stone hatchets were
common.[53]

  [Sidenote: SLEDGES, SNOW-SHOES, AND BOATS.]

The Hyperboreans surpass all American nations in their facilities for
locomotion, both upon land and water. In their skin boats, the natives
of the Alaskan seaboard from Point Barrow to Mount St Elias, made long
voyages, crossing the strait and sea of Bering, and held commercial
intercourse with the people of Asia. Sixty miles is an ordinary day's
journey for sledges, while Indians on snow-shoes have been known to run
down and capture deer. Throughout this entire border, including the
Aleutian Islands, boats are made wholly of the skins of seals or
sea-lions, excepting the frame of wood or whale-ribs. In the interior,
as well as on the coast immediately below Mount St Elias, skin boats
disappear, and canoes or wooden boats are used.

Two kinds of skin boats are employed by the natives of the Alaskan
coast, a large and a small one. The former is called by the natives
_oomiak_, and by the Russians _baidar_. This is a large, flat-bottomed,
open boat; the skeleton of wood or whale-ribs, fastened with seal-skin
thongs or whale's sinews, and covered with oiled seal or sea-lion skins,
which are first sewed together and then stretched over the frame. The
baidar is usually about thirty feet in length, six feet in extreme
breadth, and three feet in depth. It is propelled by oars, and will
carry fifteen or twenty persons, but its capacity is greatly increased
by lashing inflated seal-skins to the outside. In storms at sea, two or
three baidars are sometimes tied together.[54] The small boat is called
by the natives _kyak_, and by the Russians _baidarka_. It is constructed
of the same material and in the same manner as the baidar, except that
it is entirely covered with skins, top as well as bottom, save one hole
left in the deck, which is filled by the navigator. After taking his
seat, and thereby filling this hole, the occupant puts on a water-proof
over-dress, the bottom of which is so secured round the rim of the hole
that not a drop of water can penetrate it. This dress is provided with
sleeves and a hood. It is securely fastened at the wrists and neck, and
when the hood is drawn over the head, the boatman may bid defiance to
the water. The baidarka is about sixteen feet in length, and two feet in
width at the middle, tapering to a point at either end.[55] It is light
and strong, and when skillfully handled is considered very safe. The
native of Norton Sound will twirl his kyak completely over, turn an
aquatic somersault, and by the aid of his double-bladed paddle come up
safely on the other side, without even losing his seat. So highly were
these boats esteemed by the Russians, that they were at once universally
adopted by them in navigating these waters. They were unable to invent
any improvement in either of them, although they made a baidarka with
two and three seats, which they employed in addition to the one-seated
kyak. The Kadiak baidarka is a little shorter and wider than the
Aleutian.[56]

Sleds, sledges, dogs, and Arctic land-boats play an important part in
Eskimo economy. The Eskimo sled is framed of spruce, birch, or
whalebone, strongly bound with thongs, and the runners shod with smooth
strips of whale's jaw-bone. This sled is heavy, and fit only for
traveling over ice or frozen snow. Indian sleds of the interior are
lighter, the runners being of thin flexible boards better adapted to the
inequalities of the ground. Sledges, such as are used by the voyagers of
Hudson Bay, are of totally different construction. Three boards, each
about one foot in width and twelve feet in length, thinned, and curved
into a semicircle at one end, are placed side by side and firmly lashed
together with thongs. A leathern bag or blanket of the full size of the
sled is provided, in which the load is placed and lashed down with
strings.[57] Sleds and sledges are drawn by dogs, and they will carry a
load of from a quarter to half a ton, or about one hundred pounds to
each dog. The dogs of Alaska are scarcely up to the average of Arctic
canine nobility.[58] They are of various colors, hairy, short-legged,
with large bushy tails curved over the back; they are wolfish,
suspicious, yet powerful, sagacious, and docile, patiently performing an
incredible amount of ill-requited labor. Dogs are harnessed to the
sledge, sometimes by separate thongs at unequal distances, sometimes in
pairs to a single line. They are guided by the voice accompanied by a
whip, and to the best trained and most sagacious is given the longest
tether, that he may act as leader. An eastern dog will carry on his back
a weight of thirty pounds. The dogs of the northern coast are larger and
stronger than those of the interior. Eskimo dogs are used in hunting
reindeer and musk-oxen, as well as in drawing sledges.[59] Those at Cape
Prince of Wales appear to be of the same species as those used upon the
Asiatic coast for drawing sledges.

Snow-shoes, or foot-sledges, are differently made according to the
locality. In traveling over soft snow they are indispensable. They
consist of an open light wooden frame, made of two smooth pieces of wood
each about two inches wide and an inch thick; the inner part sometimes
straight, and the outer curved out to about one foot in the widest part.
They are from two to six feet in length, some oval and turned up in
front, running to a point behind; others flat, and pointed at both ends,
the space within the frame being filled with a network of twisted
deer-sinews or fine seal-skin.[60] The Hudson Bay snow-shoe is only two
and a half feet in length. The Kutchin shoe is smaller than that of the
Eskimo.

  [Sidenote: PROPERTY.]

The merchantable wealth of the Eskimos consists of peltries, such as
wolf, deer, badger, polar-bear, otter, hare, musk-rat, Arctic-fox, and
seal skins; red ochre, plumbago, and iron pyrites; oil, ivory,
whalebone; in short, all parts of all species of beasts, birds, and
fishes that they can secure and convert into an exchangeable shape.[61]
The articles they most covet are tobacco, iron, and beads. They are not
particularly given to strong drink. On the shore of Bering Strait the
natives have constant commercial intercourse with Asia. They cross
easily in their boats, carefully eluding the vigilance of the fur
company. They frequently meet at the Gwosdeff Islands, where the
Tschuktschi bring tobacco, iron, tame-reindeer skins, and walrus-ivory;
the Eskimos giving in exchange wolf and wolverine skins, wooden dishes,
seal-skins and other peltries. The Eskimos of the American coast carry
on quite an extensive trade with the Indians of the interior,[62]
exchanging with them Asiatic merchandise for peltries. They are sharp at
bargains, avaricious, totally devoid of conscience in their dealings;
will sell their property thrice if possible, and, if caught, laugh it
off as a joke. The rights of property are scrupulously respected among
themselves, but to steal from strangers, which they practice on every
occasion with considerable dexterity, is considered rather a mark of
merit than otherwise. A successful thief, when a stranger is the victim,
receives the applause of the entire tribe.[63] Captain Kotzebue thus
describes the manner of trading with the Russo-Indians of the south and
of Asia.

"The stranger first comes, and lays some goods on the shore and then
retires; the American then comes, looks at the things, puts as many
things near them as he thinks proper to give, and then also goes away.
Upon this the stranger approaches, and examines what is offered him; if
he is satisfied with it, he takes the skins and leaves the goods
instead; but if not, then he lets all the things lie, retires a second
time, and expects an addition from the buyer." If they cannot agree,
each retires with his goods.

  [Sidenote: SOCIAL ECONOMY.]

Their government, if it can be called a government, is patriarchal. Now
and then some ancient or able man gains an ascendency in the tribe, and
overawes his fellows. Some tribes even acknowledge an hereditary chief,
but his authority is nominal. He can neither exact tribute, nor govern
the movements of the people. His power seems to be exercised only in
treating with other tribes. Slavery in any form is unknown among them.
Caste has been mentioned in connection with tattooing, but, as a rule,
social distinctions do not exist.[64]

  [Sidenote: AMUSEMENTS.]

The home of the Eskimo is a model of filth and freeness. Coyness is not
one of their vices, nor is modesty ranked among their virtues. The
latitude of innocency marks all their social relations; they refrain
from doing in public nothing that they would do in private. Female
chastity is little regarded. The Kutchins, it is said, are jealous, but
treat their wives kindly; the New Caledonians are jealous, and treat
them cruelly; but the philosophic Eskimos are neither jealous nor
unkind. Indeed, so far are they from espionage or meanness in marital
affairs, that it is the duty of the hospitable host to place at the
disposal of his guest not only the house and its contents, but his wife
also.[65] The lot of the women is but little better than slavery. All
the work, except the nobler occupations of hunting, fishing, and
fighting, falls to them. The lesson of female inferiority is at an early
age instilled into the mind of youth. Nevertheless, the Eskimo mother is
remarkably affectionate, and fulfills her low destiny with patient
kindness. Polygamy is common; every man being entitled to as many wives
as he can get and maintain. On the other hand, if women are scarce, the
men as easily adapt themselves to circumstances, and two of them marry
one woman. Marriages are celebrated as follows: after gaining the
consent of the mother, the lover presents a suit of clothes to the lady,
who arrays herself therein and thenceforth is his wife.[66] Dancing,
accompanied by singing and violent gesticulation, is their chief
amusement. In all the nations of the north, every well-regulated village
aspiring to any degree of respectability has its public or town house,
which among the Eskimos is called the _Casine_ or _Kashim_. It consists
of one large subterranean room, better built than the common dwellings,
and occupying a central position, where the people congregate on
feast-days.[67] This house is also used as a public work-shop, where are
manufactured boats, sledges, and snow-shoes. A large portion of the
winter is devoted to dancing. Feasting and visiting commence in
November. On festive occasions, a dim light and a strong odor are thrown
over the scene by means of blubber-lamps. The dancers, who are usually
young men, strip themselves to the waist, or even appear _in puris
naturalibus_, and go through numberless burlesque imitations of birds
and beasts, their gestures being accompanied by tambourine and songs.
Sometimes they are fantastically arrayed in seal or deer skin
pantaloons, decked with dog or wolf tails behind, and wear feathers or a
 handkerchief on the head. The ancients, seated upon benches
which encircle the room, smoke, and smile approbation. The women attend
with fish and berries in large wooden bowls; and, upon the opening of
the performance, they are at once relieved of their contributions by the
actors, who elevate the provisions successively to the four cardinal
points and once to the skies above, when all partake of the feast. Then
comes another dance. A monotonous refrain, accompanied by the beating of
an instrument made of seal-intestines stretched over a circular frame,
brings upon the ground one boy after another, until about twenty form a
circle. A series of pantomimes then commences, portraying love,
jealousy, hatred, and friendship. During intervals in the exercises,
presents are distributed to strangers. In their national dance, one girl
after another comes in turn to the centre, while the others join hands
and dance and sing, not unmusically, about her. The most extravagant
motions win the greatest applause.[68]

Among other customs of the Eskimo may be mentioned the following. Their
salutations are made by rubbing noses together. No matter how oily the
skin, nor how rank the odor, he who would avoid offense must submit his
nose to the nose of his Hyperborean brother,[69] and his face to the
caressing hand of his polar friend. To convey intimations of friendship
at a distance, they extend their arms, and rub and pat their breast.
Upon the approach of visitors they form a circle, and sit like Turks,
smoking their pipes. Men, women, and children are inordinately fond of
tobacco. They swallow the smoke and revel in a temporary elysium. They
are called brave, simple, kind, intelligent, happy, hospitable,
respectful to the aged. They are also called cruel, ungrateful,
treacherous, cunning, dolorously complaining, miserable.[70] They are
great mimics, and, in order to terrify strangers, they accustom
themselves to the most extraordinary contortions of features and body.
As a measure of intellectual capacity, it is claimed for them that they
divide time into days, lunar months, seasons, and years; that they
estimate accurately by the sun or stars the time of day or night; that
they can count several hundred and draw maps. They also make rude
drawings on bone, representing dances, deer-hunting, animals, and all
the various pursuits followed by them from the cradle to the grave.

But few diseases are common to them, and a deformed person is scarcely
ever seen. Cutaneous eruptions, resulting from their antipathy to water,
and ophthalmia, arising from the smoke of their closed huts and the
glare of sun-light upon snow and water, constitute their chief
disorders.[71] For protection to their eyes in hunting and fishing,
they make goggles by cutting a slit in a piece of soft wood, and
adjusting it to the face.

The Eskimos do not, as a rule, bury their dead; but double the body up,
and place it on the side in a plank box, which is elevated three or four
feet from the ground, and supported by four posts. The grave-box is
often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes, and animals.
Sometimes it is wrapped in skins, placed upon an elevated frame, and
covered with planks, or trunks of trees, so as to protect it from wild
beasts. Upon the frame or in the grave-box are deposited the arms,
clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the deceased. Frequent
mention is made by travelers of burial places where the bodies lie
exposed, with their heads placed towards the north.[72]


  [Sidenote: THE KONIAGAS.]

THE KONIAGAS derive their name from the inhabitants of the island of
Kadiak, who, when first discovered, called themselves _Kanagist_.[73]
They were confounded by early Russian writers with the Aleuts. English
ethnologists sometimes call them Southern Eskimos. From Kadiak they
extend along the coast in both directions; northward across the Alaskan
Peninsula to Kotzebue Sound, and eastward to Prince William Sound. The
Koniagan family is divided into nations as follows: the _Koniagas_
proper, who inhabit the Koniagan Archipelago; the _Chugatshes_,[74] who
occupy the islands and shores of Prince William Sound; the _Aglegmutes_,
of Bristol Bay; the _Keyataigmutes_, who live upon the river Nushagak
and the coast as far as Cape Newenham; the _Agulmutes_, dwelling upon
the coast between the Kuskoquim and Kishunak rivers; the
_Kuskoquigmutes_,[75] occupying the banks of the river Kuskoquim; the
_Magemutes_, in the neighborhood of Cape Romanzoff; the _Kwichpagmutes_,
_Kwichluagmutes_, and _Pashtoliks_, on the Kwichpak, Kwickluak, and
Pashtolik rivers; the _Chnagmutes_, near Pashtolik Bay; the
_Anlygmutes_, of Golovnin Bay, and the _Kaviaks_ and _Malemutes_, of
Norton Sound.[76] "All of these people," says Baron von Wrangell, "speak
one language and belong to one stock."

The most populous district is the Kuskoquim Valley.[77] The small
islands in the vicinity of Kadiak were once well peopled; but as the
Russians depopulated them, and hunters became scarce, the natives were
not allowed to scatter, but were forced to congregate in towns.[78]
Schelikoff, the first settler on Kadiak, reported, in that and
contiguous isles, thirty thousand natives. Thirty years later,
Saritsheff visited the island and found but three thousand. The
Chugatshes not long since lived upon the island of Kadiak, but, in
consequence of dissensions with their neighbors, they were obliged to
emigrate and take up their residence on the main land. They derived
their manners originally from the northern nations; but, after having
been driven from their ancient possessions, they made raids upon
southern nations, carried off their women, and, from the connections
thus formed, underwent a marked change. They now resemble the southern
rather than the northern tribes. The Kadiaks, Chugatshes, Kuskoquims,
and adjacent tribes, according to their own traditions, came from the
north, while the Unalaskas believe themselves to have originated in the
west. The Kaviaks intermingle to a considerable extent with the
Malemutes, and the two are often taken for one people; but their
dialects are quite distinct.

  [Sidenote: LAND OF THE KONIAGAS.]

The country of the Koniagas is a rugged wilderness, into many parts of
which no white man has ever penetrated. Mountainous forests, glacial
cañons, down which flow innumerable torrents, hills interspersed with
lakes and marshy plains; ice-clad in winter, covered with luxuriant
vegetation in summer. Some sheltered inlets absorb an undue proportion
of oceanic warmth. Thus the name Aglegmutes signifies the inhabitants of
a warm climate.

Travelers report chiefs among the Koniagas seven feet in height, but in
general they are of medium stature.[79] Their complexion may be a shade
darker than that of the Eskimos of the northern coast, but it is still
very light.[80] The Chugatshes are remarkable for their large heads,
short necks, broad faces, and small eyes. Holmberg claims for the
Koniagas a peculiar formation of the skull; the back, as he says, being
not arched but flat. They pierce the septum of the nose and the under
lip, and in the apertures wear ornaments of various materials; the most
highly prized being of shell or of amber. It is said that at times amber
is thrown up in large quantities by the ocean, on the south side of
Kadiak, generally after a heavy earthquake, and that at such times it
forms an important article of commerce with the natives. The more the
female chin is riddled with holes, the greater the respectability. Two
ornaments are usually worn, but by very aristocratic ladies as many as
six.[81] Their favorite colors in face-painting are red and blue, though
black and leaden colors are common.[82] Young Kadiak wives secure the
affectionate admiration of their husbands by tattooing the breast and
adorning the face with black lines; while the Kuskoquim women sew into
their chin two parallel blue lines. The hair is worn long by men as well
as women. On state occasions, it is elaborately dressed; first saturated
in train-oil, then powdered with red clay or oxide of iron, and finished
off with a shower of white feathers. Both sexes wear beads wherever they
can find a place for them, round the neck, wrists, and ankles, besides
making a multitude of holes for them in the ears, nose, and chin. Into
these holes they will also insert buttons, nails, or any European
trinket which falls into their possession.[83]

  [Sidenote: KADIAK AND KUSKOQUIM DRESS.]

The aboriginal dress of a wealthy Kadiak was a bird-skin parka, or
shirt, fringed at the top and bottom, with long wide sleeves out of
which the wearer slipped his arms in an emergency. This garment was
neatly sewed with bird-bone needles, and a hundred skins were sometimes
used in the making of a single parka. It was worn with the feathers
outside during the day, and inside during the night. Round the waist was
fastened an embroidered girdle, and over all, in wet weather, was worn
an intestine water-proof coat. The Kadiak breeches and stockings were of
otter or other skins, and the boots, when any were worn, were of
seal-neck leather, with whale-skin soles. The Russians in a measure
prohibited the use of furs among the natives, compelling them to
purchase woolen goods from the company, and deliver up all their
peltries. The parkas and stockings of the Kuskoquims are of
reindeer-skin, covered with embroidery, and trimmed with valuable furs.
They also make stockings of swamp grass, and cloaks of sturgeon-skin.
The Malemute and Kaviak dress is similar to that of the northern
Eskimo.[84]

The Chugatshes, men, women, and children, dress alike in a close fur
frock, or robe, reaching sometimes to the knees, but generally to the
ankles. Their feet and legs are commonly bare, notwithstanding the high
latitude in which they live; but they sometimes wear skin stockings and
mittens. They make a truncated conic hat of straw or wood, in whimsical
representation of the head of some fish or bird, and garnished with
colors.[85]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE KONIAGAS.]

The Koniagas build two kinds of houses; one a large, winter village
residence, called by the Russians _barabara_, and the other a summer
hunting-hut, placed usually upon the banks of a stream whence they draw
food. Their winter houses are very large, accommodating three or four
families each. They are constructed by digging a square space of the
required area to a depth of two feet, placing a post, four feet high
above the surface of the ground, at every corner, and roofing the space
over to constitute a main hall, where eating is done, filth deposited,
and boats built. The sides are of planks, and the roof of boards, poles,
or whale-ribs, thickly covered with grass. In the roof is a smoke-hole,
and on the eastern side a door-hole about three feet square, through
which entrance is made on hands and knees, and which is protected by a
seal or other skin. Under the opening in the roof, a hole is dug for
fire; and round the sides of the room, tomb-like excavations are made,
or boards put up, for sleeping-places, where the occupant reposes on his
back with his knees drawn up to the chin. Adjoining rooms are sometimes
made, with low underground passages leading off from the main hall. The
walls are adorned with implements of the chase and bags of winter food;
the latter of which, being in every stage of decay, emits an odor most
offensive to unhabituated nostrils. The ground is carpeted with straw.
When the smoke-hole is covered by an intestine window, the dwellings of
the Koniagas are exceedingly warm, and neither fire nor clothing is
required.[86] The _kashim_, or public house of the Koniagas, is built
like their dwellings, and is capable of accommodating three or four
hundred people.[87] Huts are built by earthing over sticks placed in
roof-shape; also by erecting a frame of poles, and covering it with bark
or skins.

The Koniagas will eat any digestible substance in nature except pork;
from which fact Kingsborough might have proven incontestably a Jewish
origin. I should rather give them swinish affinities, and see in this
singularity a hesitancy to feed upon the only animal, except themselves,
which eats with equal avidity bear's excrements, carrion birds, maggoty
fish, and rotten sea-animals.[88] When a whale is taken, it is literally
stripped of everything to the bare bones, and these also are used for
building huts and boats.[89] These people can dispose of enormous
quantities of food; or, if necessary, they can go a long time without
eating.[90] Before the introduction of intoxicating drinks by white men,
they made a fermented liquor from the juice of raspberries and
blueberries. Tobacco is in general use, but chewing and snuffing are
more frequent than smoking. Salmon are very plentiful in the vicinity of
Kadiak, and form one of the chief articles of diet. During their
periodical ascension of the rivers, they are taken in great quantities
by means of a pole pointed with bone or iron. Salmon are also taken in
nets made of whale-sinews. Codfish are caught with a bone hook. Whales
approach the coast of Kadiak in June, when the inhabitants pursue them
in baidarkas. Their whale-lance is about six feet in length, and pointed
with a stone upon which is engraved the owner's mark. This point
separates from the handle and is left in the whale's flesh, so that when
the body is thrown dead upon the beach, the whaler proves his property
by his lance-point. Many superstitions are mentioned in connection with
the whale-fishery. When a whaler dies, the body is cut into small pieces
and distributed among his fellow-craftsmen, each of whom, after rubbing
the point of his lance upon it, dries and preserves his piece as a sort
of talisman. Or the body is placed in a distant cave, where, before
setting out upon a chase, the whalers all congregate, take it out, carry
it to a stream, immerse it and then drink of the water. During the
season, whalers bear a charmed existence. No one may eat out of the same
dish with them, nor even approach them. When the season is over, they
hide their weapons in the mountains.

In May, the Koniagas set out in two-oared baidarkas for distant
islands, in search of sea-otter. As success requires a smooth sea, they
can hunt them only during the months of May and June, taking them in the
manner following. Fifty or one hundred boats proceed slowly through the
water, so closely together that it is impossible for an otter to escape
between them. As soon as the animal is discovered, the signal is given,
the area within which he must necessarily rise to the surface for air,
is surrounded by a dozen boats, and when he appears upon the surface he
is filled with arrows. Seals are hunted with spears ten or twelve feet
in length, upon the end of which is fastened an inflated bladder, in
order to float the animal when dead.

  [Sidenote: THE KUSKOKWIGMUTES AND MALEMUTES.]

The Kuskokwigmutes are less nomadic than their neighbors; being housed
in permanent settlements during the winter, although in summer they are
obliged to scatter in various directions in quest of food. Every morning
before break of day, during the hunting-season, a boy lights the
oil-lamps in all the huts of the village, when the women rise and
prepare the food. The men, excepting old men and boys, all sleep in the
kashim, whither they retire at sunset. In the morning they are aroused
by the appearance of the shamán, arrayed in his sacerdotal robes, and
beating his sacred drum. After morning worship, the women carry
breakfast to their husbands in the kashim. At day-break the men depart
for their hunting or fishing, and when they return, immediately repair
to the kashim, leaving the women to unload and take care of the products
of the day's work. During the hunting-season the men visit their wives
only during the night, returning to the kashim before daylight.

The Malemutes leave their villages upon the coast regularly in February,
and, with their families, resort to the mountains, where they follow the
deer until snow melts, and then return to catch water-fowl and herring,
and gather eggs upon the cliffs and promontories of the coast and
islands. In July is their salmon feast. The fawns of reindeer are caught
upon the hills by the women in August, either by chasing them down or
by snaring them. Deer are stalked, noosed in snares, or driven into
enclosures, where they are easily killed. At Kadiak, hunting begins in
February, and in April they visit the smaller islands for sea-otter,
seals, sea-lions, and eggs. Their whale and other fisheries commence in
June and continue till October, at which time they abandon work and give
themselves up to festivities. The seal is highly prized by them for its
skin, blubber, and oil. One method of catching seals illustrates their
ingenuity. Taking an air-tight seal-skin, they blow it up like a
bladder, fasten to it a long line, and, concealing themselves behind the
rocks, they throw their imitation seal among the live ones and draw it
slowly to the shore. The others follow, and are speared or killed with
bow and arrows. Blueberries and huckleberries are gathered in quantities
and dried for winter use; they are eaten mixed with seal-oil. The
Koniagas are also very fond of raw reindeer-fat. They hunt with guns,
and snare grouse, marten, and hares. A small white fish is taken in
great quantities from holes in the ice. They are so abundant and so
easily caught that the natives break off the barbs from their fish-hooks
in order to facilitate their operations.

The white polar bear does not wander south of the sixty-fifth parallel,
and is only found near Bering Strait. Some were found on St Matthew
Island, in Bering Sea, but were supposed to have been conveyed thither
upon floating ice. The natives approach the grizzly bear with great
caution. When a lair is discovered, the opening is measured, and a
timber barricade constructed, with an aperture through which the bear
may put his head. The Indians then quietly approach and secure their
timbers against the opening of the den with stones, and throw a
fire-brand into the den to arouse the animal, who thereupon puts his
head out through the hole and meets with a reception which brings him to
an untimely end.[91]

  [Sidenote: WAR, IMPLEMENTS, AND GOVERNMENT.]

In former times, the Koniagas went to war behind a huge wooden shield a
foot thick and twelve feet in width. It was made of three thicknesses of
larch-wood, bound together with willows, and with it they covered thirty
or forty lancers.[92] They poisoned their arrow and lance points with a
preparation of aconite, by drying and pulverizing the root, mixing the
powder with water, and, when it fermented, applying it to their
weapons.[93] They made arrow-points of copper, obtaining a supply from
the Kenai of Copper River;[94] and the wood was as finely finished as if
turned in a lathe.

The boats of the Koniagas are similar to those of the north, except that
the bow and stem are not alike, the one turning up to a point and the
other cut off square.[95] Needles made of birds' bones, and thread from
whale-sinews, in the hands of a Kadiak woman, produced work, "many
specimens of which," says Lisiansky, "would do credit to our best
seamstresses."[96] They produced fire by revolving with a bow-string a
hard dry stick upon a soft dry board, one end of the stick being held in
a mouth-piece of bone or ivory. Their implements were few--a stone
adze, a shell or flint knife, a polishing stone, and a handled
tooth.[97] Yet they excel in carving, and in working walrus-teeth and
whalebone, the former being supplied them mostly by the Aglegmutes of the
Alaskan Peninsula. The tools used in these manufactures were of stone,
and the polishing tools of shell. Traces of the stone age are found in
lamps, hammers and cutting instruments, wedges and hatchets. Carving is
done by the men, while the women are no less skillful in sewing,
basket-making, crocheting, and knitting. The women tan, and make
clothing and boat-covers from skins and intestines.[98] The Agulmutes
are skilled in the carving of wood and ivory; the Kuskoquims excel in
wood and stone carving. They make in this manner domestic utensils and
vases, with grotesque representations of men, animals, and birds, in
relief.

Authority is exercised only by heads of households, but chiefs may, by
superior ability, acquire much influence.[99] Before they became broken
up and demoralized by contact with civilization, there was a marked
division of communities into castes; an hereditary nobility and
commonalty. In the former was embodied all authority; but the rule of
American chieftains is nowhere of a very arbitrary character. Slavery
existed to a limited extent, the thralls being mostly women and
children. Their male prisoners of war, they either killed immediately or
reserved to torture for the edification and improvement of their
children.[100] Upon the arrival of the Russians, the slaves then held
by the natives, thinking to better their condition, left their barbaric
masters and placed themselves under the protection of the new comers.
The Russians accepted the trust, and set them to work. The poor
creatures, unable to perform the imposed tasks, succumbed; and, as their
numbers were diminished by ill treatment, their places were supplied by
such of the inhabitants as had been guilty of some misdemeanor; and
singularly enough, misdemeanors happened to be about in proportion to
the demand for slaves.[101]

  [Sidenote: MORALITY OF THE KONIAGAS.]

The domestic manners of the Koniagas are of the lowest order. In filth
they out-do, if possible, their neighbors of the north.[102] Thrown
together in little bands under one roof, they have no idea of morality,
and the marriage relation sits so loosely as hardly to excite jealousy
in its abuse. Female chastity is deemed a thing of value only as men
hold property in it. A young unmarried woman may live uncensured in the
freest intercourse with the men; though, as soon as she belongs to one
man, it is her duty to be true to him. Sodomy is common; the Kaviaks
practice polygamy and incest; the Kadiaks cohabit promiscuously,
brothers and sisters, parents and children.[103] The Malemutes are
content with one wife, but they have no marriage ceremony, and can put
her away at pleasure. They prize boy babies, but frequently kill the
girls, taking them out into the wilderness, stuffing grass into their
mouth and abandoning them; yet children are highly esteemed, and the
barren woman is a reproach among her people. Such persons even go so far
as to make a doll or image of the offspring which they so greatly
desire, and fondle it as if it were a real child.[104] Two husbands are
also allowed to one woman; one the chief or principal husband, and the
other a deputy, who acts as husband and master of the house during the
absence of the true lord; and who, upon the latter's return, not only
yields to him his place, but becomes in the meantime his servant.

But the most repugnant of all their practices is that of male
concubinage. A Kadiak mother will select her handsomest and most
promising boy, and dress and rear him as a girl, teaching him only
domestic duties, keeping him at woman's work, associating him only with
women and girls, in order to render his effeminacy complete. Arriving at
the age of ten or fifteen years, he is married to some wealthy man, who
regards such a companion as a great acquisition. These male wives are
called _achnutschik_ or _schopans_.[105]

  [Sidenote: KONIAGAN SWEAT-HOUSES.]

A most cruel superstition is enforced upon maidens at the age of
puberty; the victim being confined for six months in a hut built for the
purpose, apart from the others, and so small that the poor inmate cannot
straighten her back while upon her knees. During the six months
following, she is allowed a room a little larger, but is still permitted
no intercourse with any one. Daughters of principal men obtain the right
of access to the kashim by undergoing a ceremonial yielding up of their
virginity to the shamán.[106] Marriage ceremonies are few, and marriage
engagements peculiar. The consent of the father of the intended bride
being obtained, the aspirant for nuptial honors brings wood and builds a
fire in the bath-room; after which, he and the father take a bath
together. The relatives meanwhile congregate, a feast is held, presents
are made, the bridegroom takes the name of the bride's father, the
couple are escorted to a heated vapor-bath and there left together.
Although extremely filthy in their persons and habits, all Indians
attach great importance to their sweat-baths. This peculiar institution
extends through most of the nations of our territory, from Alaska to
Mexico, with wonderful uniformity. Frequently one of the side
subterranean apartments which open off from the main hall, is devoted to
the purposes of a sweat-house. Into one of these caverns a Kadiak will
enter stripped. Steam is generated by throwing water upon heated stones.
After sweltering for a time in the confined and heated atmosphere, and
while yet in a profuse perspiration, the bather rushes out and plunges
into the nearest stream or into the sea, frequently having to break the
ice before being able to finish his bath. Sometimes all the occupants of
the house join in a bath. They then clear the floor of the main room
from obstructions, and build a hot fire under the smoke-hole. When the
fire is reduced to coals, a covering is placed over the smoke-hole, and
the bathers proceed to wash themselves in a certain liquid, which is
carefully saved for this and other cleansing purposes, and also for
tanning. The alkali of the fluid combines with the grease upon their
persons, and thus a lather is formed which removes dirt as effectually
as soap would. They then wash in water, wrap themselves in deer-skins,
and repose upon shelves until the lassitude occasioned by perspiration
passes away.

Festivals of various kinds are held; as, when one village is desirous of
extending hospitality to another village, or when an individual becomes
ambitious of popularity, a feast is given. A ceremonial banquet takes
place a year after the death of a relative; or an entertainment may be
announced as a reparation for an injury done to one's neighbor. At some
of these feasts only men dance, and at others the women join. Upon these
occasions, presents are exchanged, and the festivities sometimes
continue for several days. The men appear upon the scene nearly or quite
naked, with painted faces, and the hair fantastically decorated with
feathers, dancing to the music of the tambourine, sometimes accompanied
by sham fights and warlike songs. Their faces are marked or
fantastically painted, and they hold a knife or lance in one hand and a
rattle in the other. The women dance by simply hopping forward and
backward upon their toes.[107] A visitor, upon entering a dwelling, is
presented with a cup of cold water; afterward, fish or flesh is set
before him, and it is expected that he will leave nothing uneaten. The
more he eats, the greater the honor to the host; and, if it be
impossible to eat all that is given him, he must take away with him
whatever remains. After eating, he is conducted to a hot bath and
regaled with a drink of melted fat.

Sagoskin assisted at a ceremony which is celebrated annually about the
first of January at all the villages on the coast. It is called the
festival of the immersion of the bladders in the sea. More than a
hundred bladders, taken only from animals which have been killed with
arrows, and decorated with fantastic paintings, are hung upon a cord
stretched horizontally along the wall of the kashim. Four birds carved
from wood, a screech-owl with the head of a man, a sea-gull, and two
partridges, are so disposed that they can be moved by strings artfully
arranged; the owl flutters his wings and moves his head; the gull
strikes the boards with his beak as if he were catching fish, and the
partridges commence to peck each other. Lastly, a stake enveloped in
straw is placed in the centre of the fire-place. Men and women dance
before these effigies in honor of _Jug-jak_, the spirit of the sea.
Every time the dancing ceases, one of the assistants lights some straw,
burning it like incense before the birds and the bladders. The principal
ceremony of the feast consists, as its name indicates, in the immersion
of the bladders in the sea. It was impossible to discover the origin of
this custom; the only answer given to questions was, that their
ancestors had done so before them.

  [Sidenote: SUPERSTITIONS OF THE KONIAGAS.]

The shamán, or medicine-man of the Koniagas, is the spiritual and
temporal doctor of the tribe; wizard, sorcerer, priest, or physician, as
necessity demands. In the execution of his offices, the shamán has
several assistants, male and female, sages and disciples; the first in
rank being called _kaseks_, whose duty it is to superintend festivals
and teach the children to dance. When a person falls sick, some evil
spirit is supposed to have taken possession of him, and it is the
business of the shamán to exorcise that spirit, to combat and drive it
out of the man. To this end, armed with a magic tambourine, he places
himself near the patient and mutters his incantations. A female
assistant accompanies him with groans and growls. Should this prove
ineffectual, the shamán approaches the bed and throws himself upon the
person of the sufferer; then, seizing the demon, he struggles with it,
overpowers and casts it out, while the assistants cry, "He is gone! he
is gone!" If the patient recovers, the physician is paid, otherwise he
receives nothing.[108] Colds, consumption, rheumatism, itch, boils,
ulcers, syphilis, are among their most common diseases. Blood-letting is
commonly resorted to as a curative, and except in extreme cases the
shamán is not called. The Koniagas bleed one another by piercing the arm
with a needle, and then cutting away the flesh above the needle with a
flint or copper instrument. Beaver's oil is said to relieve their
rheumatism.

"The Kadiak people," says Lisiansky, "seem more attached to their dead
than to their living." In token of their grief, surviving friends cut
the hair, blacken the face with soot, and the ancient custom was to
remain in mourning for a year. No work may be done for twenty days, but
after the fifth day the mourner may bathe. Immediately after death, the
body is arrayed in its best apparel, or wrapped with moss in seal or
sea-lion skins, and placed in the kashim, or left in the house in which
the person died, where it remains for a time in state. The body, with
the arms and implements of the deceased, is then buried. It was not
unfrequent in former times to sacrifice a slave upon such an occasion.
The grave is covered over with blocks of wood and large stones.[109] A
mother, upon the death of a child, retires for a time from the camp; a
husband or wife withdraws and joins another tribe.[110]

The character of the Koniagas may be drawn as peaceable, industrious,
serviceable to Europeans, adapted to labor and commerce rather than to
war and hunting. They are not more superstitious than civilized nations;
and their immorality, though to a stranger most rank, is not to them of
that socially criminal sort which loves darkness and brings down the
avenger. In their own eyes, their abhorrent practices are as sinless as
the ordinary, openly conducted avocations of any community are to the
members thereof.


  [Sidenote: THE ALEUTS.]

THE ALEUTS are the inhabitants of the Aleutian Archipelago. The origin
of the word is unknown;[111] the original name being _Kagataya
Koung'ns_, or 'men of the east,' indicating an American origin.[112] The
nation consists of two tribes speaking different dialects; the
_Unalaskans_, occupying the south-western portion of the Alaskan
Peninsula, the Shumagin Islands, and the Fox Islands; and the _Atkhas_,
inhabiting the Andreanovski, Rat, and Near Islands. Migrations and
intermixtures with the Russians have, however, nearly obliterated
original distinctions.

The earliest information concerning the Aleutian Islanders was obtained
by Michael Nevodtsikoff, who sailed from Kamchatka in 1745. Other
Russian voyagers immediately followed, attracted thither in search of
sea-animal skins, which at that time were very plentiful.[113] Tribute
was levied upon the islanders by the Russians, and a system of cruelty
commenced which soon reduced the natives from ten thousand to but little
more than one thousand.

The Aleuts, to Langsdorff, "appear to be a sort of middle race between
the mongrel Tartars and the North Americans." John Ledyard, who visited
Unalaska with Captain Cook, saw "two different kinds of people; the one
we knew to be the aborigines of America, while we supposed the others to
have come from the opposite coasts of Asia."[114] Their features are
strongly marked, and those who saw them as they originally existed, were
impressed with the intelligent and benevolent expression of their
faces.[115] They have an abundance of lank hair, which they cut with
flints--the men from the crown, and the women in front.[116] Both sexes
undergo the usual face-painting and ornamentations. They extend their
nostrils by means of a bow-cylinder. The men wear a bone about the size
of a quill in the nose, and the women insert pieces of bone in the under
lip.[117] Their legs are bowed, from spending so much of their time in
boats; they frequently sitting in them fifteen or twenty hours at a
time. Their figure is awkward and uncouth, yet robust, active, capable
of carrying heavy burdens and undergoing great fatigue.[118]

  [Sidenote: ALEUTIAN HAT AND HABITATION.]

The hat of the Aleut is the most peculiar part of his dress. It consists
of a helmet-shaped crown of wood or leather, with an exceedingly long
brim in front, so as to protect the eyes from the sun's reflection upon
the water and snow. Upon the apex is a small carving, down the back part
hang the beards of sea-lions, while carved strips of bone and paint
ornament the whole. This hat also serves as a shield against arrows. The
Fox Islanders have caps of bird-skin, on which are left the
bright- feathers, wings, and tail.[119] As a rule, the men adopt
bird-skin clothing, and the women furs, the latter highly ornamented
with beads and fringes.[120]

The habitations of the Fox Islanders are called _Ullaa_, and consist of
immense holes from one to three hundred feet in length, and from twenty
to thirty feet wide. They are covered with poles and earthed over,
leaving several openings at the top through which descent is made by
ladders. The interior is partitioned by stakes, and three hundred people
sometimes occupy one of these places in common. They have no fire-place,
since lamps hollowed from flat stones answer every purpose for cooking
and light.[121] A boat turned bottom upward is the summer house of the
Aleut.[122]

Raw seal and sea-otter, whale and sea-lion blubber, fish, roots, and
berries are staple articles of food among the Aleuts. To procure
vegetable food is too much trouble. A dead, half-putrefied whale washed
ashore is always the occasion of great rejoicing. From all parts the
people congregate upon the shore, lay in their winter supplies, and
stuff themselves until not a morsel remains. November is their best
hunting-season. Whale-fishing is confined to certain families, and the
spirit of the craft descends from father to son. Birds are caught in a
net attached to the end of a pole; sea-otter are shot with arrows;
spears, bone hooks, and nets are used in fishing.[123] After the advent
of the Russians, the natives were not allowed to kill fur-animals
without accounting to them therefor.[124]

Their weapons are darts with single and double barbs, which they throw
from boards; barbed, bone-pointed lances; spears, harpoons, and arrows,
with bone or stone points. At their side is carried a sharp stone knife
ten or twelve inches long, and for armor they wear a coat of plaited
rushes, which covers the whole body.[125] An Aleut bear-trap consists
of a board two feet square and two inches thick, planted with barbed
spikes, placed in bruin's path and covered with dust. The unsuspecting
victim steps firmly upon the smooth surface offered, when his foot sinks
into the dust. Maddened with pain, he puts forward another foot to
assist in pulling the first away, when that too is caught. Soon all four
of the feet are firmly spiked to the board; the beast rolls over on his
back, and his career is soon brought to an end.

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS OF THE ALEUTS.]

Notwithstanding their peaceful character, the occupants of the several
islands were almost constantly at war. Blood, the only atonement for
offense, must be washed out by blood, and the line of vengeance becomes
endless. At the time of discovery, the Unimak Islanders held the
supremacy.

The fabrications of the Aleuts comprise household utensils of stone,
bone, and wood; missiles of war and the chase; mats and baskets of grass
and the roots of trees, neat and strong; bird-beak rattles, tambourines
or drums, wooden hats and carved figures. From the wing-bone of the
sea-gull, the women make their needles; from sinews, they make thread
and cord.[126] To obtain glue for mending or manufacturing purposes,
they strike the nose until it bleeds.[127] To kindle a fire, they make
use of sulphur, in which their volcanic islands abound, and the process
is very curious. First they prepare some dry grass to catch the fire;
then they take two pieces of quartz, and, holding them over the grass,
rub them well with native sulphur. A few feathers are scattered over the
grass to catch the particles of sulphur, and, when all is ready, holding
the stones over the grass, they strike them together; a flash is
produced by the concussion, the sulphur ignites, and the straw blazes
up.[128]

The Aleuts have no marriage ceremony. Every man takes as many women to
wife as he can support, or rather as he can get to support him. Presents
are made to the relatives of the bride, and when she ceases to possess
attractions or value in the eyes of her proprietor, she is sent back to
her friends. Wives are exchanged by the men, and rich women are
permitted to indulge in two husbands. Male concubinage obtains
throughout the Aleutian Islands, but not to the same extent as among the
Koniagas.[129] Mothers plunge their crying babies under water in order
to quiet them. This remedy performed in winter amid broken ice, is very
effectual.[130]

Every island, and, in the larger islands, every village, has its
_toyon_, or chief, who decides differences, is exempt from work, is
allowed a servant to row his boat, but in other respects possesses no
power. The office is elective.[131]

The Aleuts are fond of dancing and given to hospitality. The stranger
guest, as he approaches the village, is met by dancing men and dancing
women, who conduct him to the house of the host, where food is given
him. After supper, the dancing, now performed by naked men, continues
until all are exhausted, when the hospitalities of the dwelling are
placed at the disposal of the guest, and all retire.[132] A religious
festival used to be held in December, at which all the women of the
village assembled by moonlight, and danced naked with masked faces, the
men being excluded under penalty of death. The men and women of a
village bathe together, in aboriginal innocency, unconscious of
impropriety. They are fond of pantomimic performances; of representing
in dances their myths and their legends; of acting out a chase, one
assuming the part of hunter, another of a bird or beast trying to escape
the snare, now succeeding, now failing--the piece ending in the
transformation of a captive bird into a lovely woman, who falls
exhausted into the arms of the hunter.

The dead are clothed and masked, and either placed in the cleft of a
rock, or swung in a boat or cradle from a pole in the open air. They
seem to guard the body as much as possible from contact with the
ground.[133]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER OF THE ALEUTS.]

In their nature and disposition, these islanders are sluggish but
strong. Their sluggishness gives to their character a gentleness and
obsequiousness often remarked by travelers; while their inherent
strength, when roused by brutal passions, drives them on to the greatest
enormities. They are capable of enduring great fatigue, and, when roused
to action by necessity, they will perform an incredible amount of work,
suffering the severest cold or heat or hunger with the most stoical
calmness. They are very quiet in their demeanor; sometimes sitting in
companies within their dens, or on their house-tops gazing at the sea
for hours, without speaking a word. It is said that formerly they were
much more gay and cheerful, but that an acquaintance with civilization
has been productive of the usual misfortune and misery.[134]

It does not appear that the Russians were behind the Spaniards in their
barbarous treatment of the natives.[135] Notwithstanding their interest
lay in preserving life, and holding the natives in a state of serfdom as
fishers and hunters, the poor people were soon swept away. Father
Innocentius Veniaminoff, a Russian missionary who labored among the
islanders long and faithfully, gives them the highest character for
probity and propriety. Among other things, he affirms that during a
residence of ten years in Unalaska, there did not occur a single fight
among the natives. Proselytes were made by the Russians with the same
facility as by the Spaniards. Tribute was levied by the Russians upon
all the islanders, but, for three years after their conversion,
neophytes were exempt; a cheap release from hateful servitude, thought
the poor Aleut; and a polity which brought into the folds of the church
pagan multitudes.


  [Sidenote: THE THLINKEETS.]

THE THLINKEETS, as they call themselves, or _Kolosches_, as they are
designated by the Russians, inhabit the coast and islands from Mount St
Elias to the river Nass. The name Thlinkeet signifies 'man,' or 'human
being.' Kolosch,[136] or more properly _Kaluga_, is the Aleutian word
for 'dish,' and was given to this people by Aleutian seal-hunters whom
the Russians employed during their first occupation of the Island of the
Sitkas. Perceiving a resemblance in the shape of the Thlinkeet
lip-ornament, to the wooden vessels of their own country, they applied
to this nation the name Kaluga, whence the Kolosches of the Russians.

Holmberg carries their boundaries down to the Columbia River; and
Wrangell perceives a likeness, real or imaginary, to the Aztecs.[137]
Indeed the differences between the Thlinkeets and the inhabitants of New
Caledonia, Washington, and Oregon, are so slight that the whole might
without impropriety be called one people. The Thlinkeets have, however,
some peculiarities not found elsewhere; they are a nation distinct from
the Tinneh upon their eastern border, and I therefore treat of them
separately.

The three families of nations already considered, namely, the Eskimos,
the Koniagas, and the Aleuts, are all designated by most writers as
Eskimos. Some even include the Thlinkeets, notwithstanding their
physical and philological differences, which, as well as their
traditions, are as broadly marked as those of nations that these same
ethnologists separate into distinct families. Nomadic nations, occupying
lands by a precarious tenure, with ever-changing boundaries, engaged in
perpetual hostilities with conterminous tribes that frequently
annihilate or absorb an entire community, so graduate into one another
that the dividing line is often with difficulty determined. Thus the
Thlinkeets, now almost universally held to be North American Indians
proper, and distinct from the Eskimos, possess, perhaps, as many
affinities to their neighbors on the north, as to those upon the south
and east. The conclusion is obvious. The native races of America, by
their geographical position and the climatic influences which govern
them, are of necessity to a certain degree similar; while a separation
into isolated communities which are acted upon by local causes, results
in national or tribal distinctions. Thus the human race in America, like
the human race throughout the world, is uniform in its variety, and
varied in its unity.

The Thlinkeet family, commencing at the north, comprises the
_Ugalenzes_,[138] on the shore of the continent between Mount St Elias
and Copper River; the _Yakutats_, of Bering Bay; the _Chilkats_, at Lynn
Canal; the _Hoodnids_, at Cross Sound; the _Hoodsinoos_, of Chatham
Strait; and, following down the coast and islands, the _Takoos_, the
_Auks_, the _Kakas_, the _Sitkas_,[139] the _Stikines_,[140] and the
_Tungass_. The Sitkas on Baranoff Island[141] are the dominant tribe.

Descending from the north into more genial climes, the physical type
changes, and the form assumes more graceful proportions. With the
expansion of nature and a freer play of physical powers, the mind
expands, native character becomes intensified, instinct keener, savage
nature more savage, the nobler qualities become more noble; cruelty is
more cruel, torture is elevated into an art, stoicism is
cultivated,[142] human sacrifice and human slavery begin, and the
oppression and degradation of woman is systematized. "If an original
American race is accepted," says Holmberg, "the Thlinkeets must be
classed with them." They claim to have migrated from the interior of the
continent, opposite Queen Charlotte Island.

The Ugalenzes spend their winters at a small bay east from Kadiak, and
their summers near the mouth of Copper River, where they take fish in
great quantities. Their country also abounds in beaver. The Chilkats
make two annual trading excursions into the interior. The Tacully
tribes, the Sicannis and Nehannes, with whom the Chilkats exchange
European goods for furs, will allow no white man to ascend their
streams.

  [Sidenote: THLINKEET PECULIARITIES.]

Naturally, the Thlinkeets are a fine race; the men better formed than
the boatmen of the north;[143] the women modest, fair, and
handsome;[144] but the latter have gone far out of their way to spoil
the handiwork of nature. Not content with daubing the head and body with
filthy coloring mixtures; with adorning the neck with copper-wire
collars, and the face with grotesque wooden masks; with scarring their
limbs and breast with keen-edged instruments; with piercing the nose and
ears, and filling the apertures with bones, shells, sticks, pieces of
copper, nails, or attaching to them heavy pendants, which drag down the
organs and pull the features out of place;[145] they appear to have
taxed their inventive powers to the utmost, and with a success
unsurpassed by any nation in the world, to produce a model of hideous
beauty.

  [Sidenote: THLINKEET LIP-ORNAMENT.]

This success is achieved in their wooden lip-ornament, the crowning
glory of the Thlinkeet matron, described by a multitude of
eye-witnesses; and the ceremony of its introduction may be not
inappropriately termed, the baptism of the block. At the age of
puberty,--some say during infancy or childhood,--in the under lip of all
free-born female Thlinkeets,[146] a slit is made parallel with the
mouth, and about half an inch below it.[147] If the incision is made
during infancy, it is only a small hole, into which a needle of copper,
a bone, or a stick is inserted, the size being increased as the child
grows. If the baptism is deferred until the period when the maiden
merges into womanhood, the operation is necessarily upon a larger scale,
and consequently more painful.[148] When the incision is made, a copper
wire, or a piece of shell or wood, is introduced, which keeps the wound
open and the aperture extended; and by enlarging the object and keeping
up a continuous but painful strain, an artificial opening in the face is
made of the required dimensions. On attaining the age of maturity, this
wire or other incumbrance is removed and a block of wood inserted. This
block is oval or elliptical in shape, concaved or hollowed dish-like on
the sides, and grooved like the wheel of a pulley on the edge in order
to keep it in place.[149] The dimensions of the block are from two to
six inches in length, from one to four inches in width, and about half
an inch thick round the edge, and highly polished.[150] Old age has
little terror in the eyes of a Thlinkeet belle, for larger lip-blocks
are introduced as years advance, and each enlargement adds to the lady's
social status, if not to her facial charms. When the block is withdrawn,
the lip drops down upon the chin like a piece of leather, displaying the
teeth, and presenting altogether a ghastly spectacle.[151] This custom
is evidently associated in their minds with womanly modesty, for when La
Pérouse asked them to remove their block, some refused; those who
complied manifesting the same embarrassment shown by a European woman
who uncovers her bosom. The Yakutats alone of all the Thlinkeet nation
have never adopted this fashion.

  [Sidenote: DRESS OF THE THLINKEETS.]

Their dress, which is made from wolf, deer, bear, or other skin, extends
from the shoulder to the knee, and consists of a mantle, or cape, with
sleeves, which reaches down to the waist, and to which the women attach
a skirt, or gown, and the men a belt and apron. A white blanket is made
from the wool of the wild sheep, embroidered with figures, and fringed
with furs, all of native work. This garment is most highly prized by the
men. They wear it thrown over the shoulder so as to cover the whole
body.

Vancouver thus describes the dress of a chief at Lynn Canal. His
"external robe was a very fine large garment, that reached from his
neck down to his heels, made of wool from the mountain sheep, neatly
variegated with several colors, and edged and otherwise decorated with
little tufts or frogs of woolen yarn, dyed of various colors. His
head-dress was made of wood, much resembling in its shape a crown,
adorned with bright copper and brass plates, from whence hung a number
of tails or streamers, composed of wool and fur, wrought together, dyed
of various colors, and each terminating in a whole ermine skin. The
whole exhibited a magnificent appearance, and indicated a taste for
dress and ornament that we had not supposed the natives of these regions
to possess."

The men make a wooden mask, which rests on a neckpiece, very ingeniously
carved, and painted in colors, so as to represent the head of some bird
or beast or mythological being. This was formerly worn in battle,
probably, as La Pérouse suggests, in order to strike terror into the
hearts of enemies, but is now used only on festive occasions.[152]

A small hat of roots and bark, woven in the shape of a truncated cone,
ornamented with painted figures and pictures of animals, is worn by both
sexes.[153] Ordinarily, however, the men wear nothing on the head; their
thick hair, greased and covered with ochre and birds' down, forming a
sufficient covering. The hat is designed especially for rainy weather,
as a protection to the elaborately dressed hair.[154] Besides their
every-day dress, they have a fantastic costume for tribal holidays.

For their winter habitations, a little back from the ocean, the
Thlinkeets build substantial houses of plank or logs, sometimes of
sufficient strength to serve as a fortress. They are six or eight feet
in height, the base in the form of a square or parallelogram, the roof
of poles placed at an angle of forty-five degrees and covered with bark.
The entrance is by a small side door. The fire, which is usually kept
burning night and day, occupies the centre of the room; over it is a
smoke-hole of unusual size, and round the sides of the room are
apartments or dens which are used as store-houses, sweat-houses, and
private family rooms. The main room is very public and very filthy.[155]
Summer huts are light portable buildings, thrown up during hunting
excursions in the interior, or on the sea-beach in the fishing-season. A
frame is made of stakes driven into the ground, supporting a roof, and
the whole covered with bark, or with green or dry branches, and skins or
bark over all. The door is closed by bark or a curtain of skins. Each
hut is the rendezvous for a small colony, frequently covering twenty or
thirty persons, all under the direction of one chief.[156]

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE THLINKEETS.]

The food of the Thlinkeets is derived principally from the ocean, and
consists of fish, mussels, sea-weeds, and in fact whatever is left upon
the beach by the ebbing tide--which at Sitka rises and falls eighteen
feet twice a day--or can be caught by artificial means. Holmberg says
that all but the Yakutats hate whale as the Jews hate pork. Roots,
grasses, berries, and snails are among their summer luxuries. They chew
a certain plant as some chew tobacco, mixing with it lime to give it a
stronger effect,[157] and drink whale-oil as a European drinks beer.
Preferring their food cooked, they put it in a tight wicker basket,
pouring in water, and throwing in heated stones, until the food is
boiled.[158] For winter, they dry large quantities of herring, roes,
and the flesh of animals.

For catching fish, they stake the rivers, and also use a hook and line;
one fisherman casting from his canoe ten or fifteen lines, with bladders
for floats. For herring, they fasten to the end of a pole four or five
pointed bones, and with this instrument strike into a shoal, spearing a
fish on every point. They sometimes make the same instrument in the
shape of a rake, and transfix the fish with the teeth. The Sitkas catch
halibut with large, wooden, bone-pointed hooks.[159]

The arms of the Thlinkeets denote a more warlike people than any we have
hitherto encountered. Bows and arrows; hatchets of flint, and of a hard
green stone which cuts wood so smoothly that no marks of notches are
left; great lances, six or eight varas in length, if Bodega y Quadra may
be trusted, hardened in the fire or pointed with copper, or later with
iron; a large, broad, double-ended dagger, or knife,--are their
principal weapons. The knife is their chief implement and constant
companion. The handle is nearer one end than the other, so that it has a
long blade and a short blade, the latter being one quarter the length of
the former. The handle is covered with leather, and a strap fastens it
to the hand when fighting. Both blades have leathern sheaths, one of
which is suspended from the neck by a strap.[160]

  [Sidenote: THE THLINKEETS IN WAR.]

They also encase almost the entire body in a wooden and leathern armor.
Their helmets have curiously carved vizors, with grotesque
representations of beings natural or supernatural, which, when
brilliantly or dismally painted, and presented with proper yells, and
brandishings of their ever-glittering knives, are supposed to strike
terror into the heart of their enemies. They make a breast-plate of
wood, and an arrow-proof coat of thin flexible strips, bound with
strings like a woman's stays.[161]

When a Thlinkeet arms for war, he paints his face and powders his hair a
brilliant red. He then ornaments his head with white eagle-feathers, a
token of stern, vindictive determination. During war they pitch their
camp in strong positions, and place the women on guard. Trial by combat
is frequently resorted to, not only to determine private disputes, but
to settle quarrels between petty tribes. In the latter case, each side
chooses a champion, the warriors place themselves in battle array, the
combatants armed with their favorite weapon, the dagger, and well
armored, step forth and engage in fight; while the people on either side
engage in song and dance during the combat. Wrangell and Laplace assert
that brave warriors killed in battle are devoured by the conquerors, in
the belief that the bravery of the victim thereby enters into the nature
of the partaker.[162]

Coming from the north, the Thlinkeets are the first people of the coast
who use wooden boats. They are made from a single trunk; the smaller
ones about fifteen feet long, to carry from ten to twelve persons; and
the larger ones, or war canoes, from fifty to seventy feet long; these
will carry forty or fifty persons. They have from two and a half to
three feet beam; are sharp fore and aft, and have the bow and stern
raised, the former rather more than the latter. Being very light and
well modeled, they can be handled with ease and celerity. Their paddles
are about four feet in length, with crutch-like handles and wide,
shovel-shaped blades. Boats as well as paddles are ornamented with
painted figures, and the family coat-of-arms. Bodega y Quadra, in
contradiction to all other authorities, describes these canoes as being
built in three parts; with one hollowed piece, which forms the bottom
and reaches well up the sides, and with two side planks. Having hollowed
the trunk of a tree to the required depth, the Thlinkeet builders fill
it with water, which they heat with hot stones to soften the wood, and
in this state bend it to the desired shape. When they land, they draw
their boats up on the beach, out of reach of the tide, and take great
care in preserving them.[163]

  [Sidenote: INDUSTRIES OF THE THLINKEETS.]

The Thlinkeets manifest no less ingenuity in the manufacture of domestic
and other implements than in their arms. Rope they make from sea-weed,
water-tight baskets and mats from withes and grass; and pipes, bowls,
and figures from a dark clay. They excel in the working of stone and
copper, making necklaces, bracelets, and rings; they can also forge
iron. They spin thread, use the needle, and make blankets from the white
native wool. They exhibit considerable skill in carving and painting,
ornamenting the fronts of their houses with heraldic symbols, and
allegorical and historical figures; while in front of the principal
dwellings, and on their canoes, are carved parts representing the human
face, the heads of crows, eagles, sea-lions, and bears.[164] La Pérouse
asserts that, except in agriculture, which was not entirely unknown to
them, the Thlinkeets were farther advanced in industry than the South
Sea Islanders.

Trade is carried on between Europeans and the interior Indians, in which
no little skill is manifested. Every article which they purchase
undergoes the closest scrutiny, and every slight defect, which they are
sure to discover, sends down the price. In their commercial intercourse
they exhibit the utmost decorum, and conduct their negotiations with the
most becoming dignity. Nevertheless, for iron and beads they willingly
part with anything in their possession, even their children. In the
voyage of Bodega y Quadra, several young Thlinkeets thus became the
property of the Spaniards, as the author piously remarks, for purposes
of conversion. Sea-otter skins circulate in place of money.[165]

The office of chief is elective, and the extent of power wielded depends
upon the ability of the ruler. In some this authority is nominal; others
become great despots.[166] Slavery was practiced to a considerable
extent; and not only all prisoners of war were slaves, but a regular
slave-trade was carried on with the south. When first known to the
Russians, according to Holmberg, most of their slaves were Flatheads
from Oregon. Slaves are not allowed to hold property or to marry, and
when old and worthless they are killed. Kotzebue says that a rich man
"purchases male and female slaves, who must labor and fish for him, and
strengthen his force when he is engaged in warfare. The slaves are
prisoners of war, and their descendants; the master's power over them is
unlimited, and he even puts them to death without scruple. When the
master dies, two slaves are murdered on his grave that he may not want
attendance in the other world; these are chosen long before the event
occurs, but meet the destiny that awaits them very philosophically."
Simpson estimates the slaves to be one third of the entire population.
Interior tribes enslave their prisoners of war, but, unlike the coast
tribes, they have no hereditary slavery, nor systematic traffic in
slaves.

  [Sidenote: CASTE AND CLANSHIP.]

With the superior activity and intelligence of the Thlinkeets, social
castes begin to appear. Besides an hereditary nobility, from which class
all chiefs are chosen, the whole nation is separated into two great
divisions or clans, one of which is called the Wolf, and the other the
Raven. Upon their houses, boats, robes, shields, and wherever else they
can find a place for it, they paint or carve their crest, an heraldic
device of the beast or the bird designating the clan to which the owner
belongs. The Raven trunk is again divided into sub-clans, called the
Frog, the Goose, the Sea-Lion, the Owl, and the Salmon. The Wolf family
comprises the Bear, Eagle, Dolphin, Shark, and Alca. In this clanship
some singular social features present themselves. People are at once
thrust widely apart, and yet drawn together. Tribes of the same clan may
not war on each other, but at the same time members of the same clan may
not marry with each other. Thus the young Wolf warrior must seek his
mate among the Ravens, and, while celebrating his nuptials one day, he
may be called upon the next to fight his father-in-law over some
hereditary feud. Obviously this singular social fancy tends greatly to
keep the various tribes of the nation at peace.[167]

Although the Thlinkeet women impose upon themselves the most painful and
rigorous social laws, there are few savage nations in which the sex have
greater influence or command greater respect. Whether it be the
superiority of their intellects, their success in rendering their
hideous charms available, or the cruel penances imposed upon womanhood,
the truth is that not only old men, but old women, are respected. In
fact, a remarkably old and ugly crone is accounted almost above
nature--a sorceress. One cause of this is that they are much more modest
and chaste than their northern sisters.[168] As a rule, a man has but
one wife; more, however, being allowable. A chief of the Nass tribe is
said to have had forty.

A young girl arrived at the age of maturity is deemed unclean; and
everything she comes in contact with, or looks upon, even the clear sky
or pure water, is thereby rendered unpropitious to man. She is therefore
thrust from the society of her fellows, and confined in a dark den as a
being unfit for the sun to shine upon. There she is kept sometimes for a
whole year. Langsdorff suggests that it may be during this period of
confinement that the foundation of her influence is laid; that in modest
reserve, and meditation, her character is strengthened, and she comes
forth cleansed in mind as well as body. This infamous ordeal, coming at
a most critical period, and in connection with the baptism of the block,
cannot fail to exert a powerful influence upon her character.

It is a singular idea that they have of uncleanness. During all this
time, according to Holmberg, only the girl's mother approaches her, and
that only to place food within her reach. There she lies, wallowing in
her filth, scarcely able to move. It is almost incredible that human
beings can bring themselves so to distort nature. To this singular
custom, as well as to that of the block, female slaves do not conform.
After the girl's immurement is over, if her parents are wealthy, her
old clothing is destroyed, she is washed and dressed anew, and a grand
feast given in honor of the occasion.[169] The natural sufferings of
mothers during confinement are also aggravated by custom. At this time
they too are considered unclean, and must withdraw into the forest or
fields, away from all others, and take care of themselves and their
offspring. After the birth of a child, the mother is locked up in a shed
for ten days.

A marriage ceremony consists in the assembling of friends and
distribution of presents. A newly married pair must fast for two days
thereafter, in order to insure domestic felicity. After the expiration
of that time they are permitted to partake of a little food, when a
second two days' fast is added, after which they are allowed to come
together for the first time; but the mysteries of wedlock are not fully
unfolded to them until four weeks after marriage.

Very little is said by travelers regarding the bath-houses of the
Thlinkeets, but I do not infer that they used them less than their
neighbors. In fact, notwithstanding their filth, purgations and
purifications are commenced at an early age. As soon as an infant is
born, and before it has tasted food, whatever is in the stomach must be
squeezed out. Mothers nurse their children from one to two and a half
years. When the child is able to leave its cradle, it is bathed in the
ocean every day without regard to season, and this custom is kept up by
both sexes through life. Those that survive the first year of filth, and
the succeeding years of applied ice water and exposure, are very justly
held to be well toughened.

The Thlinkeet child is frequently given two names, one from the father's
side and one from the mother's; and when a son becomes more famous than
his father, the latter drops his own name, and is known only as the
father of his son. Their habits of life are regular. In summer, at early
dawn they put out to sea in their boats, or seek for food upon the
beach, returning before noon for their first meal. A second one is taken
just before night. The work is not unequally divided between the sexes,
and the division is based upon the economical principles of civilized
communities. The men rarely conclude a bargain without consulting their
wives.

Marchand draws a revolting picture of their treatment of infants. The
little bodies are so excoriated by fermented filth, and so scarred by
their cradle, that they carry the marks to the grave. No wonder that
when they grow up they are insensible to pain. Nor are the mothers
especially given to personal cleanliness and decorum.[170]

Music, as well as the arts, is cultivated by the Thlinkeets, and, if we
may believe Marchand, ranks with them as a social institution. "At fixed
times," he says, "evening and morning, they sing in chorus, every one
takes part in the concert, and from the pensive air which they assume
while singing, one would imagine that the song has some deep interest
for them." The men do the dancing, while the women, who are rather given
to fatness and flaccidity, accompany them with song and tambourine.[171]

Their principal gambling game is played with thirty small sticks, of
various colors, and called by divers names, as the crab, the whale, and
the duck. The player shuffles together all the sticks, then counting out
seven, he hides them under a bunch of moss, keeping the remainder
covered at the same time. The game is to guess in which pile is the
whale, and the crab, and the duck. During the progress of the game, they
present a perfect picture of melancholic stoicism.[172]

The Thlinkeets burn their dead. An exception is made when the deceased
is a shamán or a slave; the body of the former is preserved, after
having been wrapped in furs, in a large wooden sarcophagus; and the
latter is thrown out into the ocean or anywhere, like a beast. The ashes
of the burned Thlinkeet are carefully collected in a box covered with
hieroglyphic figures, and placed upon four posts. The head of a warrior
killed in battle is cut off before the body is burned, and placed in a
box supported by two poles over the box that holds his ashes.[173] Some
tribes preserve the bodies of those who die during the winter, until
forced to get rid of them by the warmer weather of spring. Their
grandest feasts are for the dead. Besides the funeral ceremony, which is
the occasion of a festival, they hold an annual 'elevation of the dead,'
at which times they erect monuments to the memory of their departed.

The shamáns possess some knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs,
but the healing of the body does not constitute so important a part of
their vocation as do their dealings with supernatural powers.

  [Sidenote: THLINKEET CHARACTER.]

To sum up the character of the Thlinkeets, they may be called bold,
brave, shrewd, intelligent, industrious, lovers of art and music,
respectful to women and the aged; yet extremely cruel, scalping and
maiming their prisoners out of pure wantonness, thievish, lying, and
inveterate gamblers. In short they possess most of the virtues and vices
incident to savagism.


  [Sidenote: THE TINNEH.]

THE TINNEH, the fifth and last division of our Hyperborean group, occupy
the 'Great Lone Land,' between Hudson Bay and the conterminous nations
already described; a land greater than the whole of the United States,
and more 'lone,' excepting absolute deserts, than any part of America.
White men there are scarcely any; wild men and wild beasts there are
few; few dense forests, and little vegetation, although the grassy
savannahs sustain droves of deer, buffalo, and other animals. The Tinneh
are, next to the Eskimos, the most northern people of the continent.
They inhabit the unexplored regions of Central Alaska, and thence extend
eastward, their area widening towards the south to the shores of Hudson
Bay. Within their domain, from the north-west to the south-east, may be
drawn a straight line measuring over four thousand miles in length.

The Tinneh,[174] may be divided into four great families of nations;
namely, the _Chepewyans_, or Athabascas, living between Hudson Bay and
the Rocky Mountains; the _Tacullies_, or Carriers, of New Caledonia or
North-western British America; the _Kutchins_, occupying both banks of
the upper Yukon and its tributaries, from near its mouth to the
Mackenzie River; and the _Kenai_, inhabiting the interior from the lower
Yukon to Copper River.

The Chepewyan family is composed of the Northern Indians, so called by
the fur-hunters at Fort Churchill as lying along the shores of Hudson
Bay, directly to their north; the Copper Indians, on Coppermine River;
the Horn Mountain and Beaver Indians, farther to the west; the
Strong-bows, Dog-ribs, Hares, Red-knives, Sheep, Sarsis, Brush-wood,
Nagailer, and Rocky-Mountain Indians, of the Mackenzie River and Rocky
Mountains.[175]

The Tacully[176] nation is divided into a multitude of petty tribes, to
which different travelers give different names according to fancy. Among
them the most important are the Talkotins and Chilkotins, Nateotetains
and Sicannis, of the upper branches of Fraser River and vicinity. It is
sufficient for our purpose, however, to treat them as one nation.

The Kutchins,[177] a large and powerful nation, are composed of the
following tribes. Commencing at the Mackenzie River, near its mouth, and
extending westward across the mountains to and down the Yukon; the
Loucheux or Quarrellers, of the Mackenzie River; the Vanta Kutchin,
Natche Kutchin, and Yukuth Kutchin, of Porcupine River and neighborhood;
the Tutchone Kutchin, Han Kutchin, Kutcha Kutchin, Gens de Bouleau, Gens
de Milieu, Tenan Kutchin, Nuclukayettes, and Newicarguts, of the Yukon
River. Their strip of territory is from one hundred to one hundred and
fifty miles in width, lying immediately south of the Eskimos, and
extending westward from the Mackenzie River about eight hundred
miles.[178]

The Kenai[179] nation includes the Ingaliks, of the Lower Yukon; the
Koltchanes, of the Kuskoquim River; and to the south-eastward, the
Kenais, of the Kenai Peninsula, and the Atnas, of Copper River.[180]

Thus we see that the Tinneh are essentially an inland people, barred out
from the frozen ocean by a thin strip of Eskimo land, and barely
touching the Pacific at Cook Inlet. Philologists, however, find
dialectic resemblances, imaginary or real, between them and the
Umpquas[181] and Apaches.[182]

  [Sidenote: THE CHEPEWYANS.]

The name Chepewyan signifies 'pointed coat,' and derives its origin from
the parka, coat, or outer garment, so universally common throughout this
region. It is made of several skins differently dressed and ornamented
in different localities, but always cut with the skirt pointed before
and behind. The Chepewyans believe that their ancestors migrated from
the east, and therefore those of them who are born nearest their eastern
boundary, are held in the greatest estimation. The Dog-ribs alone refer
their origin to the west.

The Chepewyans are physically characterized by a long full face,[183]
tall slim figure;[184] in complexion they are darker than coast
tribes,[185] and have small piercing black eyes,[186] flowing
hair,[187] and tattooed cheeks and forehead.[188] Altogether they are
pronounced an inferior race.[189] Into the composition of their garments
enter beaver, moose, and deer-skin, dressed with and without the hair,
sewed with sinews and ornamented with claws, horns, teeth, and
feathers.[190]

  [Sidenote: THE NORTHERN INDIANS.]

The Northern Indian man is master of his household.[191] He marries
without ceremony, and divorces his wife at his pleasure.[192] A man of
forty buys or fights for a spouse of twelve,[193] and when tired of her
whips her and sends her away. Girls on arriving at the age of womanhood
must retire from the village and live for a time apart.[194] The
Chepewyans inhabit huts of brush and portable skin tents. They derive
their origin from a dog. At one time they were so strongly imbued with
respect for their canine ancestry that they entirely ceased to employ
dogs in drawing their sledges, greatly to the hardship of the women upon
whom this laborious task fell.

Their food consists mostly of fish and reindeer, the latter being easily
taken in snares. Much of their land is barren, but with sufficient
vegetation to support numerous herds of reindeer, and fish abound in
their lakes and streams. Their hunting grounds are held by clans, and
descend by inheritance from one generation to another, which has a
salutary effect upon the preservation of game. Indian law requires the
successful hunter to share the spoils of the chase with all present.
When game is abundant, their tent-fires never die, but are surrounded
during all hours of the day and night by young and old cooking their
food.[195]

Superabundance of food, merchandise, or anything which they wish to
preserve without the trouble of carrying it about with them while on
hunting or foraging expeditions, is _cached_, as they term it; from the
French, _cacher_, to conceal. Canadian fur-hunters often resorted to
this artifice, but the practice was common among the natives before the
advent of Europeans. A sudden necessity often arises in Indian countries
for the traveler to relieve himself from burdens. This is done by
digging a hole in the earth and depositing the load therein, so artfully
covering it as to escape detection by the wily savages. Goods may be
cached in a cave, or in the branches of a tree, or in the hollow of a
log. The camp-fire is frequently built over the spot where stores have
been deposited, in order that the disturbance of the surface may not be
detected.

Their weapons[196] and their utensils[197] are of the most primitive
kind--stone and bone being used in place of metal.

Their dances, which are always performed in the night, are not original,
but are borrowed from the Southern and Dog-rib Indians. They consist in
raising the feet alternately in quick succession, as high as possible
without moving the body, to the sound of a drum or rattle.[198]

They never bury their dead, but leave the bodies where they fall, to be
devoured by the birds and beasts of prey.[199] Their religion consists
chiefly in songs and speeches to these birds and beasts and to imaginary
beings, for assistance in performing cures of the sick.[200] Old age is
treated with disrespect and neglect, one half of both sexes dying before
their time for want of care. The Northern Indians are frequently at war
with the Eskimos and Southern Indians, for whom they at all times
entertain the most inveterate hatred. The Copper Indians, bordering on
the southern boundary of the Eskimos at the Coppermine River, were
originally the occupants of the territory south of Great Slave Lake.

The Dog-ribs, or Slavés as they are called by neighboring nations, are
indolent, fond of amusement, but mild and hospitable. They are so
debased, as savages, that the men do the laborious work, while the women
employ themselves in household affairs and ornamental needlework. Young
married men have been known to exhibit specimens of their wives'
needle-work with pride. From their further advancement in civilization,
and the tradition which they hold of having migrated from the westward,
were it not that their language differs from that of contiguous tribes
only in accent, they might naturally be considered of different origin.
Bands of Dog-ribs meeting after a long absence greet each other with a
dance, which frequently continues for two or three days. First clearing
a spot of ground, they take an arrow in the right hand and a bow in the
left, and turning their backs each band to the other, they approach
dancing, and when close together they feign to perceive each other's
presence for the first time; the bow and arrow are instantly transferred
from one hand to the other, in token of their non-intention to use them
against friends. They are very improvident, and frequently are driven to
cannibalism and suicide.[201]

  [Sidenote: HARES, DOG-RIBS, AND TACULLIES.]

The Hare Indians, who speak a dialect of the Tinneh scarcely to be
distinguished from that of the Dog-ribs, are looked upon by their
neighbors as great conjurers. The Hare and Sheep Indians look upon their
women as inferior beings. From childhood they are inured to every
description of drudgery, and though not treated with special cruelty,
they are placed at the lowest point in the scale of humanity. The
characteristic stoicism of the red race is not manifested by these
tribes. Socialism is practiced to a considerable extent. The hunter is
allowed only the tongue and ribs of the animal he kills, the remainder
being divided among the members of the tribe.

The Hares and Dog-ribs do not cut the finger-nails of female children
until four years of age, in order that they may not prove lazy; the
infant is not allowed food until four days after birth, in order to
accustom it to fasting in the next world.

The Sheep Indians are reported as being cannibals. The Red-knives
formerly hunted reindeer and musk-oxen at the northern end of Great Bear
Lake, but they were finally driven eastward by the Dog-ribs. Laws and
government are unknown to the Chepewyans.[202]

  [Sidenote: THE TACULLIES, OR CARRIERS.]

The Tacullies, or, as they were denominated by the fur-traders,
'Carriers,' are the chief tribe of New Caledonia, or North-western
British America. They call themselves Tacullies, or 'men who go upon
water,' as their travels from one village to another are mostly
accomplished in canoes. This, with their sobriquet of 'Carriers,'
clearly indicates their ruling habitudes. The men are more finely formed
than the women, the latter being short, thick, and disproportionately
large in their lower limbs. In their persons they are slovenly; in their
dispositions, lively and contented. As they are able to procure
food[203] with but little labor, they are naturally indolent, but appear
to be able and willing to work when occasion requires it. Their
relations with white people have been for the most part amicable; they
are seldom quarrelsome, though not lacking bravery. The people are
called after the name of the village in which they dwell. Their
primitive costume consists of hare, musk-rat, badger, and beaver skins,
sometimes cut into strips an inch broad, and woven or interlaced. The
nose is perforated by both sexes, the men suspending therefrom a brass,
copper, or shell ornament, the women a wooden one, tipped with a bead at
either end.[204] Their avarice lies in the direction of hiaqua shells,
which find their way up from the sea-coast through other tribes. In
1810, these beads were the circulating medium of the country, and twenty
of them would buy a good beaver-skin. Their paint is made of vermilion
obtained from the traders, or of a pulverized red stone mixed with
grease. They are greatly addicted to gambling, and do not appear at all
dejected by ill fortune, spending days and nights in the winter season
at their games, frequently gambling away every rag of clothing and every
trinket in their possession. They also stake parts of a garment or other
article, and if losers, cut off a piece of coat-sleeve or a foot of
gun-barrel. Native cooking vessels are made of bark, or of the roots or
fibres of trees, woven so as to hold water, in which are placed heated
stones for the purpose of cooking food.[205] Polygamy is practiced, but
not generally. The Tacullies are fond of their wives, performing the
most of the household drudgery in order to relieve them, and
consequently they are very jealous of them. But to their unmarried
daughters, strange as it may seem, they allow every liberty without
censure or shame. The reason which they give for this strange custom is,
that the purity of their wives is thereby better preserved.[206]

During a portion of every year the Tacullies dwell in villages,
conveniently situated for catching and drying salmon. In April they
visit the lakes and take small fish; and after these fail, they return
to their villages and subsist upon the fish they have dried, and upon
herbs and berries. From August to October, salmon are plentiful again.
Beaver are caught in nets made from strips of cariboo-skins, and also in
cypress and steel traps. They are also sometimes shot with guns or with
bows and arrows. Smaller game they take in various kinds of traps.

The civil polity of the Tacullies is of a very primitive character. Any
person may become a _miuty_ or chief who will occasionally provide a
village feast. A malefactor may find protection from the avenger in the
dwelling of a chief, so long as he is permitted to remain there, or even
afterwards if he has upon his back any one of the chief's garments.
Disputes are usually adjusted by some old man of the tribe. The
boundaries of the territories belonging to the different villages are
designated by mountains, rivers, or other natural objects, and the
rights of towns, as well as of individuals, are most generally
respected; but broils are constantly occasioned by murders, abduction of
women, and other causes, between these separate societies.[207]

When seriously ill, the Carriers deem it an indispensable condition to
their recovery that every secret crime should be confessed to the
magician. Murder, of any but a member of the same village, is not
considered a heinous offense. They at first believed reading and writing
to be the exercise of magic art. The Carriers know little of medicinal
herbs. Their priest or magician is also the doctor, but before
commencing his operations in the sick room, he must receive a fee,
which, if his efforts prove unsuccessful, he is obliged to restore. The
curative process consists in singing a melancholy strain over the
invalid, in which all around join. This mitigates pain, and often
restores health. Their winter tenements are frequently made by opening a
spot of earth to the depth of two feet, across which a ridge-pole is
placed, supported at either end by posts; poles are then laid from the
sides of the excavation to the ridge-pole and covered with hay. A hole
is left in the top for purposes of entrance and exit, and also in order
to allow the escape of smoke.[208]

Slavery is common with them; all who can afford it keeping slaves. They
use them as beasts of burden, and treat them most inhumanly. The
country of the Sicannis in the Rocky Mountains is sterile, yielding the
occupants a scanty supply of food and clothing. They are nevertheless
devotedly attached to their bleak land, and will fight for their rude
homes with the most patriotic ardor.

  [Sidenote: NEHANNES AND TALKOTINS.]

The Nehannes usually pass the summer in the vicinity of the sea-coast,
and scour the interior during the winter for furs, which they obtain
from inland tribes by barter or plunder, and dispose of to the European
traders. It is not a little remarkable that this warlike and turbulent
horde was at one time governed by a woman. Fame gives her a fair
complexion, with regular features, and great intelligence. Her influence
over her fiery people, it is said, was perfect; while her warriors, the
terror and scourge of the surrounding country, quailed before her eye.
Her word was law, and was obeyed with marvelous alacrity. Through her
influence the condition of the women of her tribe was greatly raised.

Great ceremonies, cruelty, and superstition attend burning the dead,
which custom obtains throughout this region,[209] and, as usual in
savagism, woman is the sufferer. When the father of a household dies,
the entire family, or, if a chief, the tribe, are summoned to present
themselves.[210] Time must be given to those most distant to reach the
village before the ceremony begins.[211] The Talkotin wife, when all is
ready, is compelled to ascend the funeral pile, throw herself upon her
husband's body and there remain until nearly suffocated, when she is
permitted to descend. Still she must keep her place near the burning
corpse, keep it in a proper position, tend the fire, and if through
pain or faintness she fails in the performance of her duties, she is
held up and pressed forward by others; her cries meanwhile are drowned
in wild songs, accompanied by the beating of drums.[212]

When the funeral pile of a Tacully is fired, the wives of the deceased,
if there are more than one, are placed at the head and foot of the body.
Their duty there is to publicly demonstrate their affection for the
departed; which they do by resting their head upon the dead bosom, by
striking in frenzied love the body, nursing and battling the fire
meanwhile. And there they remain until the hair is burned from their
head, until, suffocated and almost senseless, they stagger off to a
little distance; then recovering, attack the corpse with new vigor,
striking it first with one hand and then with the other, until the form
of the beloved is reduced to ashes. Finally these ashes are gathered up,
placed in sacks, and distributed one sack to each wife, whose duty it is
to carry upon her person the remains of the departed for the space of
two years. During this period of mourning the women are clothed in rags,
kept in a kind of slavery, and not allowed to marry. Not unfrequently
these poor creatures avoid their term of servitude by suicide. At the
expiration of the time, a feast is given them, and they are again free.
Structures are erected as repositories for the ashes of their dead,[213]
in which the bag or box containing the remains is placed. These
grave-houses are of split boards about one inch in thickness, six feet
high, and decorated with painted representations of various heavenly and
earthly objects.

The Indians of the Rocky Mountains burn with the deceased all his
effects, and even those of his nearest relatives, so that it not
unfrequently happens that a family is reduced to absolute starvation in
the dead of winter, when it is impossible to procure food. The motive
assigned to this custom is, that there may be nothing left to bring the
dead to remembrance.

A singular custom prevails among the Nateotetain women, which is to cut
off one joint of a finger upon the death of a near relative. In
consequence of this practice some old women may be seen with two joints
off every finger on both hands. The men bear their sorrows more
stoically, being content in such cases with shaving the head and cutting
their flesh with flints.[214]

  [Sidenote: KUTCHIN CHARACTERISTICS.]

The Kutchins are the flower of the Tinneh family. They are very
numerous, numbering about twenty-two tribes. They are a more noble and
manly people than either the Eskimos upon the north or the contiguous
Tinneh tribes upon their own southern boundary. The finest specimens
dwell on the Yukon River. The women tattoo the chin with a black
pigment, and the men draw a black stripe down the forehead and nose,
frequently crossing the forehead and cheeks with red lines, and
streaking the chin alternately with red and black. Their features are
more regular than those of their neighbors, more expressive of boldness,
frankness, and candor; their foreheads higher, and their complexions
lighter. The Tenan Kutchin of the Tananah River, one of the largest
tribes of the Yukon Valley, are somewhat wilder and more ferocious in
their appearance. The boys are precocious, and the girls marry at
fifteen.[215] The Kutchins of Peel River, as observed by Mr Isbister,
"are an athletic and fine-looking race; considerable above the average
stature, most of them being upwards of six feet in height and remarkably
well proportioned."

Their clothing is made from the skins of reindeer, dressed with the hair
on; their coat cut after the fashion of the Eskimos, with skirts peaked
before and behind, and elaborately trimmed with beads and dyed
porcupine-quills. The Kutchins, in common with the Eskimos, are
distinguished by a similarity in the costume of the sexes. Men and women
wear the same description of breeches. Some of the men have a long flap
attached to their deer-skin shirts, shaped like a beaver's tail, and
reaching nearly to the ground.[216] Of the coat, Mr Whymper says: "If
the reader will imagine a man dressed in two swallow-tailed coats, one
of them worn as usual, the other covering his stomach and buttoned
behind, he will get some idea of this garment." Across the shoulders and
breast they wear a broad band of beads, with narrower bands round the
forehead and ankles, and along the seams of their leggins. They are
great traders; beads are their wealth, used in the place of money, and
the rich among them literally load themselves with necklaces and strings
of various patterns.[217] The nose and ears are adorned with
shells.[218] The hair is worn in a long cue, ornamented with feathers,
and bound with strings of beads and shells at the head, with flowing
ends, and so saturated with grease and birds' down as to swell it
sometimes to the thickness of the neck. They pay considerable attention
to personal cleanliness. The Kutchins construct both permanent
underground dwellings and the temporary summer-hut or tent.[219]

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE KUTCHINS.]

On the Yukon, the greatest scarcity of food is in the spring. The
winter's stores are exhausted, and the bright rays of the sun upon the
melting snow almost blind the eyes of the deer-hunter. The most
plentiful supply of game is in August, September, and October, after
which the forming of ice on the rivers prevents fishing until December,
when the winter traps are set. The reindeer are in good condition in
August, and geese are plentiful. Salmon ascend the river in June, and
are taken in great quantities until about the first of September; fish
are dried or smoked without salt, for winter use. Fur-hunting begins in
October; and in December, trade opens with the Eskimos, with whom furs
are exchanged for oil and seal-skins.

The Kutchin of the Yukon are unacquainted with nets, but catch their
fish by means of weirs or stakes planted across rivers and narrow lakes,
having openings for wicker baskets, by which they intercept the fish.
They hunt reindeer in the mountains and take moose-deer in snares.[220]

Both Kutchins and Eskimos are very jealous regarding their boundaries;
but the incessant warfare which is maintained between the littoral and
interior people of the northern coast near the Mackenzie river, is not
maintained by the north-western tribes. One of either people, however,
if found hunting out of his own territory, is very liable to be shot.
Some Kutchin tribes permit the Eskimos to take the meat of the game
which they kill, provided they leave the skin at the nearest
village.[221]

The Kutchins of the Yukon River manufacture cups and pots from clay, and
ornament them with crosses, dots, and lines; moulding them by hand after
various patterns, first drying them in the sun and then baking them. The
Eskimo lamp is also sometimes made of clay. The Tinneh make paint of
pulverized  stones or of earth, mixed with glue. The glue is made
from buffalo feet and applied by a moose-hair brush.

In the manufacture of their boats the Kutchins of the Yukon use bark as
a substitute for the seal-skins of the coast. They first make a light
frame of willow or birch, from eight to sixteen feet in length. Then
with fine spruce-fir roots they sew together strips of birch bark, cover
the frame, and calk the seams with spruce gum. They are propelled by
single paddles or poles. Those of the Mackenzie River are after the same
pattern.[222]

In absence of law, murder and all other crimes are compounded for.[223]
A man to be well married must be either rich or strong. A good hunter,
who can accumulate beads, and a good wrestler, who can win brides by
force, may have from two to five wives. The women perform all domestic
duties, and eat after the husband is satisfied, but the men paddle the
boats, and have even been known to carry their wives ashore so that they
might not wet their feet. The women carry their infants in a sort of
bark saddle, fastened to their back; they bandage their feet in order to
keep them small.[224] Kutchin amusements are wrestling, leaping,
dancing, and singing. They are great talkers, and etiquette forbids any
interruption to the narrative of a new comer.[225]

  [Sidenote: THE TENAN KUTCHIN.]

The Tenan Kutchin, 'people of the mountains,' inhabiting the country
south of Fort Yukon which is drained by the river Tananah, are a wild,
ungovernable horde, their territory never yet having been invaded by
white people. The river upon which they dwell is supposed to take its
rise near the upper Yukon. They allow no women in their deer-hunting
expeditions. They smear their leggins and hair with red ochre and
grease. The men part their hair in the middle and separate it into
locks, which, when properly dressed, look like rolls of red mud about
the size of a finger; one bunch of locks is secured in a mass which
falls down the neck, by a band of dentalium shells, and two smaller
rolls hang down either side of the face. After being soaked in grease
and tied, the head is powdered with finely cut swan's down, which
adheres to the greasy hair. The women wear few ornaments, perform more
than the ordinary amount of drudgery, and are treated more like dogs
than human beings. Chastity is scarcely known among them. The Kutcha
Kutchin, 'people of the lowland,' are cleaner and better mannered.

The Kutchins have a singular system of totems. The whole nation is
divided into three castes, called respectively _Chitcheah_,
_Tengratsey_, and _Natsahi_, each occupying a distinct territory. Two
persons of the same caste are not allowed to marry; but a man of one
caste must marry a woman of another. The mother gives caste to the
children, so that as the fathers die off the caste of the country
constantly changes. This system operates strongly against war between
tribes; as in war, it is caste against caste, and not tribe against
tribe. As the father is never of the same caste as the son, who receives
caste from his mother, there can never be intertribal war without
ranging fathers and sons against each other. When a child is named, the
father drops his former name and substitutes that of the child, so that
the father receives his name from the child, and not the child from the
father.

They have scarcely any government; their chiefs are elected on account
of wealth or ability, and their authority is very limited.[226] Their
custom is to burn the dead, and enclose the ashes in a box placed upon
posts; some tribes enclose the body in an elevated box without
burning.[227]

  [Sidenote: THE KENAI.]

The Kenai are a fine, manly race, in which Baer distinguishes
characteristics decidedly American, and clearly distinct from the
Asiatic Eskimos. One of the most powerful Kenai tribes is the
Unakatanas, who dwell upon the Koyukuk River, and plant their villages
along the banks of the lower Yukon for a distance of one hundred and
fifty miles. They are bold and ferocious, dominative even to the giving
of fashion in dress.

That part of the Yukon which runs through their territory abounds with
moose, which during the summer frequent the water in order to avoid the
mosquitos, and as the animals are clumsy swimmers, the Indians easily
capture them. Their women occupy a very inferior position, being obliged
to do more drudgery and embellish their dress with fewer ornaments than
those of the upper tribes. The men wear a heavy fringe of beads or
shells upon their dress, equal sometimes to two hundred marten-skins in
value.

At Nuklukahyet, where the Tananah River joins the Yukon, is a neutral
trading-ground to which all the surrounding tribes resort in the spring
for traffic. Skins are their moneyed currency, the beaver-skin being the
standard; one 'made' beaver-skin represents two marten-skins.

The Ingaliks inhabiting the Yukon near its mouth call themselves _Kaeyah
Khatana_. Their dialect is totally distinct from the Malemutes, their
neighbors on the west, but shows an affinity with that of the Unakatanas
to their east. Tobacco they both smoke and snuff. The smoke they
swallow; snuff is drawn into the nostrils through a wooden tube. They
manufacture snuff from leaf tobacco by means of a wooden mortar and
pestle, and carry bone or wooden snuff-boxes. They are described by
travelers as a timid, sensitive people, and remarkably honest. Ingalik
women are delivered kneeling, and without pain, being seldom detained
from their household duties for more than an hour. The infant is washed,
greased, and fed, and is seldom weaned under two or three years. The
women live longer than the men; some of them reaching sixty, while the
men rarely attain more than forty-five years.

The Koltschanes, whose name in the dialect of the Kenai signifies
'guest,' and in that of the Atnas of Copper River, 'stranger,' have been
charged with great cruelty, and even cannibalism, but without special
foundation. Wrangell believes the Koltschanes, Atnas, and Kolosches to
be one people.

The Kenai, of the Kenaian peninsula, upon recovery from dangerous
illness, give a feast to those who expressed sympathy during the
affliction. If a bounteous provision is made upon these occasions, a
chieftainship may be obtained thereby; and although the power thus
acquired does not descend to one's heir, he may be conditionally
recognized as chief. Injuries are avenged by the nearest relative, but
if a murder is committed by a member of another clan, all the allied
families rise to avenge the wrong. When a person dies, the whole
community assemble and mourn. The nearest kinsman, arrayed in his best
apparel, with blackened face, his nose and head decked with eagle's
feathers, leads the ceremony. All sit round a fire and howl, while the
master of the lamentation recounts the notable deeds of the departed,
amidst the ringing of bells, and violent stampings, and contortions of
his body. The clothing is then distributed to the relatives, the body is
burned, the bones collected and interred, and at the expiration of a
year a feast is held to the memory of the deceased, after which it is
not lawful for a relative to mention his name.

The lover, if his suit is accepted, must perform a year's service for
his bride. The wooing is in this wise: early some morning he enters the
abode of the fair one's father, and without speaking a word proceeds to
bring water, prepare food, and to heat the bath-room. In reply to the
question why he performs these services, he answers that he desires the
daughter for a wife. At the expiration of the year, without further
ceremony, he takes her home, with a gift; but if she is not well treated
by her husband, she may return to her father, and take with her the
dowry. The wealthy may have several wives, but the property of each wife
is distinct. They are nomadic in their inclinations and traverse the
interior to a considerable distance in pursuit of game.

The Atnas are a small tribe inhabiting the Atna or Copper River. They
understand the art of working copper, and have commercial relations with
surrounding tribes. In the spring, before the breaking up of ice upon
the lakes and rivers, they hunt reindeer, driving them into angle-shaped
wicker-work corrals, where they are killed. In the autumn another
general hunt takes place, when deer are driven into lakes, and pursued
and killed in boats. Their food and clothing depend entirely upon their
success in these forays, as they are unable to obtain fish in sufficient
quantities for their sustenance; and when unsuccessful in the chase,
whole families die of starvation. Those who can afford it, keep slaves,
buying them from the Koltschanes. They burn their dead, then carefully
collect the ashes in a new reindeer-skin, enclose the skin in a box, and
place the box on posts or in a tree. Every year they celebrate a feast
in commemoration of their dead. Baer asserts that the Atnas divide the
year into fifteen months, which are designated only by their numbers;
ten of them belong to autumn and winter, and five to spring and summer.

  [Sidenote: TINNEH CHARACTER.]

The Tinneh character, if we may accept the assertions of various
travelers, visiting different parts under widely different
circumstances, presents a multitude of phases. Thus it is said of the
Chepewyans by Mackenzie, that they are "sober, timorous, and vagrant,
with a selfish disposition which has sometimes created suspicions of
their integrity. They are also of a quarrelous disposition, and are
continually making complaints which they express by a constant
repetition of the word _edmy_, 'it is hard,' in a whiny and plaintive
tone of voice. So indolent that numbers perish every year from famine.
Suicide is not uncommon among them." Hearne asserts that they are morose
and covetous; that they have no gratitude; are great beggars; are
insolent, if any respect is shown them; that they cheat on all
opportunities; yet they are mild, rarely get drunk; and "never proceed
to violence beyond bad language;" that they steal on every opportunity
from the whites, but very rarely from each other; and although regarding
all property, including wives, as belonging to the strongest, yet they
only wrestle, and rarely murder. Of the same people Sir John Franklin
says, that they are naturally indolent, selfish, and great beggars. "I
never saw men," he writes, "who either received or bestowed a gift with
such bad grace." The Dog-ribs are "of a mild, hospitable, but rather
indolent disposition," fond of dancing and singing. According to the
same traveler the Copper Indians are superior, in personal character, to
any other Chepewyans. "Their delicate and humane attentions to us," he
remarks, "in a period of great distress, are indelibly engraven on our
memories." Simpson says that it is a general rule among the traders not
to believe the first story of an Indian. Although sometimes bearing
suffering with fortitude, the least sickness makes them say, "I am going
to die," and the improvidence of the Indian character is greatly
aggravated by the custom of destroying all the property of deceased
relatives. Sir John Richardson accuses the Hare Indians of timidity,
standing in great fear of the Eskimos, and being always in want of food.
They are practical socialists, 'great liars,' but 'strictly honest.'
Hospitality is not a virtue with them. According to Richardson, neither
the Eskimos, Dog-ribs, nor Hare Indians, feel the least shame in being
detected in falsehood, and invariably practice it if they think that
they can thereby gain any of their petty ends. Even in their familiar
intercourse with each other, the Indians seldom tell the truth in the
first instance, and if they succeed in exciting admiration or
astonishment, their invention runs on without check. From the manner of
the speaker, rather than by his words, is his truth or falsehood
inferred, and often a very long interrogation is necessary to elicit the
real fact. The comfort, and not unfrequently even the lives of parties
of the timid Hare Indians are sacrificed by this miserable propensity.
The Hare and Dog-rib women are certainly at the bottom of the scale of
humanity in North America. Ross thinks that they are "tolerably honest;
not bloodthirsty, nor cruel;" "confirmed liars, far from being chaste."

According to Harmon, one of the earliest and most observing travelers
among them, the Tacullies "are a quiet, inoffensive people," and
"perhaps the most honest on the face of the earth." They "are unusually
talkative," and "take great delight in singing or humming or whistling a
dull air." "Murder is not considered as a crime of great magnitude." He
considers the Sicannis the bravest of the Tacully tribes.

But the Kutchins bear off the palm for honesty. Says Whymper: "Finding
the loads too great for our dogs, we raised an erection of poles, and
deposited some bags thereon. I may here say, once for all, that our men
often left goods, consisting of tea, flour, molasses, bacon, and all
kinds of miscellaneous articles, scattered in this way over the country,
and that they remained untouched by the Indians, who frequently traveled
past them." Simpson testifies of the Loucheux that "a bloody intent with
them lurks not under a smile." Murray reports the Kutchins treacherous;
Richardson did not find them so. Jones declares that "they differ
entirely from the Tinneh tribes of the Mackenzie, being generous,
honest, hospitable, proud, high-spirited, and quick to revenge an
injury."

TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

Accurately to draw partition lines between primitive nations is
impossible. Migrating with the seasons, constantly at war, driving and
being driven far past the limits of hereditary boundaries, extirpating
and being extirpated, overwhelming, intermingling; like a human sea,
swelling and surging in its wild struggle with the winds of fate, they
come and go, here to-day, yonder to-morrow. A traveler passing over the
country finds it inhabited by certain tribes; another coming after finds
all changed. One writer gives certain names to certain nations; another
changes the name, or gives to the nation a totally different locality.
An approximation, however, can be made sufficiently correct for
practical purposes; and to arrive at this, I will give at the end of
each chapter all the authorities at my command; that from the
statements of all, whether conflicting or otherwise, the truth may be
very nearly arrived at. All nations, north of the fifty-fifth parallel,
as before mentioned, I call Hyperboreans.


To the Eskimos, I give the Arctic sea-board from the Coppermine River to
Kotzebue Sound. Late travelers make a distinction between the Malemutes
and Kaveaks of Norton Sound and the Eskimos. Whymper calls the former 'a
race of tall and stout people, but in other respect, much resembling the
Esquimaux.' _Alaska_, p. 159. Sir John Richardson, in his _Journal_,
vol. i., p. 341, places them on the 'western coast, by Cook's Sound and
Tchugatz Bay, nearly to Mount St. Elias;' but in his _Polar Regions_, p.
299, he terminates them at Kotzebue Sound. Early writers give them the
widest scope. 'Die südlichsten sind in Amerika, auf der Küste Labrador,
wo nach Charlevoix dieser Völkerstamm den Namen Esquimaux bey den in
der Nähe wohnenden Abenaki führte, und auch an der benachbarten Ostseite
von Neu-Fundland, ferner westlich noch unter der Halbinsel Alaska.'
_Vater_, _Mithridates_, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. 425. Dr Latham, in his
_Varieties of Man_, treats the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands as
Eskimos, and in _Native Races of the Russian Empire_, p. 289, he gives
them 'the whole of the coast of the Arctic Ocean, and the coast from
Behring Strait to Cook Inlet.' Prichard, _Researches_, vol. v., p. 371,
requires more complete evidence before he can conclude that the Aleuts
are not Eskimos. Being entirely unacquainted with the great Kutchin
family in the Yukon Valley, he makes the Carriers of New Caledonia
conterminous with the Eskimos. The boundary lines between the Eskimos
and the interior Indian tribes 'are generally formed by the summit of
the watershed between the small rivers which empty into the sea and
those which fall into the Yukon.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 144. Malte-Brun,
_Précis de la Géographie_, vol. v., p. 317, goes to the other extreme.
'Les Esquimaux,' he declares, 'habitent depuis le golfe Welcome jusqu'au
fleuve Mackenzie, et probablement jusqu'au détroit de Bering; ils
s'étendent au sud jusqu'au lac de l'Esclave.' Ludewig, _Aboriginal
Languages_, p. 69, divides them into 'Eskimo proper, on the shores of
Labrador, and the Western Eskimos.' Gallatin sweepingly asserts that
'they are the sole native inhabitants of the shores of all the seas,
bays, inlets, and islands of America, north of the sixtieth degree of
north latitude.' _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 9. The
Western Eskimos, says Beechey, 'inhabit the north-west coast of America,
from 60° 34´ N. to 71° 24´ N.' _Voy._, vol. ii., p. 299. 'Along the
entire coast of America.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 191.

  [Sidenote: ESKIMOS AND KONIAGAS.]

The tribal subdivisions of the Eskimos are as follows:--At Coppermine
River they are known by the name of _Naggeuktoomutes_, 'deer-horns.' At
the eastern outlet of the Mackenzie they are called _Kittear_. Between
the Mackenzie River and Barter Reef they call themselves
_Kangmali-Innuin_. The tribal name at Point Barrow is _Nuwangmeun_. 'The
_Nuna-tangmë-un_ inhabit the country traversed by the Nunatok, a river
which falls into Kotzebue Sound.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 300. From
Cape Lisburn to Icy Cape the tribal appellation is _Kitegues_. 'Deutsche
Karten zeigen uns noch im Nord-west-Ende des russischen Nordamerika's,
in dieser so anders gewandten Küstenlinie, nördlich vom Kotzebue-Sund:
im westlichen Theile des Küstenlandes, das sie West-Georgien nennen,
vom Cap Lisburn bis über das Eiscap; hinlaufend das Volk der Kiteguen.'
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 713. 'The tribes appear to
be separated from each other by a neutral ground, across which small
parties venture in the summer for barter.' The _Tuski_, _Tschuktschi_,
or _Tchutski_, of the easternmost point of Asia, have also been referred
to the opposite coast of America for their habitation. The Tschuktchi
'occupy the north-western coast of Russian Asia, and the opposite shores
of north-western America.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 191.


THE KONIAGAN nation occupies the shores of Bering Sea, from Kotzebue
Sound to the Island of Kadiak, including a part of the Alaskan
Peninsula, and the Koniagan and Chugatschen Islands. The _Koniagas_
proper inhabit Kadiak, and the contiguous islands. _Buschmann_, _Spuren
der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 676. 'The Konægi are inhabitants of the Isle of
Kodiak.' _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 371. 'Die eigentlichen
Konjagen oder Bewohner der Insel Kadjak.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p.
4. 'Zu den letztern rechnet man die Aleuten von Kadjack, deren Sprache
von allen Küstenbewohnern von der Tschugatschen-Bay, bis an die
Berings-Strasse und selbst weiter noch die herrschende ist.' _Baer_,
_Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 58. 'From Iliamna Lake to the 159th degree of west
longitude.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 401. 'La côte qui s'étend depuis le
golfe Kamischezkaja jusqu'au Nouveau-Cornouaille, est habitée par cinq
peuplades qui forment autant de grandes divisions territoriales dans les
colonies de la Russie Américaine. Leurs noms sont: Koniagi, Kenayzi,
Tschugatschi, Ugalachmiuti et Koliugi.' _Humboldt_, _Pol._, tom. i., p.
347.

The _Chugatsches_ inhabit the islands and shores of Prince William
Sound. 'Die Tchugatschen bewohnen die grössten Inseln der Bai
Tschugatsk, wie Zukli, Chtagaluk u. a. und ziehen sich an der Südküste
der Halbinsel Kenai nach Westen bis zur Einfahrt in den Kenaischen
Meerbusen.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 4. 'Die Tschugatschen sind
Ankömmlinge von der Insel Kadjack, die während innerer Zwistigkeiten von
dort vertrieben, sich zu ihren jetzigen Wohnsitzen an den Ufern von
Prince William's Sound und gegen Westen bis zum Eingange von Cook's
Inlet hingewendet haben.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 116. 'Les
Tschugatschi occupent le pays qui s'étend depuis l'extrémité
septentrionale de l'entrée de Cook jusqu'à l'est de la baie du prince
Guillaume (golfe Tschugatskaja.)' _Humboldt_, _Pol._, tom. i., p. 348.
According to Latham, _Native Races_, p. 290, they are the most southern
members of the family. The Tschugazzi 'live between the Ugalyachmutzi
and the Kenaizi.' _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 371. 'Occupy the
shores and islands of Chugach Gulf, and the southwest coasts of the
peninsula of Kenai.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 401. Tschugatschi, 'Prince
William Sound, and Cook's Inlet.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 191.
Tchugatchih, 'claim as their hereditary possessions the coast lying
between Bristol Bay and Beering's Straits.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol.
i., p. 364.

The _Aglegmutes_ occupy the shores of Bristol Bay from the river
Nushagak along the western coast of the Alaskan Peninsula, to latitude
56°. 'Die Aglegmjuten, von der Mündung des Flusses Nuschagakh bis zum
57° oder 56° an der Westküste der Halbinsel Aljaska; haben also die Ufer
der Bristol-Bai inne.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 4. Dall calls them
Oglemutes, and says that they inhabit 'the north coast of Aliaska from
the 159th degree of west longitude to the head of Bristol Bay, and along
the north shore of that Bay to Point Etolin.' _Alaska_, p. 405. Die
Agolegmüten, an den Ausmündungen der Flüsse Nuschagack und Nackneck,
ungefähr 500 an der Zahl.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 121.

The _Kijataigmutes_ dwell upon the banks of the river Nushagak and along
the coast westward to Cape Newenham. 'Die Kijataigmjuten wohnen an den
Ufern des Flusses Nuschagakh, sowie seines Nebenflusses Iligajakh.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 5. Dall says that they call themselves
Nushergagmut, and 'inhabit the coast near the mouth of the Nushergak
River, and westward to Cape Newenham.' _Alaska_, p. 405. 'Die Kijaten
oder Kijataigmüten an den Flüssen Nuschagack und Ilgajack.' _Baer_,
_Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 121. 'Am Fl. Nuschagak.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der
Aztek. Sprache_, p. 760.

The _Agulmutes_ inhabit the coast between the rivers Kuskoquim and
Kishunak. 'Die Aguljmjuten haben sowohl den Küstenstrich als das Innere
des Landes zwischen den Mündungen des Kuskokwim und des Kishunakh inne.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 5. 'This tribe extends from near Cape
Avinoff nearly to Cape Romanzoff.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 406. 'Den
Agulmüten, am Flusse Kwichlüwack.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 122. 'An
der Kwickpak-Münd.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 719.

The _Kuskoquigmutes_ occupy the banks of Kuskoquim River and Bay. 'Die
Kuskokwigmjuten bewohnen die Ufer des Flusses Kuskokwim von seiner
Mündung bis zur Ansiedelung Kwygyschpainagmjut in der Nähe der
Odinotschka Kalmakow.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 5. The Kuskwogmuts
'inhabit both shores of Kuskoquim Bay, and some little distance up that
river.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 405. 'Die Kuskokwimer an dem Flusse
Kuskokwim und andern kleinen Zuflüssen desselben und an den Ufern der
südlich von diesem Flusse gelegenen Seen.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p.
122. 'Between the rivers Nushagak, Ilgajak, Chulitna, and Kuskokwina, on
the sea-shore.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 98.

The _Magemutes_ live between the rivers Kishunak and Kipunaiak. 'Die
Magmjuten oder Magagmjuten, zwischen den Flüssen Kiskunakh und
Kipunajakh.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 5. 'These inhabit the vicinity
of Cape Romanzoff and reach nearly to the Yukon-mouth.' _Dall's Alaska_,
p. 407. 'Magimuten, am Flusse Kyschunack.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p.
122. 'Im S des Norton Busens.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_,
p. 766.

The _Kwichpagmutes_, or inhabitants of the large river, dwell upon the
Kwichpak River, from the coast range to the Uallik. 'Die Kwichpagmjuten,
haben ihre Ansiedelungen am Kwickpakh vom Küstengebirge an bis zum
Nebenflusse Uallik.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 5. 'Kuwichpackmüten,
am Flusse Kuwichpack.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 122. 'Tlagga Silla,
or little dogs, nearer to the mouth of the Yukon, and probably
conterminous with the Eskimo Kwichpak-meut.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p.
293. On Whymper's map are the _Primoski_, near the delta of the Yukon.

The _Kwichluagmutes_ dwell upon the banks of the Kwichluak or Crooked
River, an arm of the Kwichpak. 'Die Kwichljuagmjuten an den Ufern eines
Mündungsarmes des Kwichpakh, der Kwichljuakh.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn.
Skiz._, p. 5. 'Inhabit the Kwikhpak Slough.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 407.

The _Pashtoliks_ dwell upon the river Pashtolik. 'Die Paschtoligmjuten,
an den Ufern des Pastolflusses.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 6.
'Paschtoligmüten, am Flusse Paschtol.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 122.
Whymper places them immediately north of the delta of the Yukon.

The _Chnagmutes_ occupy the coast and islands south of the Unalaklik
River to Pashtolik Bay. 'Die Tschnagmjuten, an den Ufern der Meerbusen
Pastol und Schachtolik zwischen den Flüssen Pastol an Unalaklik.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 6. 'Den Tschnagmüten, gegen Norden von den
Paschtuligmüten und gegen Westen bis zum Kap Rodney.' _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethn._, p. 122. 'Am. sdl. Norton-Busen.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek.
Sprache_, p. 805.

The _Anlygmutes_ inhabit the shores of Golovnin Bay and the southern
coast of the Kaviak peninsula. 'Die Anlygmjuten, an den Ufern der Bai
Golownin nördlich vom Nortonsunde.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 6.
'Anlygmüten, an der Golowninschen Bai.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p.
122. 'Ndl. vom Norton-Sund.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_,
p. 722.

The _Kaviaks_ inhabit the western portion of the Kaviak peninsula.
'Adjacent to Port Clarence and Behring Strait.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p.
167. 'Between Kotzebue and Norton Sounds.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 137.

The _Malemutes_ inhabit the coast at the mouth of the Unalaklik River,
and northward along the shores of Norton Sound across the neck of the
Kaviak Peninsula at Kotzebue Sound. 'Die Maleigmjuten bewohnen die Küste
des Nortonsundes vom Flusse Unalaklik an und gehen durch das Innere des
Landes hinauf bis zum Kotzebuesunde.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 6.
'From Norton Sound and Bay north of Shaktolik, and the neck of the
Kaviak Peninsula to Selawik Lake.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 407. 'Den
Malimüten, nahe an den Ufern des Golfes Schaktulack oder Schaktol.'
_Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 122. The Malemutes 'extend from the island
of St. Michael to Golovin Sound.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 167. 'Ndl. am
Norton-Busen bis zum Kotzebue Sund.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek.
Sprache_, p. 766.


  [Sidenote: THE ALEUTS.]

THE ALEUTS inhabit the islands of the Aleutian archipelago, and part of
the peninsula of Alaska and the Island of Kadiak. They are divided into
the _Atkahs_, who inhabit the western islands, and the _Unalaskans_ or
eastern division. The tribal divisions inhabiting the various islands
are as follows; namely, on the Alaskan peninsula, three tribes to which
the Russians have given names--_Morshewskoje_, _Bjeljkowskoje_, and
_Pawlowskoje_; on the island of Unga, the _Ugnasiks_; on the island of
Unimak, the _Sesaguks_; the _Tigaldas_ on Tigalda Island; the
_Avatanaks_ on Avatanak Island; on the Island of Akun, three tribes,
which the Russians call _Arteljnowskoje_, _Rjätscheschnoje_, and
_Seredkinskoje_; the _Akutans_ on the Akutan Island; the _Unalgas_ on
the Unalga Island; the _Sidanaks_ on Spirkin Island; on the island of
Unalashka, the _Ililluluk_, the _Nguyuk_, and seven tribes called by the
Russians _Natykinskoje_, _Pestnjakow-swoje_, _Wesselowskoje_,
_Makuschinskoja_, _Koschhiginskoje_, _Tuscon-skoje_, and
_Kalechinskoje_; and on the island of Umnak the _Tuliks_. Latham,
_Nat. Races_, p. 291, assigns them to the Aleutian Isles. 'Die
Unalaschkaer oder Fuchs-Aleuten bewohnen die Gruppe der Fuchsinseln,
den südwestlichen Theil der Halbinsel Aljaska, und die Inselgruppe
Schumaginsk. Die Atchaer oder Andrejanowschen Aleuten bewohnen die
Andrejanowschen, die Ratten, und die Nahen-Inseln der Aleuten-Kette.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, pp. 7, 8. Inhabit 'the islands between Alyaska
and Kamschatka.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 4.


  [Sidenote: THE THLINKEETS.]

THE THLINKEETS, or Kolosches, occupy the islands and shores between
Copper River and the river Nass. 'Die eigentlichen Thlinkithen (Bewohner
des Archipels von den Parallelen des Flusses Nass bis zum St.
Elias-berge).' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 4. 'The Kalosh Indians seen
at Sitka inhabit the coast between the Stekine and Chilcat Rivers.'
_Whymper's Alaska_, p. 100. 'Kaloches et Kiganis. Côtes et îles de
l'Amérique Russe.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. The
'Koloshians live upon the islands and coast from the latitude 50° 40´ to
the mouth of the Atna or Copper River.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 562.
'From about 60° to 45° N. Lat., reaching therefore across the Russian
frontier as far as the Columbia River.' _Müller's Chips_, vol. i., p.
334. 'At Sitka Bay and Norfolk Sound.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 96.
'Between Jacootat or Behring's Bay, to the 57th degree of north
latitude.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 242. 'Die Völker eines grossen Theils
der Nordwest-Küste von America.' _Vater_, _Mithridates_, vol. iii., pt.
iii., p. 218. 'Les Koliugi habitent le pays montueux du Nouveau-Norfolk,
et la partie septentrionale du Nouveau-Cornouaille.' _Humboldt_, _Pol._,
tom. i., p. 349.

The _Ugalenzes_ or Ugalukmutes, the northernmost Thlinkeet tribe,
inhabit the coast from both banks of the mouth of Copper River, nearly
to Mount St Elias. 'About Mount Elias.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 292.
Adjacent to Behring Bay. _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 370. 'Die
Ugalenzen, die im Winter eine Bucht des Festlandes, der kleinen Insel
Kajak gegenüber, bewohnen, zum Sommer aber ihre Wohnungsplätze an dem
rechten Ufer des Kupferflusses bei dessen Mündung aufschlagen.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 4. 'Das Vorgebirge St. Elias, kann als die
Gränzscheide der Wohnsitze der See-Koloschen gegen Nordwest angesehen
werden.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 96. 'Les Ugalachmiuti s'étendent
depuis le golfe du Prince Guillaume, jusqu'à la baie de Jakutat.'
_Humboldt_, _Pol._, tom. i., p. 348. 'Ugalenzen oder Ugaljachmjuten. An
der russ. Küste ndwstl. vom St. Elias Berg.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der
Aztek. Sprache_, p. 807. 'West of Cape St. Elias and near the island of
Kadjak.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 194.

The _Yakutats_ 'occupy the coast from Mount Fairweather to Mount St.
Elias.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 428. At 'Behring Bay.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1869, p. 575.

The _Chilkat_ come next, and live on Lynn Canal and the Chilkat River.
'At Chilkaht Inlet.' 'At the head of Chatham Straits.' _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, pp. 535, 575. 'Am Lynn's-Canal, in russ. Nordamerika.'
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 736. 'On Lynn's Canal.'
_Schoolcraft's Archives_, vol. v., p. 489. A little to the northward of
the Stakine-Koan. _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 288.

The _Hoonids_ inhabit the eastern banks of Cross Sound. 'For a distance
of sixty miles.' 'At Cross Sound reside the Whinegas.' 'The Hunnas or
Hooneaks, who are scattered along the main land from Lynn Canal to Cape
Spencer.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, pp. 535, 562, 575. The Huna Cow tribe
is situated on Cross Sound. _Schoolcraft's Archives_, vol. v., p. 489.

The _Hoodsinoos_ 'live near the head of Chatham Strait.' 'On Admiralty
Island.' 'Rat tribes on Kyro and Kespriano Islands.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1869, pp. 335, 562, 575. 'Hootsinoo at Hoodsinoo or Hood Bay.'
_Schoolcraft's Archives_, vol. v., p. 489. 'Hoodsunhoo at Hood Bay.'
_Gallatin_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302.
'Hoodsunhoo at Hood Bay.' 'Eclikimo in Chatham's Strait.' _Ludewig_,
_Ab. Lang._, p. 175.

The _Takoos_ dwell 'at the head of Takoo Inlet on the Takoo River. The
Sundowns and Takos who live on the mainland from Port Houghton to the
Tako River.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, pp. 536, 562. Tako and Samdan,
Tako River. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 489.

The _Auks Indians_ are at the mouth of the Takoo River and on Admiralty
Island. 'North of entrance Tako River.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, p. 489.
'The Ark and Kake on Prince Frederick's Sound.' _Am. Antiq. Soc.
Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302.

The _Kakas_ inhabit the shores of Frederick Sound and Kuprianoff Island.
'The Kakus, or Kakes, who live on Kuprinoff Island, having their
principal settlement near the northwestern side.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1869, p. 562. 'The Ark and Kake on Prince Frederick's Sound.' _Am.
Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302.

The _Sitkas_ occupy Baranoff Island. 'They are divided into tribes or
clans, of which one is called Coquontans.' _Buschmann_, _Pima Spr. u. d.
Spr. der Koloschen_, p. 377. 'The tribe of the Wolf are called
Coquontans.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 242. 'The Sitka-Koan,' or the people
of Sitka. 'This includes the inhabitants of Sitka Bay, near New
Archangel, and the neighboring islands.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 412.
Simpson calls the people of Sitka 'Sitkaguouays.' _Overland Jour._, vol.
i., p. 226. 'The Sitkas or Indians on Baronoff Island.' _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, pp. 535, 562.

The _Stikeen Indians_ inhabit the country drained by the Stikeen River.
'Do not penetrate far into the interior.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 411. The
Stikein tribe 'live at the top of Clarence's Straits, which run upwards
of a hundred miles inland.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 288. 'At Stephens
Passage.' 'The Stikeens who live on the Stackine River and the islands
near its mouth.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 562. 'Stikeen Indians,
Stikeen River, Sicknaahutty, Taeeteetan, Kaaskquatee, Kookatee,
Naaneeaaghee, Talquatee, Kicksatee, Kaadgettee.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. v., p. 489. The Secatquonays occupy the main land about the mouths
of the Stikeen River, and also the neighboring islands. _Simpson's
Overland Jour._, vol. i., p. 210.

The _Tungass_, 'live on Tongas Island, and on the north side of Portland
Channel.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 562. Southern entrance Clarence
Strait. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 489. The Tongarses or Tun
Ghaase 'are a small tribe, inhabiting the S.E. corner of Prince of
Wales's Archipelago.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi.,
p. 218. 'Tungass, an der sdlst. russ. Küste.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der
Aztek. Sprache_, p. 806. 'Tunghase Indians of the south-eastern part of
Prince of Wales's Archipelago.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 192. Tongas
Indians, lat. 54° 46´ N. and long. 130° 35´ W. _Dall's Alaska_, p. 251.


  [Sidenote: THE TINNEH.]

THE TINNEH occupy the vast interior north of the fifty-fifth parallel,
and west from Hudson Bay, approaching the Arctic and Pacific Coasts to
within from fifty to one hundred and fifty miles: at Prince William
Sound, they even touch the seashore. Mackenzie, _Voy._, p. cxvii., gives
boundaries upon the basis of which Gallatin, _Am. Antiq. Soc.
Transact._, vol. ii., p. 9, draws a line from the Mississippi to within
one hundred miles of the Pacific at 52° 30´, and allots them the
northern interior to Eskimos lands. 'Extend across the continent.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 2. 'Von der nördlichen Hudsonsbai aus
fast die ganze Breite des Continents durchläuft--im Norden und
Nordwesten den 65ten Grad u. beinahe die Gestade des Polarmeers
erreicht.' _Buschmann_, _Athapask. Sprachst._, p. 313. The Athabascan
area touches Hudson's Bay on the one side, the Pacific on the other.'
_Latham's Comp. Phil._, p. 388. 'Occupies the whole of the northern
limits of North America, together with the Eskimos.' _Ludewig_, _Ab.
Lang._, p. 14.

The _Chipewyans_, or Athabascas proper, Mackenzie, _Voy._, p. cxvi.,
places between N. latitude 60° and 65°, and W. longitude 100° and 110°.
'Between the Athabasca and Great Slave Lakes and Churchill River.'
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., p. 241. 'Frequent the Elk and Slave Rivers,
and the country westward to Hay River.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii.,
p. 5. The Northern Indians occupy the territory immediately north of
Fort Churchill, on the Western shore of Hudson Bay. 'From the
fifty-ninth to the sixty-eighth degree of North latitude, and from East
to West is upward of five hundred miles wide.' _Hearne's Jour._, p. 326;
_Martin's Brit. Col._, vol. iii., p. 524.

The _Copper Indians_ occupy the territory on both sides of the
Coppermine River south of the Eskimo lands, which border on the ocean at
the mouth of the river. They are called by the Athabascas
_Tantsawhot-Dinneh_. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., 76; _Gallatin_, in
_Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 19.

The _Horn Mountain Indians_ 'inhabit the country betwixt Great Bear Lake
and the west end of Great Slave Lake.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p.
82.

The _Beaver Indians_ 'inhabit the lower part of Peace River.' _Harmon's
Jour._, p. 309. On Mackenzie's map they are situated between Slave and
Martin Lakes. 'Between the Peace River and the West branch of the
Mackenzie.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 6. Edchawtawhoot-dinneh,
Strong-bow, Beaver or Thick-wood Indians, who frequent the Rivière aux
Liards, or south branch of the Mackenzie River, _Franklin's Nar._, vol.
ii., p. 85.

The _Thlingcha-dinneh_, or Dog-ribs, 'inhabit the country to the
westward of the Copper Indians, as far as Mackenzie's River.'
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 80. _Gallatin_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc.
Transact._, vol. ii., p. 19. 'East from Martin Lake to the Coppermine
River.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 3. 'At Fort Confidence, north
of Great Bear Lake.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 200. 'Between Martin's Lake
and the Coppermine River.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 66.

The _Kawcho-dinneh_, or Hare Indians, are 'immediately to the northward
of the Dog-ribs on the north side of Bear Lake River.' _Franklin's
Nar._, vol. ii., p. 83. They 'inhabit the banks of the Mackenzie, from
Slave Lake downwards.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 3. Between
Bear Lake and Fort Good Hope, _Simpson's Nar._, p. 98. On Mackenzie
River, below Great Slave Lake, extending towards the Great Bear Lake.
_Gallatin_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 19.

'To the eastward of the Dog-ribs are the Red-knives, named by their
southern neighbors, the _Tantsaut-'dtinnè_ (Birch-rind people). They
inhabit a stripe of country running northwards from Great Slave Lake,
and in breadth from the Great Fish River to the Coppermine.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 4.

The _Ambawtawhoot Tinneh_, or Sheep Indians, 'inhabit the Rocky
Mountains near the sources of the Dawhoot-dinneh River which flows into
Mackenzie's.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 84. Further down the
Mackenzie, near the 65° parallel. _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 7.

The _Sarsis_, _Circees_, _Ciriés_, _Sarsi_, _Sorsi_, _Sussees_,
_Sursees_, or _Surcis_, 'live near the Rocky Mountains between the
sources of the Athabasca and Saskatchewan Rivers; are said to be
likewise of the Tinné stock.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 6.
'Near the sources of one of the branches of the Saskachawan.' _Gallatin_,
in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 19.

The _Tsillawdawhoot Tinneh_, or Brush-wood Indians, inhabit the upper
branches of the Rivière aux Liards. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 87.
On the River aux Liards (Poplar River), _Gallatin_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc.
Transact._, vol. ii., p. 19.

The _Nagailer_, or Chin Indians, on Mackenzie's map, latitude 52° 30´
longitude 122° to 125°, 'inhabit the country about 52° 30´ N. L. to the
southward of the Takalli, and thence extend south along Fraser's River
towards the Straits of Fuca.' _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 427.

The _Slouacuss Tinneh_ on Mackenzie's are next north-west from the
Nagailer. Vater places them at 52° 4´. 'Noch näher der Küste um den 52°
4´ wohnten die Slua-cuss-dinais d. i. Rothfisch-Männer.' _Vater_,
_Mithridates_, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. 421. On the upper part of Frazers
River. _Cox's Adven._, p. 323.

The _Rocky Mountain Indians_ are a small tribe situated to the
south-west of the Sheep Indians. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 85. 'On
the Unjigah or Peace River.' _Gallatin_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._,
vol. ii., p. 19. On the upper tributaries of Peace River. _Mackenzie's
Voy._, p. 163.

The _Tacullies_, or Carriers, inhabit New Caledonia from latitude 52°
30´ to latitude 56°. 'A general name given to the native tribes of
New-Caledonia.' _Morse's Report_, p. 371. 'All the natives of the Upper
Fraser are called by the Hudson Bay Company, and indeed generally,
"Porteurs," or Carriers.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 298. 'Tokalis, Le Nord de
la Nouvelle Calédonie.' _Mofras, Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. 'Northern
part of New Caledonia.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
ix., p. 33. 'On the sources of Fraser's River.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._,
p. 178. 'Unter den Völkern des Tinné-Stammes, welche das Land westlich
von den Rocky Mountains bewohnen, nehmen die Takuli (Wasservolk) oder
Carriers den grössten Theil von Neu-Caledonien ein.' _Buschmann_,
_Athapask. Sprachst._, p. 152. 'Greater part of New Caledonia.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 31. 'Latitude of Queen Charlotte's
Island.' _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 427. 'From latitude 52°
30´, where it borders on the country of the Shoushaps, to latitude 56°,
including Simpson's River.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
vi., p. 202. 'South of the Sicannis and Straits Lake.' _Harmon's Jour._,
p. 196. They 'are divided into eleven clans, or minor tribes, whose
names are--beginning at the south--as follows: the Tautin, or Talkotin;
the Tsilkotin or Chilcotin; the Naskotin; the Thetliotin; the
Tsatsnotin; the Nulaautin; the Ntshaautin; the Natliautin; the
Nikozliautin; the Tatshiautin; and the Babine Indians.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 202. 'The principal tribes in
the country north of the Columbia regions, are the Chilcotins and the
Talcotins.' _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, p. 30. The Talcotins 'occupy the
territory above Fort Alexandria on Frazer River.' _Hazlitt's B. C._, p.
79. 'Spend much of their time at Bellhoula, in the Bentinck Inlet.'
_Mayne's B. C._, p. 299. The Calkobins 'inhabit New Caledonia, west of
the mountains.' _De Smet's Letters and Sketches_, p. 157. The
Nateotetains inhabit the country lying directly west from Stuart Lake on
either bank of the Nateotetain River. _Harmon's Jour._, p. 218. The
Naskootains lie along Frazer River from Frazer Lake. _Id._, p. 245.

The _Sicannis_ dwell in the Rocky Mountains between the Beaver Indians
on the east, and the Tacullies and Atnas on the west and south. _Id._,
p. 190. They live east of the Tacullies in the Rocky Mountain. _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 202. 'On the Rocky Mountains
near the Rapid Indians and West of them.' _Morse's Report_, p. 371.

The _Kutchins_ are a large nation, extending from the Mackenzie River
westward along the Yukon Valley to near the mouth of the river, with the
Eskimos on one side and the Koltshanes on the other. Buschmann, _Spuren
der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 713, places them on the sixty-fifth parallel of
latitude, and from 130° to 150° of longitude west from Greenwich. 'Das
Volk wohnt am Flusse Yukon oder Kwichpak und über ihm; es dehnt sich
nach Richardson's Karte auf dem 65ten Parallelkreise aus vom 130-150° W.
L. v. Gr., und gehört daher zur Hälfte dem britischen und zur Hälfte dem
russischen Nordamerika an.' They are located 'immediately to the
northward of the Hare Indians on both banks of Mackenzie's River.'
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 83. Gallatin, _Am. Antiq. Soc.
Transact._, vol. ii., p. 83, places their northern boundary in latitude
67° 27´. To the west of the Mackenzie the Loucheux interpose between the
Esquimaux 'and the Tinné, and spread westward until they come into the
neighborhood of the coast tribes of Beering's Sea.' _Richardson's
Jour._, vol. i., p. 377. 'The Kutchin may be said to inhabit the
territory extending from the Mackenzie, at the mouth of Peel's River,
lat. 68°, long. 134°, to Norton's sound, living principally upon the
banks of the Youcon and Porcupine Rivers, though several of the tribes
are situated far inland, many days' journey from either river.' _Jones_,
in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 320. 'They commence somewhere about the
65th degree of north latitude, and stretch westward from the Mackenzie
to Behring's straits.' 'They are divided into many petty tribes, each
having its own chief, as the Tatlit-Kutchin (Peel River Indians),
Ta-Kuth-Kutchin (Lapiene's House Indians), Kutch-a-Kutchin (Youcan
Indians), Touchon-ta-Kutchin (Wooded-country Indians), and many others.'
_Kirby_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, pp. 417, 418.

The Degothi-Kutchin, or Loucheux, Quarrellers, inhabit the west bank of
the Mackenzie between the Hare Indians and Eskimos. The Loucheux are on
the Mackenzie between the Arctic circle and the sea. _Simpson's Nar._,
p. 103.

The Vanta-Kutchin occupy 'the banks of the Porcupine, and the country to
the north of it.' 'Vanta-kutshi (people of the lakes), I only find that
they belong to the Porcupine River.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 294. They
'inhabit the territory north of the head-waters of the Porcupine,
somewhat below Lapierre's House.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 430.

The Natche-Kutchin, or Gens de Large, dwell to the 'north of the
Porcupine River.' 'These extend on the north bank to the mouth of the
Porcupine.' _Dall's Alaska_, pp. 109, 430.

'Neyetse-Kutshi, (people of the open country), I only find that they
belong to the Porcupine river.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 294. Whymper's
map calls them Rat Indians.

'The Na-tsik-Kut-chin inhabit the high ridge of land between the Yukon
and the Arctic Sea.' _Hardisty_, in _Dall's Alaska_, p. 197.

The Kukuth-Kutchin 'occupy the country south of the head-waters of the
Porcupine.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 430.

The Tutchone Kutchin, Gens de Foux, or crow people, dwell upon both
sides of the Yukon about Fort Selkirk, above the Han Kutchin. _Id._, pp.
109, 429.

'Tathzey-Kutshi, or people of the ramparts, the Gens du Fou of the
French Canadians, are spread from the upper parts of the Peel and
Porcupine Rivers, within the British territory, to the river of the
Mountain-men, in the Russian. The upper Yukon is therefore their
occupancy. They fall into four bands: _a_, the Tratsè-kutshi, or people
of the fork of the river; _b_, the Kutsha-kutshi; _c_, the Zèkà-thaka
(Ziunka-kutshi), people on this side, (or middle people); and, _d_, the
Tanna-kutshi, or people of the bluffs.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 293.

The Han-Kutchin, An-Kutchin Gens de Bois, or wood people, inhabit the
Yukon above Porcupine River. _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 254. They are found
on the Yukon next below the Crows, and above Fort Yukon. _Dall's
Alaska_, p. 109. 'Han-Kutchi residing at the sources of the Yukon.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 396.

'The Artez-Kutshi, or the tough (hard) people. The sixty-second parallel
cuts through their country; so that they lie between the head-waters of
the Yukon and the Pacific.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 293. See also
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 397.

The Kutcha-Kutchins, or Kot-à-Kutchin, 'are found in the country near
the junction of the Porcupine and the Yukon.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 431.

The Tenan-Kutchin, or Tananahs, Gens de Buttes, or people of the
mountains, occupy an unexplored domain south-west of Fort Yukon. Their
country is drained by the Tananah River. _Dall's Alaska_, p. 108. They
are placed on Whymper's map about twenty miles south of the Yukon, in
longitude 151° west from Greenwich. On Whymper's map are placed: the
Birch Indians, or Gens de Bouleau on the south bank of the Yukon at its
junction with Porcupine River; the Gens de Milieu, on the north bank of
the Yukon, in longitude 150°; the Nuclukayettes on both banks in
longitude 152°; and the Newicarguts, on the south bank between longitude
153° and 155°.

The _Kenais_ occupy the peninsula of Kenai and the surrounding country.
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 562. 'An den Ufern und den Umgebungen von
Cook's Inlet und um die Seen Iliamna und Kisshick.' _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethn._, p. 103.

The Unakatana Yunakakhotanas, live 'on the Yukon between Koyukuk and
Nuklukahyet.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 53.

'Junakachotana, ein Stamm, welcher auf dem Flusse Jun-a-ka wohnt.'
_Sagoskin_, in _Denkschr. der russ. geo. Gesell._, p. 324. 'Die
Junnakachotana, am Flusse Jukchana oder Junna (so wird der obere Lauf
des Kwichpakh genannt) zwischen den Nebenflüssen Nulato und Junnaka, so
wie am untern Laufe des letztgenannten Flusses.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn.
Skiz._, p. 6.

'Die Junnachotana bewohnen den obern Lauf des Jukchana oder Junna von
der Mündung des Junnaka.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 6.

'Die Jugelnuten haben ihre Ansiedelungen am Kwichpakh, am Tschageljuk
und an der Mündung des Innoka. Die Inkalichljuaten, am obern Laufe des
Innoka. Die Thljegonchotana am Flusse Thljegon, der nach der
Vereinigung mit dem Tatschegno den Innoka bildet.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn.
Skiz._, pp. 6, 7. 'They extend virtually from the confluence of the
Co-Yukuk River to Nuchukayette at the junction of the Tanana with the
Yukon.' 'They also inhabit the banks of the Co-yukuk and other
interior rivers.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 204.

The _Ingaliks_ inhabit the Yukon from Nulato south to below the Anvic
River. See _Whymper's Map_. 'The tribe extends from the edge of the
wooded district near the sea to and across the Yukon below Nulato, on
the Yukon and its affluents to the head of the delta, and across the
portage to the Kuskoquim River and its branches.' _Dall's Alaska_, p.
28. 'Die Inkiliken, am untern Laufe des Junna südlich von Nulato.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 6. 'An dem ganzen Ittege wohnt der Stamm der
Inkiliken, welcher zu dem Volk der Ttynai gehört.' _Sagoskin_, in
_Denkschr. der russ. geo. Gesell._, p. 341. 'An den Flüssen Kwichpack,
Kuskokwim und anderen ihnen zuströmenden Flüssen.' _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethn._, p. 120. 'The Ingaliks living on the north side of the Yukon
between it and the Kaiyuh Mountains (known as Takaitsky to the
Russians), bear the name of Kaiyuhkatana or "lowland people," and the
other branches of Ingaliks have similar names, while preserving their
general tribal name.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 53. On Whymper's map they are
called T'kitskes and are situated east of the Yukon in latitude 64°
north.

The _Koltschanes_ occupy the territory inland between the sources of the
Kuskoquim and Copper Rivers. 'They extend as far inland as the watershed
between the Copper-river and the Yukon.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 292.
'Die Galzanen oder Koltschanen (d. h. Fremdlinge, in der Sprache der
Athnaer) bewohnen das Innere des Landes zwischen den Quellflüssen des
Kuskokwim bis zu den nördlichen Zuflüssen des Athna oder Kupferstromes.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 7. 'Diejenigen Stämme, welche die nördlichen
und östlichen, dem Atna zuströmenden Flüsse und Flüsschen bewohnen, eben
so die noch weiter, jenseits der Gebirge lebenden, werden von den
Atnaern Koltschanen, d. h. Fremdlinge, genannt.' _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethn._, p. 101. 'North of the river Atna.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p.
96.

The Nehannes occupy the territory midway between Mount St. Elias and the
Mackenzie River, from Fort Selkirk and the Stakine River. 'According to
Mr. Isbister, range the country between the Russian settlements on the
Stikine River and the Rocky Mountains.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 295.
The Nohhannies live 'upon the upper branches of the Rivière aux Liards.'
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 87. They 'inhabit the angle between that
branch and the great bend of the trunk of the river, and are neighbours
of the Beaver Indians.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 6. The region
which includes the Lewis, or Tahco, and Pelly Rivers, with the valley of
the Chilkaht River, is occupied by tribes known to the Hudson Bay
voyageurs as Nehannees. Those on the Pelly and Macmillan rivers call
themselves Affats-tena. Some of them near Liard's River call themselves
Daho-tena or Acheto-tena, and others are called Sicannees by the
voyageurs. Those near Francis Lake are known as Mauvais Monde, or Slavé
Indians. About Fort Selkirk they have been called Gens des Foux.

The _Kenai_ proper, or Kenai-tena, or Thnaina, inhabit the peninsula of
Kenai, the shores of Cook Inlet, and thence westerly across the Chigmit
Mountains, nearly to the Kuskoquim River. They 'inhabit the country near
Cook's Inlet, and both shores of the Inlet as far south as Chugachik
Bay.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 430. 'Die eigentlichen Thnaina bewohnen die
Halbinsel Kenai und ziehen sich von da westlich über das
Tschigmit-Gebirge zum Mantaschtano oder Tchalchukh, einem südlichen
Nebenflusse des Kuskokwim.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 7. 'Dieses--an
den Ufern und den Umgebungen von Cook's Inlet und um die Seen Iliamna
und Kisshick lebende Volk gehört zu dem selben Stamme wie die Galzanen
oder Koltschanen, Atnaer, und Koloschen.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p.
103. 'Les _Kenayzi_ habitent la côte occidentale de l'entrée de Cook ou
du golfe Kenayskaja.' _Humboldt_, _Pol._, tom. i., p. 348. 'The Indians
of Cook's Inlet and adjacent waters are called "Kanisky." They are
settled along the shore of the inlet and on the east shore of the
peninsula.' 'East of Cook's Inlet, in Prince William's Sound, there are
but few Indians, they are called "Nuchusk."' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p.
575.

The _Atnas_ occupy the Atna or Copper River from near its mouth to near
its source. 'At the mouth of the Copper River.' _Latham's Comp. Phil._,
vol. viii., p. 392. 'Die Athnaer, am Athna oder Kupferflusse.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 7. 'On the upper part of the Atna or Copper
River are a little-known tribe of the above name [viz., Ah-tena]. They
have been called Atnaer and Kolshina by the Russians, and Yellow Knife
or Nehaunee by the English.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 429. 'Diese kleine,
jetzt ungefähr aus 60 Familien bestehende, Völkerschaft wohnt an den
Ufern des Flusses Atna und nennt sich Atnaer.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._,
p. 97.


FOOTNOTES:

[1] Of late, custom gives to the main land of Russian America, the
name _Alaska_; to the peninsula, _Aliaska_; and to a large island of the
Aleutian Archipelago, _Unalashka_. The word of which the present name
Alaska is a corruption, is first encountered in the narrative of
Betsevin, who, in 1761, wintered on the peninsula, supposing it to be
an island. The author of _Neue Nachrichten von denen neuentdekten
Insuln_, writes, page 53, 'womit man nach der abgelegensten Insul
_Aläksu_ oder _Alachschak_ über gieng.' Again, at page 57, in giving a
description of the animals on the supposed island he calls it 'auf der
Insul _Aläsku_.' 'This,' says Coxe, _Russian Discoveries_, p. 72, 'is
probably the same island which is laid down in Krenitzin's chart under
the name of _Alaxa_.' _Unalaschka_ is given by the author of _Neue
Nachrichten_, p. 74, in his narrative of the voyage of Drusinin, who
hunted on that island in 1763. At page 115 he again mentions the
'grosse Insul _Aläksu_.' On page 125, in Glottoff's log-book, 1764, is
the entry: 'Den 28sten May der Wind Ostsüdost; man kam an die Insul
_Alaska_ oder _Aläksu_.' Still following the author of _Neue
Nachrichten_, we have on page 166, in an account of the voyages of
Otseredin and Popoff, who hunted upon the Aleutian Islands in 1769,
mention of a report by the natives 'that beyond Unimak is said to be a
large land _Aläschka_, the extent of which the islanders do not know.'
On Cook's Atlas, voyage 1778, the peninsula is called _Alaska_, and
the island _Oonalaska_, La Pérouse, in his atlas, map No. 15, 1786,
calls the peninsula _Alaska_, and the island _Ounalaska_. The
Spaniards, in the _Atlas para el Viage de las goletas Sutil y
Mexicana_, 1792, write _Alasca_ for the peninsula, and for the island
_Unalaska_. Sauer, in his account of Billings' expedition, 1790, calls
the main land _Alaska_, the peninsula _Alyaska_, and the island
_Oonalashka_. Wrangell, in _Baer's Statistische und ethnographische
Nachrichten_, p. 123, writes for the peninsula _Alaska_ and for the
island _Unalaschka_. Holmberg, _Ethnographische Skizzen_, p. 78, calls
the island _Unalaschka_ and the peninsula _Aljaska_. Dall, _Alaska_,
p. 529, says that the peninsula or main land was called by the natives
_Alayeksa_, and the island _Nagun-alayeksa_, 'or the land near
Alayeksa.' Thus we have, from which to choose, the orthography of the
earliest voyagers to this coast--Russian, English, French, Spanish,
German, and American. The simple word _Alaksu_, after undergoing many
contortions, some authors writing it differently on different pages of
the same book, has at length become _Alaska_, as applied to the main
land; _Aliaska_ for the peninsula, and _Unalashka_ as the name of the
island. As these names are all corruptions from some one original
word, whatever that may be, I see no reason for giving the error three
different forms. I therefore write Alaska for the mainland and
peninsula and Unalaska for the island.

[2] The name is said, by Charlevoix 'to be derived from the language of
the Abenaqui, a tribe of Algonquins in Canada, who border upon them and
call them "Esquimantsic."' 'L'origine de leur nom n'est pas certain.
Toutefois il y a bien de l'apparence qu'il vient du mot Abenaqui,
_esquimantsic_ qui veut dire "mangeur de viande cruë."' See _Prichard's
Physical History of Mankind_, vol. v., pp. 367, 373. 'French writers
call them Eskimaux.' 'English authors, in adopting this term, have most
generally written it "Esquimaux," but Dr. Latham, and other recent
ethnologists, write it "Eskimos," after the Danish orthography.'
_Richardson's Polar Regions_, p. 298. 'Probably of Canadian origin, and
the word, which in French orthography is written Esquimaux, was probably
originally _Ceux qui miaux_ (_miaulent_).' _Richardson's Journal_, vol.
i., p. 340. 'Said to be a corruption of _Eskimantik_, _i. e._
raw-fish-eaters, a nickname given them by their former neighbors, the
Mohicans.' _Seemann's Voyage of the Herald_, vol. ii., p. 49. Eskimo is
derived from a word indicating sorcerer or Shamán. 'The northern Tinneh
use the word _Uskeemi_.' _Dall's Alaska_, pp. 144, 531. 'Their own
national designation is "Keralit."' _Morton's Crania Americana_, p. 52.
They 'call themselves "Innuit," which signifies "man."' _Armstrong's
Narrative_, p. 191.

[3] It is not without reluctance that I change a word from the commonly
accepted orthography. Names of places, though originating in error, when
once established, it is better to leave unchanged. Indian names, coming
to us through Russian, German, French, or Spanish writers, should be
presented in English by such letters as will best produce the original
Indian pronunciation. European personal names, however, no matter how
long, nor how commonly they may have been erroneously used, should be
immediately corrected. Every man who can spell is supposed to be able to
give the correct orthography of his own name, and his spelling should in
every instance be followed, when it can be ascertained. Veit Bering,
anglicè Vitus Behring, was of a Danish family, several members of which
were well known in literature before his own time. In Danish writings,
as well as among the biographies of Russian admirals, where may be found
a fac-simile of his autograph, the name is spelled _Bering_. It is so
given by Humboldt, and by the _Dictionnaire de la Conversation_. The
author of the _Neue Nachrichten von denen neuentdekten Insuln_, one of
the oldest printed works on Russian discoveries in America; as well as
Müller, who was the companion of Bering for many years; and
Buschmann,--all write _Bering_. Baer remarks: 'Ich schreibe ferner
Bering, obgleich es jetzt fast allgemein geworden ist, Behring zu
schreiben, und auch die Engländer und Franzosen sich der letztern
Schreibart bequemt haben. Bering war ein Däne und seine Familie war
lange vor ihm in der Literatur-Geschichte bekannt. Sie hat ihren Namen
auf die von mir angenommene Weise drucken lassen. Derselben Schreibart
bediente sich auch der Historiograph Müller, der längere Zeit unter
seinen Befehlen gedient hatte, und Pallas.' _Statistische und
ethnographische Nachrichten_, p. 328. There is no doubt that the famous
navigator wrote his name _Bering_, and that the letter 'h' was
subsequently inserted to give the Danish sound to the letter 'e.' To
accomplish the same purpose, perhaps, Coxe, Langsdorff, Beechey, and
others write _Beering_.

[4] 'Die Kadjacker im Gegentheil nähern sich mehr den Amerikanischen
Stämmen und gleichen in ihrem Aeussern gar nicht den Eskimos oder den
Asiatischen Völkern, wahrscheinlich haben sie durch die Vermischung mit
den Stämmen Amerika's ihre ursprüngliche Asiatische äussere Gestalt und
Gesichtsbildung verloren und nur die Sprache beibehalten.' _Baer_,
_Stat. u. Ethn. Nachr._, p. 124. 'Ils ressemblent beaucoup aux indigènes
des îles Curiles, dépendantes du Japon.' _Laplace_, _Circumnavigation de
l'Artémise_, vol. vi., p. 45.

[5] 'The tribes crowded together on the shores of Beering's Sea within a
comparatively small extent of coast-line, exhibit a greater variety,
both in personal appearance and dialect, than that which exists between
the Western Eskimos and their distant countrymen in Labrador; and
ethnologists have found some difficulty in classifying them properly.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 363.

[6] For authorities, see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter.

[7] _Collinson_, in _London Geographical Society Journal_, vol. xxv., p.
201.

[8] 'Im nordwestlichsten Theile von Amerika fand Franklin den Boden,
Mitte August, schon in einer Tiefe von 16 Zoll gefroren. Richardson sah
an einem östlicheren Punkte der Küste, in 71° 12´ Breite, die Eisschicht
im Julius aufgethaut bis 3 Fuss unter der krautbedeckten Oberfläche.'
_Humboldt_, _Kosmos_, tom. iv., p. 47.

[9] _Silliman's Journal_, vol. xvi., p. 130. _Seemann's Voy. Herald_,
vol. ii., p. 13. _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 289.

[10] 'Characteristic of the Arctic regions.' _Silliman's Jour._, vol.
xvi., p. 143.

[11] At Kotzebue Sound, in July, Choris writes: 'Le sol était émaillé de
fleurs de couleurs variées, dans tous les endroits où la neige venait de
fondre.' _Voyage Pittoresque_, pt. ii., p. 8.

[12] 'In der Einöde der Inseln von Neu-Sibirien finden grosse Heerden
von Rennthieren und zahllose Lemminge noch hinlängliche Nahrung.'
_Humboldt_, _Kosmos_, vol. iv., p. 42.

[13] 'Thermometer rises as high as 61° Fahr. With a sun shining
throughout the twenty-four hours the growth of plants is rapid in the
extreme.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 15.

[14] 'During the period of incubation of the aquatic birds, every hole
and projecting crag on the sides of this rock is occupied by them. Its
shores resound with the chorus of thousands of the feathery tribe.'
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 349.

[15] 'Their complexion, if divested of its usual covering of dirt, can
hardly be called dark.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 51. 'In
comparison with other Americans, of a white complexion.' _McCulloh's
Aboriginal History of America_, p. 20. 'White Complexion, not Copper
.' _Dobbs' Hudson's Bay_, p. 50. 'Almost as white as Europeans.'
_Kalm's Travels_, vol. ii., p. 263. 'Not darker than that of a
Portuguese.' _Lyon's Journal_, p. 224. 'Scarcely a shade darker than a
deep brunette.' _Parry's 3rd Voyage_, p. 493. 'Their complexion is
light.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 381. 'Eye-witnesses agree in their superior
lightness of complexion over the Chinooks.' _Pickering's Races of Man_,
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 28. At Coppermine River they are 'of a
dirty copper color; some of the women, however, are more fair and
ruddy.' _Hearne's Travels_, p. 166. 'Considerably fairer than the Indian
tribes.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 110. At Cape Bathurst 'The complexion is
swarthy, chiefly, I think, from exposure and the accumulation of dirt.'
_Armstrong's Nar._, p. 192. 'Shew little of the copper-colour of the Red
Indians.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 303. 'From exposure to weather
they become dark after manhood.' _Richardson's Nar._, vol. i., p. 343.

[16] 'Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active.'
_Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 50. 'A stout, well-looking
people.' _Simpson's Nar._, pp. 110, 114. 'Below the mean of the
Caucasian race.' _Dr. Hayes_, in _Historic. Magazine_, vol. i., p. 6.
'They are thick set, have a decided tendency to obesity, and are seldom
more than five feet in height.' _Figuier's Human Race_, p. 211. At
Kotzebue Sound, 'tallest man was five feet nine inches; tallest woman,
five feet four inches.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 360. 'Average
height was five feet four and a half inches.' At the mouth of the
Mackenzie they are of 'middle stature, strong and muscular.'
_Armstrong's Nar._, pp. 149, 192. 'Low, broad-set, not well made, nor
strong.' _Hearne's Trav._, p. 166. 'The men were in general stout.'
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., p. 29. 'Of a middle size, robust make, and
healthy appearance.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 209. 'Men vary in
height from about five feet to five feet ten inches.' _Richardson's Pol.
Reg._, p. 304. 'Women were generally short.' 'Their figure inclines to
squat.' _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 224.

[17] 'Tous les individus qui appartiennent à la famille des Eskimaux, se
distinguent par la petitesse de leurs pieds et de leurs mains, et la
grosseur énorme de leurs têtes.' _De Pauw_, _Recherches Phil._, tom. i.,
p. 262. 'The hands and feet are delicately small and well formed.'
_Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 304. 'Small and beautifully made.'
_Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 50. At Point Barrow, 'their hands,
notwithstanding the great amount of manual labour to which they are
subject, were beautifully small and well-formed, a description equally
applicable to their feet.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 101.

[18] 'The head is of good size, rather flat superiorly, but very fully
developed posteriorly, evidencing a preponderance of the animal
passions; the forehead was, for the most part, low and receding; in a
few it was somewhat vertical, but narrow.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 193.
Their cranial characteristics 'are the strongly developed coronary
ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and its greater capacity compared
with the Indian cranium. The former is essentially pyramidal, while the
latter more nearly approaches a cubic shape.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 376.
'Greatest breadth of the face is just below the eyes, the forehead
tapers upwards, ending narrowly, but not acutely, and in like manner the
chin is a blunt cone.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 302. Dr Gall, whose
observations on the same skulls presented him for phrenological
observation are published by M. Louis Choris, thus comments upon the
head of a female Eskimo from Kotzebue Sound: 'L'organe de l'instinct de
la propagation se trouve extrêmement développé pour une tête de femme.'
He finds the musical and intellectual organs poorly developed; while
vanity and love of children are well displayed. 'En général,' sagely
concluded the doctor, 'cette tête femme présentait une organization
aussi heureuse que celle de la plupart des femmes d'Europe.' _Voy.
Pitt._, pt. ii., p. 16.

[19] 'Large fat round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel eyes,
eyebrows slanting like the Chinese, and wide mouths.' _Beechey's Voy._,
vol. i., p. 345. 'Broad, flat faces, high cheekbones.' _Dr Hayes_, in
_Hist. Mag._, vol. i., p. 6. Their 'teeth are regular, but, from the
nature of their food, and from their practice of preparing hides by
chewing, are worn down almost to the gums at an early age.' _Seemann's
Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 51. At Hudson Strait, broad, flat, pleasing
face; small and generally sore eyes; given to bleeding at the nose.
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., p. 29. 'Small eyes and very high cheek
bones.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 209. 'La face platte, la bouche
ronde, le nez petit sans être écrasé, le blanc de l'oeil jaunâtre,
l'iris noir et peu brillant.' _De Pauw_, _Recherches Phil._, tom. i., p.
262. They have 'small, wild-looking eyes, large and very foul teeth, the
hair generally black, but sometimes fair, and always in extreme
disorder.' _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 467. 'As contrasted with the
other native American races, their eyes are remarkable, being narrow and
more or less oblique.' _Richardson's Nar._, vol. i., p. 343. Expression
of face intelligent and good-natured. Both sexes have mostly round, flat
faces, with Mongolian cast. _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 223.

[20] 'Allowed to hang down in a club to the shoulder.' _Richardson's
Pol. Reg._, p. 305. Hair cut 'close round the crown of the head, and
thereby, leaving a bushy ring round the lower part of it.' _Beechey's
Voy._, vol. i., p. 345. 'Their hair is straight, black, and coarse.'
_Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 51. A fierce expression
characterized them on the Mackenzie River, which 'was increased by the
long disheveled hair flowing about their shoulders.' _Armstrong's Nar._,
p. 149. At Kotzebue Sound 'their hair was done up in large plaits on
each side of the head.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 360. At Camden Bay,
lofty top-knots; at Point Barrow, none. At Coppermine River the hair is
worn short, unshaven on the crown, and bound with strips of deer-skin.
_Simpson's Nar._, pp. 121, 157. Some of the men have bare crowns, but
the majority wear the hair flowing naturally. The women cut the hair
short in front, level with the eyebrows. At Humphrey Point it is twisted
with some false hair into two immense bows on the back of the head.
_Hooper's Tuski_, p. 225. 'Their hair hangs down long, but is cut quite
short on the crown of the head.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 210.
Hair cut like 'that of a Capuchin friar.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
ii., p. 51.

[21] Crantz says the Greenlanders root it out. 'The old men had a few
gray hairs on their chins, but the young ones, though grown up, were
beardless.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 332. 'The possession of a
beard is very rare, but a slight moustache is not infrequent.'
_Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 51. 'As the men grow old, they
have more hair on the face than Red Indians.' _Richardson's Nar._, vol.
i., p. 343. 'Generally an absence of beard and whiskers.' _Armstrong's
Nar._, p. 193. 'Beard is universally wanting.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol.
i., p. 252. 'The young men have little beard, but some of the old ones
have a tolerable shew of long gray hairs on the upper lip and chin.'
_Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 303. 'All have beards.' _Bell's Geography_,
vol. v., p. 294. Kirby affirms that in Alaska 'many of them have a
profusion of whiskers and beard.' _Smithsonian Report_, 1864, p. 416.

[22] 'The lip is perforated for the labret as the boy approaches
manhood, and is considered an important era in his life.' _Armstrong's
Nar._, p. 194. 'Some wore but one, others one on each side of the
mouth.' _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 224. 'Lip ornaments, with the males, appear
to correspond with the tattooing of the chins of the females.'
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 384.

[23] 'The women tattoo their faces in blue lines produced by making
stitches with a fine needle and thread, smeared with lampblack.'
_Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 305. Between Kotzebue Sound and Icy Cape,
'all the women were tattooed upon the chin with three small lines.' They
blacken 'the edges of the eyelids with plumbago, rubbed up with a little
saliva upon a piece of slate.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 360. At
Point Barrow, the women have on the chin 'a vertical line about half an
inch broad in the centre, extending from the lip, with a parallel but
narrower one on either side of it, a little apart. Some had two vertical
lines protruding from either angle of the mouth; which is a mark of
their high position in the tribe.' _Armstrong's Nar._, pp. 101, 149. On
Bering Isle, men as well as women tattoo. 'Plusieurs hommes avaient le
visage tatoué.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, pt. ii., p. 5.

[24] 'Give a particularly disgusting look when the bones are taken out,
as the saliva continually runs over the chin.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol.
i., p. 227. At Camden, labrets were made of large blue beads, glued to
pieces of ivory. None worn at Coppermine River. _Simpson's Nar._, pp.
119, 347. 'Many of them also transfix the septum of the nose with a
dentalium shell or ivory needle.' _Richardson's Nar._, vol. i., p. 355.

[25] 'These natives almost universally use a very unpleasant liquid for
cleansing purposes. They tan and soften the seal-skin used for
boot-soles with it.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 161. 'Females occasionally
wash their hair and faces with their own urine, the odour of which is
agreeable to both sexes, and they are well accustomed to it, as this
liquor is kept in tubs in the porches of their huts for use in dressing
the deer and seal skins.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 304. 'Show much
skill in the preparation of whale, seal, and deer-skins.' _Richardson's
Nar._, vol. i., p. 357. They have a great antipathy to water.
'Occasionally they wash their bodies with a certain animal fluid, but
even this process is seldom gone through.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
ii., p. 62.

[26] 'During the summer, when on whaling or sealing excursions, a coat
of the gut of the whale, and boots of seal or walrus hide, are used as
water-proof coverings.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 53. At
Point Barrow they wear 'Kamleikas or water-proof shirts, made of the
entrails of seals.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 156. Women wear close-fitting
breeches of seal-skin. _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 224. 'They are on the whole
as good as the best oil-skins in England.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p.
340.

[27] The dress of the two sexes is much alike, the outer shirt or jacket
having a pointed skirt before and behind, those of the female being
merely a little longer. 'Pretty much the same for both sexes.'
_Figuier's Human Race_, p. 214.

[28] 'They have besides this a jacket made of eider drakes' skins sewed
together, which, put on underneath their other dress, is a tolerable
protection against a distant arrow, and is worn in times of hostility.'
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 340. Messrs Dease and Simpson found those
of Point Barrow 'well clothed in seal and reindeer skins.' _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. viii., p. 221. 'The finest dresses are made of the
skins of unborn deer.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 306. 'The
half-developed skin of a fawn that has never lived, obtained by driving
the doe till her offspring is prematurely born.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p.
160. Eskimo women pay much regard to their toilet. _Richardson's Nar._,
vol. i., p. 355.

[29] Their dress consists of two suits. _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
ii., p. 52. 'Reindeer skin--the fur next the body.' _Armstrong's Nar._,
p. 149. 'Two women, dressed like men, looked frightfully with their
tattooed faces.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 191. Seal-skin jackets,
bear-skin trowsers, and white-fox skin caps, is the male costume at
Hudson Strait. The female dress is the same, with the addition of a hood
for carrying children. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., p. 29. At Camden Bay,
reindeer-skin jackets and water-proof boots. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 119.
At Coppermine River, 'women's boots which are not stiffened out with
whalebone, and the tails of their jackets are not over one foot long.'
_Hearne's Travels_, p. 166. Deer-skin, hair outside, ornamented with
white fur. _Kirby_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 416. The indoor
dress of the eastern Eskimo is of reindeer-skin, with the fur inside.
'When they go out, another entire suit with the fur outside is put over
all, and a pair of watertight sealskin moccasins, with similar mittens
for their hands.' _Silliman's Journal_, vol. xvi., p. 146. The frock at
Coppermine River has a tail something like a dress-coat. _Simpson's
Nar._, p. 350.

[30] 'Some of them are even half-naked, as a summer heat, even of 10° is
insupportable to them.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 205.

[31] 'Down to the frozen subsoil.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 310.
'Some are wholly above ground, others have their roof scarcely raised
above it.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 301.

[32] 'Formed of stakes placed upright in the ground about six feet high,
either circular or oval in form, from which others inclined so as to
form a sloping roof.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 149. 'Half underground,
with the entrance more or less so.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 13. 'They are
more than half underground,' and are 'about twenty feet square and eight
feet deep.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 57.

[33] 'The whole building is covered with earth to the thickness of a
foot or more, and in a few years it becomes overgrown with grass,
looking from a short distance like a small tumulus.' _Richardson's Pol.
Reg._, p. 310.

[34] A smaller drift-wood house is sometimes built with a side-door.
'Light and air are admitted by a low door at one end.' _Richardson's
Nar._, vol. i., p. 245.

[35] 'The fire in the centre is never lit merely for the sake of warmth,
as the lamps are sufficient for that purpose.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_,
vol. ii., p. 58. 'They have no fire-places; but a stone placed in the
centre serves for a support to the lamp, by which the little cooking
that is required is performed.' _Richardson's Nar._, vol. i., p. 348.

[36] 'On trouva plusieurs huttes construites en bois, moitié dans la
terre, moitié en dehors.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, pt. ii., p. 6. At
Beaufort Bay are wooden huts. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 177. At Toker Point,
'built of drift-wood and sods of turf or mud.' _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 343.
At Cape Krusenstern the houses 'appeared like little round hills, with
fences of whale-bone.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 237. 'They
construct yourts or winter residences upon those parts of the shore
which are adapted to their convenience, such as the mouths of rivers,
the entrances of inlets, or jutting points of land, but always upon low
ground.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 300.

[37] 'I was surprised at the vast quantity of driftwood accumulated on
its shore, several acres being thickly covered with it, and many pieces
at least sixty feet in length.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 104.

[38] 'Eastern Esquimaux never seem to think of fire as a means of
imparting warmth.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 346.

[39] Their houses are 'moveable tents, constructed of poles and skins.'
_Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 469. 'Neither wind nor watertight.'
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 361. At Cape Smythe, Hooper saw seven
Eskimo tents of seal skin. _Tuski_, p. 216. 'We entered a small tent of
morse-skins, made in the form of a canoe.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i.,
p. 226. At Coppermine River their tents in summer are of deer-skin with
the hair on, and circular. _Hearne's Travels_, p. 167. At St Lawrence
Island, Kotzebue saw no settled dwellings, 'only several small tents
built of the ribs of whales, and covered with the skin of the morse.'
_Voyage_, vol. i., pp. 190-191.

[40] 'In parallelograms, and so adjusted as to form a rotunda, with an
arched roof.' _Silliman's Jour._, vol. xvi., p. 146. _Parry's Voy._,
vol. v., p. 200. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 44.

[41] 'These houses are durable, the wind has little effect on them, and
they resist the thaw until the sun acquires very considerable power.'
_Richardson's Nar._, vol. i., p. 350.

[42] The snow houses are called by the natives _igloo_, and the
underground huts _yourts_, or _yurts_, and their tents _topeks_. Winter
residence, 'iglut.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 310. Beechey,
describing the same kind of buildings, calls them 'yourts.' _Voy._, vol.
i., p. 366. Tent of skins, tie-poo-eet; topak; toopek. Tent, too-pote.
_Ibid._, vol. ii., p. 381. 'Yourts.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii.,
p. 59. Tent, topek. Dall says Richardson is wrong, and that igloo or
iglu is the name of ice houses. _Alaska_, p. 532. House, iglo. Tent,
tuppek. _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 378. Snow house, eegloo.
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 47.

[43] They are so fond of the warm blood of dying animals that they
invented an instrument to secure it. See _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p.
344. 'Whale-blubber, their great delicacy, is sickening and dangerous to
a European stomach.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 192.

[44] Hearne says that the natives on the Arctic coast of British America
are so disgustingly filthy that when they have bleeding at the nose they
lick up their own blood. _Travels_, p. 161. 'Salt always appeared an
abomination.' 'They seldom cook their food, the frost apparently acting
as a substitute for fire.' _Collinson_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xxv., p. 201. At Kotzebue Sound they 'seem to subsist entirely on
the flesh of marine animals, which they, for the most part, eat raw.'
_Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 239.

[45] 'During the two summer months they hunt and live on swans, geese,
and ducks.' _Richardson's Nar._, vol. i., p. 346.

[46] 'Secures winter feasts and abundance of oil for the lamps of a
whole village, and there is great rejoicing.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._,
p. 313. 'The capture of the seal and walrus is effected in the same
manner. Salmon and other fish are caught in nets.' _Seemann's Voy.
Herald_, vol. ii., p. 61. 'Six small perforated ivory balls attached
separately to cords of sinew three feet long.' _Dease & Simpson_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. viii., 222.

[47] Near Smith River, a low piece of ground, two miles broad at the
beach, was found enclosed by double rows of turf set up to represent
men, narrowing towards a lake, into which reindeer were driven and
killed. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 135.

[48] 'Ce qu'il y a encore de frappant dans la complexion de ces
barbares, c'est l'extrême chaleur de leur estomac et de leur sang; ils
échauffent tellement, par leur haleine ardente, les huttes où ils
assemblent en hiver, que les Européans, s'y sentent étouffés, comme dans
une étuve dont la chaleur est trop graduée: aussi ne font-ils jamais de
feu dans leur habitation en aucune saison, et ils ignorent l'usage des
cheminées, sous le climat le plus froid du globe.' _De Pauw_,
_Recherches Phil._, tom. i., p. 261.

[49] 'The voluptuousness and Polygamy of the North American Indians,
under a temperature of almost perpetual winter, is far greater than that
of the most sensual tropical nations.' _Martin's British Colonies_, vol.
iii., p. 524.

[50] 'The seal is perhaps their most useful animal, not merely
furnishing oil and blubber, but the skin used for their canoes, thongs,
nets, lassoes, and boot soles.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 161.

[51] They have 'two sorts of bows; arrows pointed with iron, flint, and
bone, or blunt for birds; a dart with throwing-board for seals; a spear
headed with iron or copper, the handle about six feet long; and
formidable iron knives, equally adapted for throwing, cutting, or
stabbing.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 123. They ascended the Mackenzie in
former times as far as the Ramparts, to obtain flinty slate for lance
and arrow points. _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 213. At St. Lawrence
Island, they are armed with a knife two feet long. _Kotzebue's Voy._,
vol. i., pp. 193, 211. One weapon was 'a walrus tooth fixed to the end
of a wooden staff.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 343.

[52] At the Coppermine River, arrows are pointed with slate or copper;
hatchets also are made of a thick lump of copper. _Hearne's Travels_,
pp. 161-9.

[53] 'The old ivory knives and flint axes are now superseded, the
Russians having introduced the common European sheath-knife and hatchet.
The board for throwing darts is in use, and is similar to that of the
Polynesians.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 53.

[54] The 'baydare is a large open boat, quite flat, made of sea-lions'
skins,' and is used also for a tent. At Lantscheff Island it was 'a
large and probably leathern boat, with black sails.' _Kotzebue's Voy._,
vol. i., pp. 202, 216. 'The kaiyaks are impelled by a double-bladed
paddle, used with or without a central rest, and the umiaks with oars.'
Can 'propel their kaiyaks at the rate of seven miles an hour.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., pp. 238, 358. At Hudson Strait they have
canoes of seal-skin, like those of Greenland. _Franklin's Nar._, vol.
i., p. 29. Not a drop of water can penetrate the opening into the canoe.
_Müller's Voy._, p. 46. The kyak is like an English wager-boat. They are
'much stronger than their lightness would lead one to suppose.' _Hooper's
Tuski_, pp. 226, 228. _Oomiaks_ or family canoes of skin; float in six
inches of water. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 148. 'With these boats they make
long voyages, frequently visiting St. Lawrence Island.' _Dall's Alaska_,
p. 380. 'Frame work of wood--when this cannot be procured whalebone is
substituted.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 98. Mackenzie saw boats put
together with whalebone; 'sewed in some parts, and tied in others.'
_Voyages_, p. 67. They also use a sail. 'On découvrit au loin, dans la
baie, un bateau qui allait à la voile; elle était en cuir.' _Choris_,
_Voy. Pitt._, pt. ii., p. 6. They 'are the best means yet discovered by
mankind to go from place to place.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 43.
'It is wonderful what long voyages they make in these slight boats.'
_Campbell's Voy._, p. 114. 'The skin, when soaked with water, is
translucent; and a stranger placing his foot upon the flat yielding
surface at the bottom of the boat fancies it a frail security.'
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 346.

[55] The 'kajak is shaped like a weaver's shuttle.' _Richardson's Pol.
Reg._, p. 308. 'The paddle is in the hands of an Eskimo, what the
balancing pole is to a tight-rope dancer.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
ii., p. 56.

[56] 'The Koltshanen construct birch-bark canoes; but on the coast skin
boats or baidars, like the Eskimo kaiyaks and umiaks, are employed.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 405. If by accident a hole should be
made, it is stopped with a piece of the flesh of the sea-dog, or fat of
the whale, which they always carry with them. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt.
ii., p. 43. They strike 'the water with a quick, regular motion, first
on one side, and then on the other.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p.
516. 'Wiegen nie über 30 Pfund, und haben ein dünnes mit Leder
überzognes Gerippe.' _Neue Nachrichten_, p. 152. 'The Aleutians put to
sea with them in all weathers.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 40.
At the Shumagin Islands they 'are generally about twelve feet in length,
sharp at each end, and about twenty inches broad.' _Meares' Voy._, p.
x. They are as transparent as oiled paper. At Unalaska they are so light
that they can be carried in one hand. _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 157,
159.

[57] 'They average twelve feet in length, two feet six inches in height,
two feet broad, and have the fore part turned up in a gentle curve.'
'The floor resembles a grating without cross-bars, and is almost a foot
from the level of the snow.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 56.
At Saritscheff Island 'I particularly remarked two very neat sledges
made of morse and whalebones.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 201. 'To
make the runners glide smoothly, a coating of ice is given to them.'
_Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 309. At Norton Sound Captain Cook found
sledges ten feet long and twenty inches in width. A rail-work on each
side, and shod with bone; 'neatly put together; some with wooden pins,
but mostly with thongs or lashings of whale-bone.' _Third Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 442, 443. Mackenzie describes the sledges of British America,
_Voyages_, pp. 67, 68.

[58] 'About the size of those of Newfoundland, with shorter legs.'
_Dall's Alaska_, p. 25. 'Neither plentiful nor of a good class.'
_Whymper's Alaska_, p. 171.

[59] The dog will hunt bear and reindeer, but is afraid of its near
relative, the wolf. _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 474.

[60] 'An average length is four and a half feet.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p.
183. 'The Innuit snowshoe is small and nearly flat,' 'seldom over thirty
inches long.' 'They are always rights and lefts.' Ingalik larger;
Kutchin same style; Hudson Bay, thirty inches in length. _Dall's
Alaska_, pp. 190, 191. 'They are from two to three feet long, a foot
broad, and slightly turned up in front.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
ii., p. 60.

[61] 'Blue beads, cutlery, tobacco, and buttons, were the articles in
request.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 352. At Hudson Strait they have
a custom of licking with the tongue each article purchased, as a finish
to the bargain. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., 27. 'Articles of Russian
manufacture find their way from tribe to tribe along the American coast,
eastward to Repulse Bay.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 317.

[62] Are very anxious to barter arrows, seal-skin boots, and ivory
ornaments for tobacco, beads, and particularly for iron. _Hooper's
Tuski_, p. 217. Some of their implements at Coppermine River are: stone
kettles, wooden dishes, scoops and spoons made of buffalo or musk-ox
horns. _Hearne's Travels_, p. 168. At Point Barrow were ivory implements
with carved figures of sea-animals, ivory dishes, and a 'fine whalebone
net.' Also 'knives and other implements, formed of native copper' at
Coppermine River. _Simpson's Nar._, pp. 147, 156, 261. At Point Barrow
they 'have unquestionably an indirect trade with the Russians.'
_Simpson's Nar._, 161.

[63] 'They are very expert traders, haggle obstinately, always consult
together, and are infinitely happy when they fancy they have cheated
anybody.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 211. 'A thieving, cunning
race.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 110. They respect each other's property,
'but they steal without scruple from strangers.' _Richardson's Jour._,
vol. i., p. 352.

[64] 'They have a chief (Nalegak) in name, but do not recognize his
authority.' _Dr Hayes_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. i., p. 6. Government, 'a
combination of the monarchical and republican;' 'every one is on a
perfect level with the rest.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 59,
60. 'Chiefs are respected principally as senior men.' _Franklin's Nar._,
vol. ii., p. 41. At Kotzebue Sound, a robust young man was taken to be
chief, as all his commands were punctually obeyed. _Kotzebue's Voy._,
vol. i., p. 235. Quarrels 'are settled by boxing, the parties sitting
down and striking blows alternately, until one of them gives in.'
_Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 326. Every man governs his own family.
_Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 475. They 'have a strong respect for their
territorial rights, and maintain them with firmness.' _Richardson's
Jour._, vol. i., p. 351.

[65] They are 'horribly filthy in person and habits.' _Hooper's Tuski_,
p. 224. 'A husband will readily traffic with the virtue of a wife for
purposes of gain.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p. 195. 'More than once a wife
was proffered by her husband.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 356. As
against the above testimony, Seemann affirms: 'After the marriage
ceremony has been performed infidelity is rare.' _Voy. Herald_, vol.
ii., p. 66. 'These people are in the habit of collecting certain fluids
for the purposes of tanning; and that, judging from what took place in
the tent, in the most open manner, in the presence of all the family.'
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 407.

[66] 'Two men sometimes marry the same woman.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_,
vol. ii., p. 66. 'As soon as a girl is born, the young lad who wishes to
have her for a wife goes to her father's tent, and proffers himself. If
accepted, a promise is given which is considered binding, and the girl
is delivered to her betrothed husband at the proper age.' _Franklin's
Nar._, vol. ii., p. 41. Women 'carry their infants between their
reindeer-skin jackets and their naked backs.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 121.
'All the drudgery falls upon the women; even the boys would transfer
their loads to their sisters.' _Collinson_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xxv., p. 201.

[67] The '_Kashim_ is generally built by the joint labour of the
community.' _Richardson's Pol. Reg._, p. 311.

[68] 'Their dance is of the rudest kind, and consists merely in violent
motion of the arms and legs.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 63.
They make 'the most comical motions with the whole body, without
stirring from their place.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p. 192. Their
song consisted of the words: 'Hi, Yangah yangah; ha ha, yangah--with
variety only in the inflection of voice.' _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 225. When
heated by the dance, even the women were stripped to their breeches.
_Simpson's Nar._, p. 158. 'An old man, all but naked, jumped into the
ring, and was beginning some indecent gesticulations, when his
appearance not meeting with our approbation he withdrew.' _Beechey's
Voy._, vol. i., p. 396.

[69] 'C'était la plus grande marque d'amitié qu'ils pouvaient nous
donner.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, pt. ii., p. 5. 'They came up to me one
after the other--each of them embraced me, rubbed his nose hard against
mine, and ended his caresses by spitting in his hands and wiping them
several times over my face.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 192, 195.

[70] 'Their personal bravery is conspicuous, and they are the only
nation on the North American Continent who oppose their enemies face to
face in open fight.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 244. 'Simple,
kind people; very poor, very filthy, and to us looking exceedingly
wretched.' _McClure's Dis. N. W. Passage_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xxiv., p. 242. 'More bold and crafty than the Indians; but they use
their women much better.' _Bell's Geog._, vol. v., p. 294.

[71] 'Their diseases are few.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 67.
'Diseases are quite as prevalent among them as among civilized people.'
_Dall's Alaska_, p. 195. 'Ophthalmia was very general with them.'
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. i., p. 345. 'There is seldom any mortality except
amongst the old people and very young children.' _Armstrong's Nar._, p.
197.

[72] At Point Barrow, bodies were found in great numbers scattered over
the ground in their ordinary seal-skin dress; a few covered with pieces
of wood, the heads all turned north-east towards the extremity of the
point. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 155. 'They lay their dead on the ground,
with their heads all turned to the north.' 'The bodies lay exposed in
the most horrible and disgusting manner.' _Dease and Simpson_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. viii., p. 221, 222. 'Their position with regard
to the points of the compass is not taken into consideration.'
_Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. ii., p. 67. 'There are many more graves
than present inhabitants of the village, and the story is that the whole
coast was once much more densely populated.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 19.
Hooper, on coming to a burial place not far from Point Barrow,
'conjectured that the corpses had been buried in an upright position,
with their heads at or above the surface.' _Tuski_, p. 221.

[73] Kadiak 'is a derivative, according to some authors, from the
Russian _Kadia_, a large tub; more probably, however, it is a corruption
of Kaniag, the ancient Innuit name.' _Dall's Alaska_, p. 532. Holmberg
thinks that the word Kadiak arose from _Kikchtak_, which in the language
of the Koniagas means a large island. 'Der Name Kadjak ist offenbar eine
Verdrehung von Kikchtak, welches Wort in der Sprache der Konjagen
"grosse Insel" bedeutet und daher auch als Benennung der grössten Insel
dieser Gruppe diente.' _Ethnographische Skizzen über die Völker des
Russischen Amerika_, p. 75. 'A la division _Koniagi_ appartient la
partie la plus septentrionale de l'Alaska, et l'île de Kodiak, que les
Russes appellent vulgairement _Kichtak_, quoique, dans la langue des
naturels, le mot Kightak ne désigne en général qu'une île.' _Humboldt_,
_Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 347. Coxe affirms that the natives 'call
themselves Kanagist.' _Russian Dis._, p. 135. And Sauer says, 'the
natives call themselves _Soo-oo-it_.' _Billings' Ex._, p. 175. 'Man
verstand von ihnen, das sie sich selbst Kanagist nennen.' _Neue Nachr._,
p. 114.

[74] _Tschugatsches_, _Tschugatsi_ or _Tschgatzi_. Latham, _Native
Races_, p. 290, says the name is Athabascan, and signifies 'men of the
sea.'

[75] _Kuskoquigmutes_, _Kuskokwimen_, _Kuskokwigmjuten_,
_Kusckockwagemuten_, _Kuschkukchwakmüten_, or _Kaskutchewak_.

[76] The termination _mute_, _mut_, _meut_, _muten_, or _mjuten_,
signifies people or village. It is added to the tribal name sometimes as
a substantive as well as in an adjective sense.

[77] 'Herr Wassiljew schätzt ihre Zahl auf mindestens 7000 Seelen
beiderlei Geschlechts und jeglichen Alters.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._,
p. 127.

[78] 'Es waren wohl einst alle diese Inseln bewohnt.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn.
Skiz._, p. 76.

[79] The Malemutes are 'a race of tall and stout people.' _Whymper's
Alaska_, p. 159. 'Die Kuskokwimer sind, mittlerer Statur, schlank,
rüstig und oft mit grosser Stärke begabt.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p.
135. _Dixon's Voy._, p. 186. 'Bisweilen fallen sogar riesige Gestalten
auf, wie ich z. B. einen Häuptling in der igatschen Bucht zu sehen
Gelegenheit hatte, dessen Länge 6¾ Fuss betrug.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn.
Skiz._, p. 80. The chief at Prince William Sound was a man of low
stature, 'with a long beard, and seemed about sixty years of age.'
_Portlock's Voy._, p. 237. A strong, raw-boned race. _Meares' Voy._, p.
32. At Cook's Inlet they seemed to be of the same nation as those of Pr.
Wm. Sd., but entirely different from those at Nootka, in persons and
language. _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 400. They are of 'middle
size and well proportioned.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 68. 'They emigrated in
recent times from the Island of Kadyak, and they claim, as their
hereditary possessions, the coast lying between Bristol Bay and
Beering's Straits.' _Richardson's Nar._, vol. i., p. 364. 'Die
Tschugatschen sind Ankömmlinge von der Insel Kadjack, die während
innerer Zwistigkeiten von dort vertrieben.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p.
116.

[80] Achkugmjuten, 'Bewohner der warmen Gegend.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn.
Skiz._, p. 5. 'Copper complexion.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 194.

[81] 'They bore their under lip, where they hang fine bones of beasts
and birds.' _Staehlin's North. Arch._, p. 33. 'Setzen sich auch--Zähne
von Vögeln oder Thierknochen in künstliche Oeffnungen der Unterlippe und
unter der Nase ein.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 113.

[82] The people of Kadiak, according to Langsdorff, are similar to those
of Unalaska, the men being a little taller. They differ from the Fox
Islanders. _Voy._, pt. ii., p. 62. 'Die Insulaner waren hier von den
Einwohnern, der vorhin entdeckten übrigen Fuchsinsuln, in Kleidung und
Sprache ziemlich verschieden.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 113. 'Ils ressemblent
beaucoup aux indigènes des îles Curiles, dépendantes du Japon.'
_Laplace_, _Circumnav._, vol. vi., p. 45.

[83] 'They wore strings of beads suspended from apertures in the lower
lip.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 195. 'Their ears are full of holes, from
which hang pendants of bone or shell.' _Meares' Voy._, p. xxxii. 'Elles
portent des perles ordinairement en verre bleu, suspendues au-dessous du
nez à un fil passé dans la cloison nasale.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 573.
'Upon the whole, I have nowhere seen savages who take more pains than
these people do to ornament, or rather to disfigure their persons.' At
Prince William Sound they are so fond of ornament 'that they stick any
thing in their perforated lip; one man appearing with two of our iron
nails projecting from it like prongs; and another endeavouring to put a
large brass button into it.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 370. They
slit the under lip, and have ornaments of glass beads and muscle-shells
in nostrils and ears; tattoo chin and neck. _Langsdorff's Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 63. 'Die Frauen machen Einschnitte in die Lippen. Der
Nasenknorpel ist ebenfalls durchstochen.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p.
135.

[84] The Kadiaks dress like the Aleuts, but their principal garment they
call _Konägen_; _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 63. Like the Unalaskas,
the neck being more exposed, fewer ornamentations. _Sauer_, _Billings'
Voy._, p. 177. 'Consists wholly of the skins of animals and birds.'
_Portlock's Voy._, p. 249. A coat peculiar to Norton Sound appeared 'to
be made of reeds sewed very closely together.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 191.
'Nähen ihre _Parken_ (Winter-Kleider) aus Vögelhäuten und ihre
_Kamleien_ (Sommer-Kleider) aus den Gedärmen von Wallfischen und
Robben.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 117. At Norton Sound 'principally
of deer-skins.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 484. 'Ihre Kleider sind
aus schwarzen und andern Fuchsbälgen, Biber, Vogelhäuten, auch jungen
Rennthier and Jewraschkenfellen, alles mit Sehnen genäht.' _Neue
Nachr._, p. 113. 'The dress of both sexes consists of parkas and
camleykas, both of which nearly resemble in form a carter's frock.'
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 194.

[85] 'Una tunica entera de pieles que les abriga bastantemente.' _Bodega
y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 66. 'By the use of such a girdle, it should
seem that they sometimes go naked.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p.
437.

[86] 'Plastered over with mud, which gives it an appearance not very
unlike a dung hill.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 214. Sea-dog skin closes the
opening. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 62. The Kuskoquims have
'huttes qu'ils appellent barabores pour l'été.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p.
574. 'Mit Erde und Gras bedeckt, so dass man mit Recht die Wohnungen der
Konjagen Erdhütten nennen kann.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 97. 'A
door fronting the east.' _Sauer_, _Billings' Voy._, p. 175. At Norton
Sound 'they consist simply of a sloping roof, without any side-walls.'
_Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 484. Build temporary huts of sticks
and bark. _Portlock's Voy._, p. 253.

[87] 'In dem Kashim versammelt sich die männliche Bevölkerung des ganzen
Dorfes zur Berathschlagung über wichtige Angelegenheiten, über Krieg und
Frieden, etc.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 129.

[88] 'Le poisson est la principale nourriture.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p.
574. 'Berries mixed with rancid whale oil.' 'The fat of the whale is the
prime delicacy.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, pp. 178, 195. 'Meistentheils nähren
sie sich mit rohen und trocknen Fischen, die sie theils in der See mit
knöchernen Angelhaken, theils in den Bächen mit Sacknetzen, die sie
aus Sehnen flechten, einfangen.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 114. They generally
eat their food raw, but sometimes they boil it in water heated with hot
stones. _Meares' Voy._, p. xxxv. The method of catching wild geese, is
to chase and knock them down immediately after they have shed their
large wing-feathers; at which time they are not able to fly. _Portlock's
Voy._, p. 265.

[89] 'Ich hatte auf der Insel Afognak Gelegenheit dem Zerschneiden eines
Wallfisches zuzusehen und versichere, dass nach Verlauf von kaum 2
Stunden nur die blanken Knochen auf dem Ufer lagen.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn.
Skiz._, p. 91.

[90] The Kadiaks 'pass their time in hunting, festivals, and abstinence.
The first takes place in the summer; the second begins in the month of
December, and continues as long as any provisions remain; and then
follows the period of famine, which lasts till the re-appearance of fish
in the rivers. During the period last mentioned, many have nothing but
shell-fish to subsist on, and some die for want.' _Lisiansky's Voy._,
pp. 209, 210.

[91] 'Wild animals which they hunt, and especially wild sheep, the flesh
of which is excellent.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 188. They eat the larger
sort of fern-root baked, and a substance which seemed the inner bark of
the pine. _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 374. 'Die Eingebornen essen
diese Wurzeln (Lagat) roh und gekocht; aus der Wurzel, nachdem sie in
Mehl verwandelt ist, bäckt man, mit einer geringen Beimischung von
Weizenmehl, süssliche, dünne Kuchen.' _Sagoskin_, _Tagebuch_, in
_Denkschr. d. russ. Geog. Gesell._, p. 343.

[92] 'Ihre hölzernen Schilde nennen sie Kujaki.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 114.

[93] 'Selecting the roots of such plants as grow alone, these roots are
dried and pounded, or grated.' _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 178.

[94] 'Die Pfeilspitzen sind aus Eisen oder Kupfer, ersteres erhalten sie
von den Kenayern, letzteres von den Tutnen.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._,
p. 118. 'De pedernal en forma de arpon, cortado con tanta delicadeza
como pudiera hacerlo el mas hábil lapidario.' _Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._,
MS. p. 66.

[95] At Prince William Sound Cook found the canoes not of wood, as at
Nootka. At Bristol Bay they were of skin, but broader. _Third Voy._,
vol. ii., pp. 371, 437. 'Die kadjakschen Baidarken unterscheiden sich in
der Form ein wenig von denen der andern Bewohner der amerikanischen
Küste, von denen der Aleuten aber namentlich darin, dass sie kürzer und
breiter sind.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 99. At Prince William Sound,
'formada la canoa en esqueleto la forran por fuera con pieles de
animales.' _Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 65. 'Qu'on se figure une
nacelle de quatre mètres de long et de soixante centimètres de large
tout au plus.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, vol. vi., p. 48. 'These canoes
were covered with skins, the same as we had seen last season in Cook's
River. _Dixon's Voy._, p. 147. 'Safer at sea in bad weather than
European boats.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 211.

[96] Their whale-sinew thread was as fine as silk. _Lisiansky's Voy._,
p. 207.

[97] The only tool seen was a stone adze. _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii.,
p. 373.

[98] 'Their sewing, plaiting of sinews, and small work on their little
bags may be put in competition with the most delicate manufactures found
in any part of the known world.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 373,
374. 'If we may judge by these figures, the inhabitants of Cadiack must
have lost much of their skill in carving, their old productions of this
kind being greatly superior.' _Lisiansky_, p. 178. The Ingalik's
household furniture is made 'von gebogenem Holz sehr zierlich gearbeitet
und mittelst Erdfarben roth, grün und blau angestrichen. Zum Kochen der
Speisen bedienen sie sich irdener, ausgebrannter Geschirre.' _Baer_,
_Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 121.

[99] 'Tis most probable they are divided into clans or tribes.' _Dixon's
Voy._, p. 67. 'They have a King, whose name was Sheenoway.' _Meares'
Voy._, p. xxvii. 'They always keep together in families, and are under
the direction of toyons or chiefs.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 151.

[100] Female slaves are sold from one tribe to another. _Sauer,
Billings' Voy._, p. 175.

[101] 'Zugleich verschwand auch ihre Benennung; man nannte sie ferner
Kajuren, ein Wort aus Kamtschatka hieher übergesiedelt, welches
Tagelöhner oder Arbeiter bedeutet.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 79.

[102] 'They will not go a step out of the way for the most necessary
purposes of nature; and vessels are placed at their very doors for the
reception of the urinous fluid, which are resorted to alike by both
sexes.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 214.

[103] 'Not only do brothers and sisters cohabit with each other, but
even parents and children.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 64.

[104] 'Images dressed in different forms.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 178.
'The most favoured of women is she who has the greatest number of
children.' _Sauer_, _Billings' Voy._, p. 176.

[105] 'Der Vater oder die Mutter bestimmen den Sohn schon in seiner
frühsten Kindheit zum Achnutschik, wenn er ihnen mädchenhaft erscheint.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 121. 'Male concubines are much more frequent
here than at Oonalashka.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 64. They 'are
happy to see them taken by the chiefs, to gratify their unnatural
desires. Such youths are dressed like women, and taught all their
domestic duties.' _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 176. 'Ces peuples sont très
adonnés aux plaisirs des sens et même à un vice infame.' _Choris_, _Voy.
Pitt._, pt. vii., p. 8. 'Of all the customs of these islanders, the most
disgusting is that of men, called _schoopans_, living with men, and
supplying the place of women.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 199. This shameful
custom applies to the Thlinkeets as well. 'Quelques personnes de
l'Equipage du Solide ont rapporté qu'il ne leur est pas possible de
douter que les Tchinkîtânéens ne soient souillés de ce vice honteux que
la Théogonie immorale des Grecs avoit divinisé.' _Marchand_, _Voy. aut.
du Monde_, tom. ii., p. 97.

[106] 'Der Schamane hat seiner Obliegenheit gemäss oder aus besonderem
Wohlwollen sie der Jungferschaft beraubt und sie wäre unwürdig vor der
Versammlung zu erscheinen, wenn sie ihre erste Liebe irgend einem
Anderen und nicht dem Schamanen gezollt hätte.' _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethn._, p. 133.

[107] 'Their dances are proper tournaments.' _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._,
p. 176. They are much addicted to public dances, especially during
winter. _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 165. 'Masks of the most hideous figures
are worn.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 210. 'Use a sort of rattle composed of
a number of the beaks of the sea-parrot, strung upon a wooden
cross,'--sounds like castanets. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 64.
'Die Tänzer erscheinen, eben so, mit Wurfspiessen oder Messern in den
Händen, welche sie über dem Kopfe schwingen.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._,
p. 118.

[108] 'Les sorciers et chamans jouissent d'une grande faveur dans cette
région glacée de l'Amérique.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 574. 'Schamanen und
alte Weiber kennen verschiedene Heilmittel.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._,
p. 135. 'Next in rank to the shamans are the kaseks, or sages, whose
office is to teach children the different dances, and superintend the
public amusements and shows, of which they have the supreme control.'
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 208.

[109] 'The dead body of a chief is embalmed with moss, and buried.'
_Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 177.

[110] 'In one of the small buildings, or kennels, as they may very
properly be called, was a woman who had retired into it in consequence
of the death of her son.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 184.

[111] 'The word Aleutian seems to be derived from the interrogative
particle _allix_, which struck strangers in the language of that
people.' _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 312. The Unalaskas and 'the
people of Oomnak, call themselves _Cowghalingen_.' 'The natives of
Alaska and all the adjacent islands they call _Kagataiakung'n_.'
_Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 154. 'The inhabitants of Unalashka are
called _Kogholaghi_; those of Akutan, and further east to Unimak,
_Kighigusi_; and those of Unimak and Alaxa, _Kataghayekiki_. They cannot
tell whence these appellations are derived; and now begin to call
themselves by the general name of _Aleyut_, given to them by the
Russians, and borrowed from some of the Kurile Islands.' _Coxe's Russ.
Dis._, p. 219.

[112] Yet, says D'Orbigny, _Voyage_, p. 577: 'Si on interroge les
Aléoutiens sur leur origine, ils disent que leurs ancêtres ont habité un
grand pays vers l'ouest, et que de là ils sont avancés de proche en
proche sur les îles désertes jusqu'au continent américain.'

[113] Trapesnikoff took from an unknown island in 1753, 1920 sea-otter
skins. Durneff returned to Kamchatka in 1754, with 3,000 skins. In 1752
one crew touched at Bering Island and took 1,222 Arctic foxes, and 2,500
sea-bears. Cholodiloff, in 1753, took from one island 1,600 otter-skins.
Tolstych in one voyage took 1,780 sea-otter, 720 blue foxes, and 840
sea-bears. _Coxe's Russ. Dis._, pp. 43, 44, 49, 51, 53.

[114] _Sparks_, _Life of Ledyard_, p. 79.

[115] A great deal of character. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 32.

[116] 'Rather low of stature, but plump and well shaped; with rather
short necks; swarthy chubby faces; black eyes; small beards, and long,
straight, black hair; which the men wear loose behind, and cut before,
but the women tie up in a bunch.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 510.
'Von Gesicht sind sie platt und weiss, von guter Statur, durchgängig mit
schwarzen Haaren.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 150. 'Low in stature, broad in the
visage.' _Campbell's Voy._, p. 112. Hair 'strong and wiry;' scanty
beard, but thick on the upper lip. _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 154.

[117] 'Les femmes aléoutes portaient aux mains et aux pieds des
chapelets de pierres de couleur et préférablement d'ambre.' _D'Orbigny_,
_Voy._, p. 579. 'None are so highly esteemed as a sort of long muscle,
commonly called sea-teeth, the _dentalium entalis_ of Linnæus.'
_Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 40. 'Women have the chin punctured in
fine lines rayed from the centre of the lip and covering the whole
chin.' They wear bracelets of black seal-skin around the wrists and
ankles, and go barefoot. _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 155. 'Im
Nasen-Knorpel und der Unterlippe machen beide Geschlechter Löcher und
setzen Knochen ein, welches ihr liebster Schmuck ist. Sie stechen sich
auch bunte Figuren im Gesicht aus.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 169. 'They bore
the upper lip of the young children of both sexes, under the nostrils,
where they hang several sorts of stones, and whitened fish-bones, or the
bones of other animals.' _Staehlin's North Arch._, p. 37.

[118] 'Leur conformation est robuste et leur permet de supporter des
travaux et des fatigues de toute sorte.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 577.

[119] At Shumagin Island, their caps were of sea-lion skins. _Müller's
Voy._, p. 46. On the front are one or two small images of bone. _Cook's
Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 510. A wooden hat, 'which in front comes out
before the eyes like a sort of umbrella, and is rounded off behind.'
_Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 38. 'Einige haben gemeine Mützen von
einem bunten Vogelfell, woran sie etwas von den Flügeln und dem Schwanz
sitzen lassen;--sind vorn mit einem Brettchen wie ein Schirm versehn und
mit Bärten von Seebären--geschmücket.' _Neue Nachr._, pp. 151, 152.

[120] On a feather garment, 'a person is sometimes employed a whole
year.' 'The women for the most part go bare-footed.' _Langsdorff's
Voy._, pt. ii., pp. 36, 39. 'Seams covered with thin slips of skin, very
elegantly embroidered with white deer's hair, goat's hair, and the
sinews of sea animals, dyed of different colours.' _Sauer_, _Billings'
Ex._, p. 156. 'Ihr Pelzkleid wird über den Kopf angezogen, und ist
hinten und vorn ganz zu. Die Männer tragen es aus Vogelhäuten; die
Weiber hingegen von Bibern und jungen Seebären.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 152.
'Boots and breeches in one piece.' _Campbell's Voy._, p. 113.

[121] 'Round the sides and ends of the huts, the families (for several
are lodged together) have their separate apartments, where they sleep,
and sit at work; not upon benches, but in a kind of concave trench,
which is dug all around the inside of the house, and covered with mats.'
_Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 512. 'When they have stood for
sometime, they become overgrown with grass, so that a village has the
appearance of an European churchyard full of graves.' _Langsdorff's
Voy._, p. 32. 'In den Jurten wird niemals Feuer angelegt und doch ist es
gemeiniglich sehr warm darinnen, so dass beide Geschlechter ganz nakkend
sitzen.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 150.

[122] 'A bidarka or boat is turned up sideways, and at the distance of
four or five feet, two sticks, one opposite to the head and the other to
the stern, are driven into the ground, on the tops of which a cross
stick is fastened. The oars are then laid along from the boat to the
cross stick, and covered with seal skins, which are always at hand for
the purpose.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 152.

[123] 'Among the greatest delicacies of Oonalashka are the webbed feet
of a seal, which are tied in a bladder, buried in the ground, and remain
there till they are changed into a stinking jelly.' _Kotzebue's Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 165. Almost everything is eaten raw. _Cook's Third Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 520. The sea-dog is caught with nets, killed when asleep,
or enticed on shore by a false cap made to resemble a seal's head.
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 205.

[124] 'L'Aléoute peut tuer les phoques et les oiseaux, sans être obligé
d'en rendre compte à la compagnie.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, pt. vii., p.
4.

[125] 'Die Spitze selbst wird theils aus Obsidian oder Lavaglas, theils
auch aus Trachyt verfertigt.' _Kittlitz_, _Reise_, vol. i., p. 268.
Spear-handles are feathered, the points of sharpened flint. _Neue
Nachr._, p. 102, 'Arrows are thrown from a narrow and pointed board,
twenty inches long, which is held by the thumb and three fingers. They
are thrown straight from the shoulder with astonishing velocity.'
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 205. 'Les armes défensives consistaient en une
cotte de joncs tressés qui leur couvrait tout le corps.' _D'Orbigny_,
_Voy._, p. 579. 'No such thing as an offensive, or even defensive weapon
was seen amongst the natives of Oonalashka.' Probably they had been
disarmed by the Russians. _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 515.
'Wherever any one has fixed his habitation, nobody else dares to hunt or
fish.' _Staehlin's Nor. Arch._, p. 37. For birds they point their darts
with three light bones, spread and barbed. _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p.
157. 'Indeed, there is a neatness and perfection in most of their work,
that shews they neither want ingenuity nor perseverance.' _Cook's Third
Voy._, vol. ii., p. 514.

[126] They make 'baskets called ishcats, in which the Aleutians keep all
their valuables.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 181. 'Thread they make of the
sinews of the seal, and of all sizes, from the fineness of a hair to the
strength of a moderate cord, both twisted and plaited.' _Sauer_,
_Billings' Ex._, p. 157. Of the teeth of sea-dogs they carve little
figures of men, fish, sea-otters, sea-dogs, sea-cows, birds, and other
objects. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 46.

[127] 'Wollen sie etwas an ihren Pfeilen oder sonst eine Kleinigkeit
leimen, so schlagen sie sich an die Nase und bestreichen es mit ihrem
Blute.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 173.

[128] _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 159; _Campbell's Voy._, p. 59.

[129] 'Comme les femmes coûtaient cher en présents de fiançailles, la
plupart des Aléoutes n'en avaient qu'une ou deux.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._,
p. 579. Purchase as many girls for wives as they can support. _Sauer_,
_Billings' Ex._, p. 160. 'Objects of unnatural affection.' _Id._, p.
160. 'Their beards are carefully plucked out as soon as they begin to
appear, and their chins tattooed like those of the women.' _Langsdorff's
Voy._, pt. ii., p. 48. 'The Russians told us, that they never had any
connections with their women, because they were not Christians. Our
people were not so scrupulous; and some of them had reason to repent
that the females of Oonalashka encouraged their addresses without any
reserve; for their health suffered by a distemper that is not unknown
here.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 521.

[130] 'It often happens that a mother plunges her noisy child into
water, even in winter, and keeps it there till it leaves off crying.'
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 202. 'Schreyt das Kind, so trägt es die Mutter,
es sey Winter oder Sommer nakkend nach der See, und hält es so lange im
Wasser bis es still wird.' _Neue Nachr._, p. 168.

[131] 'Have their own chiefs in each island.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 510. 'Generally is conferred on him who is the most remarkable
for his personal qualities.' _Coxe's Russ. Dis._, p. 219.

[132] Those of the inhabitants who have two wives give their guests one,
or a slave. _Neue Nachr._, p. 171. 'In the spring holidays, they wear
masks, neatly carved and fancifully ornamented.' _Sauer_, _Billings'
Ex._, p. 160.

[133] 'On avait soin de le disposer de manière à ce qu'il ne touchât pas
la terre.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 579. 'Embalm the bodies of the men
with dried moss and grass.' _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex._, p. 161. Slaves
sometimes slaughtered. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 48. 'Bury their
dead on the summits of hills.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 521.
'When a man dies in the hut belonging to his wife, she retires into a
dark hole, where she remains forty days. The husband pays the same
compliment to his favorite wife upon her death.' _Coxe's Russ. Dis._, p.
218. 'Die Todten werden begraben, und man giebt dem Mann seinen Kahn,
Pfeile und Kleider mit ins Grab.' 'Die Todten umwinden sie mit Riemen
und hängen sie in einer Art hölzerner Wiege an einen auf zwey Gabelen
ruhenden Querstock in der Luft auf.' _Neue Nachr._, pp. 101, 154.

[134] 'Naturellement silencieux.' _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 578. 'Sie
verrichten auch die Nothdurft und das Ehegeschäft ohne alle Scheu.'
_Neue. Nachr._, p. 150. 'A stupid silence reigns among them.' 'I am
persuaded that the simplicity of their character exceeds that of any
other people.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, pp. 182, 183. 'Kind-hearted and
obliging, submissive and careful; but if roused to anger, they become
rash and unthinking, even malevolent, and indifferent to all danger.'
_Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 32. 'To all appearance, they are the
most peaceable, inoffensive people, I ever met with. And, as to honesty,
they might serve as a pattern to the most civilized nation upon earth.'
_Cook_, vol. ii., p. 509.

[135] 'To hunt was their task; to be drowned, or starved, or exhausted,
was their reward.' _Simpson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 229. 'They are
harmless, wretched slaves,' whose race will soon be extinct. _Kotzebue's
Voy._, vol. iii., p. 315. The Russian hunters 'used not unfrequently to
place the men close together, and try through how many the ball of their
rifle-barrelled musket would pass.' _Sauer_, _Billings' Ex. App._, p.
56. 'Of a thousand men, who formerly lived in this spot, scarcely more
than forty remained.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 235. 'La variole,
la syphilis, voire même le choléra depuis quelques années, en emportent
une effrayante quantité.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, vol. ii., p. 51.

[136] _Kaluga_, _Kaljush_, _Koljush_, _Kalusch_, _Kolush_, _Kolosch_,
_Kolosh_, _Kolosches_. Marchand calls them Tchinkîtâné. _Voyage aut. du
Monde_, tom. ii., p. 3.

[137] See _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, pp. 15, 16.

[138] _Ugalachmiuti_, _Ugaljachmjuten_, _Ugalyachmutzi_, _Ugalukmutes_,
_Ugalenzi_, _Ugalenzen_, _Ugalenzes_.

[139] They 'call themselves G-tinkit, or S-chinkit, or also
S-chitcha-chon, that is, inhabitants of Sitki or Sitcha.' _Langsdorff's
Voy._, pt. ii., 128.

[140] The orthographic varieties of this word are endless. _Stickeen_,
_Stekin_, _Stakhin_, _Stachin_, _Stikin_, _Stachine_, _Stikeen_,
_Stikine_, _Stychine_, are among those before me at the moment.

[141] At the end of this chapter, under Tribal Boundaries, the location
of these tribes is given definitely.

[142] A Thlinkeet boy, 'when under the whip, continued his derision,
without once exhibiting the slightest appearance of suffering.'
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 242.

[143] 'Leur corps est ramassé, mais assez bien proportionné.'
_Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 46. 'Very fierce.' _Portlock's Voy._,
p. 291. 'Limbs straight and well shaped.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 171.
'Stolze gerade Haltung.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 16. 'Active and
clever.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 237. 'Bigote á manera de los Chinos.'
_Perez_, _Nav._, MS. p. 14. 'Limbs ill-proportioned.' _Kotzebue's New
Voy._, vol. ii., p. 49. 'Très supérieurs en courage et en intelligence.'
_La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. iv., p. 54.

[144] The women 'are pleasing and their carriage modest.' _Portlock's
Voy._, p. 291. When washed, white and fresh. _Dixon's Voy._, p. 171.
'Dunkle Hautfarbe.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 16. 'Eran de color
blanco y habia muchos con ojos azules.' _Perez_, _Nav._, MS. p. 14. As
fair as many Europeans. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 112. 'Muchos de
ellos de un blanco regular.' _Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 43.

[145] 'Leur chevelure, dure, épaisse, mêlée, couverte d'ocre, de duvet
d'oiseaux et de toutes les ordures que la négligence et le temps y ont
accumulées, contribue encore à rendre leur aspect hideux.' _Marchand_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., p. 46. 'A more hideous set of beings, in the form of
men and women, I had never before seen.' _Cleveland's Voy._, p. 91. The
men painted 'a black circle extending from the forehead to the mouth,
and a red chin, which gave the face altogether the appearance of a
mask.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 146. Pourraient même passer pour jolies,
sans l'horrible habitude qu'elles ont adoptée.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._,
tom. vi., p. 87. 'That person seems to be reckoned the greatest beau
amongst them, whose face is one entire piece of smut and grease.'
_Dixon's Voy._, p. 68. 'Ils se font des cicatrices sur les bras et sur
la poitrine.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 223. 'Um aus dem
Gesichte diese fette Farbenmasse abzuwaschen, gebrauchen sie ihren
eignen Urin, und dieser verursacht bei ihnen den widerlichen Geruch, der
den sich ihm nahenden Fremdling fast zum Erbrechen bringt.' _Holmberg_,
_Ethn. Skiz._, p. 20.

[146] Meares, _Voyages_, p. xxxi., states that at Prince William Sound,
'the men have universally a slit in their under lip, between the
projecting part of the lip and the chin, which is cut parallel with
their mouths, and has the appearance of another mouth.' Worn only by
women. _Dixon's Voy._, p. 172.

[147] 'About three tenths of an inch below the upper part of the under
lip.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 280. 'In the centre of the
under-lip.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 115. 'Fendue au ras des
gencives.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 224. 'In the thick part
near the mouth.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 187. 'When the first person having
this incision was seen by one of the seamen, who called out, that the
man had two mouths.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 369. 'In their
early infancy, a small incision is made in the center of the under lip,
and a piece of brass or copper wire is placed in, and left in the wound.
This corrodes the lacerated parts, and by consuming the flesh gradually
increases the orifice, until it is sufficiently large to admit the
wooden appendage.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 408. 'Les femmes de
Tchinkîtâné ont cru devoir ajouter à leur beauté naturelle, par l'emploi
d'un ornement labial, aussi bizarre qu'incommode.' _Marchand_, _Voy._,
tom. ii., p. 48.

[148] 'Simply perforated, and a piece of copper wire introduced.'
_Dixon's Voy._, p. 187. 'Les jeunes filles n'ont qu'une aiguille dans la
lèvre inférieure.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 226. 'On y prépare
les petites filles aussitôt qu'elles sont nées.' _Id._, tom. iv., p. 54.
'At first a thick wire.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 115. When
almost marriageable. _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 51. 'The
children have them bored at about two years of age, when a piece of
copper-wire is put through the hole; this they wear till the age of
about thirteen or fourteen years, when it is taken out, and the wooden
ornament introduced.' _Portlock's Voy._, p. 289. 'Said to denote
maturity.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 100. 'Se percer la lèvre inférieure
des l'enfance.' 'D'agrandir peu à peu cette ouverture au point de
pouvoir jeune fille y introduire une coquille, et femme mariée une
énorme tasse de bois.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., p. 87. 'Never
takes place during their infancy.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 187. 'When the
event takes place that implies womanhood.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 243.
'Wenn zum ersten Mal beim Mädchen sich Spuren der Mannbarkeit zeigen,
wird ihre Unterlippe durchstochen und in diese Oeffnung eine
Knochenspitze, gegenwärtig doch häufiger ein Silberstift gelegt.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 21. 'Pues les pareció que solo lo tenian
los casados.' _Perez_, _Nav._, MS. p. 15.

[149] 'Concave on both sides.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 280. 'So
lange sie unverheirathet ist, trägt sie diesen; erhält sie aber einen
Mann, so presst man einen grösseren Schmuck von Holz oder Knochen in die
Oeffnung, welcher nach innen, d. h. zur Zahnseite etwas trogförmig
ausgehöhlt ist.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 21. 'Une espèce d'écuelle
de bois sans anses qui appuie contre les gencives.' _La Pérouse_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., p. 224. Pieces of shell resembling teeth. _Meares'
Voy._, p. xxxi.

[150] 'As large as a large saucer.' _Portlock's Voy._, p. 289. 'From one
corner of the mouth to the other.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 280.
'Frequently increased to three, or even four inches in length, and
nearly as wide.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 187. 'A communément un demi-pouce
d'épaisseur, deux de diamètre, et trois pouces de long.' _La Pérouse_,
_Voy._, tom. iv., p. 54. 'At least seven inches in circumference.'
_Meares' Voy._, p. xxxviii. 'Mit den Jahren wird der Schmuck
vergrössert, so dass er bei einem alten Weibe über 2 Zoll breit
angetroffen wird.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 21. From two to five
inches long, and from one and a half to three inches broad. Ladies of
distinction increase the size. 'I have even seen ladies of very high
rank with this ornament, full five inches long and three broad.' Mr
Dwolf affirms that he saw 'an old woman, the wife of a chief, whose lip
ornament was so large, that by a peculiar motion of her under-lip she
could almost conceal her whole face with it.' 'Horrible in its
appearance to us Europeans.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 115. 'Es
una abertura como de media pulgada debaxo del labio inferior, que
representa segunda boca, donde colocan una especie de roldana elíptica
de pino, cuyo diámetro mayor es de dos pulgadas, quatro lineas, y el
menor de una pulgada.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 126.

[151] 'Une énorme tasse de bois, destinée à recevoir la salive qui s'en
échappe constamment.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., p. 87. 'L'effet
de cet ornement est de rabattre, par le poids de sa partie saillante la
lèvre inférieure sur le menton, de développer les charmes d'une grande
bouche béante, qui prend la forme de celle d'un four, et de mettre à
découvert une rangée de dents jaunes et sales.' _Marchand_, _Voy._, tom.
ii., p. 49. 'She is obliged to be constantly on the watch, lest it
should fall out, which would cover her with confusion.' _Lisiansky's
Voy._, p. 244. 'The weight of this trencher or ornament weighs the lip
down so as to cover the whole of the chin, leaving all the lower teeth
and gum quite naked.' _Portlock's Voy._, p. 289. 'L'usage le plus
révoltant qui existe peut-être sur la terre.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom.
ii., p. 226. 'Always in proportion to a person's wealth.' 'Distorts
every feature in the lower part of the face.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 68,
172. 'In running the lip flaps up and down so as to knock sometimes
against the chin and sometimes against the nose. Upon the continent the
kaluga is worn still larger; and the female who can cover her whole face
with her under-lip passes for the most perfect beauty,' 'The lips of the
women held out like a trough, and always filled with saliva stained with
tobacco-juice, of which they are immoderately fond, is the most
abominably revolting part of the spectacle.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 52. 'Dadurch entsteht eine im selbigen Maasse ausgedehnte Lippe,
die höchst widerlich aussieht, um so mehr, da sich nun mehr der Mund
nicht schliessen kann, sondern unaufhörlich einen braunen Tabaksspeichel
von sich gibt.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 21. 'So distorts the face
as to take from it almost the resemblance to the human; yet the
privilege of wearing this ornament is not extended to the female slaves,
who are prisoners taken in war.' _Cleveland's Voy._, p. 91. 'Look as if
they had large flat wooden spoons growing in the flesh.' _Langsdorff's
Voy._, pt. ii., p. 115. 'The sight is hideous. Our men used jocosely to
say, this lower lip would make a good slab to lay their trousers on to
be scrubbed.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 277. 'On ne connaît point
d'explication plausible de cette mutilation, qui, chez les Indiens,
passe pour un signe de noblesse.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 336.

[152] 'Die Männertracht unterscheidet sich in Nichts von der Weiber;
sie besteht nämlich aus einem bis zu den Knieen gehenden Hemde.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 18. Some of their blankets 'are so
curiously worked on one side with the fur of the sea-otter, that they
appear as if lined with it.' 'Some dress themselves in short
pantaloons.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 238. 'Las mugeres visten
honestamente una especie de túnica interior de piel sobada.' _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. cxvii. 'Se vestian las mugeres tunicas de
pieles ajustadas al cuerpo con brazaletes de cobre o hierro.' _Perez_,
_Nav._, MS. p. 15. 'Usual clothing consists of a little apron.'
_Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 49. 'Their feet are always bare.'
_Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 114.

[153] 'Usan sombreros de la corteza interior del pino en forma de cono
truncado.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. cxvii. Their wooden masks
'are so thick, that a musket-ball, fired at a moderate distance, can
hardly penetrate them.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 150.

[154] Pluck out their beard. _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 112. 'Ils
ont de la barbe, moins à la vérité que les Européens, mais assez
cependant pour qu'il soit impossible d'en douter.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._,
tom. ii., p. 229. 'The women in general are hair-dressers for their
husbands.' _Portlock's Voy._, p. 290.

[155] 'Der Eingang, ziemlich hoch von der Erde, besteht aus einem
kleinen runden Loche.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 25. 'Ils se
construisent des maisons de bois ou de terre pour l'hiver.' _Laplace_,
_Circumnav._, vol. vi., p. 87. 'The barabaras of the Sitcan people are
of a square form, and spacious. The sides are of planks; and the roof
resembles that of a Russian house.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 239. 'Habitan
estos Indios en chozas ó rancherías de tablas muy desabrigadas.' _Sutil
y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. cxvi. At Sitka the roof 'rests upon ten or
twelve thick posts driven into the ground, and the sides of the house
are composed of broad thick planks fastened to the same posts.'
_Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 129. 'Dans l'intérieur des terres, des
habitations bien construites, spacieuses et commodes.' _Marchand_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., p. 74. 'Shanties on a large scale.' _Whymper's
Alaska_, p. 100. 'Their huts are made of a few boards, which they take
away with them when they go to their winter quarters. It is very
surprising to see how well they will shape their boards with the
shocking tools they employ; some of them being full 10 feet long, 2½
feet broad, and not more than an inch thick.' _Portlock's Voy._, p. 292.
'High, large, and roomy, built of wood, with the hearth in the middle,
and the sides divided into as many compartments as there are families
living under the roof.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 410. 'Lebt in
Schoppen aus Balken gebaut, wo an den Seiten für jede Familie besondere
Plätze abgetheilt sind, in der Mitte aber Feuer für alle zusammen
angemacht wird. So pflegen gemeiniglich 2 bis 6 Familien eine einzige
Scheune einzunehmen.' _Baer's Ethn. u. Stat._, p. 97.

[156] 'Vingt-cinq pieds de long sur quinze à vingt pieds de large.' _La
Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 220. 'Roof in the whole with the bark of
trees.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 53. 'Las casas en que estos
habitan en las playas son de poca consideracion y ninguna subsistencia.'
_Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 49. 'A few poles stuck in the ground,
without order or regularity.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 172. 'Gebäude besteht
aus langen, sorgfältig behauenen Brettern, die kartenhausartig über
einander gestellt, an zahlreichen in die Erde gesteckten Stangen
befestigt, recht eigentlich ein hölzernes Zelt bilden. Es hat die Form
einer länglichen Barake mit zwei Giebeln.' _Kittlitz_, _Reise_, vol. i.,
pp. 220, 221.

[157] All kinds of fish; 'such as salmon, mussels, and various other
shell-fish, sea-otters, seals and porpoises; the blubber of the
porpoise, they are remarkably fond of, and indeed the flesh of any
animal that comes in their way.' _Portlock's Voy._, p. 290. 'Vom Meere,
an dessen Ufern sie sich stets ansiedeln, erhalten sie ihre
hauptsächlichste Nahrung; einige Wurzeln, Gräser u. Beeren gehören nur
zu den Leckerbissen des Sommers.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 22.
Cakes made of bark of spruce-fir, mixed with roots, berries, and
train-oil. For salt they use sea-water. Never eat whale-fat.
_Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 131. At Sitka, summer food consists of
berries, fresh fish, and flesh of amphibious animals. Winter food, of
dried salmon, train-oil, and the spawn of fish, especially herrings.
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 239. 'Sus alimentos se reducen á pescado cocido ó
asado ya fresco ó ya seco, varias hierbas y raizes.' _Bodega y Quadra_,
_Nav._, MS. p. 50. They chew 'a plant which appears to be a species of
tobacco.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 175. 'Sont couverts de vermine; ils font
une chasse assidue à ces animaux dévorans, mais pour les dévorer
eux-mêmes.' _Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 52. 'Tägliche Nahrung der
Einwohner--sind hauptsächtlich Fische, doch häufig auch Mollusken und
Echinodermen.' _Kittlitz_, _Reise_, vol. i., p. 222.

[158] 'Le poisson frais ou fumé, les oeufs séchés de poisson.'
_Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 62. 'Is sometimes cooked upon red-hot
stones, but more commonly eaten raw.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii.,
p. 53. 'Not so expert in hunting as the Aleutians. Their principal mode
is that of shooting the sea animals as they lie asleep.' _Lisiansky's
Voy._, p. 242. They boil their victuals in wooden vessels, by constantly
putting red-hot stones into the water. _Portlock's Voy._, p. 291. 'Das
Kochen geschieht jetzt in eisernen Kesseln, vor der Bekanntschaft mit
den Russen aber wurden dazu aus Wurzeln geflochtene Körbe angewandt.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 23.

[159] To their fishing lines, bladders are fastened, 'which float upon
the surface of the water, so that one person can attend to fourteen or
fifteen lines.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 134. 'Ils pêchent,
comme nous, en barrant les rivières, ou à la ligne.' _La Pérouse_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., p. 232. 'For taking the spawn, they use the branches
of the pine-tree, to which it easily adheres, and on which it is
afterwards dried. It is then put into baskets, or holes purposely dug in
the ground, till wanted.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 239. 'Su comun alimento
es el salmon, y es ingenioso el método que tienen de pescarle.' _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. cxvii. 'Their lines are very strong, being made of
the sinews or intestines of animals.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 174. 'Die
Riesenbutte, die in Sitcha bisweilen ein Gewicht von 10 bis 12 Pud
erreicht, wird aus der Tiefe mit grossen hölzernen Angeln, die mit
Widerhaken aus Eisen oder Knochen versehen sind, herausgezogen. Die
Angelschnur besteht aus an einander geknüpften Fucusstängeln.'
_Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 32.

[160] 'Bows and arrows were formerly their only weapons; now, besides
their muskets, they have daggers, and knives half a yard long.'
_Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 55. Their weapons were bows, arrows,
and spears. _Dixon's Voy._, p. 67. 'Leur lances dont l'ancienne forme
n'est pas connue, est à présent composée de deux pièces: de la hampe,
longue de quinze ou dix-huit pieds, et du fer qui ne le cède en rien à
celui de la hallebarde de parade dont étoit armé un Suisse de paroisse.'
_Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 68. Knives, some two feet long, shaped
almost like a dagger, with a ridge in the middle. Worn in skin sheaths
hung by a thong to the neck under their robe, probably used only as
weapons. _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 373. 'Las armas ofensivas que
generalmente usan son las flechas, lanzas de seis y ocho varas de largo
con lenguetas de fierro.' _Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 46. 'The
daggers used in battle are made to stab with either end, having three,
four or five inches above the hand tapered to a sharp point; but the
upper part of those used in the Sound and River is excurvated.'
_Portlock's Voy._, p. 261. 'Principally bows and arrows.' _Langsdorff's
Voy._, pt. ii., p. 131. 'Sus armas se reducen al arco, la flecha y el
puñal que traen siempre consigo.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. cxvii.
'Comme nous examinions très attentivement tous ces poignards, ils nous
firent signe qu'ils n'en faisaient usage que contre les ours et les
autres bêtes des forêts.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 172. 'Der
Dolch ist sehr breit und hat zwei geschliffene Blätter auf jeder Seite
des Griffes, das obere jedoch nur ein Viertel von der Länge des
unteren.' 'Beide Blätter oder Klingen sind mit ledernen Scheiden
versehen.' _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 28.

[161] 'A kind of jacket, or coat of mail, made of thin laths, bound
together with sinews, which makes it quite flexible, though so close as
not to admit an arrow or dart.' _Cook's Third Voy._, vol. ii., p. 372.
'Für den Krieg besitzen die Kaloschen auch von Holz gearbeitete
Schutzwaffen: Brustharnische, Sturmhauben und seltsam geschnitzte
Visire, mit grellen Farben bemalte Fratzengesichter darstellen.'
_Kittlitz_, _Reise_, vol. i., p. 216.

[162] 'They never attack their enemies openly.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 55. 'Les guerriers tués ou faits prisonniers à la guerre,
passent également sous la dent de leurs vainqueurs qui, en dévorant une
proie aussi distinguée, croient y puiser de nouvelles forces, une
nouvelle énergie.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., p. 155.

[163] 'Bien hechas de una pieza con su falca sobre las bordas.' _Perez_,
_Nav._, MS. p. 17. 'On n'est pas moins étonné de leur stabilité: malgré
la légèreté et le peu de largeur de la coque, elles n'ont pas besoin
d'être soutenues par des balanciers, et jamais on ne les accouple.'
_Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 72. 'Las regulares canoas de que se
sirven son de pino, y no tienen mas capacidad que la que basta para
contener una familia, sin embargo que las hay sumamente grandes.'
_Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 48. 'Rudely excavated and reduced to
no particular shape, but each end has the resemblance of a butcher's
tray.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 173. 'Their canoes are much inferior to those
of the lower coast, while their skin "baidarkes" (kyacks) are not equal
to those of Norton Sound and the northern coast.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p.
101. At Cook's Inlet, 'their canoes are sheathed with the bark of
trees.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 188. These canoes 'were made from a solid
tree, and many of them appeared to be from 50 to 70 feet in length, but
very narrow, being no broader than the tree itself.' _Meares' Voy._, p.
xxxviii. 'Their boat was the body of a large pine tree, neatly
excavated, and tapered away towards the ends, until they came to a
point, and the fore-part somewhat higher than the after-part; indeed,
the whole was finished in a neat and very exact manner.' _Portlock's
Voy._, p. 259.

[164] 'Ont fait beaucoup plus de progrès dans les arts que dans la
morale.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 233. Thlinkeet women make
baskets of bark of trees, and grass, that will hold water. _Langsdorff's
Voy._, pt. ii., p. 132. They have tolerable ideas of carving, most
utensils having sculptures, representing some animal. _Portlock's Voy._,
p. 294. 'Ces peintures, ces sculptures, telles qu'elles sont, on en voit
sur tous leurs meubles.' _Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 71. 'De la
vivacidad de su genio y del afecto al cambio se debe inferir son
bastantemente laboriosos.' _Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 48. 'Tienen
lana blanca cuya especie ignoraron.' _Perez_, _Nav._, MS. p. 16. 'Masks
very ingeniously cut in wood, and painted with different colors.' A
rattle, 'very well finished, both as to sculpture and painting.' 'One
might suppose these productions the work of a people greatly advanced in
civilization.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, pp. 150, 241. 'Found some square
patches of ground in a state of cultivation, producing a plant that
appeared to be a species of tobacco.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. iii., p.
256.

[165] 'The skins of the sea-otters form their principal wealth, and are
a substitute for money.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 54. 'In one
place they discovered a considerable hoard of woolen cloth, and as much
dried fish as would have loaded 150 bidarkas.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p.
160.

[166] 'Le Gouvernement des Tchinkitânéens paroîtroit donc se rapprocher
du Gouvernement patriarchal.' _Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 83. 'De
su gobierno pensamos cuando mas, oiendo el modo de someterse á algunos
viejos, seria oligárhico.' _Bodega y Quadra_, _Nav._, MS. p. 50. 'Though
the toyons have power over their subjects, it is a very limited power,
unless when an individual of extraordinary abilities starts up, who is
sure to rule despotically.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 243. 'Chaque famille
semble vivre d'une manière isolée et avoir un régime particulier.' _La
Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. iv., p. 61. 'Ces Conseils composés des
vieillards.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., p. 155.

[167] Tribes are distinguished by the color and character of their
paint. _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 51. They 'are divided into
tribes; the principal of which assume to themselves titles of
distinction, from the names of the animals they prefer; as the tribe of
the bear, of the eagle, etc. The tribe of the wolf are called
_Coquontans_, and have many privileges over the other tribes.'
_Lisiansky's Voy._, pp. 238, 242.

[168] 'The women possess a predominant influence, and acknowledged
superiority over the other sex.' _Meares' Voy._, p. 323. 'Parmi eux les
femmes jouissent d'une certaine considération.' _Laplace_, _Circumnav._,
tom. vi., p. 87. They treat their wives and children with much affection
and tenderness, and the women keep the treasures. _Portlock's Voy._, p.
290. The Kalush 'finds his filthy countrywomen, with their lip-troughs,
so charming, that they often awaken in him the most vehement passion.'
_Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 56. 'It is certain that industry,
reserve, modesty, and conjugal fidelity, are the general characteristics
of the female sex among these people.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p.
133. 'Quoiqu'elles vivent sous la domination d'hommes très-féroces, je
n'ai pas vu qu'elles en fussent traitées d'une manière aussi barbare que
le prétendent la plupart des voyageurs.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. iv.,
p. 61.

[169] 'Weddings are celebrated merely by a feast, given to the relatives
of the bride.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 57.

[170] 'Ils ne s'écartent jamais de deux pas pour aucun besoin; ils ne
cherchent dans ces occasions ni l'ombre ni le mystère; ils continuent la
conversation qu'ils ont commencée, comme s'ils n'avaient pas un instant
à perdre; et lorsque c'est pendant le repas, ils reprennent leur place,
dont ils n'ont jamais été éloignés d'une toise.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._,
tom. ii., p. 221.

[171] 'Ont un goût décidé pour le chant.' _Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii.,
p. 75. 'The women sit upon the ground at a distance of some paces from
the dancers, and sing a not inharmonious melody, which supplies the
place of music.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, pt. ii., p. 114. 'They dance and
sing continually.' _Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 240. Besides the tambourine,
Captain Belcher saw a castanet and 'a new musical instrument, composed
of three hoops, with a cross in the centre, the circumference being
closely strung with the beaks of the Alca arctica.' _Voy._, vol. i., p.
103.

[172] They lose at this game all their possessions, and even their wives
and children, who then become the property of the winner.' _Kotzebue's
New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 62. 'Ce jeu les rend tristes et sérieux.' _La
Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 235.

[173] Upon one tomb, 'formaba una figura grande y horrorosa que tenia
entre sus garras una caxa.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. cxviii. 'The
box is frequently decorated with two or three rows of small shells.'
_Dixon's Voy._, p. 176. 'The dead are burned, and their ashes preserved
in small wooden boxes, in buildings appropriated to that purpose.'
_Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 57. 'Nos voyageurs rencontrèrent
aussi un morai qui leur prouva que ces Indiens étaient dans l'usage de
brûler les morts et d'en conserver la tête.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom.
ii., p. 205. 'On the death of a toyon, or other distinguished person,
one of his slaves is deprived of life, and burned with him.'
_Lisiansky's Voy._, p. 241.

[174] Called by Gallatin, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p.
17, _Athapasca_, the name 'first given to the central part of the
country they inhabit.' Sir John Richardson, _Jour._, vol. ii., p. 1,
calls them 'Tinnè, or 'Dtinnè, Athabascans or Chepewyans.' 'They style
themselves generally Dinneh men, or Indians.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol.
i., p. 241.

[175] _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., pp. 1-33.

[176] 'Les Indiens de la côte ou de la Nouvelle Calédonie, les Tokalis,
les Chargeurs (Carriers) les Schouchouaps, les Atnas, appartiennent tous
à la nation des Chipeouaïans dont la langue est en usage dans le nord du
Continent jusqu'à la baie d'Hudson et à la Mer Polaire.' _Mofras_,
_Explor._, tom. ii., p. 337.

[177] Are 'known under the names of _Loucheux_, _Digothi_, and
_Kutshin_.' _Latham's Nat. Races_, p. 292. 'They are called Deguthee
Dinees, or the _Quarrellers_.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 51. 'On Peel's
River they name themselves _Kutchin_, the final _n_ being nasal and
faintly pronounced.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 378. They are
also called _Tykothee-dinneh_, Loucheux or Quarrellers. _Franklin's
Nar._, vol. ii., p. 83. 'The Loucheux proper is spoken by the Indians of
Peel's River. All the tribes inhabiting the valley of the Youkon
understand one another.' _Hardisty_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p.
311.

[178] Gallatin, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 17,
erroneously ruled the Loucheux out of his Athabasca nation. 'Im
äussersten Nordosten hat uns Gallatin aufmerksam gemacht auf das Volk
der Loucheux, Zänker-Indianer oder Digothi: an der Mündung des
Mackenzie-Flusses, nach Einigen zu dessen beiden Seiten (westliche und
östliche): dessen Sprache er nach den Reisenden für fremd den
athapaskischen hielt: worüber sich die neuen Nachrichten noch
widersprechen.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 713.
Franklin, _Nar._, vol. ii., p. 83, allies the Loucheux to the Eskimos.

[179] Tnai, 'man;' Tnaina Ttynai, Thnaina, Kinai, Kenai, Kenaize.

[180] See notes on Boundaries at the end of this chapter.

[181] Besides the 'Umkwa,' being outlying members of the Athabaskan
stock,' there are the 'Navahoe, the Jecorilla, the Panalero, along with
the Apatsh of New Mexico, California, and Sonora. To these add the
Hoopah of California, which is also Athabaskan.' _Latham's Comp. Phil._,
p. 393.

[182] William W. Turner was the first to assert positively that the
Apaches spoke a language which belongs to the Athabascan family.
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 316.

[183] Face 'oval.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 180. 'Broad faces,
projecting cheek-bones, and wide nostrils.' _Id._, vol. i., p. 242.
Foreheads low, chin long. _Martin's Brit. Col._, vol. iii., p. 524. An
exact compound between the Usquemows and Western Indians. _Barrow's
Geog. Hudson Bay_, p. 33.

[184] Generally more than medium size. _Hearne's Trav._, p. 305. 'Well
proportioned, and about the middle size.' _Martin's Brit. Col._, vol.
iii., p. 524. 'Long-bodied, with short, stout limbs.' _Ross_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 304.

[185] 'Dingy copper.' _Martin's Brit. Col._, vol. iii., p. 526.
'Swarthy.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. cxix. Dingy brown, copper cast.
_Hearne's Trav._, p. 305. 'Very fresh and red.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol.
ii., p. 180. 'Dirty yellowish ochre tinge.' _Ross_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1866, p. 304.

[186] 'Small, fine eyes and teeth.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., 242.

[187] 'Hair lank, but not always of a dingy black. Men in general
extract their beard, though some of them are seen to prefer a bushy,
black beard, to a smooth chin.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. cxix. Beard in
the aged 'between two and three inches long, and perfectly white.'
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 180. 'Black, strait, and coarse.'
_Martin's Brit. Col._, vol. iii., p. 524. 'Neither sex have any hair
under their armpits, and very little on any other part of the body,
particularly the women; but on the place where Nature plants the hair, I
never knew them attempt to eradicate it.' _Hearne's Trav._, p. 306.

[188] Tattooing appears to be universal among the Kutchins. _Kirby_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 419. The Chepewyans tattooed 'by entering
an awl or needle under the skin, and, on drawing it out again,
immediately rubbing powdered charcoal into the wound.' _Hearne's Trav._,
p. 306. 'Both sexes have blue or black bars, or from one to four
straight lines on their cheeks or forehead, to distinguish the tribe to
which they belong.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. cxx.

[189] Women 'destitute of real beauty.' _Hearne's Trav._, p. 89. 'Very
inferior aspect.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 8. Women nasty.
_Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 126. 'Positively hideous.' _Ross_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 304.

[190] A Deer-Horn Mountaineer's dress 'consisted of a shirt, or jacket
with a hood, wide breeches, reaching only to the knee, and tight leggins
sewed to the shoes, all of deer's skins.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii.,
p. 180. The cap consists of the skin of a deer's head. _Mackenzie's
Voy._, p. cxxii.

[191] As witness this speech of a noble chief: 'Women were made for
labor; one of them can carry, or haul, as much as two men can do. They
also pitch our tents, make and mend our clothing, keep us warm at night;
and, in fact, there is no such thing as traveling any considerable
distance, in this country without their assistance.' _Hearne's Trav._,
p. 55.

[192] An Indian desiring another one's wife, fights with her husband,
principally by pulling hair. If victorious, he pays a number of skins to
the husband. _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 303.

[193] 'Continence in an unmarried female is scarcely considered a
virtue.' 'Their dispositions are not amatory.' 'I have heard among them
of two sons keeping their mother as a common wife, of another wedded to
his daughter, and of several married to their sisters. _Ross_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 310. Women carry their children on the
back next the skin, and suckle them until another is born. They do not
suspend their ordinary occupations for child-birth. _Mackenzie's Voy._,
p. cxxii. 'A temporary interchange of wives is not uncommon; and the
offer of their persons is considered as a necessary part of the
hospitality due to strangers.' _Id._, p. xcvi. Women are 'rather the
slaves than the companions of the men.' _Bell's Geog._, vol. v., p. 293.

[194] They are harsh towards their wives, except when enceinte. They are
accused of abandoning the aged and sick, but only one case came to his
knowledge. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., pp. 250, 251.

[195] Beeatee, prepared from deer only, 'is a kind of haggis, made with
the blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, some of the tenderest of
the flesh, together with the heart and lungs cut, or more commonly cut
into small shivers; all of which is put into the stomach, and roasted.'
_Hearne's Trav._, p. 144. 'Not remarkable for their activity as hunters,
owing to the ease with which they snare deer and spear fish.'
_Mackenzie's Voy._, p. cxxiii. The Deer-Horn Mountaineers 'repair to the
sea in spring and kill seals; as the season advances, they hunt deer and
musk oxen at some distance from the coast. They approach the deer either
by crawling, or by leading these animals by ranges of turf towards the
spot where the archer can conceal himself.' Do not use nets, but the
hook and line. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 181. 'Nets made of lines
of twisted willow-bark, or thin strips of deer-hide.' _Richardson's
Jour._, vol. ii., p. 25. Curdled blood, a favorite dish. _Simpson's
Nar._, p. 324.

[196] The weapons of the Chepewyans are bows and arrows; stone and bone
axes and knives. _Harmon's Jour._, p. 183. The bows of the Deer-Horns
'are formed of three pieces of fir, the centre piece alone bent, the
other two lying in the same straight line with the bowstring; the pieces
are neatly tied together with sinew. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p.
180. In preparing for an attack, each Coppermine Indian paints his
shield with figures of Sun, Moon, or some animal or imaginary beings,
each portraying whatever character he most relies upon. _Hearne's
Trav._, p. 148. In some parts hunting grounds descend by inheritance,
and the right of property is rigidly enforced. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 75.

[197] 'Their cooking utensils are made of pot-stone, and they form very
neat dishes of fir.' _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 181. Make
fishing-lines and nets of green deer-thongs. _Mackenzie's Voy._, p.
cxxvi.

[198] 'They are great mimics.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 13.
Men dance naked; women dressed. A crowd stand in a straight line, and
shuffle from right to left without moving the feet from the ground.
_Hearne's Trav._, p. 335. 'The men occasionally howl in imitation of
some animal.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 35.

[199] 'They manifest no common respect to the memory of their departed
friends, by a long period of mourning, cutting off their hair, and never
making use of the property of the deceased.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p.
cxxviii. The death of leading men is attributed to conjuring. They never
bury the dead, but leave them, where they die, for wild beasts to
devour. _Hearne's Trav._, p. 341. The Chepewyans bury their dead. When
mourning for relatives they gash their bodies with knives. _Richardson's
Jour._, vol. ii., pp. 21, 22.

[200] 'The Northern Indians seldom attain a great age, though they have
few diseases.' _Martin's Brit. Col._, vol. iii., p. 525. For inward
complaints, the doctors blow zealously into the rectum, or adjacent
parts. _Hearne's Trav._, p. 189. The conjurer shuts himself up for days
with the patient, without food, and sings over him. _Franklin's Nar._,
vol. ii., p. 41. Medicine-men or conjurers are at the same time doctors.
_Hooper's Tuski_, pp. 317, 318. 'The Kutchins practice blood-letting _ad
libitum_.' _Jones_, _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 325. 'Their principal
maladies are rheumatic pains, the flux, and consumption.' _Mackenzie's
Voy._, p. cxxiv.

[201] According to the report of the Dog-ribs, the Mountain Indians are
cannibals, casting lots for victims in time of scarcity. _Simpson's
Nar._, p. 188. 'Instances of suicide, by hanging, frequently occur among
the women.' _Harmon's Jour._, p. 198. During times of starvation, which
occur quite frequently, the Slavé Indians eat their families. _Hooper's
Tuski_, p. 303. 'These people take their names, in the first instance,
from their dogs. A young man is the father of a certain dog, but when he
is married, and has a son, he styles himself the father of the boy. The
women have a habit of reproving the dogs very tenderly when they observe
them fighting. "Are you not ashamed," say they, "to quarrel with your
little brother?"' _Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., pp. 85, 86. 'Whether
circumcision be practiced among them, I cannot pretend to say, but the
appearance of it was general among those whom I saw.' _Mackenzie's
Voy._, p. 36. Dog-rib Indians, sometimes also called Slavés, 'a name
properly meaning 'strangers.' _Gallatin_, in _Am. Arch. Soc. Trans._,
vol. ii., p. 19.

[202] 'Order is maintained in the tribe solely by public opinion.'
_Richardson's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 26. The chiefs are now totally
without power. _Franklin's Nar._, vol. i., p. 247. 'They are influenced,
more or less, by certain principles which conduce to their general
benefit.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. cxxv.

[203] 'Many consider a broth, made by means of the dung of the cariboo
and the hare, to be a dainty dish.' _Harmon's Jour._, p. 324. They 'are
lazy, dirty, and sensual,' and extremely uncivilized. 'Their habits and
persons are equally disgusting.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 62.
'They are a tall, well formed, good-looking race.' _Nicolay's Ogn.
Ter._, p. 154. 'An utter contempt of cleanliness prevailed on all hands,
and it was revolting to witness their voracious endeavors to surpass
each other in the gluttonous contest.' _Ind. Life_, p. 156.

[204] The women 'run a wooden pin through their noses.' _Harmon's
Jour._, p. 287. At their burial ceremonies they smear the face 'with a
composition of fish-oil and charcoal.' When conjuring, the chief and his
companions 'wore a kind of coronet formed of the inverted claws of the
grizzly bear.' _Ind. Life_, pp. 127, 158.

[205] The Tacullies have 'wooden dishes, and other vessels of the rind
of the birch and pine trees.' 'Have also other vessels made of small
roots or fibres of the cedar or pine tree, closely laced together, which
serve them as buckets to put water in.' _Harmon's Jour._, p. 292.

[206] 'In the summer season both sexes bathe often; and this is the only
time, when the married people wash themselves.' The Tacullies are very
fond and very jealous of their wives, 'but to their daughters, they
allow every liberty, for the purpose, as they say, of keeping the young
men from intercourse with the married women.' _Harmon's Jour._, pp. 289,
292, 293. A father, whose daughter had dishonored him, killed her and
himself. _Ind. Life_, 184.

[207] 'The people of every village have a certain extent of country,
which they consider their own, and in which they may hunt and fish; but
they may not transcend these bounds, without purchasing the privilege of
those who claim the land. Mountains and rivers serve them as
boundaries.' _Harmon's Jour._, p. 298.

[208] Mackenzie, _Voy._, p. 238, found on Fraser River, about latitude
55°, a deserted house, 30 by 20, with three doors, 3 by 3½ feet; three
fire-places, and beds on either side; behind the beds was a narrow
space, like a manger, somewhat elevated, for keeping fish. 'Their houses
are well formed of logs of small trees, buttressed up internally,
frequently above seventy feet long and fifteen high, but, unlike those
of the coast, the roof is of bark; their winter habitations are smaller,
and often covered over with grass and earth; some even dwell in
excavations of the ground, which have only an aperture at the top, and
serves alike for door and chimney.' _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 154.

[209] 'Quelques peuplades du nord, telles que les Sikanis, enterrent
leurs morts.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 339. 'The Sicaunies
bury, while the Tacullies, burn their dead.' _Harmon's Jour._, p. 196.
They 'and the Chimmesyans on the coast, and other tribes speaking their
language, burn the dead.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 236. See also
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 79, 80; _Ind. Life_, pp. 128, 136; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 362, 363.

[210] They fire guns as a warning to their friends not to invade their
sorrow. _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 139.

[211] 'In the winter season, the Carriers often keep their dead in their
huts during five or six months, before they will allow them to be
burned.' _Harmon's Jour._, p. 249.

[212] 'She must frequently put her hands through the flames and lay them
upon his bosom, to show her continued devotion.' _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, p. 239. They have a custom of mourning over the grave of the
dead; their expressions of grief are generally exceedingly vociferous.
_Ind. Life_, pp. 185, 186.

[213] 'On the end of a pole stuck in front of the lodge.' _Lord's Nat._,
vol. ii., p. 237.

[214] Women cut off a joint of one of their fingers. Men only cut off
their hair close to their heads, but also frequently cut and scratch
their faces and arms. _Harmon's Jour._, p. 182. With some sharp
instrument they 'force back the flesh beyond the first joint, which they
immediately amputate.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 148.

[215] 'The men are completely destitute of beard, and both men and
women, are intensely ugly.' _Jones_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p.
320. 'They reminded me of the ideal North American Indian I had read of
but never seen.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 239. Distinguished from all
other tribes for the frankness and candor of their demeanor, and bold
countenances. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 100. 'Males are of the average hight
of Europeans, and well-formed, with regular features, high foreheads,
and lighter complexions than those of the other red Indians. The women
resemble the men.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 379.

[216] 'Tunic or shirt reaching to the knees, and very much ornamented
with beads, and Hyaqua shells from the Columbia.' _Kirby_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 418. The Tenan Kutchins are 'gay with
painted faces, feathers in their long hair, patches of red clay at the
back of their head.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 239. Jackets like the
Eskimos. _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 221. 'Both sexes wear
breeches.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 103.

[217] 'The Kutch-a-Kutchin, are essentially traders.' _Kirby_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 418. Appear to care more for useful than
ornamental articles. _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 213. 'Dentalium and
arenicola shells are transmitted from the west coast in traffic, and are
greatly valued.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 391.

[218] Some wear 'wampum (a kind of long, hollow shell) through the
septum of the nose.' _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 270. They pierce the nose and
insert shells, which are obtained from the Eskimos at a high price.
_Franklin's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 84.

[219] The Loucheux live in huts 'formed of green branches. In winter
their dwellings are partly under ground. The spoils of the moose and
reindeer furnish them with meat, clothing, and tents.' _Simpson's Nar._,
pp. 103, 191. The Co-Yukon winter dwellings are made under ground, and
roofed over with earth, having a hole for the smoke to escape by, in the
same manner as those of the Malemutes and Ingaliks. _Whymper's Alaska_,
pp. 175, 205. Their movable huts are constructed of deer-skin, 'dressed
with the hair on, and sewed together, forming two large rolls, which are
stretched over a frame of bent poles,' with a side door and smoke-hole
at the top. _Jones_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 321.

[220] The Loucheux are 'great gormandizers, and will devour solid fat,
or even drink grease, to surfeiting.' _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 271. 'The
bears are not often eaten in summer, as their flesh is not good at that
time.' _Jones_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 321. Some of their
reindeer-pounds are over one hundred years old and are hereditary in the
family. _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 394. 'The mode of fishing
through the ice practiced by the Russians is much in vogue with them.'
_Whymper's Alaska_, p. 211.

[221] The Kutchins 'have no knowledge of scalping.' 'When a man kills
his enemy, he cuts all his joints.' _Jones_, in _Smithsonian Rept._,
1866, 327. The Loucheux of Peel River and the Eskimos are constantly at
war. _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 273.

[222] 'At Peace River the bark is taken off the tree the whole length of
the intended canoe, which is commonly about eighteen feet, and is sewed
with watupe at both ends.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 207. When the Kutchins
discover a leak, 'they go ashore, light a small fire, warm the gum, of
which they always carry a supply, turn the canoe bottom upward, and rub
the healing balm in a semi-fluid state into the seam until it is again
water-tight.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 225. The Tacullies 'make canoes
which are clumsily wrought, of the aspin tree, as well as of the bark of
the spruce fir.' _Harmon's Jour._, p. 291. Rafts are employed on the
Mackenzie. _Simpson's Nar._, p. 185. 'In shape the Northern Indian canoe
bears some resemblance to a weaver's shuttle; covered over with birch
bark.' _Hearne's Jour._, pp. 97, 98. 'Kanots aus Birkenrinde, auf denen
sie die Flüsse u. Seen befahren.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethn._, p. 112. The
Kutchin canoe 'is flat-bottomed, is about nine feet long and one broad,
and the sides nearly straight up and down like a wall.' _Jones_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 323.

[223] As for instance for a life, the fine is forty beaver-skins, and
may be paid in guns at twenty skins each; blankets, equal to ten skins
each; powder, one skin a measure; bullets, eighteen for a skin; worsted
belts, two skins each. _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 272. 'For theft, little or
no punishment is inflicted; for adultery, the woman only is
punished'--sometimes by beating, sometimes by death. _Jones_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 325.

[224] Kutchin 'female chastity is prized, but is nearly unknown.'
_Jones_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 325. Loucheux mothers had
originally a custom of casting away their female children, but now it is
only done by the Mountain Indians, _Simpson's Nar._, p. 187. The Kutchin
'women are much fewer in number and live a much shorter time than the
men.' _Kirby_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 418. The old people 'are
not ill-used, but simply neglected.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 229. The
children are carried in small chairs made of birch bark. _Id._, p. 232.
'In a seat of birch bark.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 384.

[225] The Loucheux dances 'abound in extravagant gestures, and demand
violent exertion.' _Simpson's Nar._, p. 100. See _Hardisty_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1866, p. 313. 'Singing is much practiced, but it
is, though varied, of a very hum-drum nature.' _Hooper's Tuski_, p. 318.
'At the festivals held on the meeting of friendly tribes, leaping and
wrestling are practised.' _Richardson's Jour._, vol. i., p. 395.

[226] 'Irrespective of tribe, they are divided into three classes,
termed respectively, Chit-sa, Nate-sa, and Tanges-at-sa, faintly
representing the aristocracy, the middle classes, and the poorer orders
of civilized nations, the former being the most wealthy and the latter
the poorest.' _Kirby_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 418.

[227] On Peel River 'they bury their dead on stages.' On the Yukon they
burn and suspend the ashes in bags from the top of a painted pole.
_Kirby_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 419. They of the Yukon 'do not
inter the dead, but put them in oblong boxes, raised on posts.'
_Whymper's Alaska_, pp. 207, 211.




  [Illustration: NATIVE RACES of the PACIFIC STATES
   COLUMBIAN GROUP]


CHAPTER III.

COLUMBIANS.

      HABITAT OF THE COLUMBIAN GROUP--PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY--SOURCES
      OF FOOD-SUPPLY--INFLUENCE OF FOOD AND CLIMATE--FOUR EXTREME
      CLASSES--HAIDAHS--THEIR HOME--PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES--
      CLOTHING--SHELTER--SUSTENANCE--IMPLEMENTS--MANUFACTURES--
      ARTS--PROPERTY--LAWS--SLAVERY--WOMEN--CUSTOMS--MEDICINE--
      DEATH--THE NOOTKAS--THE SOUND NATIONS--THE CHINOOKS--THE
      SHUSHWAPS--THE SALISH--THE SAHAPTINS--TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.


The term COLUMBIANS, or, as Scouler[228] and others have called them,
_Nootka-Columbians_, is, in the absence of a native word, sufficiently
characteristic to distinguish the aboriginal nations of north-western
America between the forty-third and fifty-fifth parallels, from those of
the other great divisions of this work. The Columbia River, which
suggests the name of this group, and Nootka Sound on the western shore
of Vancouver Island, were originally the chief centres of European
settlement on the North-west Coast; and at an early period these names
were compounded to designate the natives of the Anglo-American
possessions on the Pacific, which lay between the discoveries of the
Russians on the north and those of the Spaniards on the south. As a
simple name is always preferable to a complex one, and as no more
pertinent name suggests itself than that of the great river which, with
its tributaries, drains a large portion of this territory, I drop
'Nootka' and retain only the word 'Columbian.'[229] These nations have
also been broadly denominated Flatheads, from a custom practiced more or
less by many of their tribes, of compressing the cranium during
infancy;[230] although the only Indians in the whole area, tribally
known as Flatheads, are those of the Salish family, who do not flatten
the head at all.

  [Sidenote: COLUMBIAN FAMILIES.]

In describing the Columbian nations it is necessary, as in the other
divisions, to subdivide the group; arbitrarily this may have been done
in some instances, but as naturally as possible in all. Thus the people
of Queen Charlotte Islands, and the adjacent coast for about a hundred
miles inland, extending from 55° to 52° of north latitude, are called
_Haidahs_ from the predominant tribe of the islands. The occupants of
Vancouver Island and the opposite main, with its labyrinth of inlets
from 52° to 49°, I term _Nootkas_. The _Sound Indians_ inhabit the
region drained by streams flowing into Puget Sound, and the adjacent
shores of the strait and ocean; the _Chinooks_ occupy the banks of the
Columbia from the Dalles to the sea, extending along the coast northward
to Gray Harbor, and southward nearly to the Californian line. The
interior of British Columbia, between the Cascade and Rocky Mountains,
and south of the territory occupied by the Hyperborean Carriers, is
peopled by the _Shushwaps_, the _Kootenais_, and the _Okanagans_.
Between 49° and 47°, extending west from the Cascade to the Rocky
Mountains, chiefly on the Columbia and Clarke Fork, is the _Salish_ or
Flathead family. The nations dwelling south of 47° and east of the
Cascade range, on the Columbia, the lower Snake, and their tributary
streams, may be called _Sahaptins_, from the name of the Nez Percé
tribes.[231] The great _Shoshone_ family, extending south-east from the
upper waters of the Columbia, and spreading out over nearly the whole of
the Great Basin, although partially included in the Columbian limits,
will be omitted in this, and included in the Californian Group, which
follows. These divisions, as before stated, are geographic rather than
ethnographic.[232] Many attempts have been made by practical
ethnologists, to draw partition lines between these peoples according to
race, all of which have proved signal failures, the best approximation
to a scientific division being that of philologists, the results of
whose researches are given in the third volume of this series; but
neither the latter division, nor that into coast and inland tribes--in
many respects the most natural and clearly defined of all[233]--is
adapted to my present purpose. In treating of the Columbians, I shall
first take up the coast families, going from north to south, and
afterward follow the same order with those east of the mountains.

  [Sidenote: HOME OF THE COLUMBIANS.]

No little partiality was displayed by the Great Spirit of the Columbians
in the apportionment of their dwelling-place. The Cascade Mountains,
running from north to south throughout their whole territory, make of it
two distinct climatic divisions, both highly but unequally favored by
nature. On the coast side--a strip which may be called one hundred and
fifty miles wide and one thousand miles long--excessive cold is unknown,
and the earth, warmed by Asiatic currents and watered by numerous
mountain streams, is thickly wooded; noble forests are well stocked with
game; a fertile soil yields a great variety of succulent roots and
edible berries, which latter means of subsistence were lightly
appreciated by the indolent inhabitants, by reason of the still more
abundant and accessible food-supply afforded by the fish of ocean,
channel, and stream. The sources of material for clothing were also
bountiful far beyond the needs of the people.

Passing the Cascade barrier, the climate and the face of the country
change. Here we have a succession of plains or table-lands, rarely
degenerating into deserts, with a good supply of grass and roots; though
generally without timber, except along the streams, until the heavily
wooded western spurs of the Rocky Mountains are reached. The air having
lost much of its moisture, affords but a scanty supply of rain, the
warming and equalizing influence of the ocean stream is no longer felt,
and the extremes of heat and cold are undergone according to latitude
and season. Yet are the dwellers in this land blessed above many other
aboriginal peoples, in that game is plenty, and roots and insects are at
hand in case the season's hunt prove unsuccessful.

Ethnologically, no well-defined line can be drawn to divide the people
occupying these two widely different regions. Diverse as they certainly
are in form, character, and customs, their environment, the climate, and
their methods of seeking food may well be supposed to have made them so.
Not only do the pursuit of game in the interior and the taking of fish
on the coast, develop clearly marked general peculiarities of character
and life in the two divisions, but the same causes produce grades more
or less distinct in each division. West of the Cascade range, the
highest position is held by the tribes who in their canoes pursue the
whale upon the ocean, and in the effort to capture Leviathan become
themselves great and daring as compared with the lowest order who live
upon shell-fish and whatever nutritious substances may be cast by the
tide upon the beach. Likewise in the interior, the extremes are found in
the deer, bear, elk, and buffalo hunters, especially when horses are
employed, and in the root and insect eaters of the plains. Between these
four extreme classes may be traced many intermediate grades of physical
and intellectual development, due to necessity and the abilities
exercised in the pursuit of game.

The Columbians hitherto have been brought in much closer contact with
the whites than the Hyperboreans, and the results of the association are
known to all. The cruel treacheries and massacres by which nations have
been thinned, and flickering remnants of once powerful tribes gathered
on government reservations or reduced to a handful of beggars, dependent
for a livelihood on charity, theft, or the wages of prostitution, form
an unwritten chapter in the history of this region. That this process of
duplicity was unnecessary as well as infamous, I shall not attempt to
show, as the discussion of Indian policy forms no part of my present
purpose. Whatever the cause, whether from an inhuman civilized policy,
or the decrees of fate, it is evident that the Columbians, in common
with all the aborigines of America, are doomed to extermination.
Civilization and savagism will not coalesce, any more than light and
darkness; and although it may be necessary that these things come, yet
are those by whom they are unrighteously accomplished none the less
culpable.

Once more let it be understood that the time of which this volume
speaks, was when the respective peoples were first known to Europeans.
It was when, throughout this region of the Columbia, nature's wild
magnificence was yet fresh; primeval forests unprofaned; lakes, and
rivers, and rolling plains unswept; it was when countless villages
dotted the luxuriant valleys; when from the warrior's camp-fire the
curling smoke never ceased to ascend, nor the sounds of song and dance
to be heard; when bands of gaily dressed savages roamed over every
hill-side; when humanity unrestrained vied with bird and beast in the
exercise of liberty absolute. This is no history; alas! they have none;
it is but a sun-picture, and to be taken correctly must be taken
quickly. Nor need we pause to look back through the dark vista of
unwritten history, and speculate, who and what they are, nor for how
many thousands of years they have been coming and going, counting the
winters, the moons, and the sleeps; chasing the wild game, basking in
the sunshine, pursuing and being pursued, killing and being killed. All
knowledge regarding them lies buried in an eternity of the past, as all
knowledge of their successors remains folded in an eternity of the
future. We came upon them unawares, unbidden, and while we gazed they
melted away. The infectious air of civilization penetrated to the
remotest corner of their solitudes. Their ignorant and credulous nature,
unable to cope with the intellect of a superior race, absorbed only its
vices, yielding up its own simplicity and nobleness for the white man's
diseases and death.


  [Sidenote: HAIDAH NATIONS.]

In the HAIDAH family I include the nations occupying the coast and
islands from the southern extremity of Prince of Wales Archipelago to
the Bentinck Arms in about 52°. Their territory is bounded on the north
and east by the Thlinkeet and Carrier nations of the Hyperboreans, and
on the south by the Nootka family of the Columbians. Its chief nations,
whose boundaries however can rarely be fixed with precision, are the
_Massets_, the _Skiddegats_, and the _Cumshawas_, of Queen Charlotte
Islands; the _Kaiganies_, of Prince of Wales Archipelago; the
_Chimsyans_, about Fort Simpson, and on Chatham Sound; the _Nass_ and
the _Skeenas_, on the rivers of the same names; the _Sebassas_, on Pitt
Archipelago and the shores of Gardner Channel; and the Millbank Sound
Indians, including the _Hailtzas_ and the _Bellacoolas_, the most
southern of this family. These nations, the orthography of whose names
is far from uniform among different writers, are still farther
subdivided into numerous indefinite tribes, as specified at the end of
this chapter.

The Haidah territory, stretching on the mainland three hundred miles in
length, and in width somewhat over one hundred miles from the sea to the
lofty Chilkoten Plain, is traversed throughout its length by the
northern extension of the Cascade Range. In places its spurs and broken
foot-hills touch the shore, and the very heart of the range is
penetrated by innumerable inlets and channels, into which pour short
rapid streams from interior hill and plain. The country, though hilly,
is fertile and covered by an abundant growth of large, straight pines,
cedars, and other forest trees. The forest abounds with game, the waters
with fish. The climate is less severe than in the middle United States;
and notwithstanding the high latitude of their home, the Haidahs have
received no small share of nature's gifts. Little has been explored,
however, beyond the actual coast, and information concerning this
nation, coming from a few sources only, is less complete than in the
case of the more southern Nootkas.

  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES OF THE HAIDAHS.]

Favorable natural conditions have produced in the Haidahs a tall,
comely, and well-formed race, not inferior to any in North-western
America;[234] the northern nations of the family being generally
superior to the southern,[235] and having physical if not linguistic
affinities with their Thlinkeet neighbors, rather than with the Nootkas.
Their faces are broad, with high cheek bones;[236] the eyes small,
generally black, though brown and gray with a reddish tinge have been
observed among them.[237] The few who have seen their faces free from
paint pronounce their complexion light,[238] and instances of Albino
characteristics are sometimes found.[239] The hair is not uniformly
coarse and black, but often soft in texture, and of varying shades of
brown, worn by some of the tribes cut close to the head.[240] The beard
is usually plucked out with great care, but moustaches are raised
sometimes as strong as those of Europeans;[241] indeed there seems to
be little authority for the old belief that the North-western American
Indians were destitute of hair except on the head.[242] Dr Scouler,
comparing Chimsyan skulls with those of the Chinooks, who are among the
best known of the north-western nations, finds that in a natural state
both have broad, high cheek-bones, with a receding forehead, but the
Chimsyan skull, between the parietal and temporal bones, is broader than
that of the Chinook, its vertex being remarkably flat.[243] Swollen and
deformed legs are common from constantly doubling them under the body
while sitting in the canoe. The teeth are frequently worn down to the
gums by eating sanded salmon.[244]

  [Sidenote: HAIDAH DRESS AND ORNAMENT.]

The Haidahs have no methods of distortion peculiar to themselves, by
which they seek to improve their fine physique; but the custom of
flattening the head in infancy obtains in some of the southern nations
of this family, as the Hailtzas and Bellacoolas,[245] and the Thlinkeet
lip-piece, already sufficiently described, is in use throughout a larger
part of the whole territory. It was observed by Simpson as far south as
Millbank Sound, where it was highly useful as well as ornamental,
affording a firm hold for the fair fingers of the sex in their drunken
fights. These ornaments, made of either wood, bone, or metal, are worn
particularly large in Queen Charlotte Islands, where they seem to be
not a mark of rank, but to be worn in common by all the women.[246]
Besides the regular lip-piece, ornaments, various in shape and material,
of shell, bone, wood, or metal, are worn stuck in the lips, nose, and
ears, apparently according to the caprice or taste of the wearer, the
skin being sometimes, though more rarely, tattooed to correspond.[247]
Both for ornament and as a protection against the weather, the skin is
covered with a thick coat of paint, a black polish being a full dress
uniform. Figures of birds and beasts, and a coat of grease are added in
preparation for a feast, with fine down of duck or goose--a stylish coat
of tar and feathers--sprinkled over the body as an extra
attraction.[248] When the severity of the weather makes additional
protection desirable, a blanket, formerly woven by themselves from dog's
hair, and stained in varied colors, but now mostly procured from
Europeans, is thrown loosely over the shoulders. Chiefs, especially in
times of feasting, wear richer robes of skins.[249] The styles of dress
and ornament adopted around the forts from contact with the whites need
not be described. Among the more unusual articles that have been noticed
by travelers are, "a large hat, resembling the top of a small parasol,
made of the twisted fibres of the roots of trees, with an aperture in
the inside, at the broader end" for the head, worn by a Sebassa chief;
and at Millbank Sound, "masks set with seals' whiskers and feathers,
which expand like a fan," with secret springs to open the mouth and
eyes.[250] Mackenzie and Vancouver, who were among the earliest visitors
to this region, found fringed robes of bark-fibre, ornamented with fur
and  threads. A circular mat, with an opening in the centre for
the head, was worn as a protection from the rain; and war garments
consisted of several thicknesses of the strongest hides procurable,
sometimes strengthened by strips of wood on the inside.[251]

  [Sidenote: HAIDAH HOUSES.]

The Haidahs use as temporary dwellings, in their frequent summer
excursions for war and the hunt, simple lodges of poles, covered, among
the poorer classes by cedar mats, and among the rich by skins. Their
permanent villages are usually built in strong natural positions,
guarded by precipices, sometimes on rocks detached from the main land,
but connected with it by a narrow platform. Their town houses are built
of light logs, or of thick split planks, usually of sufficient size to
accommodate a large number of families. Poole mentions a house on Queen
Charlotte Islands, which formed a cube of fifty feet, ten feet of its
height being dug in the ground, and which accommodated seven hundred
Indians. The buildings are often, however, raised above the ground on a
platform supported by posts, sometimes carved into human or other
figures. Some of these raised buildings seen by the earlier visitors
were twenty-five or thirty feet from the ground, solidly and neatly
constructed, an inclined log with notches serving as a ladder. These
houses were found only in the southern part of the Haidah territory.
The fronts were generally painted with figures of men and animals. There
were no windows or chimney; the floors were spread with cedar mats, on
which the occupants slept in a circle round a central fire, whose smoke
in its exit took its choice between the hole which served as a door and
the wall-cracks. On the south-eastern boundary of this territory,
Mackenzie found in the villages large buildings of similar but more
careful construction, and with more elaborately carved posts, but they
were not dwellings, being used probably for religious purposes.[252]

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE HAIDAHS.]

Although game is plentiful, the Haidahs are not a race of hunters, but
derive their food chiefly from the innumerable multitude of fish and sea
animals, which, each variety in its season, fill the coast waters. Most
of the coast tribes, and all who live inland, kill the deer and other
animals, particularly since the introduction of firearms, but it is
generally the skin and not the flesh that is sought. Some tribes about
the Bentinck channels, at the time of Mackenzie's visit, would not taste
flesh except from the sea, from superstitious motives. Birds that burrow
in the sand-banks are enticed out by the glare of torches, and knocked
down in large numbers with clubs. They are roasted without plucking or
cleaning, the entrails being left in to improve the flavor. Potatoes,
and small quantities of carrots and other vegetables, are now cultivated
throughout this territory, the crop being repeated until the soil is
exhausted, when a new place is cleared. Wild parsnips are abundant on
the banks of lakes and streams, and their tender tops, roasted, furnish
a palatable food; berries and bulbs abound, and the inner tegument of
some varieties of the pine and hemlock is dried in cakes and eaten with
salmon-oil. The varieties of fish sent by nature to the deep inlets and
streams for the Haidah's food, are very numerous; their standard
reliance for regular supplies being the salmon, herring, eulachon or
candle-fish, round-fish, and halibut. Salmon are speared; dipped up in
scoop-nets; entangled in drag-nets managed between two canoes and forced
by poles to the bottom; intercepted in their pursuit of smaller fish by
gill-nets with coarse meshes, made of cords of native hemp, stretched
across the entrance of the smaller inlets; and are caught in large
wicker baskets, placed at openings in weirs and embankments which are
built across the rivers. The salmon fishery differs little in different
parts of the Northwest. The candle-fish, so fat that in frying they melt
almost completely into oil, and need only the insertion of a pith or
bark wick to furnish an excellent lamp, are impaled on the sharp teeth
of a rake, or comb. The handle of the rake is from six to eight feet
long, and it is swept through the water by the Haidahs in their canoes
by moonlight. Herring in immense numbers are taken in April by similar
rakes, as well as by dip-nets, a large part of the whole take being used
for oil. Seals are speared in the water or shot while on the rocks, and
their flesh is esteemed a great delicacy. Clams, cockles, and shell-fish
are captured by squaws, such an employment being beneath manly dignity.
Fish, when caught, are delivered to the women, whose duty it is to
prepare them for winter use by drying. No salt is used, but the fish are
dried in the sun, or smoke-dried by being hung from the top of
dwellings, then wrapped in bark, or packed in rude baskets or chests,
and stowed on high scaffolds out of the reach of dogs and children.
Salmon are opened, and the entrails, head, and back-bone removed before
drying. During the process of drying, sand is blown over the fish, and
the teeth of the eater are often worn down by it nearly even with the
gums. The spawn of salmon and herring is greatly esteemed, and besides
that obtained from the fish caught, much is collected on pine boughs,
which are stuck in the mud until loaded with the eggs. This native
caviare is dried for preservation, and is eaten prepared in various
ways; pounded between two stones, and beaten with water into a creamy
consistency; or boiled with sorrel and different berries, and moulded
into cakes about twelve inches square and one inch thick by means of
wooden frames. After a sufficient supply of solid food for the winter is
secured, oil, the great heat-producing element of all northern tribes,
is extracted from the additional catch, by boiling the fish in wooden
vessels, and skimming the grease from the water or squeezing it from the
refuse. The arms and breast of the women are the natural press in which
the mass, wrapped in mats, is hugged; the hollow stalks of an abundant
sea-weed furnish natural bottles in which the oil is preserved for use
as a sauce, and into which nearly everything is dipped before eating.
When the stock of food is secured, it is rarely infringed upon until the
winter sets in, but then such is the Indian appetite--ten pounds of
flour in the pancake-form at a meal being nothing for the stomach of a
Haidah, according to Poole--that whole tribes frequently suffer from
hunger before spring.[253]

The Haidah weapons are spears from four to sixteen feet long, some with
a movable head or barb, which comes off when the seal or whale is
struck; bows and arrows; hatchets of bone, horn, or iron, with which
their planks are made; and daggers. Both spears and arrows are
frequently pointed with iron, which, whether it found its way across the
continent from the Hudson-Bay settlements, down the coast from the
Russians, or was obtained from wrecked vessels, was certainly used in
British Columbia for various purposes before the coming of the whites.
Bows are made of cedar, with sinew glued along one side. Poole states
that before the introduction of fire-arms, the Queen Charlotte Islanders
had no weapon but a club. Brave as the Haidah warrior is admitted to be,
open fair fight is unknown to him, and in true Indian style he resorts
to night attacks, superior numbers, and treachery, to defeat his foe.
Cutting off the head as a trophy is practiced instead of scalping, but
though unmercifully cruel to all sexes and ages in the heat of battle,
prolonged torture of captives seems to be unknown. Treaties of peace are
arranged by delegations from the hostile tribes, following set forms,
and the ceremonies terminate with a many days' feast.[254] Nets are made
of native wild hemp and of cedar-bark fibre; hooks, of two pieces of
wood or bone fastened together at an obtuse angle; boxes, troughs, and
household dishes, of wood; ladles and spoons, of wood, horn, and bone.
Candle-fish, with a wick of bark or pith, serve as lamps; drinking
vessels and pipes are carved with great skill from stone. The Haidahs
are noted for their skill in the construction of their various
implements, particularly for sculptures in stone and ivory, in which
they excel all the other tribes of Northern America.[255]

  [Sidenote: HAIDAH MANUFACTURES.]

The cedar-fibre and wild hemp were prepared for use by the women by
beating on the rocks; they were then spun with a rude distaff and
spindle, and woven on a frame into the material for blankets, robes, and
mats, or twisted by the men into strong and even cord, between the hand
and thigh. Strips of otter-skin, bird-feathers, and other materials,
were also woven into the blankets. Dogs of a peculiar breed, now nearly
extinct, were shorn each year, furnishing a long white hair, which,
mixed with fine hemp and cedar, made the best cloth. By dyeing the
materials, regular  patterns were produced, each tribe having
had, it is said, a peculiar pattern by which its matting could be
distinguished. Since the coming of Europeans, blankets of native
manufacture have almost entirely disappeared. The Bellacoolas made very
neat baskets, called _zeilusqua_, as well as hats and water-tight
vessels, all of fine cedar-roots. Each chief about Fort Simpson kept an
artisan, whose business it was to repair canoes, make masks, etc.[256]

The Haidah canoes are dug out of cedar logs, and are sometimes sixty
feet long, six and a half wide, and four and a half deep, accommodating
one hundred men. The prow and stern are raised, and often gracefully
curved like a swan's neck, with a monster's head at the extremity. Boats
of the better class have their exteriors carved and painted, with the
gunwale inlaid in some cases with otter-teeth. Each canoe is made of a
single log, except the raised extremities of the larger boats. They are
impelled rapidly and safely over the often rough waters of the coast
inlets, by shovel-shaped paddles, and when on shore, are piled up and
covered with mats for protection against the rays of the sun. Since the
coming of Europeans, sails have been added to the native boats, and
other foreign features imitated.[257]

  [Sidenote: TRADE AND GOVERNMENT.]

Rank and power depend greatly upon wealth, which consists of implements,
wives, and slaves. Admission to alliance with medicine-men, whose
influence is greatest in the tribe, can only be gained by sacrifice of
private property. Before the disappearance of sea-otters from the Haidah
waters, the skins of that animal formed the chief element of their trade
and wealth; now the potatoes cultivated in some parts, and the various
manufactures of Queen Charlotte Islands, supply their slight
necessities. There is great rivalry among the islanders in supplying the
tribes on the main with potatoes, fleets of forty or fifty canoes
engaging each year in the trade from Queen Charlotte Islands. Fort
Simpson is the great commercial rendezvous of the surrounding nations,
who assemble from all directions in September, to hold a fair, dispose
of their goods, visit friends, fight enemies, feast, and dance. Thus
continue trade and merry-making for several weeks. Large fleets of
canoes from the north also visit Victoria each spring for trading
purposes.[258]

Very little can be said of the government of the Haidahs in distinction
from that of the other nations of the Northwest Coast. Among nearly all
of them rank is nominally hereditary, for the most part by the female
line, but really depends to a great extent on wealth and ability in war.
Females often possess the right of chieftainship. In early intercourse
with whites the chief traded for the whole tribe, subject, however, to
the approval of the several families, each of which seemed to form a
kind of subordinate government by itself. In some parts the power of
the chief seems absolute, and is wantonly exercised in the commission
of the most cruel acts according to his pleasure. The extensive
embankments and weirs found by Mackenzie, although their construction
must have required the association of all the labor of the tribe, were
completely under the chief's control, and no one could fish without his
permission. The people seemed all equal, but strangers must obey the
natives or leave the village. Crimes have no punishment by law; murder
is settled for with relatives of the victim, by death or by the payment
of a large sum; and sometimes general or notorious offenders, especially
medicine-men, are put to death by an agreement among leading men.[259]
Slavery is universal, and as the life of the slave is of no value to the
owner except as property, they are treated with extreme cruelty. Slaves
the northern tribes purchase, kidnap, or capture in war from their
southern neighbors, who obtain them by like means from each other, the
course of the slave traffic being generally from south to north, and
from the coast inland.[260]

Polygamy is everywhere practiced, and the number of wives is regulated
only by wealth, girls being bought of parents at any price which may be
agreed upon, and returned, and the price recovered, when after a proper
trial they are not satisfactory. The transfer of the presents or price
to the bride's parents is among some tribes accompanied by slight
ceremonies nowhere fully described. The marriage ceremonies at Millbank
Sound are performed on a platform over the water, supported by canoes.
While jealousy is not entirely unknown, chastity appears to be so, as
women who can earn the greatest number of blankets win great admiration
for themselves and high position for their husbands. Abortion and
infanticide are not uncommon. Twin births are unusual, and the number of
children is not large, although the age of bearing extends to forty or
forty-six years. Women, except in the season of preparing the winter
supply of fish, are occupied in household affairs and the care of
children, for whom they are not without some affection, and whom they
nurse often to the age of two or three years. Many families live
together in one house, with droves of filthy dogs and children, all
sleeping on mats round a central fire.[261]

  [Sidenote: HAIDAH GAMBLERS.]

The Haidahs, like all Indians, are inveterate gamblers, the favorite
game on Queen Charlotte Islands being odd and even, played with small
round sticks, in which the game is won when one player has all the bunch
of forty or fifty sticks originally belonging to his opponent. Farther
south, and inland, some of the sticks are painted with red rings, and
the player's skill or luck consists in naming the number and marks of
sticks previously wrapped by his antagonist in grass. All have become
fond of whisky since the coming of whites, but seem to have had no
intoxicating drink before. At their annual trading fairs, and on other
occasions, they are fond of visiting and entertaining friends with
ceremonious interchange of presents, a suitable return being expected
for each gift. At these reception feasts, men and women are seated on
benches along opposite walls; at wedding feasts both sexes dance and
sing together. In dancing, the body, head, and arms are thrown into
various attitudes to keep time with the music, very little use being
made of the legs. On Queen Charlotte Islands the women dance at feasts,
while the men in a circle beat time with sticks, the only instruments,
except a kind of tambourine. For their dances they deck themselves in
their best array, including plenty of birds' down, which they delight to
communicate to their partners in bowing, and which they also blow into
the air at regular intervals, through a painted tube. Their songs are a
simple and monotonous chant, with which they accompany most of their
dances and ceremonies, though Mackenzie heard among them some soft,
plaintive tones, not unlike church music. The chiefs in winter give a
partly theatrical, partly religious entertainment, in which, after
preparation behind a curtain, dressed in rich apparel and wearing masks,
they appear on a stage and imitate different spirits for the instruction
of the hearers, who meanwhile keep up their songs.[262]

After the salmon season, feasting and conjuring are in order. The chief,
whose greatest authority is in his character of conjurer, or
_tzeetzaiak_ as he is termed in the Hailtzuk tongue, pretends at this
time to live alone in the forest, fasting or eating grass, and while
there is known as _taamish_. When he returns, clad in bear-robe,
chaplet, and red-bark collar, the crowd flies at his approach, except a
few brave spirits, who boldly present their naked arms, from which he
bites and swallows large mouthfuls. This, skillfully done, adds to the
reputation of both biter and bitten, and is perhaps all the foundation
that exists for the report that these people are cannibals; although Mr
Duncan, speaking of the Chimsyans in a locality not definitely fixed,
testifies to the tearing to pieces and actual devouring of the body of a
murdered slave by naked bands of cannibal medicine-men. Only certain
parties of the initiated practice this barbarism, others confining their
tearing ceremony to the bodies of dogs.[263]

  [Sidenote: MAGICIANS AND MEDICINE-MEN.]

None of these horrible orgies are practiced by the Queen Charlotte
Islanders. The performances of the Haidah magicians, so far as they may
differ from those of the Nootkas have not been clearly described by
travelers. The magicians of Chatham Sound keep infernal spirits shut up
in a box away from the vulgar gaze, and possess great power by reason of
the implicit belief on the part of the people, in their ability to charm
away life. The doctor, however, is not beyond the reach of a kinsman's
revenge, and is sometimes murdered.[264] With their ceremonies and
superstitions there seems to be mixed very little religion, as all their
many fears have reference to the present life. Certain owls and
squirrels are regarded with reverence, and used as charms; salmon must
not be cut across the grain, or the living fish will leave the river;
the mysterious operations with astronomical and other European
instruments about their rivers caused great fear that the fisheries
would be ruined; fogs are conjured away without the slightest suspicion
of the sun's agency.[265] European navigators they welcome by paddling
their boats several times round the ship, making long speeches,
scattering birds' down, and singing.[266] Ordinary presents, like
tobacco or trinkets, are gladly received, but a written testimonial is
most highly prized by the Haidahs, who regard writing as a great and
valuable mystery. They have absolutely no methods of recording events.
Although living so constantly on the water, I find no mention of their
skill in swimming, while Poole states expressly that they have no
knowledge of that art.[267]

Very slight accounts are extant of the peculiar methods of curing
diseases practiced by the Haidahs. Their chief reliance, as in the case
of all Indian tribes, is on the incantations and conjurings of their
sorcerers, who claim supernatural powers of seeing, hearing, and
extracting disease, and are paid liberally when successful. Bark, herbs,
and various decoctions are used in slight sickness, but in serious cases
little reliance is placed on them. To the bites of the sorcerer-chiefs
on the main, eagle-down is applied to stop the bleeding, after which a
pine-gum plaster or sallal-bark is applied. On Queen Charlotte Islands,
in a case of internal uneasiness, large quantities of sea-water are
swallowed, shaken up, and ejected through the mouth for the purpose, as
the natives say, of 'washing themselves inside out.'[268]

  [Sidenote: HAIDAH BURIALS.]

Death is ascribed to the ill will and malign influence of an enemy, and
one suspected of causing the death of a prominent individual, must make
ready to die. As a rule, the bodies of the dead are burned, though
exceptions are noted in nearly every part of the territory. In the
disposal of the ashes and larger bones which remain unburned, there
seems to be no fixed usage. Encased in boxes, baskets, or canoes, or
wrapped in mats or bark, they are buried in or deposited on the ground,
placed in a tree, on a platform, or hung from a pole. Articles of
property are frequently deposited with the ashes, but not uniformly.
Slaves' bodies are simply thrown into the river or the sea. Mourning for
the dead consists usually of cutting the hair and blackening anew the
face and neck for several months. Among the Kaiganies, guests at the
burning of the bodies are wont to lacerate themselves with knives and
stones. A tribe visited by Mackenzie, kept their graves free from
shrubbery, a woman clearing that of her husband each time she passed.
The Nass Indians paddle a dead chief, gaily dressed, round the coast
villages.[269]

The Haidahs, compared with other North American Indians, may be called
an intelligent, honest, and brave race, although not slow under European
treatment to become drunkards, gamblers, and thieves. Acts of unprovoked
cruelty or treachery are rare; missionaries have been somewhat
successful in the vicinity of Fort Simpson, finding in intoxicating
liquors their chief obstacle.[270]


  [Sidenote: THE NOOTKAS.]

THE NOOTKAS, the second division of the Columbian group, are
immediately south of the Haidah country; occupying Vancouver Island,
and the coast of the main land, between the fifty-second and the
forty-ninth parallels. The word _nootka_ is not found in any native
dialect of the present day. Captain Cook, to whom we are indebted for
the term, probably misunderstood the name given by the natives to the
region of Nootka Sound.[271]The first European settlement in this
region was on the Sound, which thus became the central point of early
English and Spanish intercourse with the Northwest Coast; but it was
soon abandoned, and no mission or trading post has since taken its
place, so that no tribes of this family have been less known in later
times than those on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The chief
tribes of the Nootka family, or those on whose tribal existence, if
not on the orthography of their names authors to some extent agree,
are as follows.[272] The _Nitinats_, _Clayoquots_, and _Nootkas_, on
the sounds of the same names along the west coast of Vancouver Island;
the _Quackolls_ and _Newittees_,[273] in the north; the _Cowichins_,
_Ucletas_, and _Comux_, on the east coast of Vancouver and on the
opposite main; the _Saukaulutuchs_[274], in the interior of the
island; the _Clallums_,[275] _Sokes_, and _Patcheena_, on the south
end; and the _Kwantlums_ and _Teets_,[276] on the lower Fraser River.
These tribes differ but little in physical peculiarities, or manners
and customs, but by their numerous dialects they have been classed in
nations. No comprehensive or satisfactory names have, however, been
applied to them as national divisions.[277]

Between the Nootka family and its fish-eating neighbors on the north and
south, the line of distinction is not clearly marked, but the contrast
is greater with the interior hunting tribes on the east. Since their
first intercourse with whites, the Nootkas have constantly decreased in
numbers, and this not only in those parts where they have been brought
into contact with traders and miners, but on the west coast, where they
have retained in a measure their primitive state. The savage fades
before the superior race, and immediate intercourse is not necessary to
produce in native races those 'baleful influences of civilization,'
which like a pestilence are wafted from afar, as on the wings of the
wind.[278]

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA PHYSIQUE.]

The Nootkas are of less than medium height, smaller than the Haidahs,
but rather strongly built; usually plump, but rarely corpulent;[279]
their legs, like those of all the coast tribes, short, small, and
frequently deformed, with large feet and ankles;[280] the face broad,
round, and full, with the usual prominent cheek-bone, a low forehead,
flat nose, wide nostrils, small black eyes, round thickish-lipped mouth,
tolerably even well-set teeth; the whole forming a countenance rather
dull and expressionless, but frequently pleasant.[281] The Nootka
complexion, so far as grease and paint have allowed travelers to
observe it, is decidedly light, but apparently a shade darker than that
of the Haidah family.[282] The hair, worn long, is as a rule black or
dark brown, coarse, and straight, though instances are not wanting where
all these qualities are reversed.[283] The beard is carefully plucked
out by the young men, and this operation, repeated for generations, has
rendered the beard naturally thin. Old men often allow it to grow on the
chin and upper lip.

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA HAIR AND BEARD.]

To cut the hair short is to the Nootka a disgrace. Worn at full length,
evened at the ends, and sometimes cut straight across the forehead, it
is either allowed to hang loosely from under a band of cloth or fillet
of bark, or is tied in a knot on the crown. On full-dress occasions the
top-knot is secured with a green bough, and after being well saturated
with whale-grease, the hair is powdered plentifully with white feathers,
which are regarded as the crowning ornament for manly dignity in all
these regions. Both sexes, but particularly the women, take great pains
with the hair, carefully combing and plaiting their long tresses,
fashioning tasteful head-dresses of bark-fibre, decked with beads and
shells, attaching leaden weights to the braids to keep them straight.
The bruised root of a certain plant is thought by the Ahts to promote
the growth of the hair.[284]

The custom of flattening the head is practiced by the Nootkas, in common
with the Sound and Chinook families, but is not universal, nor is so
much importance attached to it as elsewhere; although all seem to admire
a flattened forehead as a sign of noble birth, even among tribes that do
not make this deformity a sign of freedom. Among the Quatsinos and
Quackolls of the north, the head, besides being flattened, is elongated
into a conical sugar-loaf shape, pointed at the top. The flattening
process begins immediately after birth, and is continued until the child
can walk. It is effected by compressing the head with tight bandages,
usually attached to the log cradle, the forehead being first fitted with
a soft pad, a fold of soft bark, a mould of hard wood, or a flat stone.
Observers generally agree that little or no harm is done to the brain by
this infliction, the traces of which to a great extent disappear later
in life. Many tribes, including the Aht nations, are said to have
abandoned the custom since they have been brought into contact with the
whites.[285]

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA FACE-PAINTING.]

The body is kept constantly anointed with a reddish clayey earth, mixed
in train oil, and consequently little affected by their frequent baths.
In war and mourning the whole body is blackened; on feast days the head,
limbs, and body are painted in fantastic figures with various colors,
apparently according to individual fancy, although the chiefs monopolize
the fancy figures, the common people being restricted to plain colors.
Solid grease is sometimes applied in a thick coating, and carved or
moulded in _alto-rilievo_ into ridges and figures afterwards decorated
with red paint, while shining sand or grains of mica are sprinkled over
grease and paint to impart a glittering appearance. The women are either
less fond of paint than the men, or else are debarred by their lords
from the free use of it; among the Ahts, at least of late, the women
abandon ornamental paint after the age of twenty-five. In their dances,
as in war, masks carved from cedar to represent an endless variety of
monstrous faces, painted in bright colors, with mouth and eyes movable
by strings, are attached to their heads, giving them a grotesquely
ferocious aspect.[286] The nose and ears are regularly pierced in
childhood, with from one to as many holes as the feature will hold, and
from the punctures are suspended bones, shells, rings, beads, or in fact
any ornament obtainable. The lip is sometimes, though more rarely,
punctured. Bracelets and anklets of any available material are also
commonly worn.[287]

The aboriginal dress of the Nootkas is a square blanket, of a coarse
yellow material resembling straw matting, made by the women from cypress
bark, with a mixture of dog's hair. This blanket had usually a border of
fur; it sometimes had arm-holes, but was ordinarily thrown over the
shoulders, and confined at the waist by a belt. Chiefs wore it painted
in variegated colors or unpainted, but the common people wore a coarser
material painted uniformly red. Women wore the garment longer and
fastened under the chin, binding an additional strip of cloth closely
about the middle, and showing much modesty about disclosing the person,
while the men often went entirely naked. Besides the blanket, garments
of many kinds of skin were in use, particularly by the chiefs on public
days. In war, a heavy skin dress was worn as a protection against
arrows. The Nootkas usually went bareheaded, but sometimes wore a
conical hat plaited of rushes, bark, or flax. European blankets have
replaced those of native manufacture, and many Indians about the
settlements have adopted also the shirt and breeches.[288]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS OF THE NOOTKAS.]

The Nootkas choose strong positions for their towns and encampments. At
Desolation Sound, Vancouver found a village built on a detached rock
with perpendicular sides, only accessible by planks resting on the
branches of a tree, and protected on the sea side by a projecting
platform resting on timbers fixed in the crevices of the precipice. The
Nimkish tribe, according to Lord, build their homes on a table-land
overhanging the sea, and reached by ascending a vertical cliff on a
bark-rope ladder. Each tribe has several villages in favorable locations
for fishing at different seasons. The houses, when more than one is
needed for a tribe, are placed with regularity along streets; they vary
in size according to the need or wealth of the occupants, and are held
in common under the direction of the chief. They are constructed in the
manner following. A row of large posts, from ten to fifteen feet high,
often grotesquely carved, supports an immense ridge-pole, sometimes two
and a half feet thick and one hundred feet long. Similar but smaller
beams, on shorter posts, are placed on either side of the central row,
distant from it fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five feet, according to the
dimensions required. This frame is then covered with split cedar planks,
about two inches thick, and from three to eight feet wide. The side
planks are tied together with bark, and supported by slender posts in
couples just far enough apart to receive the thickness of the plank. A
house like this, forty by one hundred feet, accommodates many families,
each of which has its allotted space, sometimes partitioned off like a
double row of stalls, with a wide passage in the middle. In the centre
of each stall is a circle of stones for a fire-place, and round the
walls are raised couches covered with mats. In rainy weather, cracks in
the roof and sides are covered with mats. No smoke or window holes are
left, and when smoke becomes troublesome a roof-plank is removed. The
entrance is at one end. These dwellings furnish, according to Nootka
ideas, a comfortable shelter, except when a high wind threatens to
unroof them, and then the occupants go out and sit on the roof to keep
it in place. Frequently the outside is painted in grotesque figures of
various colors. Only the frame is permanent; matting, planks, and all
utensils are several times each year packed up and conveyed in canoes to
another locality where a frame belonging to the tribe awaits covering.
The odor arising from fish-entrails and other filth, which they take no
pains to remove, appears to be inoffensive, but the Nootkas are often
driven by mosquitos to sleep on a stage over the water.[289]

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE NOOTKAS.]

The Nootkas, like the Haidahs, live almost wholly on the products of the
sea, and are naturally expert fishermen. Salmon, the great staple, are
taken in August and September, from sea, inlet, and river, by nets,
spears, pots or baskets, and even by hooks. Hooks consist of sharp
barbed bones bound to straight pieces of hard wood; sea-wrack,
maple-bark, and whale-sinew furnish lines, which in salmon-fishing are
short and attached to the paddles. The salmon-spear is a forked pole,
some fifteen feet long, the detachable head having prongs pointed with
fish-bone or iron, and the fish in deep water is sometimes attracted
within its reach by a wooden decoy, forced down by a long pole, and then
detached and allowed to ascend rapidly to the surface. Spearing is
carried on mostly by torch-light. A light- stone pavement is
sometimes laid upon the bottom of the stream, which renders the fish
visible in their passage over it. Nets are made of nettles or of wild
flax, found along Fraser River. They are small in size, and used as
dip-nets, or sunk between two canoes and lifted as the fish pass over. A
pot or basket fifteen to twenty feet long, three to five feet in
diameter at one end, and tapering to a point at the other, is made of
pine splinters one or two inches apart, with twig-hoops; and placed,
large end up stream, at the foot of a fall or at an opening in an
embankment. The salmon are driven down the fall with poles, and entering
the basket are taken out by a door in the small end. This basket is
sometimes enclosed in another one, similar but of uniform diameter, and
closed at one end. Fences of stakes across the river oblige the salmon
to enter the open mouth in their passage up, and passing readily
through an opening left in the point of the inner basket, they find
themselves entrapped. In March, herring appear on the coast in great
numbers, and in April and May they enter the inlets and streams, where
they are taken with a dip-net, or more commonly by the fish-rake--a pole
armed with many sharp bones or nails. Early in the season they can be
taken only by torch-light. Halibut abound from March to June, and are
caught with hooks and long lines, generally at some distance from shore.
For all other fish, European hooks were early adopted, but the halibut,
at least among the Ahts, must still be taken with the native hook. Many
other varieties of fish, caught by similar methods, are used as food,
but those named supply the bulk of the Nootka's provision. In May or
June, whales appear and are attacked in canoes by the chief, with the
select few from each tribe who alone have the right to hunt this monarch
of the sea. The head of their harpoon is made of two barbed bones and
pointed with muscle-shell; it is fastened to a whale-sinew line of a few
feet in length, and this short line to a very long bark rope, at one end
of which are seal-skin air-bags and bladders, to keep it afloat. The
point is also fastened to a shaft from ten to twenty-five feet in
length, from which it is easily detached. With many of these buoys in
tow the whale cannot dive, and becomes an easy prey. Whale-blubber and
oil are great delicacies, the former being preferred half putrid, while
the oil with that of smaller denizens of the sea preserved in bladders,
is esteemed a delicious sauce, and eaten with almost everything.
Sea-otters and seals are also speared, the former with a weapon more
barbed and firmly attached to the handle, as they are fierce fighters;
but when found asleep on the rocks, they are shot with arrows. Seals are
often attracted within arrow-shot by natives disguised as seals in
wooden masks.

Clams and other shell-fish, which are collected in great numbers by the
women, are cooked, strung on cypress-bark cords, and hung in the houses
to dry for winter use. Fish are preserved by drying only, the use of
salt being unknown. Salmon, after losing their heads and tails, which
are eaten in the fishing season, are split open and the back-bone taken
out before drying; smaller fry are sometimes dried as they come from
their element; but halibut and cod are cut up and receive a partial
drying in the sun. The spawn of all fish, but particularly of salmon and
herring, is carefully preserved by stowing it away in baskets, where it
ferments. Bear, deer, and other land animals, as well as wild fowl, are
sometimes taken for food, by means of rude traps, nets, and covers,
successful only when game is abundant, for the Nootkas are but
indifferent hunters. In the time of Jewitt, three peculiarities were
observable in the Nootka use of animal food, particularly bear-meat.
When a bear was killed, it was dressed in a bonnet, decked with fine
down, and solemnly invited to eat in the chief's presence, before being
eaten; after partaking of bruin's flesh, which was appreciated as a
rarity, the Nootka could not taste fresh fish for two months; and while
fish to be palatable must be putrid, meat when tainted was no longer fit
for food. The Nootka cuisine furnished food in four styles; namely,
boiled--the mode par excellence, applicable to every variety of food,
and effected, as by the Haidahs, by hot stones in wooden vessels;
steamed--of rarer use, applied mostly to heads, tails, and fins, by
pouring water over them on a bed of hot stones, and covering the whole
tightly with mats; roasted--rarely, in the case of some smaller fish and
clams; and raw--fish-spawn and most other kinds of food, when
conveniences for cooking were not at hand. Some varieties of sea-weed
and lichens, as well as the camass, and other roots, were regularly laid
up for winter, while berries, everywhere abundant, were eaten in great
quantities in their season, and at least one variety preserved by
pressing in bunches. In eating, they sit in groups of five or six, with
their legs doubled under them round a large wooden tray, and dip out the
food nearly always boiled to a brothy consistency, with their fingers or
clam-shells, paying little or no attention to cleanliness. Chiefs and
slaves have trays apart, and the principal meal, according to Cook, was
about noon. Feasting is the favorite way of entertaining friends, so
long as food is plentiful; and by a curious custom, of the portion
allotted them, guests must carry away what they cannot eat. Water in
aboriginal days was the only Nootka drink; it is also used now when
whisky is not to be had.[290]

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA BATTLES AND BOATS.]

Lances and arrows, pointed with shell, slate, flint, or bone, and clubs
and daggers of wood and bone, were the weapons with which they met their
foes; but firearms and metallic daggers, and tomahawks, have long since
displaced them, as they have to a less degree the original hunting and
fishing implements.[291] The Nootka tribes were always at war with each
other, hereditary quarrels being handed down for generations. According
to their idea, loss of life in battle can be forgotten only when an
equal number of the hostile tribe are killed. Their military tactics
consist of stratagem and surprise in attack, and watchfulness in
defense. Before engaging in war, some weeks are spent in preparation,
which consists mainly of abstinence from women, bathing, scrubbing the
skin with briers till it bleeds, and finally painting the whole body
jet-black. All prisoners not suitable for slaves are butchered or
beheaded. In an attack the effort is always made to steal into the
adversary's camp at night and kill men enough to decide the victory
before the alarm can be given. When they fail in this, the battle is
seldom long continued, for actual hand-to-hand fighting is not to the
Nootka taste. On the rare occasions when it is considered desirable to
make overtures of peace, an ambassador is sent with an ornamented pipe,
and with this emblem his person is safe. Smoking a pipe together by
hostile chiefs also solemnizes a treaty.[292]

Nootka boats are dug out each from a single pine-tree, and are made of
all sizes from ten to fifty feet long, the largest accommodating forty
or fifty men. Selecting a proper tree in the forest, the aboriginal
Nootka fells it with a sort of chisel of flint or elk-horn, three by six
inches, fastened in a wooden handle, and struck by a smooth stone
mallet. Then the log is split with wooden wedges, and the better piece
being selected, it is hollowed out with the aforesaid chisel, a
mussel-shell adze, and a bird's-bone gimlet worked between the two
hands. Sometimes, but not always, fire is used as an assistant. The
exterior is fashioned with the same tools. The boat is widest in the
middle, tapers toward each end, and is strengthened by light
cross-pieces extending from side to side, which, being inserted after
the boat is soaked in hot water, modify and improve the original form.
The bow is long and pointed, the stern square-cut or slightly rounded;
both ends are raised higher than the middle by separate pieces of wood
painted with figures of birds or beasts, the head on the bow and the
tail on the stern. The inside is painted red; the outside, slightly
burned, is rubbed smooth and black, and for the whale fishery is
ornamented along the gunwales with a row of small shells or seal-teeth,
but for purposes of war it is painted with figures in white. Paddles are
neatly made of hard wood, about five and a half feet long with a
leaf-shaped blade of two feet, sharp at the end, and used as a weapon in
canoe-fighting. A cross-piece is sometimes added to the handle like the
top of a crutch.[293]

In addition to the implements already named are chests and boxes,
buckets, cups and eating-troughs, all of wood, either dug out or pinned
together; baskets of twigs and bags of matting; all neatly made, and
many of the articles painted or carved, or ornamented with shell work.
As among the Haidahs, the dried _eulachon_ is often used as a lamp.[294]
The matting and coarser kinds of cloth are made of rushes and of pine
or cedar bark, which after being soaked is beaten on a plank with a
grooved instrument of wood or bone until the fibres are separated. The
threads are twisted into cords between the hand and thigh; these cords,
hung to a horizontal beam and knotted with finer thread at regular
intervals, form the cloth. Thread of the same bark is used with a
sharpened twig for a needle. Intercourse with Europeans has modified
their manufactures, and checked the development of their native
ingenuity.[295]

  [Sidenote: PROPERTY OF THE NOOTKAS.]

Captain Cook found among the Ahts very "strict notions of their having a
right to the exclusive property of everything that their country
produces," so that they claimed pay for even wood, water, and grass. The
limits of tribal property are very clearly defined, but individuals
rarely claim any property in land. Houses belong to the men who combine
to build them. Private wealth consists of boats and implements for
obtaining food, domestic utensils, slaves, and blankets, the latter
being generally the standard by which wealth or price is computed. Food
is not regarded as common property, yet any man may help himself to his
neighbor's store when needy. The accumulation of property beyond the
necessities of life is considered desirable only for the purpose of
distributing it in presents on great feast-days, and thereby acquiring a
reputation for wealth and liberality; and as these feasts occur
frequently, an unsuccessful man may often take a fresh start in the
race. Instead of being given away, canoes and blankets are often
destroyed, which proves that the motive in this disposal of property is
not to favor friends, but merely to appear indifferent to wealth. It is
certainly a most remarkable custom, and one that exerts a great
influence on the whole people. Gifts play an important part in procuring
a wife, and a division of property accompanies a divorce. To enter the
ranks of the medicine-men or magicians, or to attain rank of any kind,
property must be sacrificed; and a man who receives an insult or suffers
any affliction must tear up the requisite quantity of blankets and
shirts, if he would retain his honor.[296] Trade in all their
productions was carried on briskly between the different Nootka tribes
before the coming of the whites. They manifest much shrewdness in their
exchanges; even their system of presents is a species of trade, the full
value of each gift being confidently expected in a return present on the
next festive occasion. In their intertribal commerce, a band holding a
strong position where trade by canoes between different parts may be
stopped, do not fail to offer and enforce the acceptance of their
services as middlemen, thereby greatly increasing market prices.[297]

The system of numeration, sufficiently extensive for the largest
numbers, is decimal, the numbers to ten having names which are in some
instances compounds but not multiples of smaller numbers. The fingers
are used to aid in counting. The year is divided into months with some
reference to the moon, but chiefly by the fish-seasons, ripening of
berries, migrations of birds, and other periodical events, for which the
months are named, as: 'when the herrings spawn,' etc. The unit of
measure is the span, the fingers representing its fractional parts.[298]
The Nootkas display considerable taste in ornamenting with sculpture
and paintings their implements and houses, their chief efforts being
made on the posts of the latter, and the wooden masks which they wear in
war and some of their dances; but all implements may be more or less
carved and adorned according to the artist's fancy. They sometimes paint
fishing and hunting scenes, but generally their models exist only in
imagination, and their works consequently assume unintelligible forms.
There seems to be no evidence that their carved images and complicated
paintings are in any sense intended as idols or hieroglyphics. A rude
system of heraldry prevails among them, by which some animal is adopted
as a family crest, and its figure is painted or embroidered on canoes,
paddles, or blankets.[299]

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA ART AND GOVERNMENT.]

To the Nootka system of government the terms patriarchal, hereditary,
and feudal have been applied. There is no confederation, each tribe
being independent of all the rest, except as powerful tribes are
naturally dominant over the weak. In each tribe the head chief's rank is
hereditary by the male line; his grandeur is displayed on great
occasions, when, decked in all his finery, he is the central figure. At
the frequently recurring feasts of state he occupies the seat of honor;
presides at all councils of the tribe, and is respected and highly
honored by all; but has no real authority over any but his slaves.
Between the chief, or king, and the people is a nobility, in number
about one fourth of the whole tribe, composed of several grades, the
highest being partially hereditary, but also, as are all the lower
grades, obtainable by feats of valor or great liberality. All
chieftains must be confirmed by the tribe, and some of them appointed by
the king; each man's rank is clearly defined in the tribe, and
corresponding privileges strictly insisted on. There are chiefs who have
full authority in warlike expeditions. Harpooners also form a privileged
class, whose rank is handed down from father to son. This somewhat
complicated system of government nevertheless sits lightly, since the
people are neither taxed nor subjected to any laws, nor interfered with
in their actions. Still, long-continued custom serves as law and marks
out the few duties and privileges of the Nootka citizen. Stealing is not
common except from strangers; and offenses requiring punishment are
usually avenged--or pardoned in consideration of certain blankets
received--by the injured parties and their friends, the chiefs seeming
to have little or nothing to do in the matter.[300]

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA SLAVERY AND MARRIAGE.]

Slavery is practiced by all the tribes, and the slave-trade forms an
important part of their commerce. Slaves are about the only property
that must not be sacrificed to acquire the ever-desired reputation for
liberality. Only rich men--according to some authorities only the
nobles--may hold slaves. War and kidnapping supply the slave-market, and
no captive, whatever his rank in his own tribe, can escape this fate,
except by a heavy ransom offered soon after he is taken, and before his
whereabouts becomes unknown to his friends. Children of slaves, whose
fathers are never known, are forever slaves. The power of the owner is
arbitrary and unlimited over the actions and life of the slave, but a
cruel exercise of his power seems of rare occurrence, and, save the hard
labor required, the material condition of the slave is but little worse
than that of the common free people, since he is sheltered by the same
roof and partakes of the same food as his master. Socially the slave is
despised; his hair is cut short, and his very name becomes a term of
reproach. Female slaves are prostituted for hire, especially in the
vicinity of white settlements. A runaway slave is generally seized and
resold by the first tribe he meets.[301]

  [Sidenote: THE NOOTKA FAMILY.]

The Nootka may have as many wives as he can buy, but as prices are high,
polygamy is practically restricted to the chiefs, who are careful not to
form alliances with families beneath them in rank. Especially
particular as to rank are the chiefs in choosing their first wife,
always preferring the daughters of noble families of another tribe.
Courtship consists in an offer of presents by the lover to the girl's
father, accompanied generally by lengthy speeches of friends on both
sides, extolling the value of the man and his gift, and the attractions
of the bride. After the bargain is concluded, a period of feasting
follows if the parties are rich, but this is not necessary as a part of
the marriage ceremony. Betrothals are often made by parents while the
parties are yet children, mutual deposits of blankets and other property
being made as securities for the fulfillment of the contract, which is
rarely broken. Girls marry at an average age of sixteen. The common
Nootka obtains his one bride from his own rank also by a present of
blankets, much more humble than that of his rich neighbor, and is
assisted in his overtures by perhaps a single friend instead of being
followed by the whole tribe. Courtship among this class is not
altogether without the attentions which render it so charming in
civilized life; as when the fond girl lovingly caresses and searches her
lover's head, always giving him the fattest of her discoveries. Wives
are not ill treated, and although somewhat overworked, the division of
labor is not so oppressive as among many Indian tribes. Men build
houses, make boats and implements, hunt and fish; women prepare the fish
and game for winter use, cook, manufacture cloth and clothing, and
increase the stock of food by gathering berries and shell-fish; and most
of this work among the richer class is done by slaves. Wives are
consulted in matters of trade, and in fact seem to be nearly on terms of
equality with their husbands, except that they are excluded from some
public feasts and ceremonies. There is much reason to suppose that
before the advent of the whites, the Nootka wife was comparatively
faithful to her lord, that chastity was regarded as a desirable female
quality, and offenses against it severely punished. The females so
freely brought on board the vessels of early voyagers and offered to
the men, were perhaps slaves, who are everywhere prostituted for gain,
so that the fathers of their children are never known. Women rarely have
more than two or three children, and cease bearing at about twenty-five,
frequently preventing the increase of their family by abortions.
Pregnancy and childbirth affect them but little. The male child is named
at birth, but his name is afterwards frequently changed. He is suckled
by the mother until three or four years old, and at an early age begins
to learn the arts of fishing by which he is to live. Children are not
quarrelsome among themselves, and are regarded by both parents with some
show of affection and pride. Girls at puberty are closely confined for
several days, and given a little water but no food; they are kept
particularly from the sun or fire, to see either of which at this period
would be a lasting disgrace. At such times feasts are given by the
parents. Divorces or separations may be had at will by either party, but
a strict division of property and return of betrothal presents is
expected, the woman being allowed not only the property she brought her
husband, and articles manufactured by her in wedlock, but a certain
proportion of the common wealth. Such property as belongs to the father
and is not distributed in gifts during his life, or destroyed at his
death, is inherited by the eldest son.[302]

From the middle of November to the middle of January, is the Nootka
season of mirth and festivity, when nearly the whole time is occupied
with public and private gaiety. Their evenings are privately passed by
the family group within doors in conversation, singing, joking, boasting
of past exploits, personal and tribal, and teasing the women until
bed-time, when one by one they retire to rest in the same blankets worn
during the day.[303] Swimming and trials of strength by hooking together
the little fingers, or scuffling for a prize, seem to be the only
out-door amusements indulged in by adults, while the children shoot
arrows and hurl spears at grass figures of birds and fishes, and prepare
themselves for future conflicts by cutting off the heads of imaginary
enemies modeled in mud.[304] To gambling the Nootkas are passionately
addicted, but their games are remarkably few and uniform. Small bits of
wood compose their entire paraphernalia, sometimes used like dice, when
the game depends on the side turned up; or passed rapidly from hand to
hand, when the gamester attempts to name the hand containing the trump
stick; or again concealed in dust spread over a blanket and moved about
by one player that the rest may guess its location. In playing they
always form a circle seated on the ground, and the women rarely if ever
join the game.[305] They indulge in smoking, the only pipes of their
own manufacture being of plain cedar, filled now with tobacco by those
who can afford it, but in which they formerly smoked, as it is supposed,
the leaves of a native plant--still mixed with tobacco to lessen its
intoxicating properties. The pipe is passed round after a meal, but
seems to be less used in serious ceremonies than among eastern Indian
nations.[306]

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA AMUSEMENTS.]

But the Nootka amusement par excellence is that of feasts, given by the
richer classes and chiefs nearly every evening during 'the season.' Male
and female heralds are employed ceremoniously to invite the guests, the
house having been first cleared of its partitions, and its floor spread
with mats.[307] As in countries more civilized, the common people go
early to secure the best seats, their allotted place being near the
door. The élite come later, after being repeatedly sent for; on arrival
they are announced by name, and assigned a place according to rank. In
one corner of the hall the fish and whale-blubber are boiled by the
wives of the chiefs, who serve it to the guests in pieces larger or
smaller, according to their rank. What can not be eaten must be carried
home. Their drink ordinarily is pure water, but occasionally berries of
a peculiar kind, preserved in cakes, are stirred in until a froth is
formed which swells the body of the drinker nearly to bursting.[308]
Eating is followed by conversation and speech-making, oratory being an
art highly prized, in which, with their fine voices, they become
skillful. Finally, the floor is cleared for dancing. In the dances in
which the crowd participate, the dancers, with faces painted in black
and vermilion, form a circle round a few leaders who give the step,
which consists chiefly in jumping with both feet from the ground,
brandishing weapons or bunches of feathers, or sometimes simply bending
the body without moving the feet. As to the participation of women in
these dances, authorities do not agree.[309] In a sort of conversational
dance all pass briskly round the room to the sound of music, praising in
exclamations the building and all within it, while another dance
requires many to climb upon the roof and there continue their motions.
Their special or character dances are many, and in them they show much
dramatic talent. A curtain is stretched across a corner of the room to
conceal the preparations, and the actors, fantastically dressed,
represent personal combats, hunting scenes, or the actions of different
animals. In the seal-dance naked men jump into the water and then crawl
out and over the floors, imitating the motions of the seal. Indecent
performances are mentioned by some visitors. Sometimes in these dances
men drop suddenly as if dead, and are at last revived by the doctors,
who also give dramatic or magic performances at their houses; or they
illuminate a wax moon out on the water, and make the natives believe
they are communing with the man in the moon. To tell just where
amusement ceases and solemnity begins in these dances is
impossible.[310] Birds' down forms an important item in the decoration
at dances, especially at the reception of strangers. All dances, as well
as other ceremonies, are accompanied by continual music, instrumental
and vocal. The instruments are: boxes and benches struck with sticks; a
plank hollowed out on the under side and beaten with drum-sticks about a
foot long; a rattle made of dried seal-skin in the form of a fish, with
pebbles; a whistle of deer-bone about an inch long with one hole, which
like the rattle can only be used by chiefs; and a bunch of
muscle-shells, to be shaken like castanets.[311] Their songs are
monotonous chants, extending over but few notes, varied by occasional
howls and whoops in some of the more spirited melodies, pleasant or
otherwise, according to the taste of the hearer.[312] Certain of their
feasts are given periodically by the head chiefs, which distant tribes
attend, and during which take place the distributions of property
already mentioned. Whenever a gift is offered, etiquette requires the
recipient to snatch it rudely from the donor with a stern and surly
look.[313]

  [Sidenote: MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS.]

Among the miscellaneous customs noticed by the different authorities
already quoted, may be mentioned the following. Daily bathing in the sea
is practiced, the vapor-bath not being used. Children are rolled in the
snow by their mothers to make them hardy. Camps and other property are
moved from place to place by piling them on a plank platform built
across the canoes. Whymper saw Indians near Bute Inlet carrying burdens
on the back by a strap across the forehead. In a fight they rarely
strike but close and depend on pulling hair and scratching; a chance
blow must be made up by a present. Invitations to eat must not be
declined, no matter how often repeated. Out of doors there is no native
gesture of salutation, but in the houses a guest is motioned politely to
a couch; guests are held sacred, and great ceremonies are performed at
the reception of strangers; all important events are announced by
heralds. Friends sometimes saunter along hand in hand. A secret society,
independent of tribe, family, or crest, is supposed by Sproat to exist
among them, but its purposes are unknown. In a palaver with whites the
orator holds a long white pole in his hand, which he sticks occasionally
into the ground by way of emphasis. An animal chosen as a crest must not
be shot or ill-treated in the presence of any wearing its figure; boys
recite portions of their elders' speeches as declamations; names are
changed many times during life, at the will of the individual or of the
tribe.

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS AND CANNIBALISM.]

In sorcery, witchcraft, prophecy, dreams, evil spirits, and the
transmigration of souls, the Nootkas are firm believers, and these
beliefs enable the numerous sorcerers of different grades to acquire
great power in the tribes by their strange ridiculous ceremonies. Most
of their tricks are transparent, being deceptions worked by the aid of
confederates to keep up their power; but, as in all religions, the
votary must have some faith in the efficacy of their incantations. The
sorcerer, before giving a special demonstration, retires apart to
meditate. After spending some time alone in the forests and mountains,
fasting and lacerating the flesh, he appears suddenly before the tribe,
emaciated, wild with excitement, clad in a strange costume, grotesquely
painted, and wearing a hideous mask. The scenes that ensue are
indescribable, but the aim seems to be to commit all the wild freaks
that a maniac's imagination may devise, accompanied by the most
unearthly yells which can terrorize the heart. Live dogs and dead human
bodies are seized and torn by their teeth; but, at least in later times,
they seem not to attack the living, and their performances are somewhat
less horrible and bloody than the wild orgies of the northern tribes.
The sorcerer is thought to have more influence with bad spirits than
with good, and is always resorted to in the case of any serious
misfortune. New members of the fraternity are initiated into the
mysteries by similar ceremonies. Old women are not without their
traditional mysterious powers in matters of prophecy and witchcraft; and
all chiefs in times of perplexity practice fasting and laceration.
Dreams are believed to be the visits of spirits or of the wandering soul
of some living party, and the unfortunate Nootka boy or girl whose
blubber-loaded stomach causes uneasy dreams, must be properly hacked,
scorched, smothered, and otherwise tormented until the evil spirit is
appeased.[314] Whether or not these people were cannibals, is a disputed
question, but there seems to be little doubt that slaves have been
sacrificed and eaten as a part of their devilish rites.[315]

The Nootkas are generally a long-lived race, and from the beginning to
the failing of manhood undergo little change in appearance. Jewitt
states that during his captivity of three years at Nootka Sound, only
five natural deaths occurred, and the people suffered scarcely any
disease except the colic. Sproat mentions as the commonest diseases;
bilious complaints, dysentery, a consumption which almost always follows
syphilis, fevers, and among the aged, ophthalmia. Accidental injuries,
as cuts, bruises, sprains, and broken limbs, are treated with
considerable success by means of simple salves or gums, cold water,
pine-bark bandages, and wooden splints. Natural pains and maladies are
invariably ascribed to the absence or other irregular conduct of the
soul, or to the influence of evil spirits, and all treatment is directed
to the recall of the former and to the appeasing of the latter. Still,
so long as the ailment is slight, simple means are resorted to, and the
patient is kindly cared for by the women; as when headache, colic, or
rheumatism is treated by the application of hot or cold water, hot
ashes, friction, or the swallowing of cold teas made from various roots
and leaves. Nearly every disease has a specific for its cure. Oregon
grape and other herbs cure syphilis; wasp-nest powder is a tonic, and
blackberries an astringent; hemlock bark forms a plaster, and dog-wood
bark is a strengthener; an infusion of young pine cones or the inside
scrapings of a human skull prevent too rapid family increase, while
certain plants facilitate abortion. When a sickness becomes serious, the
sorcerer or medicine-man is called in and incantations begin, more or
less noisy according to the amount of the prospective fee and the
number of relatives and friends who join in the uproar. A very poor
wretch is permitted to die in comparative quiet. In difficult cases the
doctor, wrought up to the highest state of excitement, claims to see and
hear the soul, and to judge of the patient's prospects by its position
and movements. The sick man shows little fortitude, and abandons himself
helplessly to the doctor's ridiculous measures. Failing in a cure, the
physician gets no pay, but if successful, does not fail to make a large
demand. Both the old and the helplessly sick are frequently abandoned by
the Ahts to die without aid in the forest.[316]

  [Sidenote: NOOTKA BURIAL.]

After death the Nootka's body is promptly put away; a slave's body is
unceremoniously thrown into the water; that of a freeman, is placed in a
crouching posture, their favorite one during life, in a deep wooden box,
or in a canoe, and suspended from the branches of a tree, deposited on
the ground with a covering of sticks and stones, or, more rarely,
buried. Common people are usually left on the surface; the nobility are
suspended from trees at heights differing, as some authorities say,
according to rank. The practice of burning the dead seems also to have
been followed in some parts of this region. Each tribe has a
burying-ground chosen on some hill-side or small island. With chiefs,
blankets, skins, and other property in large amounts are buried, hung up
about the grave, or burned during the funeral ceremonies, which are not
complicated except for the highest officials. The coffins are often
ornamented with carvings or paintings of the deceased man's crest, or
with rows of shells. When a death occurs, the women of the tribe make a
general howl, and keep it up at intervals for many days or months; the
men, after a little speech-making, keep silent. The family and friends,
with blackened faces and hair cut short, follow the body to its last
resting-place with music and other manifestations of sorrow, generally
terminating in a feast. There is great reluctance to explain their
funeral usages to strangers; death being regarded by this people with
great superstition and dread, not from solicitude for the welfare of the
dead, but from a belief in the power of departed spirits to do much harm
to the living.[317]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER OF THE NOOTKAS.]

The Nootka character presents all the inconsistencies observable among
other American aborigines, since there is hardly a good or bad trait
that has not by some observer been ascribed to them. Their
idiosyncrasies as a race are perhaps best given by Sproat as "want of
observation, a great deficiency of foresight, extreme fickleness in
their passions and purposes, habitual suspicion, and a love of power and
display; added to which may be noticed their ingratitude and revengeful
disposition, their readiness for war, and revolting indifference to
human suffering." These qualities, judged by civilized standards
censurable, to the Nootka are praiseworthy, while contrary qualities are
to be avoided. By a strict application, therefore, of 'put yourself in
his place' principles, to which most 'good Indians' owe their
reputation, Nootka character must not be too harshly condemned. They are
not, so far as physical actions are concerned, a remarkably lazy people,
but their minds, although intelligent when aroused, are averse to effort
and quickly fatigued; nor can they comprehend the advantage of continued
effort for any future good which is at all remote. What little foresight
they have, has much in common with the instinct of beasts. Ordinarily,
they are quiet and well behaved, especially the higher classes, but when
once roused to anger, they rage, bite, spit and kick without the
slightest attempt at self-possession. A serious offense against an
individual, although nominally pardoned in consideration of presents,
can really never be completely atoned for except by blood; hence
private, family, and tribal feuds continue from generation to
generation. Women are not immodest, but the men have no shame. Stealing
is recognized as a fault, and the practice as between members of the
same tribe is rare, but skillful pilfering from strangers, if not
officially sanctioned, is extensively carried on and much admired; still
any property confided in trust to a Nootka is said to be faithfully
returned. To his wife he is kind and just; to his children affectionate.
Efforts for their conversion to foreign religions have been in the
highest degree unsuccessful.[318]


  [Sidenote: THE SOUND INDIANS.]

THE SOUND INDIANS, by which term I find it convenient to designate the
nations about Puget Sound, constitute the third family of the Columbian
group. In this division I include all the natives of that part of
Washington which lies to the west of the Cascade Range, except a strip
from twenty-five to forty miles wide along the north bank of the
Columbia. The north-eastern section of this territory, including the San
Juan group, Whidbey Island, and the region tributary to Bellingham Bay,
is the home of the _Nooksak_, _Lummi_, _Samish_ and _Skagit_ nations,
whose neighbors and constant harassers on the north are the fierce
Kwantlums and Cowichins of the Nootka family about the mouth of the
Fraser. The central section, comprising the shores and islands of
Admiralty Inlet, Hood Canal, and Puget Sound proper, is occupied by
numerous tribes with variously spelled names, mostly terminating in
_mish_, which names, with all their orthographic diversity, have been
given generally to the streams on whose banks the different nations
dwelt. All these tribes may be termed the _Nisqually_ nation, taking the
name from the most numerous and best-known of the tribes located about
the head of the sound. The _Clallams_ inhabit the eastern portion of the
peninsula between the sound and the Pacific. The western extremity of
the same peninsula, terminating at Cape Flattery, is occupied by the
_Classets_ or _Makahs_; while the _Chehalis_ and _Cowlitz_ nations are
found on the Chehalis River, Gray Harbor, and the upper Cowlitz.
Excepting a few bands on the headwaters of streams that rise in the
vicinity of Mount Baker, the Sound family belongs to the coast
fish-eating tribes rather than to the hunters of the interior. Indeed,
this family has so few marked peculiarities, possessing apparently no
trait or custom not found as well among the Nootkas or Chinooks, that it
may be described in comparatively few words. When first known to
Europeans they seem to have been far less numerous than might have been
expected from the extraordinary fertility and climatic advantages of
their country; and since they have been in contact with the whites,
their numbers have been reduced,--chiefly through the agency of
small-pox and ague,--even more rapidly than the nations farther to the
north-west.[319]

These natives of Washington are short and thick-set, with strong limbs,
but bow-legged; they have broad faces, eyes fine but wide apart; noses
prominent, both of Roman and aquiline type; color, a light copper,
perhaps a shade darker than that of the Nootkas, but capable of
transmitting a flush; the hair usually black and almost universally worn
long.[320]

All the tribes flatten the head more or less, but none carry the
practice to such an extent as their neighbors on the south, unless it be
the Cowlitz nation, which might indeed as correctly be classed with the
Chinooks. By most of the Sound natives tattooing is not practiced, and
they seem somewhat less addicted to a constant use of paint than the
Nootkas; yet on festive occasions a plentiful and hideous application is
made of charcoal or  earth pulverized in grease, and the women
appreciate the charms imparted to the face by the use of vermilion clay.
The nose, particularly at Cape Flattery, is the grand centre of facial
ornamentation. Perforating is extravagantly practiced, and pendant
trinkets of every form and substance are worn, those of bone or shell
preferred, and, if we may credit Wilkes, by some of the women these
ornaments are actually kept clean.

  [Sidenote: SOUND DRESS AND DWELLINGS.]

The native garment, when the weather makes nakedness uncomfortable, is a
blanket of dog's hair, sometimes mixed with birds' down and bark-fibre,
thrown about the shoulders. Some few fasten this about the neck with a
wooden pin. The women are more careful in covering the person with the
blanket than are the men, and generally wear under it a bark apron
hanging from the waist in front. A cone-shaped, water-proof hat, woven
from  grasses, is sometimes worn on the head.[321]

Temporary hunting-huts in summer are merely cross-sticks covered with
coarse mats made by laying bulrushes side by side, and knotting them at
intervals with cord or grass. The poorer individuals or tribes dwell
permanently in similar huts, improved by the addition of a few slabs;
while the rich and powerful build substantial houses, of planks split
from trees by means of bone wedges, much like the Nootka dwellings in
plan, and nearly as large. These houses sometimes measure over one
hundred feet in length, and are divided into rooms or pens, each house
accommodating many families. There are several fire-places in each
dwelling; raised benches extend round the sides, and the walls are often
lined with matting.[322]

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE SOUND INDIANS.]

In spring time they abandon their regular dwellings and resort in small
companies to the various sources of food-supply. Fish is their chief
dependence, though game is taken in much larger quantities than by the
Nootkas; some of the more inland Sound tribes subsisting almost entirely
by the chase and by root-digging. Nearly all the varieties of fish which
support the northern tribes are also abundant here, and are taken
substantially by the same methods, namely, by the net, hook, spear, and
rake; but fisheries seem to be carried on somewhat less systematically,
and I find no account of the extensive and complicated embankments and
traps mentioned by travelers in British Columbia. To the salmon,
sturgeon, herring, rock-cod, and candle-fish, abundant in the inlets of
the sound, the Classets, by venturing out to sea, add a supply of
whale-blubber and otter-meat, obtained with spears, lines, and floats.
At certain points on the shore tall poles are erected, across which nets
are spread; and against these nets large numbers of wild fowl, dazzled
by torch-lights at night, dash themselves and fall stunned to the
ground, where the natives stand ready to gather in the feathery harvest.
Vancouver noticed many of these poles in different localities, but could
not divine their use. Deer and elk in the forests are also hunted by
night, and brought within arrow-shot by the spell of torches. For
preservation, fish are dried in the sun or dried and smoked by the
domestic hearth, and sometimes pounded fine, as are roots of various
kinds; clams are dried on strings and hung up in the houses, or
occasionally worn round the neck, ministering to the native love of
ornament until the stronger instinct of hunger impairs the beauty of the
necklace. In the better class of houses, supplies are neatly stored in
baskets at the sides. The people are extremely improvident, and,
notwithstanding their abundant natural supplies in ocean, stream, and
forest, are often in great want. Boiling in wooden vessels by means of
hot stones is the ordinary method of cooking. A visitor to the Nooksaks
thus describes their method of steaming elk-meat: "They first dig a hole
in the ground, then build a wood fire, placing stones on the top of it.
As it burns, the stones become hot and fall down. Moss and leaves are
then placed on the top of the hot stones, the meat on these, and another
layer of moss and leaves laid over it. Water is poured on, which is
speedily converted into steam. This is retained by mats carefully placed
over the heap. When left in this way for a night, the meat is found
tender and well cooked in the morning." Fowls were cooked in the same
manner by the Queniults.[323]

I find no mention of other weapons, offensive or defensive, than spears,
and bows and arrows. The arrows and spears were usually pointed with
bone; the bows were of yew, and though short, were of great power.
Vancouver describes a superior bow used at Puget Sound. It was from two
and a half to three feet long, made from a naturally curved piece of
yew, whose concave side became the convex of the bow, and to the whole
length of this side a strip of elastic hide or serpent-skin was attached
so firmly by a kind of cement as to become almost a part of the wood.
This lining added greatly to the strength of the bow, and was not
affected by moisture. The bow-string was made of sinew.[324] The tribes
were continually at war with each other, and with northern nations,
generally losing many of their people in battle. Sticking the heads of
the slain enemy on poles in front of their dwellings, is a common way of
demonstrating their joy over a victory. The Indians at Port Discovery
spoke to Wilkes of scalping among their warlike exploits, but according
to Kane the Classets do not practice that usage.[325] Vancouver, finding
sepulchres at Penn Cove, in which were large quantities of human bones
but no limb-bones of adults, suspected that the latter were used by the
Indians for pointing their arrows, and in the manufacture of other
implements.[326]

  [Sidenote: MANUFACTURES OF PUGET SOUND.]

The Sound manufactures include only the weapons and utensils used by the
natives. Their articles were made with the simplest tools of bone or
shell. Blankets were made of dog's hair,--large numbers of dogs being
raised for the purpose,--the wool of mountain sheep, or wild goats,
found on the mountain <DW72>s, the down of wild-fowl, cedar bark-fibre,
ravellings of foreign blankets, or more commonly of a mixture of several
of these materials. The fibre is twisted into yarn between the hand and
thigh, and the strands arranged in perpendicular frames for weaving
purposes. Willow and other twigs supply material for baskets of various
forms, often neatly made and . Oil, both for domestic use and for
barter, is extracted by boiling, except in the case of the candle-fish,
when hanging in the hot sun suffices; it is preserved in bladders and
skin-bottles.[327]

Canoes are made by the Sound Indians in the same manner as by the
Nootkas already described; being always dug out, formerly by fire, from
a single cedar trunk, and the form improved afterwards by stretching
when soaked in hot water. Of the most elegant proportions, they are
modeled by the builder with no guide but the eye, and with most
imperfect tools; three months' work is sufficient to produce a
medium-sized boat. The form varies among different nations according as
the canoe is intended for ocean, sound, or river navigation; being found
with bow or stern, or both, in various forms, pointed, round,
shovel-nosed, raised or level. The raised stern, head-piece, and
stern-post are usually formed of separate pieces. Like the Nootkas, they
char and polish the outside and paint the interior with red. The largest
and finest specimen seen by Mr. Swan was forty-six feet long and six
feet wide, and crossed the bar into Shoalwater Bay with thirty Queniult
Indians from the north. The paddle used in deep water has a crutch-like
handle and a sharp-pointed blade.[328]

  [Sidenote: TRADE AND GOVERNMENT OF THE SOUND INDIANS.]

In their barter between the different tribes, and in estimating their
wealth, the blanket is generally the unit of value, and the _hiaqua_, a
long white shell obtained off Cape Flattery at a considerable depth, is
also extensively used for money, its value increasing with its length. A
kind of annual fair for trading purposes and festivities is held by the
tribes of Puget Sound at Bajada Point, and here and in their other
feasts they are fond of showing their wealth and liberality by disposing
of their surplus property in gifts.[329]

The system of government seems to be of the simplest nature, each
individual being entirely independent and master of his own actions.
There is a nominal chief in each tribe, who sometimes acquires great
influence and privileges by his wealth or personal prowess, but he has
no authority, and only directs the movements of his band in warlike
incursions. I find no evidence of hereditary rank or caste except as
wealth is sometimes inherited.[330] Slaves are held by all the tribes,
and are treated very much like their dogs, being looked upon as
property, and not within the category of humanity. For a master to kill
half a dozen slaves is no wrong or cruelty; it only tends to illustrate
the owner's noble disposition in so freely sacrificing his property.
Slaves are obtained by war and kidnapping, and are sold in large numbers
to northern tribes. According to Sproat, the Classets, a rich and
powerful tribe, encourage the slave-hunting incursions of the Nootkas
against their weaker neighbors.[331]

Wives are bought by presents, and some performances or ceremonies,
representative of hunting or fishing scenes, not particularly described
by any visitor, take place at the wedding. Women have all the work to do
except hunting and fishing, while their lords spend their time in
idleness and gambling. Still the females are not ill-treated; they
acquire great influence in the tribe, and are always consulted in
matters of trade before a bargain is closed. They are not overburdened
with modesty, nor are husbands noted for jealousy. Hiring out their
women, chiefly however slaves, for prostitution, has been a prominent
source of tribal revenue since the country was partially settled by
whites. Women are not prolific, three or four being ordinarily the limit
of their offspring. Infants, properly bound up with the necessary
apparatus for head-flattening, are tied to their cradle or to a piece of
bark, and hung by a cord to the end of a springy pole kept in motion by a
string attached to the mother's great toe. Affection for children is by
no means rare, but in few tribes can they resist the temptation to sell
or gamble them away.[332]

  [Sidenote: AMUSEMENTS OF THE SOUND INDIANS.]

Feasting, gambling, and smoking are the favorite amusements; all their
property, slaves, children, and even their own freedom in some cases are
risked in their games. Several plants are used as substitutes for
tobacco when that article is not obtainable. If any important
differences exist between their ceremonies, dances, songs and feasts,
and those of Vancouver Island, such variations have not been recorded.
In fact, many authors describe the manners and customs of 'North-west
America' as if occupied by one people.[333] There is no evidence of
cannibalism; indeed, during Vancouver's visit at Puget Sound, some meat
offered to the natives was refused, because it was suspected to be human
flesh. Since their acquaintance with the whites they have acquired a
habit of assuming great names, as Duke of York, or Jenny Lind, and
highly prize scraps of paper with writing purporting to substantiate
their claims to such distinctions. Their superstitions are many, and
they are continually on the watch in all the commonest acts of life
against the swarm of evil influences, from which they may escape only by
the greatest care.[334]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER OF THE SOUND INDIANS.]

Disorders of the throat and lungs, rheumatism and intermittent fevers,
are among the most prevalent forms of disease, and in their methods of
cure, as usual, the absurd ceremonies, exorcisms, and gesticulations of
the medicine-men play the principal part; but hot and cold baths are
also often resorted to without regard to the nature or stage of the
malady.[335] The bodies of such as succumb to their diseases, or to the
means employed for cure, are disposed of in different ways according to
locality, tribe, rank, or age. Skeletons are found by travelers buried
in the ground or deposited in a sitting posture on its surface; in
canoes or in boxes supported by posts, or, more commonly, suspended from
the branches of trees. Corpses are wrapped in cloth or matting, and more
or less richly decorated according to the wealth of the deceased.
Several bodies are often put in one canoe or box, and the bodies of
young children are found suspended in baskets. Property and implements,
the latter always broken, are deposited with or near the remains, and
these last resting-places of their people are religiously cared for and
guarded from intrusion by all the tribes.[336] All the peculiarities and
inconsistencies of the Nootka character perhaps have been noted by
travelers among the Indians of the Sound, but none of these
peculiarities are so clearly marked in the latter people. In their
character, as in other respects, they have little individuality, and
both their virtues and vices are but faint reflections of the same
qualities in the great families north and south of their territory. The
Cape Flattery tribes are at once the most intelligent, bold, and
treacherous of all, while some of the tribes east and north-east of the
Sound proper have perhaps the best reputation. Since the partial
settlement of their territory by the whites, the natives here as
elsewhere have lost many of their original characteristics, chiefly the
better ones. The remnants now for the most part are collected on
government reservations, or live in the vicinity of towns, by begging
and prostitution. Some tribes, especially in the region of Bellingham
Bay, have been nominally converted to Christianity, have abandoned
polygamy, slavery, head-flattening, gambling, and superstitious
ceremonies, and pay considerable attention to a somewhat mixed version
of church doctrine and ceremonies.[337]


THE CHINOOKS constitute the fourth division of the Columbian group.
Originally the name was restricted to a tribe on the north bank of the
Columbia between Gray Bay and the ocean; afterwards, from a similarity
in language and customs, it was applied to all the bands on both sides
of the river, from its mouth to the Dalles.[338] It is employed in this
work to designate all the Oregon tribes west of the Cascade Range,
southward to the Rogue River or Umpqua Mountains. This family lies
between the Sound Indians on the north and the Californian group on the
south, including in addition to the tribes of the Columbia, those of the
Willamette Valley and the Coast. All closely resemble each other in
manners and customs, having also a general resemblance to the northern
families already described, springing from their methods of obtaining
food; and although probably without linguistic affinities, except along
the Columbia River, they may be consistently treated as one family--the
last of the great coast or fish-eating divisions of the Columbian group.

Among the prominent tribes, or nations of the Chinook family may be
mentioned the following: the _Watlalas_ or upper Chinooks, including the
bands on the Columbia from the Cascades to the Cowlitz, and on the lower
Willamette; the lower Chinooks from the Cowlitz to the Pacific
comprising the _Wakiakums_ and _Chinooks_ on the north bank, and the
_Cathlamets_ and _Clatsops_ on the south; the _Calapooyas_ occupying the
Valley of the Willamette, and the _Clackamas_ on one of its chief
tributaries of the same name; with the _Killamooks_ and _Umpquas_ who
live between the Coast Range[339] and the ocean.

With respect to the present condition of these nations, authorities
agree in speaking of them as a squalid and poverty-stricken race, once
numerous and powerful, now few and weak. Their country has been settled
by whites much more thickly than regions farther north, and they have
rapidly disappeared before the influx of strangers. Whole tribes have
been exterminated by war and disease, and in the few miserable remnants
collected on reservations or straggling about the Oregon towns, no
trace is apparent of the independent, easy-living bands of the remote
past.[340] It is however to be noted that at no time since this region
has been known to Europeans has the Indian population been at all in
proportion to the supporting capacity of the land, while yet in a state
of nature, with its fertile soil and well-stocked streams and forests.

  [Sidenote: CHINOOK PHYSIQUE.]

In physique the Chinook can not be said to differ materially from the
Nootka. In stature the men rarely exceed five feet six inches, and the
women five feet. Both sexes are thick-set, but as a rule loosely built,
although in this respect they had doubtless degenerated when described
by most travelers. Their legs are bowed and otherwise deformed by a
constant squatting position in and out of their canoes. Trained by
constant exposure with slight clothing, they endure cold and hunger
better than the white man, but to continued muscular exertion they soon
succumb. Physically they improve in proportion to their distance from
the Columbia and its fisheries; the Calapooyas on the upper Willamette,
according to early visitors, presenting the finest specimens.[341]
Descending from the north along the coast, Hyperboreans, Columbians,
and Californians gradually assume a more dusky hue as we proceed
southward. The complexion of the Chinooks may be called a trifle darker
than the natives of the Sound, and of Vancouver; though nothing is more
difficult than from the vague expressions of travelers to determine
shades of color.[342] Points of resemblance have been noted by many
observers between the Chinook and Mongolian physiognomy, consisting
chiefly in the eyes turned obliquely upward at the outer corner. The
face is broad and round, the nose flat and fat, with large nostrils, the
mouth wide and thick-lipped, teeth irregular and much worn, eyes black,
dull and expressionless; the hair generally black and worn long, and the
beard carefully plucked out; nevertheless, their features are often
regular.[343]

  [Sidenote: HEAD-FLATTENING PHENOMENON.]

It is about the mouth of the Columbia that the custom of flattening the
head seems to have originated. Radiating from this centre in all
directions, and becoming less universal and important as the distance is
increased, the usage terminates on the south with the nations which I
have attached to the Chinook family, is rarely found east of the Cascade
Range, but extends, as we have seen, northward through all the coast
families, although it is far from being held in the same esteem in the
far north as in its apparently original centre. The origin of this
deformity is unknown. All we can do is to refer it to that strange
infatuation incident to humanity which lies at the root of fashion and
ornamentation, and which even in these later times civilization is not
able to eradicate. As Alphonso the Wise regretted not having been
present at the creation--for then he would have had the world to suit
him--so different ages and nations strive in various ways to remodel and
improve the human form. Thus the Chinese lady compresses the feet, the
European the waist, and the Chinook the head. Slaves are not allowed to
indulge in this extravagance, and as this class are generally of
foreign tribes or families, the work of ethnologists in classifying
skulls obtained by travelers, and thereby founding theories of race is
somewhat complicated; but the difficulty is lessened by the fact that
slaves receive no regular burial, and hence all skulls belonging to
bodies from native cemeteries are known to be Chinook.[344] The Chinook
ideal of facial beauty is a straight line from the end of the nose to
the crown of the head. The flattening of the skull is effected by
binding the infant to its cradle immediately after birth, and keeping it
there from three months to a year. The simplest form of cradle is a
piece of board or plank on which the child is laid upon its back with
the head slightly raised by a block of wood. Another piece of wood, or
bark, or leather, is then placed over the forehead and tied to the plank
with strings which are tightened more and more each day until the skull
is shaped to the required pattern. Space is left for lateral expansion;
and under ordinary circumstances the child's head is not allowed to
leave its position until the process is complete. The body and limbs are
also bound to the cradle, but more loosely, by bandages, which are
sometimes removed for cleansing purposes. Moss or soft bark is generally
introduced between the skin and the wood, and in some tribes comfortable
pads, cushions, or rabbit-skins are employed. The piece of wood which
rests upon the forehead is in some cases attached to the cradle by
leather hinges, and instances are mentioned where the pressure is
created by a spring. A trough or canoe-shaped cradle, dug out from a
log, often takes the place of the simple board, and among the rich this
is elaborately worked, and ornamented with figures and shells. The child
while undergoing this process, with its small black eyes jammed half out
of their sockets, presents a revolting picture. Strangely enough,
however, the little prisoner seems to feel scarcely any pain, and
travelers almost universally state that no perceptible injury is done to
the health or brain. As years advance the head partially but not
altogether resumes its natural form, and among aged persons the effects
are not very noticeable. As elsewhere, the personal appearance of the
women is of more importance than that of the men, therefore the female
child is subjected more rigorously and longer to the compressing
process, than her brothers. Failure properly to mould the cranium of her
offspring gives to the Chinook matron the reputation of a lazy and
undutiful mother, and subjects the neglected children to the ridicule of
their young companions;[345] so despotic is fashion. A practice which
renders the Chinook more hideous than the compression of his skull is
that of piercing or slitting the cartilage of the nose and ears, and
inserting therein long strings of beads or hiaqua shells, the latter
being prized above all other ornaments. Tattooing seems to have been
practiced, but not extensively, taking usually the form of lines of dots
pricked into the arms, legs, and cheeks with pulverized charcoal.
Imitation tattooing, with the bright- juices of different
berries, was a favorite pastime with the women, and neither sex could
resist the charms of salmon-grease and red clay. In later times,
however, according to Swan, the custom of greasing and daubing the body
has been to a great extent abandoned. Great pains is taken in dressing
the hair, which is combed, parted in the middle, and usually allowed to
hang in long tresses down the back, but often tied up in a queue by the
women and girls, or braided so as to hang in two tails tied with
strings.[346]

  [Sidenote: CHINOOK DRESS.]

For dress, skins were much more commonly used in this region than among
other coast families; particularly the skins of the smaller animals, as
the rabbit and woodrat. These skins, dressed and often painted, were
sewed together so as to form a robe or blanket similar in form and use
to the more northern blanket of wool, which, as well as a similar
garment of goose-skin with the feathers on, was also made and worn by
the Chinooks, though not in common use among them. They prefer to go
naked when the weather permits. Skins of larger animals, as the deer and
elk, are also used for clothing, and of the latter is made a kind of
arrow-proof armor for war; another coat of mail being made of sticks
bound together. Females almost universally wear a skirt of cedar
bark-fibre, fastened about the waist and hanging to the knees. This
garment is woven for a few inches at the top, but the rest is simply a
hanging fringe, not very effectually concealing the person. A substitute
for this petticoat in some tribes is a square piece of leather attached
to a belt in front; and in others a long strip of deer-skin passed
between the thighs and wound about the waist. A fringed garment, like
that described, is also sometimes worn about the shoulders; in cold
weather a fur robe is wrapped about the body from the hips to the
armpits, forming a close and warm vest; and over all is sometimes thrown
a cape, or fur blanket, like that of the men, varying in quality and
value with the wealth of the wearer. The best are made of strips of
sea-otter skin, woven with grass or cedar bark, so that the fur shows on
both sides. Chiefs and men of wealth wear rich robes of otter and other
valuable furs. The conical hat woven of grass and bark, and painted in
black and white checks or with rude figures, with or without a brim, and
fastened under the chin, is the only covering for the head.[347]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS OF THE CHINOOKS.]

The Chinooks moved about less for the purpose of obtaining a supply of
food, than many others, even of the coast families, yet the accumulation
of filth or--a much stronger motive--of fleas, generally forced them to
take down their winter dwellings each spring, preserving the materials
for re-erection on the same or another spot. The best houses were built
of cedar planks attached by bark-fibre cords to a frame, which consisted
of four corner, and two central posts and a ridge pole. The planks of
the sides and ends were sometimes perpendicular, but oftener laid
horizontally, overlapping here in clapboard fashion as on the roof. In
some localities the roof and even the whole structure was of cedar bark.
These dwellings closely resembled those farther north, but were somewhat
inferior in size, twenty-five to seventy-five feet long, and fifteen to
twenty-five feet wide, being the ordinary dimensions. On the Columbia
they were only four or five feet high at the eaves, but an equal depth
was excavated in the ground, while on the Willamette the structure was
built on the surface. The door was only just large enough to admit the
body, and it was a favorite fancy of the natives to make it represent
the mouth of an immense head painted round it. Windows there were none,
nor chimney; one or more fireplaces were sunk in the floor, and the
smoke escaped by the cracks, a plank in the roof being sometimes moved
for the purpose. Mats were spread on the floor and raised berths were
placed on the sides, sometimes in several tiers. Partitions of plank or
matting separated the apartments of the several families. Smaller
temporary huts, and the permanent homes of the poorer Indians were built
in various forms, of sticks, covered with bark, rushes, or skins. The
interior and exterior of all dwellings were in a state of chronic
filth.[348]

  [Sidenote: FISHERIES OF THE CHINOOKS.]

The salmon fisheries of the Columbia are now famous throughout the
world. Once every year innumerable multitudes of these noble fish enter
the river from the ocean to deposit their spawn. Impelled by instinct,
they struggle to reach the extreme limits of the stream, working their
way in blind desperation to the very sources of every little branch,
overcoming seeming impossibilities, and only to fulfill their destiny
and die; for if they escape human enemies, they either kill themselves
in their mad efforts to leap impassable falls, or if their efforts are
crowned with success, they are supposed never to return to the ocean.
This fishery has always been the chief and an inexhaustible source of
food for the Chinooks, who, although skillful fishermen, have not been
obliged to invent a great variety of methods or implements for the
capture of the salmon, which rarely if ever have failed them. Certain
ceremonies must, however, be observed with the first fish taken; his
meat must be cut only with the grain, and the hearts of all caught must
be burned or eaten, and on no account be thrown into the water or be
devoured by a dog. With these precautions there is no reason to suppose
that the Chinook would ever lack a supply of fish. The salmon begin to
run in April, but remain several weeks in the warmer waters near the
mouth, and are there taken while in their best condition, by the Chinook
tribe proper, with a straight net of bark or roots, sometimes five
hundred feet long and fifteen feet deep, with floats and sinkers. One
end of the net is carried out into the river at high water, and drawn in
by the natives on the shore, who with a mallet quiet the fish and
prevent them from jumping over the net and escaping. Farther up,
especially at the Cascades and at the falls of the Willamette, salmon
are speared by natives standing on the rocks or on planks placed for the
purpose; scooped up in small dip-nets; or taken with a large unbaited
hook attached by a socket and short line to a long pole. There is some
account of artificial channels of rocks at these places, but such
expedients were generally not needed, since, beside those caught by the
Chinooks, such numbers were cast on the rocks by their own efforts to
leap the falls, that the air for months was infected by the decaying
mass; and many of these in a palatable state of decay were gathered by
the natives for food. Hooks, spears, and nets were sometimes rubbed with
the juice of certain plants supposed to be attractive to the fish. Once
taken, the salmon were cleaned by the women, dried in the sun and smoked
in the lodges; then they were sometimes powdered fine between two
stones, before packing in skins or mats for winter use. The heads were
always eaten as favorite portions during the fishing season. Next to the
salmon the sturgeon was ranked as a source of food. This fish, weighing
from two hundred to five hundred pounds, was taken by a baited hook,
sunk about twenty feet, and allowed to float down the current; when
hooked, the sturgeon rises suddenly and is dispatched by a spear, lifted
into the canoe by a gaff-hook, or towed ashore. The Chinooks do not
attack the whale, but when one is accidentally cast upon the shore, more
or less decayed, a season of feasting ensues and the native heart is
glad. Many smaller varieties of fish are taken by net, spear, hook, or
rake, but no methods are employed meriting special description. Wild
fowl are snared or shot; elk and deer are shot with arrows or taken in
a carefully covered pit, dug in their favorite haunts. As to the methods
of taking rabbits and woodrats, whose skins are said to have been so
extensively used for clothing, I find no information. Nuts, berries,
wild fruits and roots are all used as food, and to some extent preserved
for winter. The Wapato, a bulbous root, compared by some to the potatoe
and turnip, was the aboriginal staple, and was gathered by women wading
in shallow ponds, and separating the root with their toes.[349] Boiling
in wooden kettles by means of hot stones, was the usual manner of
cooking, but roasting on sticks stuck in the sand near the fire was also
common. Clam-shells and a few rude platters and spoons of wood were in
use, but the fingers, with the hair for a napkin, were found much more
convenient table ware.[350] In all their personal habits the Chinooks
are disgustingly filthy, although said to be fond of baths for health
and pleasure. The Clatsops, as reported by one visitor, form a partial
exception to this rule, as they occasionally wash the hands and
face.[351]

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS OF THE CHINOOKS.]

Their chief weapons are bows and arrows, the former of which is made of
cedar, or occasionally, as it is said, of horn and bone; its elasticity
is increased by a covering of sinew glued on. The arrow-head is of bone,
flint, or copper, and the shaft consists of a short piece of some hard
wood, and a longer one of a lighter material. The bows are from two and
a half to four feet long; five styles, differing in form and curve, are
pictured by Schoolcraft. Another weapon in common use was a double-edged
wooden broad-sword, or sharp club, two and a half or three feet long;
spears, tomahawks, and scalping knives are mentioned by many travelers,
but not described, and it is doubtful if either were ever used by these
aborigines.[352] I have already spoken of their thick arrow-proof
elk-skin armor, and of a coat of short sticks bound together with grass;
a bark helmet is also employed of sufficient strength to ward off arrows
and light blows. Ross states that they also carry a circular elk-skin
shield about eighteen inches in diameter. Although by no means a
blood-thirsty race, the Chinook tribes were frequently involved in
quarrels, resulting, it is said, from the abduction of women more
frequently than from other causes. They, like almost all other American
tribes, make a free use of war paint, laying it on grotesquely and in
bright colors; but unlike most other nations, they never resorted to
treachery, surprise, night attacks, or massacre of women and children.
Fighting was generally done upon the water. When efforts to settle
amicably their differences, always the first expedient, failed, a party
of warriors, covered from head to foot with armor, and armed with bows,
arrows, and bludgeons, was paddled by women to the enemies' village,
where diplomatic efforts for peace were renewed. If still unsuccessful,
the women were removed from danger, and the battle commenced, or, if the
hour was late, fighting was postponed till the next morning. As their
armor was arrow-proof and as they rarely came near enough for
hand-to-hand conflict, the battles were of short duration and
accompanied by little bloodshed; the fall of a few warriors decided the
victory, the victors gained their point in the original dispute, the
vanquished paid some damages, and the affair ended.[353]

  [Sidenote: IMPLEMENTS, MANUFACTURES, BOATS.]

Troughs dug out of one piece of cedar, and woven baskets served this
people for dishes, and were used for every purpose. The best baskets
were of silk grass or fine fibre, of a conical form, woven in colors so
closely as to hold liquids, and with a capacity of from one to six
gallons. Coarser baskets were made of roots and rushes, rude spoons of
ash-wood, and circular mats did duty as plates. Wapato diggers used a
curved stick with handle of horn; fish-hooks and spears were made of
wood and bone in a variety of forms; the wing-bone of the crane supplied
a needle. With regard to their original cutting instruments, by which
trees were felled for canoes or for planks which were split off by
wedges, there is much uncertainty; since nearly all authorities state
that before their intercourse with Europeans, chisels made of 'old
files,' were employed, and driven by an oblong stone or a spruce-knot
mallet. Pipe-bowls were of hard wood fitted to an elder stem, but the
best ones, of stone elegantly carved, were of Haidah manufacture and
obtained from the north.[354] To kindle a fire the Chinook twirls
rapidly between the palms a cedar stick, the point of which is pressed
into a small hollow in a flat piece of the same material, the sparks
falling on finely-frayed bark. Sticks are commonly carried for the
purpose, improving with use. Besides woven baskets, matting is the chief
article of Chinook manufacture. It is made by the women by placing side
by side common bulrushes or flags about three feet long, tying the ends,
and passing strings of twisted rushes through the whole length,
sometimes twenty or thirty feet, about four inches apart, by means of a
bone needle.[355]

Chinook boats do not differ essentially, either in material, form, or
method of manufacture, from those already described as in use among the
Sound family. Always dug out of a single log of the common white cedar,
they vary in length from ten to fifty feet, and in form according to the
waters they are intended to navigate or the freight they are to carry.
In these canoes lightness, strength, and elegance combine to make them
perfect models of water-craft. Lewis and Clarke describe four forms in
use in this region, and their description of boats, as of most other
matters connected with this people, has been taken with or without
credit by nearly all who have treated of the subject. I cannot do better
than to give their account of the largest and best boats used by the
Killamooks and other tribes on the coast outside the river. "The sides
are secured by cross-bars, or round sticks, two or three inches in
thickness, which are inserted through holes just below the gunwale, and
made fast with cords. The upper edge of the gunwale itself is about
five-eighths of an inch thick, and four or five in breadth, and folds
outwards, so as to form a kind of rim, which prevents the water from
beating into the boat. The bow and stern are about the same height, and
each provided with a comb, reaching to the bottom of the boat. At each
end, also, are pedestals, formed of the same solid piece, on which are
placed strange grotesque figures of men or animals, rising sometimes to
the height of five feet, and composed of small pieces of wood, firmly
united, with great ingenuity, by inlaying and mortising, without a spike
of any kind. The paddle is usually from four feet and a half to five
feet in length; the handle being thick for one-third of its length, when
it widens, and is hollowed and thinned on each side of the centre, which
forms a sort of rib. When they embark, one Indian sits in the stern, and
steers with a paddle, the others kneel in pairs in the bottom of the
canoe, and sitting on their heels, paddle over the gunwale next to them.
In this way they ride with perfect safety the highest waves, and venture
without the least concern in seas where other boats or seamen could not
live an instant." The women are as expert as the men in the management
of canoes.[356]

  [Sidenote: CHINOOK PROPERTY AND TRADE.]

The Chinooks were always a commercial rather than a warlike people, and
are excelled by none in their shrewdness at bargaining. Before the
arrival of the Europeans they repaired annually to the region of the
Cascades and Dalles, where they met the tribes of the interior, with
whom they exchanged their few articles of trade--fish, oil, shells, and
Wapato--for the skins, roots, and grasses of their eastern neighbors.
The coming of ships to the coast gave the Chinooks the advantage in this
trade, since they controlled the traffic in beads, trinkets and weapons;
they found also in the strangers ready buyers of the skins obtained from
the interior in exchange for these articles. Their original currency or
standard of value was the hiaqua shell from the northern coast, whose
value was in proportion to its length, a fathom string of forty shells
being worth nearly double a string of fifty to the fathom. Since the
white men came, beaver-skins and blankets have been added to their
currency. Individuals were protected in their rights to personal
property, such as slaves, canoes, and implements, but they had no idea
of personal property in lands, the title to which rested in the tribe
for purposes of fishing and the chase.[357]

In decorative art this family cannot be said to hold a high place
compared with more northern nations, their only superior work being the
modeling of their canoes, and the weaving of ornamental baskets. In
carving they are far inferior to the Haidahs; the Cathlamets, according
to Lewis and Clarke, being somewhat superior to the others, or at least
more fond of the art. Their attempts at painting are exceedingly
rude.[358]

Little can be said of their system of government except that it was
eminently successful in producing peaceful and well regulated
communities. Each band or village was usually a sovereignty, nominally
ruled by a chief, either hereditary or selected for his wealth and
popularity, who exerted over his tribe influence rather than authority,
but who was rarely opposed in his measures. Sometimes a league existed,
more or less permanent, for warlike expeditions. Slight offenses against
usage--the tribal common law--were expiated by the payment of an amount
of property satisfactory to the party offended. Theft was an offense,
but the return of the article stolen removed every trace of dishonor.
Serious crimes, as the robbery of a burial-place, were sometimes
punished with death by the people, but no special authorities or
processes seem to have been employed, either for detection or
punishment.[359]

Slavery, common to all the coast families, is also practiced by the
Chinooks, but there is less difference here perhaps than elsewhere
between the condition of the slaves and the free. Obtained from without
the limits of the family, towards the south or east, by war, or more
commonly by trade, the slaves are obliged to perform all the drudgery
for their masters, and their children must remain in their parents'
condition, their round heads serving as a distinguishing mark from
freemen. But the amount of the work connected with the Chinook household
is never great, and so long as the slaves are well and strong, they are
liberally fed and well treated. True, many instances are known of slaves
murdered by the whim of a cruel and rich master, and it was not very
uncommon to kill slaves on the occasion of the death of prominent
persons, but wives and friends are also known to have been sacrificed on
similar occasions. No burial rights are accorded to slaves, and no care
taken of them in serious illness; when unable to work they are left to
die, and their bodies cast into the sea or forest as food for fish or
beast. It was not a rare occurrence for a freeman to voluntarily subject
himself to servitude in payment of a gambling-debt; nor for a slave to
be adopted into the tribe, and the privilege of head-flattening accorded
to his offspring.[360]

  [Sidenote: MARITAL RELATIONS OF THE CHINOOKS.]

Not only were the Chinooks a peaceable people in their tribal
intercourse, but eminently so in their family relations. The young men
when they married brought their wives to their father's home, and thus
several generations lived amicably in their large dwellings until forced
to separate by numbers, the chief authority being exercised not by the
oldest but by the most active and useful member of the household.
Overtures for marriage were made by friends of the would-be bridegroom,
who offered a certain price, and if accepted by the maiden's parents,
the wedding ceremony was celebrated simply by an interchange and
exhibition of presents with the congratulations of invited guests. A man
might take as many wives as he could buy and support, and all lived
together without jealousy; but practically few, and those among the rich
and powerful, indulged in the luxury of more than one wife. It has been
noticed that there was often great disparity in the ages of bride and
groom, for, say the Chinooks, a very young or very aged couple lack
either the experience or the activity necessary for fighting the battles
of life. Divorce or separation is easily accomplished, but is not of
frequent occurrence. A husband can repudiate his wife for infidelity, or
any cause of dissatisfaction, and she can marry again. Some cases are
known of infidelity punished with death. Barrenness is common, the
birth of twins rare, and families do not usually exceed two children.
Childbirth, as elsewhere among aboriginals, is accompanied with but
little inconvenience, and children are often nursed until three or five
years old. They are carried about on the mother's back until able to
walk; at first in the head-flattening cradle, and later in wicker
baskets. Unmarried women have not the slightest idea of chastity, and
freely bestow their favors in return for a kindness, or for a very small
consideration in property paid to themselves or parents. When married,
all this is changed--female virtue acquires a marketable value, the
possessorship being lodged in the man and not in the woman. Rarely are
wives unfaithful to their husbands; but the chastity of the wife is the
recognized property of the husband, who sells it whenever he pleases.
Although attaching no honor to chastity, the Chinook woman feels
something like shame at becoming the mother of an illegitimate child,
and it is supposed to be partly from this instinct, that infanticide and
abortion are of frequent occurrence. At her first menstruation a girl
must perform a certain penance, much less severe, however, than among
the northern nations. In some tribes she must bathe frequently for a
moon, and rub the body with rotten hemlock, carefully abstaining from
all fish and berries which are in season, and remaining closely in the
house during a south wind. Did she partake of the forbidden food, the
fish would leave the streams and the berries drop from the bushes; or
did she go out in a south wind, the thunder-bird would come and shake
his wings. All thunder-storms are thus caused. Both young children and
the old and infirm are kindly treated. Work is equally divided between
the sexes; the women prepare the food which the men provide; they also
manufacture baskets and matting; they are nearly as skillful as the men
with the canoe, and are consulted on all important matters. Their
condition is by no means a hard one. It is among tribes that live by the
chase or by other means in which women can be of little service, that
we find the sex most oppressed and cruelly treated.[361]

  [Sidenote: CHINOOK FEASTS AND FESTIVITIES.]

Like all Indians, the Chinooks are fond of feasting, but their feasts
are simply the coming together of men and women during the fishing
season with the determination to eat as much as possible, and this
meeting is devoid of those complicated ceremonies of invitation,
reception, and social etiquette, observed farther north; nor has any
traveler noticed the distribution of property as a feature of these
festivals. Fantastically dressed and gaudily decked with paint, they are
wont to jump about on certain occasions in a hopping, jolting kind of
dance, accompanied by songs, beating of sticks, clapping of hands, and
occasional yells, the women usually dancing in a separate set. As few
visitors mention their dances, it is probable that dancing was less
prevalent than with others. Their songs were often soft and pleasing,
differing in style for various occasions, the words extemporized, the
tunes being often sung with meaningless sounds, like our tra-la-la. Swan
gives examples of the music used under different circumstances. Smoking
was universal, the leaves of the bear-berry being employed, mixed in
later times with tobacco obtained from the whites. Smoke is swallowed
and retained in the stomach and lungs until partial intoxication ensues.
No intoxicating drink was known to them before the whites came, and
after their coming for a little time they looked on strong drink with
suspicion, and were averse to its use. They are sometimes sober even
now, when no whisky is at hand. But the favorite amusement of all the
Chinook nations is gambling, which occupies the larger part of their
time when not engaged in sleeping, eating, or absolutely necessary
work. In their games they risk all their property, their wives and
children, and in many instances their own freedom, losing all with
composure, and nearly always accompanying the game with a song. Two
persons, or two parties large or small, play one against the other; a
banking game is also in vogue, in which one individual plays against all
comers. A favorite method is to pass rapidly from hand to hand two small
sticks, one of which is marked, the opponent meanwhile guessing at the
hand containing the marked stick. The sticks sometimes take the form of
discs of the size of a silver dollar, each player having ten; these are
wrapped in a mass of fine bark-fibre, shuffled and separated in two
portions; the winner naming the bunch containing the marked or trump
piece. Differently marked sticks may also be shuffled or tossed in the
air, and the lucky player correctly names the relative position in which
they shall fall. A favorite game of females, called _ahikia_, is played
with beaver-teeth, having figured sides, which are thrown like dice; the
issue depends on the combinations of figures which are turned up. In all
these games the players squat upon mats; sticks are used as counters;
and an essential point for a successful gambler is to make as much noise
as possible, in order to confuse the judgment of opponents. In still
another game the players attempt to roll small pieces of wood between
two pins set up a few inches apart, at a distance of ten feet, into a
hole in the floor just beyond. The only sports of an athletic nature are
shooting at targets with arrows and spears, and a game of ball in which
two goals are placed a mile apart, and each party--sometimes a whole
tribe--endeavors to force the ball past the other's goal, as in
foot-ball, except that the ball is thrown with a stick, to one end of
which is fixed a small hoop or ring.[362] Children's sports are
described only by Swan, and as rag babies and imitated Catholic
baptisms were the favorite pastimes mentioned, they may be supposed not
altogether aboriginal.

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS.]

Personal names with the Chinooks are hereditary, but in many cases they
either have no meaning or their original signification is soon
forgotten. They are averse to telling their true name to strangers, for
fear, as they sometimes say, that it may be stolen; the truth is,
however, that with them the name assumes a personality; it is the shadow
or spirit, or other self, of the flesh and blood person, and between the
name and the individual there is a mysterious connection, and injury
cannot be done to one without affecting the other; therefore, to give
one's name to a friend is a high mark of Chinook favor. No account is
kept of age. They are believers in sorcery and secret influences, and
not without fear of their medicine-men or conjurers, but, except perhaps
in their quality of physicians, the latter do not exert the influence
which is theirs farther north; their ceremonies and tricks are
consequently fewer and less ridiculous. Inventions of the whites not
understood by the natives are looked on with great superstition. It was,
for instance, very difficult at first to persuade them to risk their
lives before a photographic apparatus, and this for the reason before
mentioned; they fancied that their spirit thus passed into the keeping
of others, who could torment it at pleasure.[363] Consumption, liver
complaint and ophthalmia are the most prevalent Chinook maladies; to
which, since the whites came, fever and ague have been added, and have
killed eighty or ninety per cent. of the whole people, utterly
exterminating some tribes. The cause of this excessive mortality is
supposed to be the native method of treatment, which allays a raging
fever by plunging the patient in the river or sea. On the Columbia this
alleviating plunge is preceded by violent perspiration in a vapor bath;
consequently the treatment has been much more fatal there than on the
coast where the vapor bath is not in use. For slight ills and pains,
especially for external injuries, the Chinooks employ simple remedies
obtained from various plants and trees. Many of these remedies have been
found to be of actual value, while others are evidently quack nostrums,
as when the ashes of the hair of particular animals are considered
essential ingredients of certain ointments. Fasting and bathing serve to
relieve many slight internal complaints. Strangely enough, they never
suffer from diseases of the digestive organs, notwithstanding the greasy
compounds used as food. When illness becomes serious or refuses to yield
to simple treatment, the conclusion is that either the spirits of the
dead are striving to remove the spirit of the sick person from the
troubles of earth to a happier existence, or certain evil spirits prefer
this world and the patient's body for their dwelling-place. Then the
doctor is summoned. Medical celebrities are numerous, each with his
favorite method of treatment, but all agree that singing, beating of
sticks, indeed a noise, however made, accompanied by mysterious passes
and motions, with violent pressure and kneading of the body are
indispensable. The patient frequently survives the treatment. Several
observers believe that mesmeric influences are exerted, sometimes with
benefit, by the doctors in their mummeries.[364]

  [Sidenote: CHINOOK BURIAL RITES.]

When the Chinook dies, relatives are careful to speak in whispers, and
indulge in no loud manifestations of grief so long as the body remains
in the house. The body is prepared for final disposition by wrapping it
in blankets, together with ornaments and other property of a valuable
but not bulky nature. For a burial place an elevated but retired spot
near the river bank or on an island is almost always selected, but the
methods of disposing of the dead in these cemeteries differ somewhat
among the various tribes. In the region about the mouth of the Columbia,
the body with its wrappings is placed in the best canoe of the deceased,
which is washed for the purpose, covered with additional blankets, mats,
and property, again covered, when the deceased is of the richer class,
by another inverted canoe, the whole bound together with matting and
cords, and deposited usually on a plank platform five or six feet high,
but sometimes suspended from the branches of trees, or even left on the
surface of the ground. The more bulky articles of property, such as
utensils, and weapons, are deposited about or hung from the platform,
being previously spoiled for use that they may not tempt desecrators
among the whites or foreign tribes; or, it may be that the sacrifice or
death of the implements is necessary before the spirits of the
implements can accompany the spirit of the owner. For the same purpose,
and to allow the water to pass off, holes are bored in the bottom of the
canoe, the head of the corpse being raised a little higher than the
feet. Some travelers have observed a uniformity in the position of the
canoe, the head pointing towards the east, or down the current of the
stream. After about a year, the bones are sometimes taken out and
buried, but the canoe and platform are never removed. Chiefs' canoes are
often repainted. Farther up both the Columbia and Willamette Rivers,
excavations of little depth are often made, in which bodies are
deposited on horizontal boards and covered over with a slightly
inclining roof of heavy planks or poles. In these vaults several tiers
of corpses are often placed one above another. At the Cascades,
depositories of the dead have been noticed in the form of a roofed
inclosure of planks, eight feet long, six feet wide, and five feet high,
with a door in one end, and the whole exterior painted. The Calapooyas
also buried their dead in regular graves, over which was erected a
wooden head-board. Desecration of burial places is a great crime with
the Chinook; he also attaches great importance to having his bones rest
in his tribal cemetery wherever he may die. For a long time after a
death, relatives repair daily at sunrise and sunset to the vicinity of
the grave to sing songs of mourning and praise. Until the bones are
finally disposed of, the name of the deceased must not be spoken, and
for several years it is spoken only with great reluctance. Near
relatives often change their name under the impression that spirits will
be attracted back to earth if they hear familiar names often repeated.
Chiefs are supposed to die through the evil influence of another person,
and the suspected, though a dear friend, was formerly often sacrificed.
The dead bodies of slaves are never touched save by other slaves.[365]

  [Sidenote: CHINOOK CHARACTER.]

There is little difference of opinion concerning the character of the
Chinooks. All agree that they are intelligent and very acute in trade;
some travelers have found them at different points harmless and
inoffensive; and in a few instances honesty has been detected. So much
for their good qualities. As to the bad, there is unanimity nearly as
great that they are thieves and liars, and for the rest each observer
applies to them a selection of such adjectives as lazy, superstitious,
cowardly, inquisitive, intrusive, libidinous, treacherous, turbulent,
hypocritical, fickle, etc. The Clatsops, with some authors, have the
reputation of being the most honest and moral; for the lowest position
in the scale all the rest might present a claim. It should however be
said in their favor that they are devotedly attached to their homes, and
treat kindly both their young children and aged parents; also that not a
few of their bad traits originated with or have been aggravated by
contact with civilization.[366]


THE INLAND FAMILIES, constituting the fifth and last division of the
Columbians, inhabit the region between the Cascade Range and the eastern
limit of what I term the Pacific States, from 52° 30´ to 45° of north
latitude. These bounds are tolerably distinct; though that on the south,
separating the eastern portions of the Columbian and Californian groups,
is irregular and marked by no great river, mountain chain, or other
prominent physical feature. These inland natives of the Northwest
occupy, in person, character, and customs, as well as in the location of
their home, an intermediate position between the coast people already
described--to whom they are pronounced superior in most respects--and
the Rocky Mountain or eastern tribes. Travelers crossing the Rocky
Mountains into this territory from the east, or entering it from the
Pacific by way of the Columbia or Fraser, note contrasts on passing the
limits, sufficient to justify me in regarding its inhabitants as one
people for the purposes aimed at in this volume.[367] Instead,
therefore, of treating each family separately, as has been done with
the coast divisions of the group, I deem it more convenient, as well as
less monotonous to the reader, to avoid repetition by describing the
manners and customs of all the people within these limits together,
taking care to note such variations as may be found to exist. The
division into families and nations, made according to principles already
sufficiently explained, is as follows, beginning again at the north:

  [Sidenote: THE SHUSHWAPS.]

THE SHUSHWAPS, our first family division, live between 52° 30´ and 49°
in the interior of British Columbia, occupying the valleys of the
Fraser, Thompson, and Upper Columbia rivers with their tributary streams
and lakes. They are bounded on the west by the Nootkas and on the north
by the Carriers, from both of which families they seem to be distinct.
As national divisions of this family may be mentioned the Shushwaps
proper, or _Atnahs_,[368] who occupy the whole northern portion of the
territory; the _Okanagans_,[369] in the valley of the lake and river of
the same name; and the _Kootenais_,[370] who inhabit the triangle
bounded by the Upper Columbia, the Rocky Mountains, and the 49th
parallel, living chiefly on Flatbow river and lake. All three nations
might probably be joined with quite as much reason to the Salish family
farther south, as indeed has usually been done with the Okanagans; while
the Kootenais are by some considered distinct from any of their
adjoining nations.

THE SALISH FAMILY dwells south of the Shushwaps, between 49° and 47°,
altogether on the Columbia and its tributaries. Its nations, more
clearly defined than in most other families, are the _Flatheads_,[371]
or Salish proper, between the Bitter Root and Rocky Mountains on
Flathead and Clarke rivers; the _Pend d'Oreilles_,[372] who dwell about
the lake of the same name and on Clarke River, for fifty to seventy-five
miles above and below the lake; the _Coeurs d'Alêne_,[373] south of the
Pend d'Oreilles, on Coeur d'Alêne Lake and the streams falling into it;
the _Colvilles_,[374] a term which may be used to designate the
variously named bands about Kettle Falls, and northward along the
Columbia to the Arrow Lakes; the _Spokanes_,[375] on the Spokane River
and plateau along the Columbia below Kettle Falls, nearly to the mouth
of the Okanagan; and the _Pisquouse_,[376] on the west bank of the
Columbia between the Okanagan and Priest Rapids.

  [Sidenote: THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY.]

THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY, the last of the Columbian group, is immediately
south of the Salish, between the Cascade and Bitter Root mountains,
reaching southward, in general terms, to the forty-fifth parallel, but
very irregularly bounded by the Shoshone tribes of the Californian
group. Of its nations, the _Nez Percés_,[377] or Sahaptins proper, dwell
on the Clearwater and its branches, and on the Snake about the forks;
the _Palouse_[378] occupy the region north of the Snake about the mouth
of the Palouse; the south banks of the Columbia and Snake near their
confluence, and the banks of the lower Walla Walla are occupied by the
_Walla Wallas_;[379] the _Yakimas_ and _Kliketats_[380] inhabit the
region north of the Dalles, between the Cascade Range and the Columbia,
the former in the valley of the Yakima, the latter in the mountains
about Mt. Adams. Both nations extend in some bands across into the
territory of the Sound family. The natives of Oregon east of the Cascade
Range, who have not usually been included in the Sahaptin family, I will
divide somewhat arbitrarily into the _Wascos_, extending from the
mountains eastward to John Day River, and the _Cayuse_,[381] from this
river across the Blue Mountains to the Grande Ronde.

  [Sidenote: PHYSIQUE OF THE INLAND TRIBES.]

The inland Columbians are of medium stature, usually from five feet
seven to five feet ten inches, but sometimes reaching a height of six
feet; spare in flesh, but muscular and symmetrical; with well-formed
limbs, the legs not being deformed as among the Chinooks by constant
sitting in the canoe; feet and hands are in many tribes small and well
made. In bodily strength they are inferior to whites, but superior, as
might be expected from their habits, to the more indolent fish-eaters on
the Pacific. The women, though never corpulent, are more inclined to
rotundity than the men. The Nez Percés and Cayuses are considered the
best specimens, while in the north the Kootenais seem to be superior to
the other Shushwap nations. The Salish are assigned by Wilkes and Hale
an intermediate place in physical attributes between the coast and
mountain tribes, being in stature and proportion superior to the
Chinooks, but inferior to the Nez Percés.[382] Inland, a higher order of
face is observed than on the coast. The cheek-bones are still high, the
forehead is rather low, the face long, the eyes black, rarely oblique,
the nose prominent and frequently aquiline, the lips thin, the teeth
white and regular but generally much worn. The general expression of the
features is stern, often melancholy, but not as a rule harsh or
repulsive. Dignified, fine-looking men, and handsome young women have
been remarked in nearly all the tribes, but here again the Sahaptins
bear off the palm. The complexion is not darker than on the coast, but
has more of a coppery hue. The hair is black, generally coarse, and worn
long. The beard is very thin, and its growth is carefully prevented by
plucking.[383]

  [Sidenote: HEAD-FLATTENING IN THE INTERIOR.]

The custom of head-flattening, apparently of seaboard origin and growth,
extends, nevertheless, across the Cascade barrier, and is practiced to a
greater or less extent by all the tribes of the Sahaptin family. Among
them all, however, with the exception perhaps of the Kliketats, the
deformity consists only of a very slight compression of the forehead,
which nearly or quite disappears at maturity. The practice also extends
inland up the valley of the Fraser, and is found at least in nearly all
the more western tribes of the Shushwaps. The Salish family do not
flatten the skull.[384] Other methods of deforming the person, such as
tattooing and perforating the features are as a rule not employed; the
Yakimas and Kliketats, however, with some other lower Columbia tribes,
pierce or cut away the septum of the nose,[385] and the Nez Percés
probably derived their name from a similar custom formerly practiced by
them. Paint, however, is used by all inland as well as coast tribes on
occasions when decoration is desired, but applied in less profusion by
the latter. The favorite color is vermilion, applied as a rule only to
the face and hair.[386] Elaborate hair-dressing is not common, and both
sexes usually wear the hair in the same style, soaked in grease, often
painted, and hanging in a natural state, or in braids, plaits, or
queues, over the shoulders. Some of the southern tribes cut the hair
across the forehead, while others farther north tie it up in knots on
the back of the head.[387]

The coast dress--robes or blankets of bark-fibre or small skins--is
also used for some distance inland on the banks of the Columbia and
Fraser, as among the Nicoutamuch, Kliketats, and Wascos; but the
distinctive inland dress is of dressed skin of deer, antelope, or
mountain sheep; made into a rude frock, or shirt, with loose sleeves;
leggins reaching half-way up the thigh, and either bound to the leg or
attached by strings to a belt about the waist; moccasins, and rarely a
cap. Men's frocks descend half-way to the knees; women's nearly to the
ankles. Over this dress, or to conceal the want of some part of it, a
buffalo or elk robe is worn, especially in winter. All garments are
profusely and often tastefully decorated with leather fringes, feathers,
shells, and porcupine quills; beads, trinkets and various bright-
cloths having been added to Indian ornamentation since the whites came.
A new suit of this native skin clothing is not without beauty, but by
most tribes the suit is worn without change till nearly ready to drop
off, and becomes disgustingly filthy. Some tribes clean and whiten their
clothing occasionally with white earth, or pipe-clay. The buffalo and
most of the other large skins are obtained from the country east of the
mountains.[388]

  [Sidenote: INLAND DWELLINGS.]

The inland dwelling is a frame of poles, covered with rush matting, or
with the skins of the buffalo or elk. As a rule the richest tribes and
individuals use skins, although many of the finest Sahaptin houses are
covered with mats only. Notwithstanding these nations are rich in
horses, I find no mention that horse-hides are ever employed for this or
any other purpose. The form of the lodge is that of a tent, conical or
oblong, and usually sharp at the top, where an open space is left for
light and air to enter, and smoke to escape. Their internal condition
presents a marked contrast with that of the Chinook and Nootka
habitations, since they are by many interior tribes kept free from
vermin and filth. Their light material and the frequency with which
their location is changed contributes to this result. The lodges are
pitched by the women, who acquire great skill and celerity in the work.
Holes are left along the sides for entrance, and within, a floor of
sticks is laid, or more frequently the ground is spread with mats, and
skins serve for beds. Dwellings are often built sufficiently large to
accommodate many families, each of which in such case has its own
fireplace on a central longitudinal line, a definite space being
allotted for its goods, but no dividing partitions are ever used. The
dwellings are arranged in small villages generally located in winter on
the banks of small streams a little away from the main rivers. For a
short distance up the Columbia, houses similar to those of the Chinooks
are built of split cedar and bark. The Walla Wallas, living in summer in
the ordinary mat lodge, often construct for winter a subterranean abode
by digging a circular hole ten or twelve feet deep, roofing it with
poles or split cedar covered with grass and mud, leaving a small opening
at the top for exit and entrance by means of a notched-log ladder. The
Atnahs on Fraser River spend the winter in similar structures, a simple
slant roof of mats or bark sufficing for shade and shelter in summer.
The Okanagans construct their lodges over an excavation in the ground
several feet deep, and like many other nations, cover their matting in
winter with grass and earth.[389]

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE INLAND NATIONS.]

The inland families eat fish and game, with roots and fruit; no nation
subsists without all these supplies; but the proportion of each consumed
varies greatly according to locality. Some tribes divide their forces
regularly into bands, of men to fish and hunt, of women to cure fish and
flesh, and to gather roots and berries. I have spoken of the coast
tribes as a fish-eating, and the interior tribes as a hunting people,
attributing in great degree their differences of person and character to
their food, or rather to their methods of obtaining it; yet fish
constitutes an important element of inland subsistence as well. Few
tribes live altogether without salmon, the great staple of the
Northwest; since those dwelling on streams inaccessible to the salmon by
reason of intervening falls, obtain their supply by annual migrations to
the fishing-grounds, or by trade with other nations. The principal
salmon fisheries of the Columbia are at the Dalles, the falls ten miles
above, and at Kettle Falls. Other productive stations are on the Powder,
Snake, Yakima, Okanagan, and Clarke rivers. On the Fraser, which has no
falls in its lower course, fishing is carried on all along the banks of
the river instead of at regular stations, as on the Columbia. Nets,
weirs, hooks, spears, and all the implements and methods by which fish
are taken and cured have been sufficiently described in treating of the
coast region; in the interior I find no important variations except in
the basket method in use at the Chaudières or Kettle Falls by the
Quiarlpi tribe. Here an immense willow basket, often ten feet in
diameter and twelve feet deep, is suspended at the falls from strong
timbers fixed in crevices of the rocks, and above this is a frame so
attached that the salmon in attempting to leap the fall strike the
sticks of the frame and are thrown back into the basket, in the largest
of which naked men armed with clubs await them. Five thousand pounds of
salmon have thus been taken in a day by means of a single basket. During
the fishing-season the Salmon Chief has full authority; his basket is
the largest, and must be located a month before others are allowed to
fish. The small nets used in the same region have also the peculiarity
of a stick which keeps the mouth open when the net is empty, but is
removed by the weight of the fish. Besides the salmon, sturgeon are
extensively taken in the Fraser, and in the Arrow Lakes, while trout and
other varieties of small fish abound in most of the streams. The
fishing-season is the summer, between June and September, varying a
month or more according to locality. This is also the season of trade
and festivity, when tribes from all directions assemble to exchange
commodities, gamble, dance, and in later times to drink and fight.[390]

  [Sidenote: HUNTING BY SHUSHWAPS, SALISH, AND SAHAPTINS.]

The larger varieties of game are hunted by the natives on horseback
wherever the nature of the country will permit. Buffalo are now never
found west of the Rocky Mountains, and there are but few localities
where large game has ever been abundant, at least since the country
became known to white men. Consequently the Flatheads, Nez Percés, and
Kootenais, the distinctively hunting nations, as well as bands from
nearly every other tribe, cross the mountains once or twice each year,
penetrating to the buffalo-plains between the Yellowstone and the
Missouri, in the territory of hostile nations. The bow and arrow was the
weapon with which buffalo and all other game were shot. No peculiar
cunning seems to have been necessary to the native hunter of buffalo; he
had only to ride into the immense herds on his well-trained horse, and
select the fattest animals for his arrows. Various devices are mentioned
as being practiced in the chase of deer, elk, and mountain sheep; such
as driving them by a circle of fire on the prairie towards the concealed
hunters, or approaching within arrow-shot by skillful manipulations of
a decoy animal; or the frightened deer are driven into an ambush by
converging lines of bright- rags so placed in the bushes as to
represent men. Kane states that about the Arrow Lakes hunting dogs are
trained to follow the deer and to bring back the game to their masters
even from very long distances. Deer are also pursued in the winter on
snow-shoes, and in deep snow often knocked down with clubs. Bear and
beaver are trapped in some places; and, especially about the northern
lakes and marshes, wild fowl are very abundant, and help materially to
eke out the supply of native food.[391]

  [Sidenote: FOOD AND ITS PREPARATION.]

Their natural improvidence, or an occasional unlucky hunting or fishing
season, often reduces them to want, and in such case the resort is to
roots, berries, and mosses, several varieties of which are also gathered
and laid up as a part of their regular winter supplies. Chief among the
roots are the camass, a sweet, onion-like bulb, which grows in moist
prairies, the couse, which flourishes in more sterile and rocky spots,
and the bitter-root, which names a valley and mountain range. To obtain
these roots the natives make regular migrations, as for game or fish.
The varieties of roots and berries used for food are very numerous; and
none seem to grow in the country which to the native taste are
unpalatable or injurious, though many are both to the European.[392]

Towards obtaining food the men hunt and fish; all the other work of
digging roots, picking berries, as well as dressing, preserving, and
cooking all kinds of food is done by the women, with some exceptions
among the Nez Percés and Pend d'Oreilles. Buffalo-meat is jerked by
cutting in thin pieces and drying in the sun and over smouldering fires
on scaffolds of poles. Fish is sun-dried on scaffolds, and by some
tribes on the lower Columbia is also pulverized between two stones and
packed in baskets lined with fish-skin. Here, as on the coast, the heads
and offal only are eaten during the fishing-season. The Walla Wallas are
said usually to eat fish without cooking. Roots, mosses, and such
berries as are preserved, are usually kept in cakes, which for eating
are moistened, mixed in various proportions and cooked, or eaten without
preparation. To make the cakes simply drying, pulverizing, moistening,
and sun-drying usually suffice; but camas and pine-moss are baked or
fermented for several days in an underground kiln by means of hot
stones, coming out in the form of a dark gluey paste of the proper
consistency for moulding. Many of these powdered roots may be preserved
for years without injury. Boiling by means of hot stones and roasting on
sharp sticks fixed in the ground near the fire, are the universal
methods of cooking. No mention is made of peculiar customs in eating; to
eat often and much is the aim; the style of serving is a secondary
consideration.[393] Life with all these nations is but a struggle for
food, and the poorer tribes are often reduced nearly to starvation; yet
they never are known to kill dogs or horses for food. About the missions
and on the reservations cattle have been introduced and the soil is
cultivated by the natives to considerable extent.[394]

  [Sidenote: PERSONAL HABITS IN THE INTERIOR.]

In their personal habits, as well as the care of their lodges, the
Cayuses, Nez Percés, and Kootenais, are mentioned as neat and cleanly;
the rest, though filthy, are still somewhat superior to the dwellers on
the coast. The Flatheads wash themselves daily, but their dishes and
utensils never. De Smet represents the Pend d'Oreille women as untidy
even for savages.[395] Guns, knives and tomahawks have generally taken
the place of such native weapons as these natives may have used against
their foes originally. Only the bow and arrow have survived intercourse
with white men, and no other native weapon is described, except one
peculiar to the Okanagans,--a kind of Indian slung-shot. This is a small
cylindrical ruler of hard wood, covered with raw hide, which at one end
forms a small bag and holds a round stone as large as a goose-egg; the
other end of the weapon is tied to the wrist. Arrow-shafts are of hard
wood, carefully straightened by rolling between two blocks, fitted by
means of sinews with stone or flint heads at one end, and pinnated with
feathers at the other. The most elastic woods are chosen for the bow,
and its force is augmented by tendons glued to its back.[396]

  [Sidenote: THE INLAND NATIONS AT WAR.]

The inland families cannot be called a warlike race. Resort to arms for
the settlement of their intertribal disputes seems to have been very
rare. Yet all are brave warriors when fighting becomes necessary for
defense or vengeance against a foreign foe; notably so the Cayuses, Nez
Percés, Flatheads and Kootenais. The two former waged both aggressive
and defensive warfare against the Snakes of the south; while the latter
joined their arms against their common foes, the eastern Blackfeet, who,
though their inferiors in bravery, nearly exterminated the Flathead
nation by superiority in numbers, and by being the first to obtain the
white man's weapons. Departure on a warlike expedition is always
preceded by ceremonious preparation, including councils of the wise,
great, and old; smoking the pipe, harangues by the chiefs, dances, and a
general review, or display of equestrian feats and the manoeuvres of
battle. The warriors are always mounted; in many tribes white or
speckled war-horses are selected, and both rider and steed are gaily
painted, and decked with feathers, trinkets, and bright- cloths.
The war-party in most nations is under the command of a chief
periodically elected by the tribe, who has no authority whatever in
peace, but who keeps his soldiers in the strictest discipline in time of
war. Stealthy approach and an unexpected attack in the early morning
constitute their favorite tactics. They rush on the enemy like a
whirlwind, with terrific yells, discharge their guns or arrows, and
retire to prepare for another attack. The number slain is rarely large;
the fall of a few men, or the loss of a chief decides the victory. When
a man falls, a rush is made for his scalp, which is defended by his
party, and a fierce hand-to-hand conflict ensues, generally terminating
the battle. After the fight, or before it when either party lacks
confidence in the result, a peace is made by smoking the pipe, with the
most solemn protestations of goodwill, and promises which neither party
has the slightest intention of fulfilling. The dead having been scalped,
and prisoners bound and taken up behind the victors, the party starts
homeward. Torture of the prisoners, chiefly perpetrated by the women,
follows the arrival. By the Flatheads and northern nations captives are
generally killed by their sufferings; among the Sahaptins some survive
and are made slaves. In the Flathead torture of the Blackfeet are
practiced all the fiendish acts of cruelty that native cunning can
devise, all of which are borne with the traditional stoicism and taunts
of the North American Indian. The Nez Percé system is a little less
cruel in order to save life for future slavery. Day after day, at a
stated hour, the captives are brought out and made to hold the scalps of
their dead friends aloft on poles while the scalp-dance is performed
about them, the female participators meanwhile exerting all their
devilish ingenuity in tormenting their victims.[397]

The native saddle consists of a rude wooden frame, under and over which
is thrown a buffalo-robe, and which is bound to the horse by a very
narrow thong of hide in place of the Mexican _cincha_. A raw-hide
crupper is used; a deer-skin pad sometimes takes the place of the upper
robe, or the robe and pad are used without the wooden frame. Stirrups
are made by binding three straight pieces of wood or bone together in
triangular form, and sometimes covering all with raw-hide put on wet; or
one straight piece is suspended from a forked thong, and often the
simple thong passing round the foot suffices. The bridle is a rope of
horse-hair or of skin, made fast with a half hitch round the animal's
lower jaw. The same rope usually serves for bridle and lariat. Sharp
bones, at least in later times, are used for spurs. Wood is split for
the few native uses by elk-horn wedges driven by bottle-shaped stone
mallets. Baskets and vessels for holding water and cooking are woven of
willow, bark, and grasses. Rushes, growing in all swampy localities are
cut of uniform length, laid parallel and tied together for matting.
Rude bowls and spoons are sometimes dug out of horn or wood, but the
fingers, with pieces of bark and small mats are the ordinary table
furniture. Skins are dressed by spreading, scraping off the flesh, and
for some purposes the hair, with a sharp piece of bone, stone, or iron
attached to a short handle, and used like an adze. The skin is then
smeared with the animal's brains, and rubbed or pounded by a very
tedious process till it becomes soft and white, some hides being
previously smoked and bleached with white clay.[398]

  [Sidenote: PREPARATION OF SKINS. RIVER-BOATS.]

On the lower Columbia the Wascos, Kliketats, Walla Wallas, and other
tribes use dug-out boats like those of the coast, except that little
skill or labor is expended on their construction or ornamentation; the
only requisite being supporting capacity, as is natural in a country
where canoes play but a small part in the work of procuring food.
Farther in the interior the mountain tribes of the Sahaptin family, as
the Cayuses and Nez Percés, make no boats, but use rude rafts or
purchase an occasional canoe from their neighbors, for the rare cases
when it becomes necessary to transport property across an unfordable
stream. The Flatheads sew up their lodge-skins into a temporary boat for
the same purpose. On the Fraser the Nootka dug-out is in use. But on the
northern lakes and rivers of the interior, the Pend d'Oreille, Flatbow,
Arrow, and Okanagan, northward to the Tacully territory, the natives
manufacture and navigate bark canoes. Both birch and pine are employed,
by stretching it over a cedar hoop-work frame, sewing the ends with fine
roots, and gumming the seams and knots. The form is very peculiar; the
stem and stern are pointed, but the points are on a level with the
bottom of the boat, and the <DW72> or curve is upward towards the centre.
Travelers describe them as carrying a heavy load, but easily capsized
unless when very skillfully managed.[399]

  [Sidenote: HORSES, PROPERTY, AND TRADE.]

Horses constitute the native wealth, and poor indeed is the family which
has not for each member, young and old, an animal to ride, as well as
others sufficient to transport all the household goods, and to trade for
the few foreign articles needed. The Nez Percés, Cayuses and Walla
Wallas have more and better stock than other nations, individuals often
possessing bands of from one thousand to three thousand. The Kootenais
are the most northern equestrian tribes mentioned. How the natives
originally obtained horses is unknown, although there are some slight
traditions in support of the natural supposition that they were first
introduced from the south by way of the Shoshones. The latter are one
people with the Comanches, by whom horses were obtained during the
Spanish expeditions to New Mexico in the sixteenth century. The horses
of the natives are of small size, probably degenerated from a superior
stock, but hardy and surefooted; sustaining hunger and hard usage better
than those of the whites, but inferior to them in form, action, and
endurance. All colors are met with, spotted and mixed colors being
especially prized.[400]

The different articles of food, skins and grasses for clothing and
lodges and implements, shells and trinkets for ornamentation and
currency are also bartered between the nations, and the annual summer
gatherings on the rivers serve as fairs for the display and exchange of
commodities; some tribes even visit the coast for purposes of trade.
Smoking the pipe often precedes and follows a trade, and some peculiar
commercial customs prevail, as for instance when a horse dies soon after
purchase, the price may be reclaimed. The rights of property are
jealously defended, but in the Salish nations, according to Hale, on the
death of a father his relatives seize the most valuable property with
very little attention to the rights of children too young to look out
for their own interests.[401] Indeed, I have heard of deeds of similar
import in white races. In decorative art the inland natives must be
pronounced inferior to those of the coast, perhaps only because they
have less time to devote to such unproductive labor. Sculpture and
painting are rare and exceedingly rude. On the coast the passion for
ornamentation finds vent in carving and otherwise decorating the canoe,
house, and implements; in the interior it expends itself on the
caparison of the horse, or in bead and fringe work on garments. Systems
of numeration are simple, progressing by fours, fives, or tens,
according to the different languages, and is sufficiently extensive to
include large numbers; but the native rarely has occasion to count
beyond a few hundreds, commonly using his fingers as an aid to his
numeration. Years are reckoned by winters, divided by moons into months,
and these months named from the ripening of some plant, the occurrence
of a fishing or hunting season, or some other periodicity in their
lives, or by the temperature. Among the Salish the day is divided
according to the position of the sun into nine parts. De Smet states
that maps are made on bark or skins by which to direct their course on
distant excursions, and that they are guided at night by the polar
star.[402]

  [Sidenote: CHIEFS AND THEIR AUTHORITY.]

War chiefs are elected for their bravery and past success, having full
authority in all expeditions, marching at the head of their forces, and,
especially among the Flatheads, maintaining the strictest discipline,
even to the extent of inflicting flagellation on insubordinates. With
the war their power ceases, yet they make no effort by partiality during
office to insure re-election, and submit without complaint to a
successor. Except by the war chiefs no real authority is exercised. The
regular chieftainship is hereditary so far as any system is observed,
but chiefs who have raised themselves to their position by their merits
are mentioned among nearly all the nations. The leaders are always men
of commanding influence and often of great intelligence. They take the
lead in haranguing at the councils of wise men, which meet to smoke and
deliberate on matters of public moment. These councils decide the amount
of fine necessary to atone for murder, theft, and the few crimes known
to the native code; a fine, the chief's reprimand, and rarely flogging,
probably not of native origin, are the only punishments; and the
criminal seldom attempts to escape. As the more warlike nations have
especial chiefs with real power in time of war, so the fishing tribes,
some of them, grant great authority to a 'salmon chief' during the
fishing-season. But the regular inland chiefs never collect taxes nor
presume to interfere with the rights or actions of individuals or
families.[403] Prisoners of war, not killed by torture, are made slaves,
but they are few in number, and their children are adopted into the
victorious tribe. Hereditary slavery and the slave-trade are unknown.
The Shushwaps are said to have no slaves.[404]

  [Sidenote: FAMILY RELATIONS.]

In choosing a helpmate, or helpmates, for his bed and board, the inland
native makes capacity for work the standard of female excellence, and
having made a selection buys a wife from her parents by the payment of
an amount of property, generally horses, which among the southern
nations must be equaled by the girl's parents. Often a betrothal is made
by parents while both parties are yet children, and such a contract,
guaranteed by an interchange of presents, is rarely broken. To give away
a wife without a price is in the highest degree disgraceful to her
family. Besides payment of the price, generally made for the suitor by
his friends, courtship in some nations includes certain visits to the
bride before marriage; and the Spokane suitor must consult both the
chief and the young lady, as well as her parents; indeed the latter may
herself propose if she wishes. Runaway matches are not unknown, but by
the Nez Percés the woman is in such cases considered a prostitute, and
the bride's parents may seize upon the man's property. Many tribes seem
to require no marriage ceremony, but in others an assemblage of friends
for smoking and feasting is called for on such occasions; and among the
Flatheads more complicated ceremonies are mentioned, of which long
lectures to the couple, baths, change of clothing, torch-light
processions, and dancing form a part. In the married state the wife must
do all the heavy work and drudgery, but is not otherwise ill treated,
and in most tribes her rights are equally respected with those of the
husband.

  [Sidenote: WOMEN AND CHILDREN.]

When there are several wives each occupies a separate lodge, or at least
has a separate fire. Among the Spokanes a man marrying out of his own
tribe joins that of his wife, because she can work better in a country
to which she is accustomed; and in the same nation all household goods
are considered as the wife's property. The man who marries the eldest
daughter is entitled to all the rest, and parents make no objection to
his turning off one in another's favor. Either party may dissolve the
marriage at will, but property must be equitably divided, the children
going with the mother. Discarded wives are often reinstated. If a
Kliketat wife die soon after marriage, the husband may reclaim her
price; the Nez Percé may not marry for a year after her death, but he is
careful to avoid the inconvenience of this regulation by marrying just
before that event. The Salish widow must remain a widow for about two
years, and then must marry agreeably to her mother-in-law's taste or
forfeit her husband's property.[405] The women make faithful, obedient
wives and affectionate mothers. Incontinence in either girls or married
women is extremely rare, and prostitution almost unknown, being severely
punished, especially among the Nez Percés. In this respect the inland
tribes present a marked contrast to their coast neighbors.[406] At the
first appearance of the menses the woman must retire from the sight of
all, especially men, for a period varying from ten days to a month, and
on each subsequent occasion for two or three days, and must be purified
by repeated ablutions before she may resume her place in the household.
Also at the time of her confinement she is deemed unclean, and must
remain for a few weeks in a separate lodge, attended generally by an old
woman. The inland woman is not prolific, and abortions are not uncommon,
which may probably be attributed in great measure to her life of labor
and exposure. Children are not weaned till between one and two years of
age; sometimes not until they abandon the breast of their own accord or
are supplanted by a new arrival; yet though subsisting on the mother's
milk alone, and exposed with slight clothing to all extremes of weather,
they are healthy and robust, being carried about in a rude cradle on the
mother's back, or mounted on colts and strapped to the saddle that they
may not fall off when asleep. After being weaned the child is named
after some animal, but the name is changed frequently later in
life.[407] Although children and old people are as a rule kindly cared
for, yet so great the straits to which the tribes are reduced by
circumstances, that both are sometimes abandoned if not put to
death.[408]

  [Sidenote: GAMES IN THE INTERIOR.]

The annual summer gathering on the river banks for fishing and trade,
and, among the mountain nations, the return from a successful raid in
the enemy's country, are the favorite periods for native
diversions.[409] To gambling they are no less passionately addicted in
the interior than on the coast,[410] but even in this universal Indian
vice, their preference for horse-racing, the noblest form of gaming,
raises them above their stick-shuffling brethren of the Pacific. On the
speed of his horse the native stakes all he owns, and is discouraged
only when his animal is lost, and with it the opportunity to make up
past losses in another race. Foot-racing and target-shooting, in which
men, women and children participate, also afford them indulgence in
their gambling propensities and at the same time develop their bodies by
exercise, and perfect their skill in the use of their native
weapon.[411] The Colvilles have a game, _alkollock_, played with
spears. A wooden ring some three inches in diameter is rolled over a
level space between two slight stick barriers about forty feet apart;
when the ring strikes the barrier the spear is hurled so that the ring
will fall over its head; and the number scored by the throw depends on
which of six  beads, attached to the hoop's inner circumference,
falls over the spear's head.[412] The almost universal Columbian game of
guessing which hand contains a small polished bit of bone or wood is
also a favorite here, and indeed the only game of the kind mentioned; it
is played, to the accompaniment of songs and drumming, by parties
sitting in a circle on mats, the shuffler's hands being often wrapped in
fur, the better to deceive the players.[413] All are excessively fond of
dancing and singing; but their songs and dances, practiced on all
possible occasions, have not been, if indeed they can be, described.
They seem merely a succession of sounds and motions without any fixed
system. Pounding on rude drums of hide accompanies the songs, which are
sung without words, and in which some listeners have detected a certain
savage melody. Scalp-dances are performed by women hideously painted,
who execute their diabolical antics in the centre of a circle formed by
the rest of the tribe who furnish music to the dancers.[414] All are
habitual smokers, always inhaling the smoke instead of puffing it out
after the manner of more civilized devotees of the weed. To obtain
tobacco the native will part with almost any other property, but no
mention is made of any substitute used in this region before the white
man came. Besides his constant use of the pipe as an amusement or habit,
the inland native employs it regularly to clear his brain for the
transaction of important business. Without the pipe no war is declared,
no peace officially ratified; in all promises and contracts it serves as
the native pledge of honor; with ceremonial whiffs to the cardinal
points the wise men open and close the deliberations of their councils;
a commercial smoke clinches a bargain, as it also opens negotiations of
trade.[415]

  [Sidenote: TREATMENT OF HORSES.]

The use of the horse has doubtless been a most powerful agent in molding
inland customs; and yet the introduction of the horse must have been of
comparatively recent date. What were the customs and character of these
people, even when America was first discovered by the Spaniards, must
ever be unknown. It is by no means certain that the possession of the
horse has materially bettered their condition. Indeed, by facilitating
the capture of buffalo, previously taken perhaps by stratagem, by
introducing a medium with which at least the wealthy may always purchase
supplies, as well as by rendering practicable long migrations for food
and trade, the horse may have contributed somewhat to their present
spirit of improvidence. The horses feed in large droves, each marked
with some sign of ownership, generally by clipping the ears, and when
required for use are taken by the lariat, in the use of which all the
natives have some skill, though far inferior to the Mexican _vaqueros_.
The method of breaking and training horses is a quick and an effectual
one. It consists of catching and tying the animal; then buffalo-skins
and other objects are thrown at and upon the trembling beast, until all
its fear is frightened out of it. When willing to be handled, horses are
treated with great kindness, but when refractory, the harshest measures
are adopted. They are well trained to the saddle, and accustomed to be
mounted from either side. They are never shod and never taught to trot.
The natives are skillful riders, so far as the ability to keep their
seat at great speed over a rough country is concerned, but they never
ride gracefully, and rarely if ever perform the wonderful feats of
horsemanship so often attributed to the western Indians. A loose girth
is used under which to insert the knees when riding a wild horse. They
are hard riders, and horses in use always have sore backs and mouths.
Women ride astride, and quite as well as the men; children also learn to
ride about as early as to walk.[416] Each nation has its superstitions;
by each individual is recognized the influence of unseen powers,
exercised usually through the medium of his medicine animal chosen early
in life. The peculiar customs arising from this belief in the
supernatural are not very numerous or complicated, and belong rather to
the religion of these people treated elsewhere. The Pend d'Oreille, on
approaching manhood, was sent by his father to a high mountain and
obliged to remain until he dreamed of some animal, bird, or fish,
thereafter to be his medicine, whose claw, tooth, or feather was worn as
a charm. The howling of the medicine-wolf and some other beasts
forebodes calamity, but by the Okanagans the white-wolf skin is held as
an emblem of royalty, and its possession protects the horses of the
tribe from evil-minded wolves. A ram's horns left in the trunk of a tree
where they were fixed by the misdirected zeal of their owner in
attacking a native, were much venerated by the Flatheads, and gave them
power over all animals so long as they made frequent offerings at the
foot of the tree. The Nez Percés had a peculiar custom of overcoming the
_mawish_ or spirit of fatigue, and thereby acquiring remarkable powers
of endurance. The ceremony is performed annually from the age of
eighteen to forty, lasts each time from three to seven days, and
consists of thrusting willow sticks down the throat into the stomach, a
succession of hot and cold baths, and abstinence from food. Medicine-men
acquire or renew their wonderful powers by retiring to the mountains to
confer with the wolf. They are then invulnerable; a bullet fired at them
flattens on their breast. To allowing their portraits to be taken, or to
the operations of strange apparatus they have the same aversion that has
been noted on the coast.[417] Steam baths are universally used, not for
motives of cleanliness, but sometimes for medical purposes, and chiefly
in their superstitious ceremonies of purification. The bath-house is a
hole dug in the ground from three to eight feet deep, and sometimes
fifteen feet in diameter, in some locality where wood and water are at
hand, often in the river bank. It is also built above ground of willow
branches covered with grass and earth. Only a small hole is left for
entrance, and this is closed up after the bather enters. Stones are
heated by a fire in the bath itself, or are thrown in after being heated
outside. In this oven, heated to a suffocating temperature, the naked
native revels for a long time in the steam and mud, meanwhile singing,
howling, praying, and finally rushes out dripping with perspiration, to
plunge into the nearest stream.[418] Every lodge is surrounded by a pack
of worthless coyote-looking curs. These are sometimes made to carry
small burdens on their backs when the tribe is moving; otherwise no use
is made of them, as they are never eaten, and, with perhaps the
exception of a breed owned by the Okanagans, are never trained to hunt.
I give in a note a few miscellaneous customs noticed by travelers.[419]

  [Sidenote: MEDICAL PRACTICE.]

These natives of the interior are a healthy but not a very long-lived
race. Ophthalmia, of which the sand, smoke of the lodges, and reflection
of the sun's rays on the lakes are suggested as the causes, is more or
less prevalent throughout the territory; scrofulous complaints and
skin-eruptions are of frequent occurrence, especially in the Sahaptin
family. Other diseases are comparatively rare, excepting of course
epidemic disorders like small-pox and measles contracted from the
whites, which have caused great havoc in nearly all the tribes. Hot and
cold baths are the favorite native remedy for all their ills, but other
simple specifics, barks, herbs, and gums are employed as well. Indeed,
so efficacious is their treatment, or rather, perhaps, so powerful with
them is nature in resisting disease, that when the locality or cause of
irregularity is manifest, as in the case of wounds, fractures, or
snake-bites, remarkable cures are ascribed to these people. But here as
elsewhere, the sickness becoming at all serious or mysterious, medical
treatment proper is altogether abandoned, and the patient committed to
the magic powers of the medicine-man. In his power either to cause or
cure disease at will implicit confidence is felt, and failure to heal
indicates no lack of skill; consequently the doctor is responsible for
his patient's recovery, and in case of death is liable to, and often
does, answer with his life, so that a natural death among the medical
fraternity is extremely rare. His only chance of escape is to persuade
relatives of the dead that his ill success is attributable to the evil
influence of a rival physician, who is the one to die; or in some cases
a heavy ransom soothes the grief of mourning friends and avengers. One
motive of the Cayuses in the massacre of the Whitman family is supposed
to have been the missionary's failure to cure the measles in the tribe.
He had done his best to relieve the sick, and his power to effect in all
cases a complete cure was unquestioned by the natives. The methods by
which the medicine-man practices his art are very uniform in all the
nations. The patient is stretched on his back in the centre of a large
lodge, and his friends few or many sit about him in a circle, each
provided with sticks wherewith to drum. The sorcerer, often grotesquely
painted, enters the ring, chants a song, and proceeds to force the evil
spirit from the sick man by pressing both clenched fists with all his
might in the pit of his stomach, kneading and pounding also other parts
of the body, blowing occasionally through his own fingers, and sucking
blood from the part supposed to be affected. The spectators pound with
their sticks, and all, including doctor, and often the patient in spite
of himself, keep up a continual song or yell. There is, however, some
method in this madness, and when the routine is completed it is again
begun, and thus repeated for several hours each day until the case is
decided. In many nations the doctor finally extracts the spirit, in the
form of a small bone or other object, from the patient's body or mouth
by some trick of legerdemain, and this once effected, he assures the
surrounding friends that the tormentor having been thus removed,
recovery must soon follow.[420]

Grief at the death of a relative is manifested by cutting the hair and
smearing the face with black. The women also howl at intervals for a
period of weeks or even months; but the men on ordinary occasions rarely
make open demonstrations of sorrow, though they sometimes shed tears at
the death of a son. Several instances of suicide in mourning are
recorded; a Walla Walla chieftain caused himself to be buried alive in
the grave with the last of his five sons. The death of a wife or
daughter is deemed of comparatively little consequence. In case of a
tribal disaster, as the death of a prominent chief, or the killing of a
band of warriors by a hostile tribe, all indulge in the most frantic
demonstrations, tearing the hair, lacerating the flesh with flints,
often inflicting serious injury. The sacrifice of human life, generally
that of a slave, was practiced, but apparently nowhere as a regular part
of the funeral rites. Among the Flatheads the bravest of the men and
women ceremonially bewail the loss of a warrior by cutting out pieces of
their own flesh and casting them with roots and other articles into the
fire. A long time passes before a dead person's name is willingly spoken
in the tribe. The corpse is commonly disposed of by wrapping in ordinary
clothing and burying in the ground without a coffin. The northern tribes
sometimes suspended the body in a canoe from a tree, while those in the
south formerly piled their dead in wooden sheds or sepulchres above
ground. The Okanagans often bound the body upright to the trunk of a
tree. Property was in all cases sacrificed; horses usually, and slaves
sometimes, killed on the grave. The more valuable articles of wealth
were deposited with the body; the rest suspended on poles over and about
the grave or left on the surface of the ground; always previously
damaged in such manner as not to tempt the sacrilegious thief, for their
places of burial are held most sacred. Mounds of stones surmounted with
crosses indicate in later times the conversion of the natives to a
foreign religion.[421]

  [Sidenote: INLAND MORALITY.]

In character and in morals,[422] as well as in physique, the inland
native is almost unanimously pronounced superior to the dweller on the
coast. The excitement of the chase, of war, and of athletic sports
ennobles the mind as it develops the body; and although probably not by
nature less indolent than their western neighbors, yet are these natives
of the interior driven by circumstances to habits of industry, and have
much less leisure time for the cultivation of the lower forms of vice.
As a race, and compared with the average American aborigines, they are
honest, intelligent, and pure in morals. Travelers are liable to form
their estimate of national character from a view, perhaps unfair and
prejudiced, of the actions of a few individuals encountered;
consequently qualities the best and the worst have been given by some to
each of the nations now under consideration. For the best reputation the
Nez Percés, Flatheads and Kootenais have always been rivals; their good
qualities have been praised by all, priest, trader and tourist. Honest,
just, and often charitable; ordinarily cold and reserved, but on
occasions social and almost gay; quick-tempered and revengeful under
what they consider injustice, but readily appeased by kind treatment;
cruel only to captive enemies, stoical in the endurance of torture;
devotedly attached to home and family; these natives probably come as
near as it is permitted to flesh-and-blood savages to the traditional
noble red man of the forest, sometimes met in romance. It is the pride
and boast of the Flathead that his tribe has never shed the blood of a
white man. Yet none, whatever their tribe, could altogether resist the
temptation to steal horses from their neighbors of a different tribe, or
in former times, to pilfer small articles, wonderful to the savage eye,
introduced by Europeans. Many have been nominally converted by the
zealous labors of the Jesuit fathers, or Protestant missionaries; and
several nations have greatly improved, in material condition as well as
in character, under their change of faith. As Mr Alexander Ross remarks,
"there is less crime in an Indian camp of five hundred souls than there
is in a civilized village of but half that number. Let the lawyer or
moralist point out the cause."


TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

The Columbian Group comprises the tribes inhabiting the territory
immediately south of that of the Hyperboreans, extending from the
fifty-fifth to the forty-third parallel of north latitude.


  [Sidenote: THE HAIDAH FAMILY.]

In the HAIDAH FAMILY, I include all the coast and island nations of
British Columbia, from 55° to 52°, and extending inland about one
hundred miles to the borders of the Chilcoten Plain, the _Haidah nation_
proper having their home on the Queen Charlotte Islands. 'The Haidah
tribes of the Northern Family inhabit Queen Charlotte's Island.' 'The
Massettes, Skittegás, Cumshawás, and other (Haidah) tribes inhabiting
the eastern shores of Queen Charlotte's Island.' _Scouler_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 219. 'The principal tribes upon it (Q.
Char. Isl.) are the Sketigets, Massets, and Comshewars.' _Dunn's
Oregon_, p. 292. 'Tribal names of the principal tribes inhabiting the
islands:--Klue, Skiddan, Ninstence or Cape St. James, Skidagate,
Skidagatees, Gold-Harbour, Cumshewas, and four others.... Hydah is the
generic name for the whole.' _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 309. 'The
Cumshewar, Massit, Skittageets, Keesarn, and Kigarnee, are mentioned as
living on the island.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 157. The following
bands, viz.: Lulanna, (or Sulanna), Nightan, Massetta, (or Mosette),
Necoon, Aseguang, (or Asequang), Skittdegates, Cumshawas, Skeedans,
Queeah, Cloo, Kishawin, Kowwelth, (or Kawwelth), and Too, compose the
Queen Charlotte Island Indians, 'beginning at N. island, north end, and
passing round by the eastward.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 489;
and _Kane's Wand._, end of vol. 'The Hydah nation which is divided into
numerous tribes inhabiting the island and the mainland opposite.'
_Reed's Nar._ 'Queen Charlotte's Island and Prince of Wales Archipelago
are the country of the Haidahs; ... including the Kygany, Massett,
Skittegetts, Hanega, Cumshewas, and other septs.' _Anderson_, in _Hist.
Mag._, vol. vii., p. 74. 'Les Indiens Koumchaouas, Haïdas, Massettes, et
Skidegats, de l'île de la Reine Charlotte.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom.
ii., p. 337. My Haidah Family is called by Warre and Vavasour _Quacott_,
who with the Newette and twenty-seven other tribes live, 'from Lat. 54°
to Lat. 50°, including Queen Charlotte's Island; North end of
Vancouver's Island, Millbank Sound and Island, and the Main shore.'
_Martin's Hudson's Bay_, p. 80.

The Massets and thirteen other tribes besides the Quacott tribes occupy
Queen Charlotte Islands. _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud. Bay_,
p. 80.

The Ninstence tribe inhabits 'the southernmost portions of Moresby
Island.' _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 122, 314-15.

The Crosswer Indians live on Skiddegate Channel. _Downie_, in _B. Col.
Papers_, vol. iii., p. 72.

The _Kaiganies_ inhabit the southern part of the Prince of Wales
Archipelago, and the northern part of Queen Charlotte Island. The
Kygargeys or Kygarneys are divided by Schoolcraft and Kane into the
Youahnoe, Clictass (or Clictars), Quiahanles, Houaguan, (or Wonagan),
Shouagan, (or Showgan), Chatcheenie, (or Chalchuni). _Archives_, vol.
v., p. 489; _Wanderings_, end of vol. The Kygáni 'have their
head-quarters on Queen Charlotte's Archipelago, but there are a few
villages on the extreme southern part of Prince of Wales Archipelago.'
_Dall's Alaska_, p. 411. A colony of the Hydahs 'have settled at the
southern extremity of Prince of Wales's Archipelago, and in the Northern
Island.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 219. 'Die
Kaigàni (Kigarnies, Kigarnee, Kygànies der Engländer) bewohnen den
südlichen Theil der Inseln (Archipels) des Prinzen von Wales.'
_Radloff_, _Sprache der Kaiganen_, in _Mélanges Russes_, tom. iii.,
livrais. v., p. 569. 'The Kegarnie tribe, also in the Russian territory,
live on an immense island, called North Island.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p.
287. The Hydahs of the south-eastern Alexander Archipelago include 'the
Kassaaus, the Chatcheenees, and the Kaiganees.' _Bendel's Alex. Arch._,
p. 28. 'Called Kaiganies and Kliavakans; the former being near Kaigan
Harbor, and the latter near the Gulf of Kliavakan scattered along the
shore from Cordova to Tonvel's Bay.' _Halleck and Scott_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 562-4. 'A branch of this tribe, the Kyganies
(Kigarnies) live in the southern part of the Archipel of the Prince of
Wales.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 80.

'To the west and south of Prince of Wales Island is an off-shoot of the
Hydah,' Indians, called Anega or Hennegas. _Mahony_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 575.

The _Chimsyans_ inhabit the coast and islands about Fort Simpson. Ten
tribes of Chymsyans at 'Chatham Sound, Portland Canal, Port Essington,
and the neighbouring Islands.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's
Hudson's Bay_, p. 80. 'The Chimsians or Fort Simpson Indians.' _Tolmie_,
in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 231. 'Indians inhabiting the coast and
river mouth known by the name of Chyniseyans.' _Ind. Life_, p. 93. The
Tsimsheeans live 'in the Fort Simpson section on the main land.'
_Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 257. Chimpsains, 'living on Chimpsain
Peninsula.' _Scott_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 553. The Chimmesyans
inhabit 'the coast of the main land from 55° 30´ N., down to 53° 30´ N.'
_Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 202; _Ludewig_,
_Ab. Lang._, p. 40. The Chimseeans 'occupy the country from Douglas'
Canal to Nass River.' _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p. 206.
Divided into the following bands; Kispachalaidy, Kitlan (or Ketlane),
Keeches (or Keechis), Keenathtoix, Kitwillcoits, Kitchaclaith, Kelutsah
(or Ketutsah), Kenchen Kieg, Ketandou, Ketwilkcipa, who inhabit
'Chatham's Sound, from Portland Canal to Port Essington (into which
Skeena River discharges) both main land and the neighboring islands.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 487; _Kane's Wand._, end of vol. The
Chymsyan connection 'extending from Milbank Sound to Observatory Inlet,
including the Sebassas, Neecelowes, Nass, and other offsets.'
_Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii. p. 74. Mr. Duncan divides the
natives speaking the Tsimshean language into four parts at Fort Simpson,
Nass River, Skeena River, and the islands of Milbank Sound. _Mayne's B.
C._, p. 250.

The Keethratlah live 'near Fort Simpson.' _Id._, p. 279.

The _Nass_ nation lives on the banks of the Nass River, but the name is
often applied to all the mainland tribes of what I term the Haidah
Family. The nation consists of the Kithateen, Kitahon, Ketoonokshelk,
Kinawalax (or Kinaroalax), located in that order from the mouth upward.
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 487; _Kane's Wand._, end of vol. Four
tribes, 'Nass River on the Main land.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in
_Martin's Hudson's Bay_, p. 80. 'On Observatory Inlet, lat. 55°.'
_Bryant_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302. Adjoin the
Sebassa tribe. _Cornwallis' N. El Dorado_, p. 107. About Fort Simpson.
_Dunn's Oregon_, p. 279. The Hailtsa, Haeeltzuk, Billechoola, and
Chimmesyans are Nass tribes. _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 130. See
_Buschmann_, _Brit. Nordamer._, pp. 398-400.

'There is a tribe of about 200 souls now living on a westerly branch of
the Naas near Stikeen River; they are called "Lackweips" and formerly
lived on Portland Channel.' _Scott_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 563.

The _Skeenas_ are on the river of the same name, 'at the mouth of the
Skeena River.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hudson's Bay_, p. 80.
They are the 'Kitsalas, Kitswingahs, Kitsiguchs, Kitspayuchs, Hagulgets,
Kitsagas, and Kitswinscolds.' _Scott_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p.
563.

Keechumakarlo (or Keechumakailo) situated 'on the lower part of the
Skeena River.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 487; _Kane's Wand._,
end of vol.

The Kitswinscolds live 'between the Nass and the Skeena.' _Scott_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 563. The Kitatels live 'on the islands in
Ogden's Channel, about sixty miles below Fort Simpson.' _Id._

The _Sebassas_ occupy the shores of Gardner Channel and the opposite
islands. Inhabit Banks Island. _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p.
206. The Labassas in five tribes are situated on 'Gardner's Canal, Canal
de Principe, Canal de la Reida.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's
Hudson's Bay_, p. 80. Keekheatla (or Keetheatla), on Canal de Principe;
Kilcatah, at the entrance of Gardner Canal; Kittamaat (or Kittamuat), on
the north arm of Gardner Canal; Kitlope on the south arm; Neeslous on
Canal de la Reido (Reina). _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 487;
_Kane's Wand._, end of vol. 'In the neighbourhood of Seal Harbour dwell
the Sebassa tribe.' _Cornwallis' N. El Dorado_, p. 106. 'The Shebasha, a
powerful tribe inhabiting the numerous islands of Pitt's Archipelago.'
_Bryant_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302.

The _Millbank Sound_ tribes are the Onieletoch, Weitletoch (or
Weetletoch), and Kokwaiytoch, on Millbank Sound; Eesteytoch, on Cascade
Canal; Kuimuchquitoch, on Dean Canal; Bellahoola, at entrance of Salmon
River of Mackenzie; Guashilla, on River Canal; Nalalsemoch, at Smith
Inlet, and Weekemoch on Calvert Island. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
pp. 487-8; _Kane's Wand._, end of vol. 'The Millbank Indians on Millbank
Sound.' _Bryant_, in _Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302.

The _Bellacoolas_ live about the mouth of Salmon River. '"Bentick's
Arms"--inhabited by a tribe of Indians--the Bellaghchoolas. Their
village is near Salmon River.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 267. The Billechoolas
live on Salmon River in latitude 53° 30´. _Buschmann_, _Brit.
Nordamer._, p. 384. The Bellahoolas 'on the banks of the Salmon river.'
_Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 258. 'The Indians at Milbank Sound called
Belbellahs.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 271. 'Spread along the margins of the
numerous canals or inlets with which this part of the coast abounds.'
_Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 224.

'In the neighbourhood of the Fort (McLoughlin) was a village of about
five hundred Ballabollas.' _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p. 202.

The _Hailtzas_, Hailtzuks, or Haeelzuks 'dwell to the south of the
Billechoola, and inhabit both the mainland and the northern entrance of
Vancouver's Island from latitude 53° 30´ N. to 50° 30´ N.' _Scouler_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 224. 'The Hailtsa commencing in
about latitude 51° N., and extending through the ramifications of
Fitzhugh and Milbank Sounds.' _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p.
74. 'An diesem Sunde (Milbank) wohnen die Hailtsa-Indianer.'
_Buschmann_, _Brit. Nordamer._, p. 383; _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol.
ii., p. 230.


  [Sidenote: THE NOOTKA FAMILY.]

THE NOOTKA FAMILY dwells south of the Haidah, occupying the coast of
British Columbia, from Bentinck Arms to the mouth of the Fraser, and the
whole of Vancouver Island. By other authors the name has been employed
to designate a tribe at Nootka Sound, or applied to nearly all the Coast
tribes of the Columbian Group. 'The native population of Vancouver
Island ... is chiefly composed of the following tribes:--North and East
coasts (in order in which they stand from North to South)--Quackolls,
Newittees, Comuxes, Yukletas, Suanaimuchs, Cowitchins, Sanetchs, other
smaller tribes;--South Coast (... from East to West)--Tsomass,
Tsclallums, Sokes, Patcheena, Sennatuch;--West Coast ... (from South to
North)--Nitteenats, Chadukutl, Oiatuch, Toquatux, Schissatuch,
Upatsesatuch, Cojuklesatuch, Uqluxlatuch, Clayoquots, Nootkas, Nespods,
Koskeemos, other small tribes.' _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xxvii., p. 293. 'In Barclay Sound: Pacheenett, Nittinat, Ohiat,
Ouchuchlisit, Opecluset, Shechart, Toquart, Ucletah, Tsomass;--Clayoquot
Sound: Clayoquot, Kilsamat, Ahouset, Mannawousut, Ishquat;--Nootka
Sound: Matchclats, Moachet, Neuchallet, Ehateset.' _Mayne's B. C._, p.
251. 'About Queen Charlotte Sound;--Naweetee, Quacolth, Queehavuacolt
(or Queehaquacoll), Marmalillacalla, Clowetsus (or Clawetsus), Murtilpar
(or Martilpar), Nimkish, Wewarkka, Wewarkkum, Clallueis (or Clalluiis),
Cumquekis, Laekquelibla, Clehuse (or Clehure), Soiitinu (or Soiilenu),
Quicksutinut (or Quicksulinut), Aquamish, Clelikitte, Narkocktau,
Quainu, Exenimuth, (or Cexeninuth), Tenuckttau, Oiclela.' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., p. 488; _Kane's Wand._, end of vol. On the seaboard,
south of Nitinaht Sound, and on the Nitinaht River, the Pacheenaht and
Nitinaht tribes; on Barclay, otherwise Nitinaht Sound, the Ohyaht,
Howchuklisaht, Opechisaht, Seshaht, Youclulaht, and Toquaht tribes; on
Klahohquaht Sound, the Klahohquaht, Killsmaht, Ahousaht and Manohsaht
tribes; on Nootkah Sound, the Hishquayaht, Muchlaht, Moouchat (the
so-called Nootkahs), Ayhuttisaht and Noochahlaht; north of Nootkah
Sound, the Kyohquaht, Chaykisaht, and Klahosaht tribes. _Sproat's
Scenes_, p. 308. Alphabetical list of languages on Vancouver Island:
Ahowzarts, Aitizzarts, Aytcharts, Cayuquets, Eshquates (or Esquiates),
Klahars, Klaizzarts, Klaooquates (or Tlaoquatch), Michlaïts, Mowatchits,
Neuchadlits, Neuwitties, Newchemass, (Nuchimas), Savinnars, Schoomadits,
Suthsetts, Tlaoquatch, Wicananish. _Buschmann_, _Brit. Nordamer._, p.
349. 'Among those from the north were the Aitizzarts, Schoomadits,
Neuwitties, Savinnars, Ahowzarts, Mowatchits, Suthsetts, Neuchadlits,
Michlaits, and Cayuquets; the most of whom were considered as tributary
to Nootka. From the South the Aytcharts, and Esquiates also tributary,
with the Klaooquates and the Wickanninish, a large and powerful tribe,
about two hundred miles distant.' _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 36-7. 'Tribes
situated between Nanaimo and Fort Rupert, on the north of Vancouver
Island, and the mainland Indians between the same points ... are divided
into several tribes, the Nanoose, Comoux, Nimpkish, Quawguult, &c., on
the Island; and the Squawmisht, Sechelt, Clahoose, Ucletah,
Mamalilaculla, &c., on the coast, and among the small islands off it.'
_Mayne's B. C._, p. 243. List of tribes on Vancouver Island: 'Songes,
Sanetch, Kawitchin, Uchulta, Nimkis, Quaquiolts, Neweetg, Quacktoe,
Nootka, Nitinat, Klayquoit, Soke.' _Findlay's Directory_, pp. 391-2. The
proper name of the Vancouver Island Tribes is Yucuatl. _Ludewig_, _Ab.
Lang._, p. 135. The Nootka Territory 'extends to the Northward as far as
Cape Saint James, in the latitude of 52° 20´ N. ... and to the Southward
to the Islands ... of the Wicananish.' _Meares' Voy._, p. 228. 'The
Cawitchans, Ucaltas, and Coquilths, who are I believe of the same
family, occupy the shores of the Gulf of Georgia and Johnston's
Straits.' _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 74. 'Twenty-four
tribes speaking the Challam and Cowaitzchim languages, from latitude 50°
along the Coast South to Whitby Island in latitude 48°; part of
Vancouver's Island, and the mouth of Franc's River.' Also on the Strait
of Juan de Fuca and Vancouver Islands, the Sanetch, three tribes;
Hallams, eleven tribes; Sinahomish; Skatcat; Cowitchici, seven tribes;
Soke; Cowitciher, three tribes. _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's
Hudson's Bay_, p. 81; also in _Hazlitt's B. C._, pp. 66-7. Five tribes
at Fort Rupert;--Quakars, Qualquilths, Kumcutes, Wanlish, Lockqualillas.
_Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 165. 'The Chicklezats and Ahazats, inhabiting
districts in close proximity on the west coast of Vancouver.'
_Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 41. 'North of the district occupied by the
Ucletahs come the Nimkish, Mamalilacula, Matelpy and two or three other
smaller tribes. The Mamalilaculas live on the mainland.' _Mayne's B.
C._, p. 249. The population of Vancouver Island 'is divided into twelve
tribes; of these the Kawitchen, Quaquidts and Nootka are the largest.'
_Cornwallis' N. El Dorado_, p. 30. 'Ouakichs, Grande île de Quadra et
Van Couver.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335.

  [Sidenote: NATIONS INHABITING VANCOUVER ISLAND.]

In naming the following tribes and nations I will begin at the north and
follow the west coast of the island southward, then the east coast and
main land northward to the starting-point.

The _Uclenus_ inhabit Scott Island. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p.
488; _Kane's Wand._, end of vol.

The _Quanes_ dwell at Cape Scott. _Id._

The _Quactoe_ are found in the 'woody part N.W. coast of the island.'
_Findlay's Directory_, p. 391.

The _Koskiemos_ and _Quatsinos_ live on 'the two Sounds bearing those
names.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 251. Kuskema, and Quatsinu, 'outside
Vancouver's Island south of C. Scott.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 488; _Kane's Wand._, end of vol.

The _Kycucut_, 'north of Nootka Sound, is the largest tribe of the West
coast.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 251.

The _Aitizzarts_ are 'a people living about thirty or forty miles to the
Northward' of Nootka Sound. _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 63, 77.

The _Ahts_ live on the west coast of the island. 'The localities
inhabited by the Aht tribes are, chiefly, the three large Sounds on the
west coast of Vancouver Island, called Nitinaht (or Barclay)
Klahohquaht, and Nootkah.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 10.

The _Chicklezahts_ and _Ahazats_ inhabit districts in close proximity on
the west coast of Vancouver. _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 41.

The _Clayoquots_, or Klahohquahts, live at Clayoquot Sound, and the
Moouchats at Nootka Sound. _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 22, 25. North of the
Wickininish. _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 76.

The _Toquahts_ are a people 'whose village is in a dreary, remote part
of Nitinaht (or Barclay) Sound.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 104.

The _Seshats_ live at Alberni, Barclay Sound. _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 3.

The _Pacheenas_, or 'Pacheenetts, which I have included in Barclay
Sound, also inhabit Port San Juan.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 251.

The _Tlaoquatch_ occupy the south-western part of Vancouver. 'Den
Südwesten der Quadra- und Vancouver-Insel nehmen die Tlaoquatch ein,
deren Sprache mit der vom Nutka-Sunde verwandt ist.' _Buschmann_, _Brit.
Nordamer._, p. 372. Tlaoquatch, or Tloquatch, on 'the south-western
coast of Vancouver's Island.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 188.

The _Sokes_ dwell 'between Victoria and Barclay Sound.' _Mayne's B. C._,
p. 251. 'East point of San Juan to the Songes territory.' _Findlay's
Directory_, p. 392.

The _Wickinninish_ live about two hundred miles south of Nootka.
_Jewitt's Nar._, p. 76.

The _Songhies_ are 'a tribe collected at and around Victoria.' _Mayne's
B. C._, p. 243. 'The Songhish tribe, resident near Victoria.' _Macfie's
Vanc. Isl._, p. 430. Songes, 'S.E. part of the island.' _Findlay's
Directory_, p. 391.

The _Sanetch_ dwell 'sixty miles N.W. of Mount Douglas.' _Findlay's
Directory_, p. 391.

The _Cowichins_ live 'in the harbour and valley of Cowitchen, about 40
miles north of Victoria.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 243. 'Cowichin river,
which falls into that (Haro) canal about 20 miles N. of Cowichin Head,
and derives its name from the tribe of Indians which inhabits the
neighbouring country.' _Douglas_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxiv., p. 246. Kawitchin, 'country N.W. of Sanetch territory to the
entrance of Johnson's Straits.' _Findlay's Directory_, p. 391. 'North of
Fraser's River, and on the opposite shores of Vancouver's Island.'
_Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 224. 'North of
Fraser's River, on the north-west coast.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 91.

The _Comux_, or Komux, 'live on the east coast between the Kowitchan and
the Quoquoulth tribes.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 311. Comoux, south of
Johnston Straits. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 488; _Kane's
Wand._, end of vol. The Comoux 'extend as far as Cape Mudge.' _Mayne's
B. C._, p. 243.

The _Kwantlums_ dwell about the mouth of the Fraser. 'At and about the
entrance of the Fraser River is the Kuantlun tribe: they live in
villages which extend along the banks of the river as far as Langley.'
_Mayne's B. C._, pp. 243, 295.

The _Teets_ live on the lower Frazer River. 'From the falls (of the
Fraser) downward to the seacoast, the banks of the river are inhabited
by several branches of the Haitlin or Teet tribe.' _Anderson_, in
_Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 73. 'Extending from Langley to Yale, are the
Smess, Chillwayhook, Pallalts, and Teates.... The Smess Indians occupy
the Smess River and lake, and the Chillwayhooks the river and lake of
that name.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 295. Teate Indians. See _Bancroft's Map
of Pac. States_.

The _Nanaimos_ are 'gathered about the mouth of the Fraser.' _Mayne's B.
C._, p. 243.--Chiefly on a river named the Nanaimo, which falls into
Wentuhuysen Inlet. _Douglas_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxiv.,
p. 247.

The _Squawmishts_ 'live in Howe Sound.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 243.

The _Sechelts_ live on Jervis Inlet. _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 243-4.

The _Clahoose_, or Klahous, 'live in Desolation Sound.' _Mayne's B. C._,
pp. 243-4.

The _Nanoose_ 'inhabit the harbour and district of that name, which lies
50 miles north of Nanaimo.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 243.

The _Tacultas_, or Tahcultahs, live at Point Mudge on Valdes Island.
_Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 155.

The _Ucletas_ are found 'at and beyond Cape Mudge.' 'They hold
possession of the country on both sides of Johnstone Straits until met
20 or 30 miles south of Fort Rupert by the Nimpkish and Mamalilacullas.'
_Mayne's B. C._, p. 244. Yougletats--'Une partie campe sur l'ile
Vancouver elle-même, le reste habite sur le continent, au nord de la
Rivière Fraser.' _De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 340. Yongletats,
both on Vancouver Island, and on the mainland above the Fraser River.
_Bolduc_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1845, tom. cviii., pp. 366-7.

The _Nimkish_ are 'at the mouth of the Nimpkish river, about 15 miles
below Fort Rupert.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 249; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p.
158.

The _Necultas_ and _Queehanicultas_ dwell at the entrance of Johnston
Straits. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 488; _Kane's Wand._, end of
vol.

The _Quackolls_ and 'two smaller tribes, live at Fort Rupert.' _Mayne's
B. C._, pp. 244, 249. 'On the north-east side of Vancouver's Island, are
to be found the Coquilths.' _Cornwallis' N. El Dorado_, p. 98.
Coquilths, a numerous tribe living at the north-east end. _Dunn's
Oregon_, p. 239. The Cogwell Indians live around Fort Rupert.
_Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 68.

The _Newittees_ 'east of Cape Scott ... meet the Quawguults at Fort
Rupert.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 251. Neweetg, 'at N.W. entrance of
Johnson's Straits.' _Findlay's Directory_, p. 391. 'At the northern
extremity of the island the Newette tribe.' _Cornwallis' N. El Dorado_,
p. 98. Newchemass came to Nootka 'from a great way to the Northward, and
from some distance inland.' _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 77.

The _Saukaulutucks_ inhabit the interior of the northern end of
Vancouver Island. _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 158. 'At the back of
Barclay Sound, ... about two days' journey into the interior, live the
only inland tribe.... They are called the Upatse Satuch, and consist
only of four families.' _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., p. 287.


  [Sidenote: THE SOUND FAMILY.]

THE SOUND FAMILY includes all the tribes about Puget Sound and Admiralty
Inlet, occupying all of Washington west of the Cascade Range, except a
narrow strip along the north bank of the Columbia. In locating the
nations of this family I begin with the extreme north-east, follow the
eastern shores of the sound southward, the western shores northward,
and the coast of the Pacific southward to Gray Harbor. List of tribes
between Olympia and Nawaukum River. 'Staktamish, Squaks'namish,
Sehehwamish, Squalliamish, Puyallupamish, S'homamish, Suquamish,
Sinahomish, Snoqualmook, Sinaahmish, Nooklummi.' _Tolmie_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 251; _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 434.
A canadian trapper found the following tribes between Fort Nisqually and
Fraser River; 'Sukwámes, Sunahúmes, Tshikátstat, Puiále, and Kawítshin.'
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 220-1. Cheenales,
west; Cowlitz, south; and Nisqually, east of Puget Sound. _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 200, map.

The _Shimiahmoos_ occupy the 'coast towards Frazer's river.' 'Between
Lummi Point and Frazer's River.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854,
pp. 247, 250. 'Most northern tribe on the American side of the line.'
_Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 433; _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. v., p. 491.

The _Lummis_ 'are divided into three bands--a band for each mouth of the
Lummi River.' _Fitzhugh_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 327. 'On the
northern shore of Bellingham Bay.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1854, p. 244. 'Lummi river, and peninsula.' _Id._, p. 250. 'On a river
emptying into the northern part of Bellingham bay and on the peninsula.'
_Id._, p. 247, and in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 433.

The _Nooksaks_ are 'on the south fork of the Lummi River.' _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1851, p. 250. Nooksâhk, 'on the main fork of the
river.' _Id._, p. 247. Nooksáhk, 'above the Lummi, on the main fork of
the river.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 433. 'South fork
Lummi river.' _Id._, p. 435. Nootsaks 'occupy the territory from the
base of Mount Baker down to within five miles of the mouth of the
Lummi.' _Coleman_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xxxix., p. 799. Neuksacks
'principally around the foot of Mount Baker.' _Fitzhugh_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1857, p. 328. The Neukwers and Siamanas, or Stick Indians 'live
on lakes back of Whatcom and Siamana lakes and their tributaries.'
_Id._, p. 329. Three tribes at Bellingham Bay, Neuksack, Samish, and
Lummis, with some Neukwers and Siamanas who live in the back country.
_Id._, p. 326. Neuksacks, a tribe inhabiting a country drained by the
river of the same name ... taking the name Lummi before emptying into
the Gulf of Georgia. _Simmons_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1860, p. 188.
Nooklummie, 'around Bellingham's bay.' _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii.,
p. 389; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 714.

The _Samish_ live on Samish River and southern part of Bellingham Bay.
_Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 247, 250. 'They have several
islands which they claim as their inheritance, together with a large
scope of the main land.' _Fitzhugh_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 327.

The _Skagits_ 'live on the main around the mouth of Skagit river, and
own the central parts of Whidby's island, their principal ground being
the neighborhood of Penn's cove.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
i., p. 433, and in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 246. Whidby's Island 'is
in the possession of the Sachet tribe.' _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol.
i., p. 300. The Sachets inhabit Whidby's Island. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U.
S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 510. Sachets, 'about Possession Sound.'
_Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 143. Skadjets, 'on both sides of the Skadjet
river, and on the north end of Whidby's Island.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. v., p. 701; _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii., p. 388. The Skagit,
'on Skagit river, and Penn's cove,' the N'quachamish, Smalèhhu,
Miskaiwhu, Sakuméhu, on the branches of the same river. _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 250; _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435.
Sockamuke, 'headwaters of Skagit River,' Neutubvig, 'north end of
Whidby's Island, and county between Skagit's river and Bellingham's
bay.' Cowewachin, Noothum, Miemissouks, north to Frazer River.
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598.

The _Kikiallis_ occupy the banks of 'Kikiallis river and Whitby's
island.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 246, 250.

The _Skeysehamish_ dwell in the 'country along the Skeysehamish river
and the north branch of the Sinahemish.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 701; _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii., p. 388.

The _Snohomish_ reside on 'the southern end of Whidby's island, and the
country on and near the mouth of the Sinahomish river.' _Stevens_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 432, 435. The Sinahemish 'live on the
Sinahemish river (falling into Possession Sound).' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., p. 701; _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii., p. 388.
'Sinahoumez (en 12 tribus) de la rivière Fraser à la baie de Puget.'
_Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. 'N'quutlmamish, Skywhamish,
Sktahlejum, upper branches, north side, Sinahomish river.' _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 245, 250. Neewamish, 'Neewamish river, bay
and vicinity;' Sahmamish, 'on a lake between Neewamish and Snohomish
river;' Snohomish, 'South end of Whitney's Island, Snohomish river, bay
and vicinity;' Skeawamish, 'north fork of the Snohomish river, called
Skeawamish river;' Skuckstanajumps, 'Skuckstanajumps river, a branch of
Skeawamish river;' Stillaquamish, 'Stillaquamish river and vicinity;'
Kickuallis, 'mouth of Kickuallis river and vicinity.' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598. Stoluchwámish, on Stoluchwámish river, also
called Steilaquamish. _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp.
432, 435, also in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 246, 250. Squinámish,
Swodámish, Sinaahmish, 'north end of Whitby's island, canoe passage, and
Sinamish river.' _Id._, pp. 247, 250. 'Southern end of Whidby's island
and Sinahomish river.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp.
432-3.

The _Snoqualmooks_ 'reside on the south fork, north side of the
Sinahomish river.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 436,
and in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 250. Snoqualimich, 'Snoqualimich
river and the south branch of the Sinahemish.' _Harley_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 701; _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii.,
p. 388.

The _Dwamish_ are 'living on and claiming the lands on the D'Wamish
river.' _Paige_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 329. Dwamish River and
Lake, White and Green Rivers. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 491. On
D'wamish lake etc. ... reside the Samamish and S'Ketehlmish tribes. 'The
D'wamish tribe have their home on Lake Fork, D'Wamish river.' _Stevens_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 432, 436. Dwamish, 'Lake Fork,
Dwamish River;' Samamish, S'Ketéhlmish, 'Dwamish Lake;' Smelkámiah,
'Head of White River;' Skopeáhmish, 'Head of Green River;' Stkámish,
'main White River.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 250.

The _Skopeahmish_ have their home at the 'head of Green river.'
_Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 436. The Sekamish band 'on
the main White river;' the Smulkamish tribe 'at the head of White
river.' _Ib._

The _Seattles_, a tribe of the Snowhomish nation, occupied as their
principal settlement, 'a slight eminence near the head of what is now
known as Port Madison Bay.' _Overland Monthly_, 1870, vol. iv., p. 297.

The _Suquamish_ 'claim all the land lying on the west side of the Sound,
between Apple Tree cove on the north, and Gig harbor on the south.'
_Paige_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 329. Soquamish, 'country about
Port Orchard and neighbourhood, and the west side of Widby's Island.'
_Harley_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 700; _Am. Quar.
Register_, vol. iii., p. 388. 'Peninsula between Hood's canal and
Admiralty inlet.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 250, and in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435. Snoquamish, 'Port Orchard,
Elliott's Bay, and their vicinity.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p.
598. Shomamish, 'on Vashon's Island.' _Ib._ 'Vashon's Island.'
_Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 250. S'slomamish, 'Vaston's
island.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435. 'The Indians
frequenting this port (Orchard) call themselves the Jeachtac tribe.'
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 510.

The _Puyallupamish_ live 'at the mouth of Puyallup river;' T'quaquamish,
'at the heads of Puyallup river.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854,
p. 250, and in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435. Squallyamish and
Pugallipamish, 'in the country about Nesqually, Pugallipi, and Sinnomish
rivers.' _Harley_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 701; _Am. Quar.
Register_, vol. iii., p. 388. Puallipawmish or Pualliss, 'on Pualliss
river, bay, and vicinity.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598.
Puyyallapamish, 'Puyallop River.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p.
491.

The _Nisquallies_, or Skwall, 'inhabit the shores of Puget's Sound.'
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 211. 'Nesquallis, de
la baie de Puget à la pointe Martinez.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii.,
p. 335. Nasqually tribes, 'Nasqually River and Puget's Sound.' _Warre
and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hudson Bay_, p. 81. Squallyamish, 'at Puget
Sound.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 177. The Squalliahmish are composed
of six bands, and have their residence on Nisqually River and vicinity.
_Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435. Squallyamish or
Nisqually, Nisqually River and vicinity. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iv., p. 598. Fort Nisqually is frequented by the 'Squallies, the
Clallams, the Paaylaps, the Scatchetts, the Checaylis,' and other
tribes. _Simpson's Overland Journey_, vol. i., p. 181.

The _Steilacoomish_ dwell on 'Stalacom Creek;' Loquamish, 'Hood's Reef.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 491. Stitcheosawmish, 'Budd's inlet
and South bay,' in the vicinity of Olympia. _Id._, vol. iv., p. 598.
Steilacoomamish, 'Steilacoom creek and vicinity.' _Stevens_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 250, and in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435.

The _Sawamish_ have their residence on 'Totten's inlet.' _Stevens_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435. Sayhaymamish, 'Totten inlet.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598. 'Srootlemamish, Quackenamish at
Case's inlet.' _Ib._ Quáks'namish, 'Case's inlet;' S'Hotlemamish,
'Carr's inlet;' Sahéhwamish, 'Hammersly's inlet;' Sawámish, 'Totten's
inlet;' Squaiaitl, 'Eld's inlet;' Stéhchasámish, 'Budd's inlet;'
Noosehchatl, 'South bay.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 250.

The _Skokomish_ live at the upper end of Hood Canal. _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598; _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp.
244, 250. Töanhooch and Shokomish on Hood's Canal. _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., p. 491. Tuanoh and Skokomish 'reside along the shores
of Hood's Canal.' _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii., p. 388. Toankooch,
'western shore of Hood's canal. They are a branch of the Nisqually
nation.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 244; _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 431. Tuanooch, 'mouth of Hood's Canal.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598. 'The region at the head of
Puget Sound is inhabited by a tribe called the Toandos.' _Wilkes' Nar._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 140. Homamish, Hotlimamish,
Squahsinawmish, Sayhaywamish, Stitchassamish, 'reside in the country
from the Narrows along the western shore of Puget's Sound to New
Market.' _Mitchell and Harley_, in _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii., p.
388.

The _Noosdalums_, or Nusdalums, 'dwell on Hood's Channel.' _Ludewig_,
_Ab. Lang._, p. 135. 'Die Noosdalum, wohnen am Hood's-Canal;'
_Buschmann_, _Brit. Nordamer._, p. 373. 'Noostlalums, consist of eleven
tribes or septs living about the entrance of Hood's canal, Dungeness,
Port Discovery, and the coast to the westward.' _Am. Quar. Register_,
vol. iii., p. 388; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 700.

The _Chimakum_, or Chinakum, 'territory seems to have embraced the shore
from Port Townsend to Port Ludlow.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1854, pp. 242-244. 'On Port Townsend Bay.' _Id._, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. i., pp. 431, 435; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598.

The _Clallams_, or Clalams, are 'about Port Discovery.' _Nicolay's Ogn.
Ter._, p. 143. 'Their country stretches along the whole southern shore
of the Straits to between Port Discovery and Port Townsend.' _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 429; _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1854, pp. 242, 244. Southern shore of the Straits of Fuca east of the
Classets. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 220. At
Port Discovery. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 319.
Sklallum, 'between Los Angelos and Port Townsend.' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598. Sklallams, 'at Cape Flattery.' _Id._, vol. v.,
p. 491. 'Scattered along the strait and around the bays and bights of
Admiralty Inlet, upon a shoreline of more than a hundred miles.'
_Scammon_, in _Overland Monthly_, 1871, vol. vii., p. 278. 'S'Klallams,
Chemakum, Toanhooch, Skokomish, and bands of the same, taking names from
their villages, ... and all residing on the shores of the straits of
Fuca and Hood's Canal.' _Webster_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, p. 407.
Kahtai, Kaquaith, and Stehllum, at Port Townsend, Port Discovery, and
New Dungeness. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 491; _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 249. Stentlums at New Dungeness. _Id._, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435.

  [Sidenote: INDIANS OF THE COAST OF WASHINGTON.]

The _Makahs_, or _Classets_, dwell about Cape Flattery. Macaw, 'Cape
Flattery to Neah Bay.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 598.
Pistchin, 'Neah Bay to Los Angelos Point.' _Ib._ 'Country about Cape
Flattery, and the coast for some distance to the southward, and eastward
to the boundary of the Halam or Noostlalum lands.' _Id._, vol. v., p.
700; _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 241, 249; _Hale_, in
_Id._, 1862, p. 390; _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 429,
435. 'At Neah Bay or Waadda, and its vicinity.' _Simmons_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1858, p. 231. Tatouche, a tribe of the Classets. _Wilkes' Nar._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 516. Classets 'reside on the south side
of the Straits of Fuca.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi.,
p. 220; _Mitchell and Harley_, in _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii., p.
388. Tatouche or Classets, 'between the Columbia and the strait of
Fuca.' _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 143. 'Clatset tribe.' _Cornwallis' N.
El Dorado_, p. 97. 'Classets, on the Strait of Fuca.' _Greenhow's Hist.
Ogn._, p. 30; _Stevens' Address_, p. 10. Makahs, 'inhabiting a wild
broken peninsula circumscribed by the river Wyatch, the waters of the
Strait and the Pacific.' _Scammon_, in _Overland Monthly_, 1871, vol.
vii., p. 277. Klaizzarts, 'living nearly three hundred miles to the
South' of Nootka Sound. _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 75. The Elkwhahts have a
village on the strait. _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 153.

List of tribes between Columbia River and Cape Flattery on the Coast;
Calasthocle, Chillates, Chiltz, Clamoctomichs, Killaxthocles, Pailsh,
Potoashs, Quieetsos, Quinnechart, Quiniülts. _Morse's Rept._, p. 371.

The _Quillehute_ and _Queniult_, or Quenaielt, 'occupy the sea-coast
between Ozelt or old Cape Flattery, on the north, and Quinaielt river on
the south.' _Simmons_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1860, p. 195. Quinaielt,
Quillehuté, Queets, and Hoh, live on the Quinaielt river and ocean.
_Smith_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 21. The Queniult live 'at Point
Grenville.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 210. 'On the banks of a river of
the same name.' _Id._, p. 78. The Wilapahs 'on the Wilapah River.'
_Id._, p. 211. The Copalis 'on the Copalis River, eighteen miles north
of Gray's Harbor.' _Id._, p. 210. Quinaitle, north of Gray's Harbor.
_Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 249. Quinaik, 'coast from
Gray's harbor northward.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p.
435. Ehihalis, Quinailee, Grey's Harbor and north. _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., p. 490. South of the Classets along the coast come the
Quinnechants, Calasthortes, Chillates, Quinults, Pailsk, etc. _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, p. 428. The Kaliouches and Konnichtchates, spoken of as
dwelling on Destruction Island and the neighboring main. _Tarakanov_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1823, tom. xx., p. 336, et seq.

The _Chehalis_, or Chickeeles, 'inhabit the country around Gray's
Harbour.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 140. On the
Chehalis river. _Nesmith_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1867, p. 8. Frequent
also Shoalwater Bay. _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 240,
249. On the Cowelits. 'Among the Tsihailish are included the Kwaiantl
and Kwenaiwitl ... who live near the coast, thirty or forty miles south
of Cape Flattery.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp.
211-12. 'In the vicinity of the mouth of the Columbia.' _Catlin's N. Am.
Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113. 'Chekilis, et Quinayat. Près du havre de Gray
et la rivière Chekilis.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335; _Swan's
N. W. Coast_, p. 210; _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435;
_Starling_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 599. 'A quarante
milles au nord, (from the Columbia) le long de la côte, habitent les
Tchéilichs.' _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821, tom. x.,
p. 90. The Whiskkah and Wynooche tribes on the northern branches of the
Chihailis. _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 240. Sachals
'reside about the lake of the same name, and along the river
Chickeeles.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 140.

The _Cowlitz_ live on the upper Cowlitz River. Occupy the middle of the
peninsula which lies west of Puget Sound and north of the Columbia.
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 211. On the Cowlitz
River. The Taitinapams have their abode at the base of the mountains on
the Cowlitz. _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 435; and in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 240, 249; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv.,
p. 599, vol. v., p. 490. Cowlitsick, 'on Columbia river, 62 miles from
its mouth.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 368. There are three small tribes in the
vicinity of the Cowlitz Farm, 'the Cowlitz, the Checaylis and the
Squally.' _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p. 179. The Staktomish
live 'between Nisqually and Cowlitz and the head waters of Chehaylis
river.' _Am. Quar. Register_, vol. iii., p. 389; _Harley_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 701.


  [Sidenote: THE CHINOOK FAMILY.]

THE CHINOOK FAMILY includes, according to my division, all the tribes of
Oregon west of the Cascade Range, together with those on the north bank
of the Columbia river. The name has usually been applied only to the
tribes of the Columbia Valley up to the Dalles, and belonged originally
to a small tribe on the north bank near the mouth. 'The nation, or
rather family, to which the generic name of Chinook has attached,
formerly inhabited both banks of the Columbia River, from its mouth to
the Grand Dalles, a distance of about a hundred and seventy miles.' 'On
the north side of the river, first the Chinooks proper (Tchi-nuk), whose
territory extended from Cape Disappointment up the Columbia to the
neighborhood of Gray's _Bay_ (not Gray's _Harbor_, which is on the
Pacific), and back to the northern vicinity of Shoalwater Bay, where
they interlocked with the Chihalis of the coast.' _Gibbs' Chinook
Vocab._, pp. iii., iv. The name Watlalas or Upper Chinooks 'properly
belongs to the Indians at the Cascades,' but is applied to all 'from the
Multnoma Island to the Falls of the Columbia.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U.
S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 214-5. 'The principal tribes or bands were
the Wakaíkam (known as the Wahkyekum), the Katlámat (Cathlamet), the
Tshinuk (Chinook), and the Tlatsap (Clatsop).' _Ib._ 'The natives, who
dwell about the lower parts of the Columbia, may be divided into four
tribes--the Clotsops, who reside around Point Adams, on the south side;
... the Chinooks; Waakiacums; and the Cathlamets; who live on the north
side of the river, and around Baker's Bay and other inlets.' _Dunn's
Oregon_, p. 114. The tribes may be classed: 'Chinooks, Clatsops,
Cathlamux, Wakicums, Wacalamus, Cattleputles, Clatscanias, Killimux,
Moltnomas, Chickelis.' _Ross' Adven._, p. 87. Tribes on north bank of
the Columbia from mouth; Chilts, Chinnook, Cathlamah, Wahkiakume,
Skillute, Quathlapotle. _Lewis and Clarke's Map._ 'All the natives
inhabiting the southern shore of the Straits (of Fuca), and the deeply
indented territory as far as and including the tide-waters of the
Columbia, may be comprehended under the general term of Chinooks.'
_Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 25. 'The Chenook
nation resides along upon the Columbia river, from the Cascades to its
confluence with the ocean.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 261. 'Inhabiting
the lower parts of the Columbia.' _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p.
110. 'Hauts-Tchinouks, près des cascades du Rio Colombia. Tchinouks d'en
bas, des Cascades jusqu'à la mer, Bas-Tchinouks.' _Mofras_, _Explor._,
tom. ii., pp. 335, 350-1. 'On the right bank of the Columbia.'
_Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 40. The Cheenooks and Kelussuyas, 4 tribes,
live at 'Pillar Rock, Oak Point, the Dallas, the Cascades, Cheate River,
Takama River, on the Columbia.' 'Cheenooks, Clatsops and several tribes
near the entrance of the Columbia River.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in
_Martin's Hud. B._, p. 81. Upper and Lower Chinooks on the Columbia
River, Lower Chinooks at Shoalwater Bay. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 490. Chinooks, 'north of the Columbia.' _Id._, p. 492. 'Upper
Chinooks, five bands, Columbia River, above the Cowlitz. Lower Chinooks,
Columbia River below the Cowlitz, and four other bands on Shoalwater
Bay.' _Stevens_, in _Id._, p. 703. 'Mouth of Columbia river, north side,
including some 50 miles interior.' _Emmons_, in _Id._, vol. iii., p.
201. The Chinnooks 'reside chiefly along the banks of a river, to which
we gave the same name; and which, running parallel to the sea coast ...
empties itself into Haley's Bay.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 425,
and map; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 335. 'To the south of the mouth of the
Columbia.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 15. 'Chenooks on the
Columbia.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 210. North side of the Columbia.
_Morse's Report_, p. 368; _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, p. 286. Tshinuk south
of the Columbia at mouth. Watlala on both sides of the river from the
Willamette to Dalles. They properly belong to the Indians at the
Cascades. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 214-5, and
map, p. 197. Banks of the Columbia from Dalles to the mouth. _Farnham's
Trav._, p. 85. The upper Chinooks were the Shalala and Echeloots of
Lewis and Clarke. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417. In
the vicinity of the mouth of the Columbia, there are, besides the
Chinooks, the Klickatacks, Cheehaylas, Naas, and many other tribes.
_Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113.

'The Flathead Indians are met with on the banks of the Columbia River,
from its mouth eastward to the Cascades, a distance of about 150 miles;
they extend up the Walhamette River's mouth about thirty or forty miles,
and through the district between the Walhamette and Fort Astoria.'
_Kane's Wand._, p. 173. 'The Flatheads are a very numerous people,
inhabiting the shores of the Columbia River, and a vast tract of country
lying to the south of it.' _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 108.
'The Cathlascon tribes, which inhabit the Columbia River.' _Scouler_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 225. Cathlascos on the Columbia
River, S. side 220 miles from its mouth. _Morse's Rept._, p. 368.

Shoalwater Bay Indians: Whilapah on Whilapah river; Necomanchee, or
Nickomin, on Nickomin river, flowing into the east side of the bay;
Quelaptonlilt, at the mouth of Whilapah river; Wharhoots, at the present
site of Bruceport; Querqueltin, at the mouth of a creek; Palux, on
Copalux or Palux river; Marhoo, Nasal, on the Peninsula. _Swan's N. W.
Coast_, p. 211. 'Karweewee, or Artsmilsh, the name of the Shoalwater Bay
tribes.' _Id._, p. 210. Along the coast north of the Columbia are the
Chinnooks, Killaxthockle, Chilts, Clamoitomish, Potoashees, etc. _Lewis
and Clarke's Trav._, p. 428. Quillequeoquas at Shoalwater Bay. Map in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 200. Kwalhioqua, north of the
Columbia near the mouth. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi.,
p. 204, and map, p. 197. Klatskanai, 'on the upper waters of the
Nehalem, a stream running into the Pacific, on those of Young's River,
and one bearing their own name, which enters the Columbia at Oak Point.'
_Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. iv. Willopahs, 'on the Willopah River, and
the head of the Chihalis.' _Ib._

The _Chilts_ inhabit the 'coast to the northward of Cape
Disappointment.' _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., p. 302. 'North of the mouth of
the Columbia and Chealis rivers.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 261, and
map. 'On the sea-coast near Point Lewis.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p.
401.

Miscellaneous bands on the Columbia; Aleis, on the north side of the
Colombia. _Gass' Jour._, p. 285. Cathlacumups 'on the main shore S.W. of
Wappatoo Isl.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 371. Cathlakamaps, 'at the mouth of
the Wallaumut.' _Id._, p. 368. Cathlanamenamens, 'On the island in the
mouth of the Wallaumut.' _Id._, p. 368. Cathlanaquiahs, 'On the S.W.
side of Wappatoo Isl.' _Id._, p. 371. Cathlapootle, eighty miles from
mouth of the Columbia opposite the mouth of the Willamette. _Id._, p.
368. Calhlathlas, 'at the rapids, S. side.' _Id._, p. 368. Clahclellah,
'below the rapids.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 370. Clannarminnamuns, 'S.W.
side of Wappatoo Isl.' _Id._, p. 371. Clanimatas, 'S.W. side of Wappatoo
Isl.' _Ib._ Clockstar, 'S.E. side of Wappattoo Isl.' _Ib._ Cooniacs, 'of
Oak Point (Kahnyak or Kukhnyak, the Kreluits of Franchère and Skilloots
of Lewis and Clarke).' _Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. iv. Hellwits, 'S.
side 39 miles from mouth.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 368. Katlagakya, 'from
the Cascades to Vancouver.' _Framboise_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xi., p. 255. Katlaminimim, on Multnomah Island. _Ib._ Katlaportl,
river of same name, and right bank of Columbia for five miles above its
mouth. _Ib._ Ketlakaniaks, at Oak Point, formerly united with Kolnit.
_Ib._ Klakalama, between Kathlaportle and Towalitch rivers. _Ib._
Mamnit, 'Multnomah Isl.' _Ib._ Nechakoke, 'S. side, near Quicksand
river, opposite Diamond Isl.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 370. Neerchokioon,
south side above the Wallaumut river. _Ib._ Shalala at the grand rapids
down to the Willamet. _Ib._ Quathlapotle, between the Cowlits and
Chahwahnahinooks (Cathlapootle?) river. _Lewis and Clarke's Map._
Seamysty, 'at the mouth of the Towalitch River.' _Framboise_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255. Shoto, W. side back of a pond and
nearly opposite the entrance of the Willamut. _Morse's Rept._, p. 370.
Skillutes, 'about junction of Cowlitz.' _Lewis and Clarke's Map._
Skiloots on the Columbia on each side, from the lower part of the
Columbia Valley as low as Sturgeon Island, and on both sides of the
Coweliskee River. _Morse's Rept._, p. 371. Smockshop. _Id._, p. 370.
Trile Kalets, near Fort Vancouver. _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's
Hud. B._, p. 81. Wahclellah, 'below all the rapids.' _Morse's Rept._, p.
370. Wakamass, 'Deer's Isle to the lower branch of the Wallamat.'
_Framboise_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255. Wyampams, at
the narrows. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 117-19. Tchilouits on the Columbia,
south bank, below the Cowlitz. _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1821, tom. x., p. 112. Cathlâkaheckits and Cathlathlalas in
vicinity of the Cascades. _Id._, tom. xii., 1821, p. 23.

The _Clatsops_ live on Point Adams. _Hines' Voy._, p. 88. 'South side of
the (Columbia) river at its mouth.' _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, pp. 30,
286. 'Southern shore of the bay at the mouth of the Columbia, and along
the seacoast on both sides of Point Adams.' _Morton's Crania_, p. 211;
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 401, 426, and map. 12 miles from mouth,
south side. _Morse's Rept._, p. 368. 'South side of the river.' _Gass'
Jour._, p. 244. 'From near Tillamook Head to Point Adams and up the
river to Tongue Point.' _Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. iv. Klakhelnk, 'on
Clatsop Point, commonly called Clatsops.' _Framboise_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 201,
vol. v., p. 492.

  [Sidenote: COAST TRIBES OF OREGON.]

The _Wakiakum_, or 'Wakaikum, live on the right bank of the Columbia; on
a small stream, called Cadet River.' _Framboise_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255. Wakiakums (Wakáiakum) 'towards Oak Point.'
_Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. iv. Wahkiacums, adjoining the Cathlamahs on
the south-east and the Skilloots on the north-west. _Lewis and Clarke's
Map._ Waakicums, thirty miles from the mouth of the Columbia, north
side. _Morse's Rept._, p. 368.

The _Cathlamets_ extend from Tongue Point to Puget's Island. _Gibbs'
Chinook Vocab._, p. iv. 'Opposite the lower village of the Wahkiacums.'
_Irving's Astoria_, p. 336. '30 miles from the mouth of Columbia.'
_Morse's Rept._, p. 368. 'On a river of same name.' _Framboise_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255; _Lewis and Clarke's Map._

'Along the coast south of the Columbia river are the Clatsops,
Killamucks, Lucktons, Kahunkle, Lickawis, Youkone, Necketo, Ulseah,
Youitts, Shiastuckle, Killawats, Cookoose, Shalalahs, Luckasos,
Hannakalals.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 427-8. 'Along the coast S.
of Columbia river, and speak the Killamucks language,' Youicone,
Neekeetoos, Ulseahs, Youitts, Sheastukles, Killawats, Cookkoooose,
Shallalah, Luckkarso, Hannakallal. _Morse's Rept._, p. 371. Náélim, 'on
a river on the sea-coast, 30 miles S. of Clatsop Point,' and the
following tribes proceeding southward. Nikaas, Kowai, Neselitch, Tacóón,
Aleya, Sayonstla, Kiliwatsal, Kaons, Godamyou (!), Stotonia, at the
mouth of Coquin river. _Framboise_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xi., pp. 255-6.

The _Killamooks_ dwell along the coast southward from the mouth of the
Columbia. 'Near the mouth of the Columbia.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p.
262. Callimix, '40 miles S. of Columbia.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 368.
Killamucks, 'along the S.E. coast for many miles.' _Id._, p. 371.
Tillamooks, 'along the coast from Umpqua River to the Neachesna, a
distance of one hundred and twenty miles.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, pp. 256, 259. Kilamukes, 'south and east of mouth of the
Columbia, extending to the coast.' _Emmons_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., p. 201. Nsietshawus, or Killamuks, 'on the sea-coast south of
the Columbia.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 211,
and map, p. 197. 'Between the river Columbia and the Umpqua.' _Warre and
Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud. B._, p. 81. 'Country about Cape Lookout.'
_Palmer's Jour._, p. 105. 'On comprend sous le nom général de Killimous,
les Indiens du sud du Rio Colombia, tels que les Nahelems, les Nikas,
les Kaouais, les Alsiias, les Umquas, les Toutounis et les Sastés. Ces
deux dernières peuplades se sont jusqu'à présent montrées hostiles aux
caravanes des blancs.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., pp. 335, 357.
Killamucks, next to the Clatsops. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 426.
'Callemeux nation.' _Gass' Jour._, p. 260. Callemax on the coast forty
leagues south of the Columbia. _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, tom. x., p. 90.

The Lucktons are found 'adjoining the Killamucks, and in a direction
S.S.E.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 427.

The Jakon, or Yakones, dwell south of the Killamooks on the coast.
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 218, and map, p. 197.

The Tlatskanai are farther inland than the Killamooks. _Id._, p. 204.

The _Umpquas_ live 'on a river of that name.' _Framboise_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc. Jour._, vol. ii., p. 256. 'In a valley of the same name.
They are divided into six tribes; the Sconta, Chalula, Palakahu,
Quattamya, and Chastà.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 262. Umbaquâs.
_Id._, p. 262. 'Umpquas (3 tribus) sur la rivière de ce nom, et de la
rivière aux Vaches.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. 'The Umkwa
inhabit the upper part of the river of that name, having the Kalapuya on
the north, the Lutuami (Clamets), on the east, and the Sainstkla between
them and the sea.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p.
204, and map, p. 197. Two hundred and twenty-five miles south of the
Columbia. _Hines' Voy._, p. 94. 'The country of the Umpquas is bounded
east by the Cascade mountains, west by the Umpqua mountains and the
ocean, north by the Calipooia mountains and south by Grave Creek and
Rogue River mountains.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 255;
_Emmons_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 201, vol. v., p. 492.

The Saiustkla reside 'upon a small stream which falls into the sea just
south of the Umqua River.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
vi., p. 221, map, p. 197. Sinselaw, 'on the banks of the Sinselaw
river.' _Harvey_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 80. Sayousla, 'near the
mouth of Sayousla bay.' _Brooks_, in _Id._, 1862, p. 299. Saliutla, 'at
the mouth of the Umbaquâ river.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 262.

The Katlawotsetts include the Siuslaw and Alsea bands on Siuslaw River;
the Scottsburg, Lower Umpqua, and Kowes Bay bands on Umpqua River.
_Drew_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 359. Kiliwatshat, 'at the mouth
of the Umpqua.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 221.

The Alseas, or Alseyas, live on Alsea Bay. _Brooks_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1862, p. 299; _Harvey_, in _Id._, 1863, p. 80. Chocreleatan, 'at
the forks of the Coquille river.' Quahtomahs, between Coquille River and
Port Orford. Nasomah, 'near the mouth of the Coquille River.' _Parrish_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 287.

  [Sidenote: NATIVES OF THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY.]

Willamette Valley Nations: 'The nations who inhabit this fertile
neighbourhood are very numerous. The Wappatoo inlet extends three
hundred yards wide, for ten or twelve miles to the south, as far as the
hills near which it receives the waters of a small creek, whose sources
are not far from those of the Killamuck river. On that creek resides the
Clackstar nation, a numerous people of twelve hundred souls, who subsist
on fish and wappatoo, and who trade by means of the Killamuck river,
with the nation of that name on the sea-coast. Lower down the inlet,
towards the Columbia, is the tribe called Cathlacumup. On the sluice
which connects the inlet with the Multnomah, are the tribes
Cathlanahquiah and Cathlacomatup; and on Wappatoo island, the tribes of
Clannahminamun and Clahnaquah. Immediately opposite, near the
Towahnahiooks, are the Quathlapotles, and higher up, on the side of the
Columbia, the Shotos. All these tribes, as well as the Cathlahaws, who
live somewhat lower on the river, and have an old village on Deer
island, may be considered as parts of the great Multnomah nation, which
has its principal residence on Wappatoo island, near the mouth of the
large river to which they give their name. Forty miles above its
junction with the Columbia, it receives the waters of the Clackamos, a
river which may be traced through a woody and fertile country to its
sources in Mount Jefferson, almost to the foot of which it is navigable
for canoes. A nation of the same name resides in eleven villages along
its borders: they live chiefly on fish and roots, which abound in the
Clackamos and along its banks, though they sometimes descend to the
Columbia to gather wappatoo, where they cannot be distinguished by dress
or manners, or language, from the tribes of Multnomahs. Two days'
journey from the Columbia, or about twenty miles beyond the entrance of
the Clackamos, are the falls of the Multnomah. At this place are the
permanent residences of the Cushooks and Chaheowahs, two tribes who are
attracted to that place by the fish, and by the convenience of trading
across the mountains and down Killamuck river, with the nation of
Killamucks, from whom they procure train oil. These falls were
occasioned by the passage of a high range of mountains; beyond which the
country stretches into a vast level plain, wholly destitute of timber.
As far as the Indians, with whom we conversed, had ever penetrated that
country, it was inhabited by a nation called Calahpoewah, a very
numerous people, whose villages, nearly forty in number, are scattered
along each side of the Multnomah, which furnish them with their chief
subsistence, fish, and the roots along its banks.' _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, pp. 507-8. Calapooyas, Moolallels, and Clackamas in the
Willamette Valley. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 200, map.
Cathlakamaps at the mouth of the Ouallamat; Cathlapoutles opposite;
Cathlanaminimins on an island a little higher up; Mathlanobes on the
upper part of the same island; Cathlapouyeas just above the falls; the
Cathlacklas on an eastern branch farther up; and still higher the
Chochonis. _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821, tom. x., pp.
115, 117.

The Cathlathlas live '60 miles from the mouth of the Wallaumut.'
_Morse's Rept._, p. 368.

The Cloughewallhah are 'a little below the falls.' _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, p. 177.

The Katlawewalla live 'at the falls of the Wallamat.' _Framboise_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 256.

The Leeshtelosh occupy the 'headwaters of the Multnomah.' _Hunter's
Captivity_, p. 73.

The Multnomahs (or Mathlanobs) dwell 'at upper end of the island in the
mouth of the Wallaumut.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 368.

The Nemalquinner lands are 'N.E. side of the Wallaumut river, 3 miles
above its mouth.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 370.

The Newaskees extend eastward of the headwaters of the Multnomah, on a
large lake. _Hunter's Captivity_, p. 73.

The Yamkallies dwell 'towards the sources of the Wallamut River.'
_Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 225.

The _Calapooyas_ live in the upper Willamette Valley. Callipooya,
'Willamette Valley.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 492, vol. iii.,
p. 201. Kalapuya, 'above the falls.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, vol. vi., p. 217. Callawpohyeaas, Willamette tribes sixteen in
number. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 108. Calapooah, seventeen
tribes on the Willamette and its branches. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p.
261. Callappohyeaass nation consists of Wacomeapp, Nawmooit,
Chillychandize, Shookany, Coupé, Shehees, Longtonguebuff, Lamalle, and
Pecyou tribes. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 236-6. Kalapooyahs, 'on the shores of
the Oregon.' _Morton's Crania_, p. 213. 'Willamat Plains.' _Scouler_,
in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 225. Kalapuyas, 'above the
falls of the Columbia.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 36. '50 miles
from the mouth of the Wallaumut, W. side.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 368. Vule
Puyas, Valley of the Willamette. _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud.
B._, p. 81.

The _Clackamas_ are on the 'Clackama River.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
v., p. 492. 'Clakemas et Kaoulis, sur le Ouallamet et la rivière
Kaoulis.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. 'Valley of the Clakamus
and the Willamuta Falls.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud. B._,
p. 81. Klackamas, 'three miles below the falls.' _Hines' Voy._, p. 144.
Clackamis. _Palmer's Jour._, p. 84. Clarkamees. _Morse's Rept._, p. 372.
Clackamus. _Lewis and Clarke's Map._

The _Mollales_ are found in 'Willamettee Valley.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. v., p. 492. 'At the mouth of the Wallamet, and the Wapatoo Islands.'
_Tucker's Oregon_, p. 71. 'Upon the west side of the Willamette and
opposite Oregon City.' _Palmer's Jour._, p. 84.


  [Sidenote: THE SHUSHWAP FAMILY.]

THE SHUSHWAP FAMILY comprises all the inland tribes of British Columbia,
south of lat. 52° 30´.

The _Atnahs_, Strangers, Niccoutamuch, or Shushwaps proper, inhabit the
Fraser and Thompson valleys. 'At Spuzzum ... a race very different both
in habits and language is found. These are the Nicoutamuch, or
Nicoutameens, a branch of a widely-extended tribe. They, with their
cognate septs, the Atnaks, or Shuswapmuch, occupy the Frazer River from
Spuzzum to the frontier of that part of the country called by the Hudson
Bay Company New Caledonia, which is within a few miles of Fort
Alexandria.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 296. 'Shushwaps of the Rocky Mountains
inhabit the country in the neighbourhood of Jasper House, and as far as
Tête Jaune Cache on the western <DW72>. They are a branch of the great
Shushwap nation who dwell near the Shushwap Lake and grand fork of the
Thompson River in British Columbia.' Thompson River and Lake Kamloops.
_Milton and Cheadle's Northw. Pass._, pp. 241, 335. 'On the Pacific
side, but near the Rocky Mountains, are the Shoushwaps who, inhabiting
the upper part of Frazer's River, and the north fork of the Columbia.'
_Blakiston_, in _Palliser's Explor._, p. 44. 'The Shooshaps live below
the Sinpauelish Indians.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 313. 'The
Shushwaps possess the country bordering on the lower part of Frazer's
River, and its branches.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
vi., p. 205. The Atnahs or Soushwap, 'live in the country on the
Fraser's and Thompson's Rivers.' 'They were termed by Mackenzie the Chin
tribe.' (See p. 251, note 141 of this vol.) _Prichard's Researches_,
vol. v., p. 427; _Buschmann_, _Brit. Nordamer._, p. 320. Shooshaps,
south of the Sinpavelist. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 50-1. 'The Atnah, or
Chin Indian country extends about one hundred miles,' from Fort
Alexander. _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 361. Shooshewaps inhabit the
region of the north bend of the Columbia, in 52°. Atnahs, in the region
of the Fraser and Thompson rivers. _Macdonald's Lecture on B. C._, p.
10; _Hector_, in _Palliser's Explor._, p. 27. 'The Shewhapmuch (Atnahs
of Mackenzie) ... occupy the banks of Thompson's River; and along
Frazer's River from the Rapid village, twenty miles below Alexandria,
to the confluence of these two streams. Thence to near the falls the
tribe bears the name of Nicutemuch.' _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol.
vii., p. 76.

'The Stta Llimuh, natives of Anderson Lake, speak a dialect of the
Sheswap language.' Skowhomish, in the same vicinity. _McKay_, in _B. C.
Papers_, vol. ii., p. 32.

'The Loquilt Indians have their home in the winter on Lake Anderson, and
the surrounding district, whence they descend to the coast in Jervis
Inlet in the summer.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 299.

The Kamloops dwell about one hundred and fifty miles north-west of
Okanagan. _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 156.

The Clunsus are east of Fraser River, between Yale and latitude 50°;
Skowtous, on the fiftieth parallel south of Lake Kamloops and west of
Lake Okanagan; Sockatcheenum, east of Fraser and north of 51°.
_Bancroft's Map of Pac. States._

The _Kootenais_ live in the space bounded by the Columbia River, Rocky
Mountains, and Clarke River. The Kitunaha, Coutanies, or Flatbows,
'wander in the rugged and mountainous tract enclosed between the two
northern forks of the Columbia. The Flat-bow River and Lake also belong
to them.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 204-5,
map, p. 297. 'Inhabit the country extending along the foot of the Rocky
mountains, north of the Flatheads, for a very considerable distance, and
are about equally in American and in British territory.' _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 416. Kootoonais, 'on McGillivray's
River, the Flat Bow Lake, etc.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud.
B._, p. 82. Kootonais, on 'or about the fiftieth parallel at Fort
Kootonie, east of Fort Colville.' _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i.,
p. 138. 'Between the Rocky Mountains, the Upper Columbia and its
tributary the Killuspeha or Pend'oreille, and watered by an intermediate
stream called the Kootanais River is an angular piece of country peopled
by a small, isolated tribe bearing the same name as the last-mentioned
river, on the banks of which they principally live.' _Mayne's B. C._, p.
297. The lands of the Cottonois 'lie immediately north of those of the
Flatheads.' _Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 70. Kutanàe, Kútani,
Kitunaha, Kutneha, Coutanies, Flatbows, 'near the sources of the Mary
River, west of the Rocky Mountains.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 98.
'Inhabit a section of country to the north of the Ponderas, along
M'Gillivray's river.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 312. 'Koutanies ou
Arcs-Plats, Près du fort et du lac de ce nom.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom.
ii., p. 335. 'In the Kootanie Valley.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 178.
Kootonays, south of the Shushwaps. _Palliser's Explor._, p. 44. 'Great
longitudinal valley' of the Kootanie river. _Hector_, in _Id._, p. 27.
'The Tobacco Plains form the country of the Kootanies.' _Blakiston_, in
_Id._, p. 73. 'About the northern branches of the Columbia.' _Greenhow's
Hist. Ogn._, p. 30. Kootanais, 'angle between the Saeliss lands and the
eastern heads of the Columbia.' _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii.,
p. 79. About the river of the same name, between the Columbia and Rocky
Mountains. _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 143. A band called Sinatcheggs on
the upper Arrow Lake. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. ii., p. 190. The
Kootenais were perhaps the Tushepaws of Lewis and Clarke.

The _Tushepaws_ are 'a numerous people of four hundred and fifty tents,
residing on the heads of the Missouri and Columbia rivers, and some of
them lower down the latter river.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 321,
and map; _Bulfinch's Ogn._, p. 134. 'On a N. fork of Clarke's River.'
_Morse's Rept._, p. 372. Ootlashoots, Micksucksealton (Pend
d'Oreilles?), Hohilpos (Flatheads?), branches of the Tushepaws. _Id._,
and _Lewis and Clarke's Map_. The Tushepaw nation might as correctly be
included in the Salish family or omitted altogether. According to
_Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417, they were the
Kootenais.

The _Okanagans_, or Okinakanes, 'comprise the bands lying on the river
of that name, as far north as the foot of the great lake. They are six
in number, viz: the Tekunratum at the mouth; Konekonep, on the creek of
that name; Kluckhaitkwee, at the falls; Kinakanes, near the forks; and
Milaketkun, on the west fork. With them may be classed the N'Pockle, or
Sans Puelles, on the Columbia river, though these are also claimed by
the Spokanes. The two bands on the forks are more nearly connected with
the Schwogelpi than with the ones first named.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 237, and in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 412.
Oakinackens, Priests' Rapids, northward over 500 miles, and 100 miles in
width, to the Shewhaps, branching out into 12 tribes, as follows,
beginning with the south: 'Skamoynumachs, Kewaughtchenunaughs, Pisscows,
Incomecanétook, Tsillane, Intiétook, Battlelemuleemauch, or Meatwho,
Inspellum, Sinpohellechach, Sinwhoyelppetook, Samilkanuigh and
Oakinacken, which is nearly in the centre.' _Ross' Adven._, pp. 289-90.
'On both sides the Okanagan River from its mouth up to British Columbia,
including the Sennelkameen River.' _Ross_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870,
p. 22. 'Près du fort de ce nom.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335.
'On the Okanagan and Piscour Rivers.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's
Hud. B._, p. 82. 'Composed of several small bands living along the
Okinakane river, from its confluence with the Columbia to Lake
Okinakane.... A majority of the tribe live north of the boundary line.'
_Paige_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 99. 'Columbia Valley.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 490. North-east and west of the
Shoopshaps. _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 51. Junction of the Okanagan and
Columbia. _Parker's Map._ 'Upper part of Fraser's River and its
tributaries.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 225.
Principal family called Conconulps about 9 miles up stream of the same
name. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 289-90. The Similkameen live on S. river, and
'are a portion of the Okanagan tribe.' _Palmer_, in _B. Col. Papers_,
vol. iii., p. 85. The Okanagans, called Catsanim by Lewis and Clarke.
_Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417. Cutsahnim, on the
Columbia above the Sokulks, and on the northern branches of the Taptul.
_Morse's Rept._, p. 372.


  [Sidenote: THE SALISH FAMILY.]

THE SALISH FAMILY includes all the inland tribes between 49° and 47°.
The Salish, Saalis, Selish, or Flatheads, 'inhabit the country about the
upper part of the Columbia and its tributary streams, the Flathead,
Spokan, and Okanagan Rivers. The name includes several independent
tribes or bands, of which the most important are the Salish proper, the
Kullespelm, the Soayalpi, the Tsakaitsitlin, and the Okinakan.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 205. 'The Saeliss or
Shewhapmuch race, whose limits may be defined by the Rocky Mountains
eastward; on the west the line of Frazer's river from below Alexandria
to Kequeloose, near the Falls, in about latitude 49° 50´; northward by
the Carrier offset of the Chippewyans; and south by the Sahaptins or Nez
Percés of Oregon.' _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 73. 'From
Thompson's River other septs of this race--the Shuswaps, Skowtous,
Okanagans, Spokans, Skoielpoi (of Colville), Pend'oreilles, and Coeurs
d'Aleines--occupy the country as far as the Flathead Passes of the Rocky
Mountains, where the Saelies or Flatheads form the eastern portion of
the race.' _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 296-7. 'About the northern branches of
the Columbia.' _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, p. 30; _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., p. 55. Tribes mentioned in _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, and
map: Tushepaw (Kootenai), Hopilpo (Flathead), Micksucksealtom (Pend
d'Oreilles), Wheelpo, (Chualpays), Sarlisto and Sketsomish (Spokanes),
Hehighenimmo (Sans Poils), according to _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. i., p. 417. See _Morse's Rept._, p. 372; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., p. 55. 'Between the two great branches of the Columbia and the
Rocky Mountains are only five petty tribes: the Kootanais and Selish, or
Flatheads, at the foot of the mountains, and the Pointed Hearts, Pend
d'Oreilles, and Spokanes lower down.' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. ii., p.
190. 'Divided into several tribes, the most important of which are the
Selishes, the Kullespelms, the Soayalpis, the Tsakaïtsitlins, and the
Okinakans.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 55-6.

The _Flatheads_, or Salish proper, reside on the river, valley, and lake
of the same name. 'Inhabit St. Mary's or the Flathead Valley and the
neighborhood of the lake of the same name.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., p. 415, and in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 207.
'Occupying the valleys between the Bitter Root and Rocky mountains.'
_Thompson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 282. 'South of the Flathead
Valley on the Bitter Root.' _Sully_, in _Id._, 1870, p. 192. St. Mary's
River. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 490. 'East and south-east (of
the Coeurs d'Alène) and extends to the Rocky Mountains.' _Parker's
Explor. Tour_, p. 311, and map. _De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 31.
Saalis ou faux Têtes-Plates. Sur la rivière de ce nom au pied des
Montagnes Rocheuses. _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. 'Along the
foot of the mountains.' _Ross' Adven._, p. 213. 'In New Caledonia, W. of
the Rocky Mountains.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 371. Bitter Root valley.
_Hutchins_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 455, 1865, p. 246; _Nicolay's
Ogn. Ter._, p. 153. Hopilpo, of Lewis and Clarke. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R.
R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417. 'Ils occupent le pays compris entre le Lewis
River et la branche nord-ouest ou la Columbia, et borné en arrière par
les Monts-Rocailleux.' _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821,
tom. xii., p. 43.

The _Pend d'Oreilles_ occupy the vicinity of the lake of the same name.
'On the Flathead or Clarke River.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's
Hud. B._, p. 82. 'At Clark's Fork.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p.
490. Lower Pend d'Oreilles, 'in the vicinity of the St. Ignatius
Mission.' _Paige_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 98. 'The Kalispelms or
Pend d'Oreilles of the Lower Lake, inhabit the country north of the
Coeur d'Alenes and around the Kalispelm lake.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., p. 415. Calispels, or Calispellum, 'on Fool's Prairie
at the head of Colville Valley, and on both sides of the Pend d'Oreille
River, from its mouth to the Idaho line, but principally at the Camas
Prairie.' _Winans_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, pp. 22, 25, 192.
Situated to the east of Fort Colville, adjoining the Kootonais on their
eastern border. _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p. 146.
'Pend'oreilles ou Kellespem. Au-dessous du fort Colville.' _Mofras_,
_Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. Skatkmlschi, or Pend d'Oreilles of the
upper lake. A tribe who, by the consent of the Selish, occupy jointly
with them the country of the latter. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. i., p. 415. Kullas-Palus, 'on the Flathead or Clarke River.' _Warre
and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud. B._, p. 82. Ponderas, 'north of
Clarke's river and on a lake which takes its name from the tribe.'
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 312 and map; _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 32. The
Pend'oreilles were probably the Micksucksealtom of Lewis and Clarke.
_Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

Tribes baptized by De Smet: Thlishatkmuche, Stietshoi, Zingomenes,
Shaistche, Shuyelpi, Tschilsolomi, Siur Poils, Tinabsoti, Yinkaceous,
Yejak-oun, all of same stock.

Tribes mentioned by Morse as living in the vicinity of Clarke River:
Coopspellar, Lahama, Lartielo, Hihighenimmo, Wheelpo, Skeetsomish.
_Rept._, p. 372.

The _Coeurs d'Aléne_ 'live about the lake which takes its name from
them.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 209. East of
the Spokanes, at headwaters of the Spokane River. _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, p. 310, and map. 'The Skitswish or Coeur d'Alenes, live upon the
upper part of the Coeur d'Alene river, above the Spokanes, and around
the lake of the same name.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p.
415. Their mission is on the river ten miles above the lake and thirty
miles from the mountains. _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 216.
Stietshoi, or Coeur d'Alenes on the river, and about the lake.
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 200, map, vol. v., p. 490. Pointed
Hearts, 'shores of a lake about fifty miles to the eastward of Spokan
House.' _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 150; _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 143;
_De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 31. 'St. Joseph's river.' _Mullan's
Rept._, p. 49.

The _Colvilles_ include the tribes about Kettle Falls, and the banks of
the Columbia up to the Arrow Lakes. 'Colville valley and that of the
Columbia river from Kettle Falls to a point thirty miles below.'
_Paige_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 98. 'The Colvilles, whose tribal
name is Swielpree, are located in the Colville Valley, on the Kettle
River, and on both sides of the Columbia River, from Kettle Falls down
to the mouth of the Spokane.' _Winans_, in _Id._, 1870, p. 22. Colvilles
and Spokanes, 'near Fort Colville.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's
Hud. B._, p. 82.

The Lakes, 'whose tribal name is Senijextee, are located on both sides
of the Columbia River, from Kettle Falls north to British Columbia.'
_Winans_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 22. 'So named from their place
of residence, which is about the Arrow Lakes.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_,
p. 312. 'Les sauvages des Lacs ... résident sur le Lac-aux-flèches.' _De
Smet_, _Voy._, p. 50.

The Chaudières, or Kettle Falls, reside 'about Colville.' _Parker's
Explor. Tour_, p. 313. The village of Les Chaudières 'is situated on the
north side just below the fall.' _Cox's Advent._, vol. i., p. 358.
Chaudières 'live south of the Lake Indians.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 50.
'Fort Colville is the principal ground of the Schwoyelpi or Kettle Falls
tribe.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 413. 'The tribe in
the vicinity (of Fort Colville) is known as the Chaudière, whose
territory reaches as far up as the Columbia Lakes.' _Simpson's Overland
Journ._, vol. i., p. 151. 'Gens des Chaudières. Près du lac Schouchouap
au-dessous des Dalles.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. 'Called
in their own language, Chualpays.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 308-9. 'Called
Quiarlpi (Basket People).' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv.,
p. 472. The Chualpays called Wheelpo by Lewis and Clarke, and by Morse.
_Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

  [Sidenote: THE SPOKANE NATION.]

The _Spokanes_ live on the Spokane river and plateau, along the banks of
the Columbia from below Kettle Falls, nearly to the Okanagan. 'The
Spokihnish, or Spokanes, lie south of the Schrooyelpi, and chiefly upon
or near the Spokane river. The name applied by the whites to a number of
small bands, is that given by the Coeur d'Alene to the one living at the
forks. They are also called Sinkoman, by the Kootonies. These bands are
eight in number: the Sinslihhooish, on the great plain above the
crossings of the Coeur d'Alene river; the Sintootoolish, on the river
above the forks; the Smahoomenaish (Spokehnish), at the forks; the
Skaischilt'nish, at the old Chemakane mission; the Skecheramouse, above
them on the Colville trail; the Scheeetstish, the Sinpoilschne, and
Sinspeelish, on the Columbia river; the last-named band is nearly
extinct. The Sinpoilschne (N'pochle, or Sans Puelles) have always been
included among the Okinakanes, though, as well as the Sinspeelish below
them, they are claimed by the Spokanes. The three bands on the Columbia
all speak a different language from the rest.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, pp. 220, 236; and _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i.,
pp. 414-15. 'This tribe claim as their territory the country commencing
on the large plain at the head of the Slawntehus--the stream entering
the Columbia at Fort Colville; thence down the Spokane to the Columbia,
down the Columbia half way to Fort Okinakane, and up the Spokane and
Coeur d'Alene, to some point between the falls and the lake, on the
latter.' _Id._, p. 414. 'Inhabit the country on the Spokane river, from
its mouth to the boundary of Idaho.' _Paige_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1865, p. 99. 'At times on the Spokane, at times on the Spokane plains.'
_Mullan's Rept._, pp. 18, 49. 'Principally on the plains.' _Lord's
Nat._, vol. ii., p. 157. 'North-east of the Palooses are the Spokein
nation.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 310, and map. 'Au-dessous du fort
Okanagam à l'Est.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. 'Au nord-ouest
des Palooses se trouve la nation des Spokanes.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p.
31. 'Have a small village at the entrance of their river, but their
chief and permanent place of residence is about forty miles higher up
... where the Pointed-heart River joins the Spokan from the south-east.'
_Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 147. 'The Spokanes, whose tribal names are
Sineequomenach, or Upper, Sintootoo, or Middle Spokamish, and
Chekasschee, or Lower Spokanes, living on the Spokane River, from the
Idaho line to its mouth.' _Winans_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 23.
Spokane, the Sarlilso and Sketsomish of Lewis and Clarke. _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

The _Sans Poils_ (Hairless), or 'Sanpoils, which includes the Nespeelum
Indians, are located on the Columbia, from the mouth of the Spokane down
to Grand Coulée (on the south of the Columbia), and from a point
opposite the mouth of the Spokane down to the mouth of the Okanagan on
the north side of the Columbia, including the country drained by the
Sanpoil, and Nespeelum Creeks.' _Winans_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870,
p. 22. Sinpoilish, west of the Columbia between Priest Rapids and
Okanagan. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 200, map. Sinpauelish,
west of the Kettle Falls Indians. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 313.
'Sinipouals. Près des grands rapides du Rio Colombia.' _Mofras_,
_Explor_., tom. ii., p. 335. Sinpavelist, west of the Chaudières. _De
Smet_, _Voy._, p. 50. Sinapoils, 'occupy a district on the northern
banks of the Columbia, between the Spokan and Oakinagan rivers.' _Cox's
Adven._, vol. ii., p. 145. Hehighenimmo of Lewis and Clarke. _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

The _Pisquouse_ inhabit the west bank of the Columbia between the
Okanagan and Priest Rapids. Piskwaus, or Piscous; 'name properly belongs
to the tribe who live on the small river which falls into the Columbia
on the west side, about forty miles below Fort Okanagan. But it is here
extended to all the tribes as far down as Priest's Rapids.' The map
extends their territory across the Columbia. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 210, and map, p. 197. Pisquouse, 'immediately
north of that of the Yakamas.' 'On the Columbia between the Priest's and
Ross Rapids.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 236; and
_Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 412. 'Piscaous. Sur la
petite rivière de ce nom à l'Ouest de la Colombie.' _Mofras_, _Explor._,
tom. ii., p. 335.

The Skamoynumacks live on the banks of the Columbia, at Priest Rapids,
near the mouth of the Umatilla. Thirty miles distant up the river are
the Kewaughtohenemachs. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 134, 137.

'The Mithouies are located on the west side of the Columbia River, from
the mouth of the Okanagan down to the Wonatchee, and includes the
country drained by the Mithouie, Lake Chelan, and Enteeatook Rivers.'
_Winans_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 23.

'The Isle de Pierres, whose tribal name is Linkinse, are located on the
east and south side of the Col. Riv. from Grand Coulée down to Priests'
Rapids, which includes the peninsula made by the great bend of the Col.'
_Ib._


  [Sidenote: SAHAPTIN FAMILY.]

THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY is situated immediately south of the Salish. Only
six of the eight nations mentioned below have been included in the
Family by other authors. 'The country occupied by them extends from the
Dalles of the Columbia to the Bitter-Root mountains, lying on both sides
of the Columbia and upon the Kooskooskie and Salmon Forks of Lewis' and
Snake River, between that of the Selish family on the north, and of the
Snakes on the south.' _Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's Gram._, p. vii. 'The first
and more northern Indians of the interior may be denominated the
Shahaptan Family, and comprehends three tribes; the Shahaptan, or Nez
Percés of the Canadians; the Kliketat, a scion from the Shahaptans who
now dwell near Mount Rainier, and have advanced toward the falls of the
Columbia; and the Okanagan, who inhabit the upper part of Fraser's River
and its tributaries.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi.,
p. 225. Hale's map, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 197, divides the
territory among the Nez Percés, Walla-Wallas, Waiilaptu, and Molele.
'The Indians in this district (of the Dalles) are Dog River, Wascos,
Tyicks, Des Chutes, John Day, Utilla, Cayuses, Walla-Walla, Nez Percés,
Mountain Snakes and Bannacks.' _Dennison_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859,
p. 435. 'The different tribes attached to Fort Nez Percés, and who
formerly went by that cognomen, are the Shamooinaugh, Skamnaminaugh,
E'yackimah, Ispipewhumaugh, and Inaspetsum. These tribes inhabit the
main north branch above the Forks. On the south branch are the Palletto
Pallas, Shawhaapten or Nez Percés proper, Pawluch, and Cosispa tribes.
On the main Columbia, beginning at the Dallas, are the Necootimeigh,
Wisscopam, Wisswhams, Wayyampas, Lowhim, Sawpaw, and Youmatalla bands.'
_Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 185-6. Cathlakahikits, at the rapids of
Columbia river, N. side; Chippanchickchicks, 'N. side of Columbia river,
in the long narrows, a little below the falls.' Hellwits, 'at the falls
of Columbia river;' Ithkyemamits, 'on Columbia river, N. side near
Chippanchickchicks'; Yehah, 'above the rapids.' _Morse's Rept._, pp.
368-70.

The _Nez Percés_ 'possess the country on each side of the Lewis or Snake
River, from the Peloose to the Wapticacoes, about a hundred
miles--together with the tributary streams, extending, on the east, to
the foot of the Rocky Mountains.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. vi., p. 212; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 551. 'On both
sides of the Kooskooskia and north fork of Snake river.' _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 416; and _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 217. 'A few bands of the Nez Percés Indians occupy the
Salmon river and the Clearwater.' _Thompson_, in _Id._, p. 282. 'The Nez
Percés country is bounded west by the Palouse river and the Tucannon; on
the north by the range of mountains between Clear Water and the Coeur
d'Alene; east by the Bitter Root mountains; on the south they are
bounded near the line dividing the two Territories.' _Craig_, in _Id._,
1857, p. 353. The Buffalo, a tribe of the Nez Perces, winter in the
Bitter Root Valley. _Owen_, in _Id._, 1859, p. 424. 'Upper waters and
mountainous parts of the Columbia.' _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p.
108. 'Country lying along Lewis river and its tributaries from the
eastern base of the Blue Mountains to the Columbia.' _Palmer's Jour._,
p. 55. Nez Percés or Sahaptins, 'on the banks of the Lewis Fork or
Serpent River.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 54. 'Chohoptins, or
Nez-Percés, ... on the banks of Lewis River.' _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii.,
p. 143. 'Rove through the regions of the Lewis branch.' _Greenhow's
Hist. Ogn._, p. 30. 'The Lower Nez Percés range upon the Wayleeway,
Immahah, Yenghies, and other of the streams west of the mountains.'
_Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 301. Some Flatheads live along the
Clearwater River down to below its junction with the Snake. _Gass'
Jour._, p. 212. Country 'drained by the Kooskooskie, westward from the
Blackfoot country, and across the Rocky Mountains.' _Brownell's Ind.
Races_, p. 533. 'Près du fort de ce nom, à la junction des deux branches
du fleuve.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335. Junction of Snake and
Clearwater. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, _Map_. Chopunnish. _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, p. 331, and map. Copunnish. _Bulfinch's Oregon_, p.
144. 'The Nez-Percés are divided into two classes, the Nez-Percés
proper, who inhabit the mountains, and the Polonches, who inhabit the
plain country about the mouth of the Snake River.' _Gairdner_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 256. Chopunnish, 'on Lewis river below
the entrance of the Kooskooskee, on both sides.' 'On the Kooskooskee
river below the forks, and on Cotter's creek.' Bands of the Chopunnish;
Pelloatpallah, Kimmooenim, Yeletpoo, Willewah, Soyennom. _Morse's
Rept._, p. 369.

The _Palouse_, or 'the Palus, usually written Paloose, live between the
Columbia and the Snake.' _Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's Gram._, p. vi. 'The
Peloose tribe has a stream called after it which empties into Lewis
River.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 213. Upon the
Peloose River. 'Entrance of Great Snake River and surrounding country.'
_Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 105, 245. 'Properly a part of
the Nez Percés. Their residence is along the Nez Percé river and up the
Pavilion.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 310. In three bands; at the mouth
of the Pelouse River; on the north bank of Snake River, thirty miles
below the Pelouse; and at the mouth of the Snake River. _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 222-3, and in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i.,
pp. 150-1. Palouse, or Pelouse, 'reside on the banks of the Palouse and
Snake rivers.' _Mullan's Rept._, pp. 18, 49. 'La tribu Paloose
appartient à la nation des Nez-Percés ... elle habite les bords des deux
rivières des Nez-percés et du Pavilion.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 31.
Selloatpallah, north of the Snake, near its confluence with the
Columbia. _Lewis and Clarke's Map._ Same as the Sewatpalla. _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

The _Walla-Wallas_ 'occupy the country south of the Columbia and about
the river of that name.' _Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's Gram._, p. vii. 'A
number of bands living usually on the south side of the Columbia, and on
the Snake river to a little east of the Peluse.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., p. 402. 'Are on a small stream which falls into the
Columbia near Fort Nez-percés.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. vi., p. 213. 'Inhabit the country about the river of the same name,
and range some distance below along the Columbia.' _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, p. 310. 'Upon the banks of the Columbia, below the mouth of the
Lewis Fork are found the Walla-wallas.' _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 535.
'Oualla-Oualla, au-dessus du fort des Nez Percés.' _Mofras_, _Explor._,
tom. ii., p. 335. 'Under this term are embraced a number of bands living
usually on the south side of the Columbia, and on the Snake river, to a
little east of the Pelouse; as also the Klikatats and Yakamas, north of
the former.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 223. 'On both
sides of the Columbia river between Snake river and Hudson Bay fort,
Walla-Walla.' _Dennison_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 374. Walla
Wallapum. _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 244-7. 'Les
Walla-walla habitent, sur la rivière du même nom, l'un des tributaires
de la Colombie, et leur pays s'étend aussi le long de ce fleuve.' _De
Smet_, _Voy._, p. 30. Wollaw Wollah. South side of the Snake, at
junction with the Columbia. _Lewis and Clarke's Map._ Wollaolla and
Wollawalla, 'on both sides of Col., as low as the Muscleshell rapid, and
in winter pass over to the Taptul river.' _Morse's Rept._, pp. 369-70.
'Country south of the Columbia and about the river of that name.'
_Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's Gram._, p. vii. Walawaltz nation about the
junction of the Snake and Columbia. On Walla Walle River. _Gass' Jour._,
pp. 294-8. 'On both banks of the Columbia, from the Blue Mountains to
the Dalles.' _Farnham's Trav._, p. 151. Wallah Wallah. _Cox's Adven._,
vol. ii., p. 142. 'About the river of that name.' _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._,
pp. 143, 151. Wallawallahs, 'reside along the lower part of the Walla
Walla, the low bottom of the Umatilla and the Columbia, from the mouth
of Lewis River for one hundred miles south.' _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 58,
124. 'On the borders of the Wallahwallah and Columbia.' _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 64; _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._,
1821, tom. xii., p. 35.

The Sciatogas and Toustchipas live on Canoe River (Tukanon?), and the
Euotalla (Touchet?), the Akaïtchis 'sur le Big-river,' (Columbia).
_Hunt_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821, tom. x., pp. 74-8. The
Sciatogas 'possède le pays borné au sud-est par la Grande-Plaine; au
nord, par le Lewis-River; à l'ouest par la Columbia; au sud par
l'Oualamat.' _Id._, 1821, tom. xii., p. 42.

  [Sidenote: THE CAYUSES AND WASCOS.]

The _Cayuses_ extend from John Day River eastward to Grande Ronde
Valley. The Cayuse, Cailloux, Waiilatpu, 'country south of the Sahaptin
and Wallawalla. Their head-quarters are on the upper part of Wallawalla
River.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 214, map, p.
197. 'The country belonging to the Cayuse is to the south of and between
the Nez Perces and Walla-Wallas, extending from the Des Chutes, or
Wanwanwi, to the eastern side of the Blue mountains.' _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 218; _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
i., p. 416. 'On the west side of the Blue mountains and south of the
Columbia river.' _Thompson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 282. 'Occupy
a portion of the Walla-Walla valley.' _Dennison_, in _Id._, 1857, p.
374; _Cain_, in _Id._, 1859, pp. 413-14. 'À l'ouest des Nez-perces sont
les Kayuses.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 30. The Kayouse dwell upon the
Utalla or Emnutilly River. _Townsend's Nar._, p. 122. 'West of the Nez
Percés.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 309, and map. 'Rove through the
regions of the Lewis branch.' _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, p. 30. 'Kayouses.
Près du grand détour de la Colombie.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.
335. Waiilatpu, Molele, called also Willetpoos, Cayuse, 'western Oregon,
south of the Columbia river.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 199; _Gibbs_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417. Caäguas 'inhabit the country
bordering on Wallawalla river and its tributaries, the Blue mountains
and Grand round.' _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 54-6. Wyeilat or Kyoose, country
to the south of Walla Walla. _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp.
244-5. The Skyuses 'dwell about the waters of the Wayleeway and the
adjacent country.' _Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 388.

The Willewah 'reside on the Willewah river, which falls into the Lewis
river on the S.W. side, below the forks.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 369. In
Grande Ronde Valley. _Lewis and Clarke's Map_; _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

The Umatillas 'live near the junction of the Umatilla and Columbia
rivers.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 97. Umatallow River and country
extending thence westward to Dalles. _Tolmie_, in _Id._, p. 245. 'The
Utillas occupy the country along the river bearing that name.'
_Dennison_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 374.

The Wahowpum live 'on the N. branch of the Columbia, in different bands
from the Pishquitpahs; as low as the river Lapage; the different bands
of this nation winter on the waters of Taptul and Cataract rivers.'
_Morse's Rept._, p. 370; _Lewis and Clarke's Map._ On John Day's River.
_Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

The _Wascos_ include all the tribes between the Cascade Range and John
Day River, south of the Columbia. 'They are known by the name of Wasco
Indians, and they call their country around the Dallas, Wascopam. They
claim the country extending from the cascades up to the falls of the
Columbia, the distance of about fifty miles.' _Hines' Voy._, p. 159.
'The Wascos occupy a small tract of country near to and adjoining the
Dalles.' _Dennison_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 372. On both sides
of the Columbia about the Dalles are the Wascopams. _Map_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 200. Eneshur, Echeloots,
Chillukkitequaw and Sinacshop occupy the territory, on _Lewis and
Clarke's Map_; _Morse's Rept._, p. 370. The Tchipantchicktchick,
Cathlassis, Ilttekaïmamits, and Tchelouits about the Dalles. _Stuart_,
in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821, tom. xii., p. 26; _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

'The residence of the Molele is (or was) in the broken and wooded
country about Mounts Hood and Vancouver.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 214. The Mollales have their home in the
Willamette Valley. _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 492.

'The Tairtla, usually called Taigh, belong ... to the environs of the
Des-Chutes River.' _Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's Gram._, p. vii.

'The Des Chutes ... formerly occupied that section of country between
the Dalles and the Tyich river.' _Dennison_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857,
p. 373.

'The Tyichs ... formerly occupied the Tyich valley and the country in
its vicinity, which lies about 30 miles south of Fort Dalles.' _Ib._

'The John Day Rivers occupy the country in the immediate vicinity of the
river bearing that name.' _Ib._

'The Dog River, or Cascade Indians reside on a small stream called Dog
river, which empties into the Columbia river, about half way between the
Cascades and Dalles.' _Id._, p. 371. The Cascades dwell 'on the river of
that name.' _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 143.

The _Yakimas_ occupy the valley of the Yakima River and its branches.
'The upper Yakimas occupy the country upon the Wenass and main branch of
the Yakima, above the forks; the Lower upon the Yakima and its
tributaries, below the forks and along the Columbia from the mouth of
the Yakima to a point three miles below the Dalles.' _Robie_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 350. Three bands, Wishhams, Clickahut, and Skien,
along the Columbia. _Id._, p. 352. 'The Pshwanwappam bands, usually
called Yakamas, inhabit the Yakama River.' _Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's
Gram._, p. vii. Lewis and Clarke's Chanwappan, Shaltattos, Squamaross,
Skaddals, and Chimnahpum, on the Yakima River. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., p. 417. The Yakimas 'are divided into two principal
bands, each made up of a number of villages, and very closely connected;
one owning the country on the Nahchess and Lower Yakima, the other are
upon the Wenass and main branch above the forks.' _Id._, p. 407.
Yackamans, northern banks of the Columbia and on the Yackamans river.
_Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 143. On the Yakima. _Hale's Ethnog._, _U.
S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 213. 'South of the Long Rapids, to the
confluence of Lewis' river with the Columbia, are the Yookoomans.'
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 313. Pishwanwapum (Yakima), in Yakimaw or
Eyakema Valley. _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 244-7. Called
Stobshaddat by the Sound Indians. _Id._, p. 245.

The Chimnapums are 'on the N.W. side of Col. river, both above and below
the entrance of Lewis' r. and the Taptul r.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 370;
_Lewis and Clarke's Map._ The 'Chunnapuns and Chanwappans are between
the Cascade Range and the north branch of the Columbia.' _Nicolay's
Ogn. Ter._, p. 143.

The Pisquitpahs, 'on the Muscleshell rapids, and on the N. side of the
Columbia, to the commencement of the high country; this nation winter on
the waters of the Taptul and Cataract rivers.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 370.

The Sokulks dwell north of the confluence of the Snake and Columbia.
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 351, and map; _Morse's Rept._, p. 369. At
Priest Rapids. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 417.

  [Sidenote: THE KLIKETATS.]

The _Kliketats_ live in the mountainous country north of the Cascades,
on both sides of the Cascade Range, and south of the Yakimas. Klikatats
'inhabit, properly, the valleys lying between Mounts St. Helens and
Adams, but they have spread over districts belonging to other tribes,
and a band of them is now located as far south as the Umpqua.' _Gibbs_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 403. 'Roilroilpam is the Klikatat
country, situated in the Cascade mountains north of the Columbia and
west of the Yakamas.' _Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's Gram._, p. vii. 'Wander in
the wooded country about Mount St. Helens.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 213. 'In the vicinity of the mouth of the
Columbia.' _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113. Klikatats.
'Au-dessus du fort des Nez-Percés.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.
335. 'The Kliketat, a scion from the Sahaptans, who now dwell near Mount
Rainier and have advanced towards the falls of the Columbia.' _Scouler_,
in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 225. On _Lewis and Clarke's
Map_ the Kliketat territory is occupied by the Chanwappan, Shallatos,
Squamaros, Skaddals, Shahalas. Also in _Morse's Rept._, p. 372.
Whulwhypum, or Kliketat, 'in the wooded and prairie country between
Vancouver and the Dalles.' _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 245.

The Weyehhoo live on the north side of the Columbia, near Chusattes
River. (Kliketat.) _Gass' Jour._, p. 288.


FOOTNOTES:

[228] The _Nootka-Columbians_ comprehend 'the tribes inhabiting Quadra
and Vancouver's Island, and the adjacent inlets of the mainland, down to
the Columbia River, and perhaps as far S. as Umpqua River and the
northern part of New California.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xi., p. 221.

[229] Gilbert Malcolm Sproat, a close observer and clear writer, thinks
'this word Nootkah--no word at all--together with an imaginary word,
Columbian, denoting a supposed original North American race--is absurdly
used to denote all the tribes which inhabit the Rocky Mountains and the
western coast of North America, from California inclusively to the
regions inhabited by the Esquimaux. In this great tract there are more
tribes, differing totally in language and customs, than in any other
portion of the American continent; and surely a better general name for
them could be found than this meaningless and misapplied term _Nootkah
Columbian_.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 315. Yet Mr Sproat suggests no other
name. It is quite possible that Cook, _Voy. to the Pacific_, vol. ii.,
p. 288, misunderstood the native name of Nootka Sound. It is easy to
criticise any name which might be adopted, and even if it were
practicable or desirable to change all meaningless and misapplied
geographical names, the same or greater objections might be raised
against others, which necessity would require a writer to invent.

[230] _Kane's Wand._, p. 173; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 441; _Catlin's
N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 108; the name being given to the people
between the region of the Columbia and 53° 30´.

[231] The name _Nez Percés_, 'pierced noses,' is usually pronounced as
if English, _Nez Pér-ces_.

[232] For particulars and authorities see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES at end of
this chapter.

[233] 'The Indian tribes of the North-western Coast may be divided into
two groups, the Insular and the Inland, or those who inhabit the islands
and adjacent shores of the mainland, and subsist almost entirely by
fishing; and those who live in the interior and are partly hunters. This
division is perhaps arbitrary, or at least imperfect, as there are
several tribes whose affinities with either group are obscure.'
_Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 217. See _Stevens_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 147-8, and _Mayne's B. C._, p. 242.
'The best division is into coast and inland tribes.' _Lord's Nat._, vol.
ii., p. 226.

[234] 'By far the best looking, most intelligent and energetic people on
the N. W. Coast.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p.
218. Also ranked by Prichard as the finest specimens physically on the
coast. _Researches_, vol. v., p. 433. The Nass people 'were peculiarly
comely, strong, and well grown.' _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i.,
p. 207. 'Would be handsome, or at least comely,' were it not for the
paint. 'Some of the women have exceedingly handsome faces, and very
symmetrical figures.' 'Impressed by the manly beauty and bodily
proportions of my islanders.' _Poole's Queen Charlotte Isl._, pp. 310,
314. Mackenzie found the coast people 'more corpulent and of better
appearance than the inhabitants of the interior.' _Voy._, pp. 322-3; see
pp. 370-1. 'The stature (at Burke's Canal) ... was much more stout and
robust than that of the Indians further south. The prominence of their
countenances and the regularity of their features, resembled the
northern Europeans.' _Vancouver's Voy._ vol. ii., p. 262. A chief of
'gigantic person, a stately air, a noble mien, a manly port, and all the
characteristics of external dignity, with a symmetrical figure, and a
perfect order of European contour.' _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 279, 251, 283,
285. Mayne says, 'their countenances are decidedly plainer' than the
southern Indians. _B. C._, p. 250. 'A tall, well-formed people.'
_Bendel's Alex. Arch._, p. 29. 'No finer men ... can be found on the
American Continent.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 23. In 55°, 'Son bien
corpulentos.' _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646.
'The best looking Indians we had ever met.' 'Much taller, and in every
way superior to the Puget Sound tribes. The women are stouter than the
men, but not so good-looking.' _Reed's Nar._

[235] The Sebassas are 'more active and enterprising than the Millbank
tribes.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 273. The Haeeltzuk are 'comparatively
effeminate in their appearance.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xi., p. 223. The Kyganies 'consider themselves more civilised than
the other tribes, whom they regard with feelings of contempt.' _Id._, p.
219. The Chimsyans 'are much more active and cleanly than the tribes to
the south.' _Id._, p. 220. 'I have, as a rule, remarked that the
physical attributes of those tribes coming from the north, are superior
to those of the dwellers in the south.' _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p.
40.

[236] _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 370-1, 322-3; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol.
ii., pp. 262, 320; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p.
197. 'Regular, and often fine features.' _Bendel's Alex. Arch._, p. 29.

[237] _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 309-10, 322-3, 370-1; _Lord's Nat._, vol.
i., p. 229. 'Opening of the eye long and narrow.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 197.

[238] 'Had it not been for the filth, oil, and paint, with which, from
their earliest infancy, they are besmeared from head to foot, there is
great reason to believe that their colour would have differed but little
from such of the labouring Europeans, as are constantly exposed to the
inclemency and alterations of the weather.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 262. 'Between the olive and the copper.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp.
370-1. 'Their complexion, when they are washed free from paint, is as
white as that of the people of the S. of Europe.' _Scouler_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 218. Skin 'nearly as white as ours.'
_Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 314-5. 'Of a remarkable light color.'
_Bendel's Alex. Arch._, p. 29. 'Fairer in complexion than the
Vancouverians.' 'Their young women's skins are as clear and white as
those of Englishwomen.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 23-4. 'Fair in
complexion, sometimes with ruddy cheeks.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 197. 'De buen semblante, color blanco y
bermejos.' _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646.

[239] Tolmie mentions several instances of the kind, and states that
'amongst the Hydah or Queen Charlotte Island tribes, exist a family of
coarse, red-haired, light-brown eyed, square-built people,
short-sighted, and of fair complexion.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp.
229-30.

[240] _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 322-3, 371; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii.,
p. 370; _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 283; _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 315.

[241] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 218; _Poole's
Q. Char. Isl._, p. 74. 'What is very unusual among the aborigines of
America, they have thick beards, which appear early in life.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 197.

[242] 'After the age of puberty, their bodies, in their natural state,
are covered in the same manner as those of the Europeans. The men,
indeed, esteem a beard very unbecoming, and take great pains to get rid
of it, nor is there any ever to be perceived on their faces, except when
they grow old, and become inattentive to their appearance. Every crinous
efflorescence on the other parts of the body is held unseemly by them,
and both sexes employ much time in their extirpation. The Nawdowessies,
and the remote nations, pluck them out with bent pieces of hard wood,
formed into a kind of nippers; whilst those who have communication with
Europeans procure from them wire, which they twist into a screw or worm;
applying this to the part, they press the rings together, and with a
sudden twitch draw out all the hairs that are inclosed between them.'
_Carver's Trav._, p. 225.

[243] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 220.

[244] _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 370-1; _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 226;
_Dunn's Oregon_, p. 287.

[245] _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 232; _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 218, 220, 223. 'The most northern of these
Flat-head tribes is the Hautzuk.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p.
325.

[246] _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., pp. 204, 233. 'This wooden
ornament seems to be wore by all the sex indiscriminately, whereas at
Norfolk Sound it is confined to those of superior rank.' _Dixon's Voy._,
pp. 225, 208, with a cut. A piece of brass or copper is first put in,
and 'this corrodes the lacerated parts, and by consuming the flesh
gradually increases the orifice.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., pp.
279-80, 408. _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 218;
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 276, 279; _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, s. iv.,
vol. vi., p. 651; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, p. 106; _Catlin's N. Am.
Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113, with plate.

[247] _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 281-2; _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 75, 311;
_Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, pp. 45-6; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 279, 285.

[248] _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 82, 106, 310, 322-3; _Mayne's B. C._,
pp. 282, 283; _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 251.

[249] _Mayne's B. C._, p. 282; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 251, 276, 291;
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 263; _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 310. 'The
men habitually go naked, but when they go off on a journey they wear a
blanket.' _Reed's Nar._ 'Cuero de nutrias y lobo marino ... sombreros de
junco bien tejidos con la copa puntiaguda.' _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646.

[250] _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 253, 276-7; _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii.,
p. 113.

[251] At Salmon River, 52° 58´, 'their dress consists of a single robe
tied over the shoulders, falling down behind, to the heels, and before,
a little below the knees, with a deep fringe round the bottom. It is
generally made of the bark of the cedar tree, which they prepare as fine
as hemp; though some of these garments are interwoven with strips of the
sea-otter skin, which give them the appearance of a fur on one side.
Others have stripes of red and yellow threads fancifully introduced
towards the borders.' Clothing is laid aside whenever convenient. 'The
women wear a close fringe hanging down before them about two feet in
length, and half as wide. When they sit down they draw this between
their thighs.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 322-3, 371; _Vancouver's Voy._,
vol. ii., pp. 280, 339.

[252] A house 'erected on a platform, ... raised and supported near
thirty feet from the ground by perpendicular spars of a very large size;
the whole occupying a space of about thirty-five by fifteen (yards), was
covered in by a roof of boards lying nearly horizontal, and parallel to
the platform; it seemed to be divided into three different houses, or
rather apartments, each having a separate access formed by a long tree
in an inclined position from the platform to the ground, with notches
cut in it by way of steps, about a foot and a half asunder.'
_Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 274. See also pp. 137, 267-8, 272, 284.
'Their summer and winter residences are built of split plank, similar to
those of the Chenooks.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 263. 'Ils habitent
dans des loges de soixante pieds de long, construites avec des troncs de
sapin et recouvertes d'écorces d'arbres.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii.,
p. 337. 'Their houses are neatly constructed, standing in a row; having
large images, cut out of wood, resembling idols. The dwellings have all
painted fronts, showing imitations of men and animals. Attached to their
houses most of them have large potatoe gardens.' _Dunn's Oregon_, pp.
293-4. See also, pp. 251-2, 273-4, 290; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 89;
vol. ii., pp. 253, 255, with cuts on p. 255 and frontispiece. 'Near the
house of the chief I observed several oblong squares, of about twenty
feet by eight. They were made of thick cedar boards, which were joined
with so much neatness, that I at first thought they were one piece. They
were painted with hieroglyphics, and figures of different animals,'
probably for purposes of devotion, as was 'a large building in the
middle of the village.... The ground-plot was fifty feet by forty-five;
each end is formed by four stout posts, fixed perpendicularly in the
ground. The corner ones are plain, and support a beam of the whole
length, having three intermediate props on each side, but of a larger
size, and eight or nine feet in height. The two centre posts, at each
end, are two and a half feet in diameter, and carved into human figures,
supporting two ridge poles on their heads, twelve feet from the ground.
The figures at the upper part of this square represent two persons, with
their hands upon their knees, as if they supported the weight with pain
and difficulty: the others opposite to them stand at their ease, with
their hands resting on their hips.... Posts, poles, and figures, were
painted red and black, but the sculpture of these people is superior to
their painting.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 331. See also pp. 307, 318,
328-30, 339, 345; _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 111, 113-4; _Reed's
Nar._; _Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., pp. 127-31.

[253] On food of the Haidahs and the methods of procuring it, see
_Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 41, 152; _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 306,
313-14, 319-21, 327, 333, 339, 369-70; _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 148,
284-5, 315-16; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 273; _Dunn's Oregon_,
pp. 251, 267, 274, 290-1; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 337;
_Pemberton's Vancouver Island_, p. 23; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 263;
_Reed's Nar._

[254] _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 339; _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p.
316; _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 372-3. 'Once I saw a party of Kaiganys of
about two hundred men returning from war. The paddles of the warriors
killed in the fight were lashed upright in their various seats, so that
from a long distance the number of the fallen could be ascertained; and
on each mast of the canoes--and some of them had three--was stuck the
head of a slain foe.' _Bendel's Alex. Arch._, p. 30.

[255] The Kaiganies 'are noted for the beauty and size of their cedar
canoes, and their skill in carving. Most of the stone pipes, inlaid with
fragments of Haliotis or pearl shells, so common in ethnological
collections, are their handiwork. The slate quarry from which the stone
is obtained is situated on Queen Charlotte's Island.' _Dall's Alaska_,
p. 411. The Chimsyans 'make figures in stone dressed like Englishmen;
plates and other utensils of civilization, ornamented pipe stems and
heads, models of houses, stone flutes, adorned with well-carved figures
of animals. Their imitative skill is as noticeable as their dexterity in
carving.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 317. The supporting posts of their
probable temples were carved into human figures, and all painted red and
black, 'but the sculpture of these people (52° 40´) is superior to their
painting.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 330-1; see pp. 333-4. 'One man (near
Fort Simpson) known as the Arrowsmith of the north-east coast, had gone
far beyond his compeers, having prepared very accurate charts of most
parts of the adjacent shores.' _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p.
207. 'The Indians of the Northern Family are remarkable for their
ingenuity and mechanical dexterity in the construction of their canoes,
houses, and different warlike or fishing implements. They construct
drinking-vessels, tobacco-pipes, &c., from a soft argillaceous stone,
and these articles are remarkable for the symmetry of their form, and
the exceedingly elaborate and intricate figures which are carved upon
them. With respect to carving and a faculty for imitation, the Queen
Charlotte's Islanders are equal to the most ingenious of the Polynesian
Tribes.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 218. 'Like
the Chinese, they imitate literally anything that is given them to do;
so that if you give them a cracked gun-stock to copy, and do not warn
them, they will in their manufacture repeat the blemish. Many of their
slate-carvings are very good indeed, and their designs most curious.'
_Mayne's B. C._, p. 278. See also, _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 293; _Mofras_,
_Explor._, tom. ii., p. 337, and plate p. 387. The Skidagates 'showed me
beautifully wrought articles of their own design and make, and amongst
them some flutes manufactured from an unctuous blue slate.... The two
ends were inlaid with lead, giving the idea of a fine silver mounting.
Two of the keys perfectly represented frogs in a sitting posture, the
eyes being picked out with burnished lead.... It would have done credit
to a European modeller.' _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 258. 'Their talent
for carving has made them famous far beyond their own country.'
_Bendel's Alex. Arch._, p. 29. A square wooden box, holding one or two
bushels, is made from three pieces, the sides being from one piece so
mitred as to bend at the corners without breaking. 'During their
performance of this character of labor, (carving, etc.) their
superstitions will not allow any spectator of the operator's work.'
_Reed's Nar._; _Ind. Life_, p. 96. 'Of a very fine and hard slate they
make cups, plates, pipes, little images, and various ornaments, wrought
with surprising elegance and taste.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, vol. vi., p. 197. 'Ils peignent aussi avec le même goût.' _Rossi_,
_Souvenirs_, p. 298; _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., pp. 74-5.

[256] _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 338; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 63; vol.
ii., pp. 215-17, 254, 258; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 251, 253, 291, 293.
'They boil the cedar root until it becomes pliable to be worked by the
hand and beaten with sticks, when they pick the fibres apart into
threads. The warp is of a different material--sinew of the whale, or
dried kelp-thread.' _Reed's Nar._ 'Petatito de vara en cuadro bien
vistoso, tejido de palma fina de dos colores blanco y <DW64> que tejido
en cuadritos.' _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., pp.
647, 650-1.

[257] _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 269, and cuts on pp. 121, 291;
_Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 335; _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p.
204; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 303; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_,
p. cxxv; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 174; _Reed's Nar._; _Catlin's N. Am.
Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113, with plate. The Bellabellahs 'promised to
construct a steam-ship on the model of ours.... Some time after this
rude steamer appeared. She was from 20 to 30 feet long, all in one
piece--a large tree hollowed out--resembling the model of our steamer.
She was black, with painted ports; decked over; and had paddles painted
red, and Indians under cover, to turn them round. The steersman was not
seen. She was floated triumphantly, and went at the rate of three miles
an hour. They thought they had nearly come up to the point of external
structure; but then the enginery baffled them; and this they thought
they could imitate in time, by perseverance, and the helping
illumination of the Great Spirit.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 272. See also, p.
291. 'A canoe easily distanced the champion boat of the American Navy,
belonging to the man-of-war _Saranac_.' _Bendel's Alex. Arch._, p. 29.

[258] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 219;
_Macfie's B. C._, pp. 429, 437, 458; _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol.
i., p. 206; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 174; _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._,
vol. vii., p. 74; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 279, 281-3, 292; _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. cxxv.

[259] _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 374-5; _Tolmie and Anderson_, in _Lord's
Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 240-2, 235; _Macfie's B. C._, p. 429; _Simpson's
Overland Journ._, vol. i., p. 205; _Dixon's Voy._, p. 227. 'There exists
among them a regular aristocracy.' 'The chiefs are always of
unquestionable birth, and generally count among their ancestors men who
were famous in battle and council.' 'The chief is regarded with all the
reverence and respect which his rank, his birth, and his wealth can
claim,' but 'his power is by no means unlimited.' _Bendel's Alex.
Arch._, p. 30.

[260] _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 273-4, 283; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 263;
_Bendel's Alex. Arch._, p. 30; _Kane's Wand._, p. 220.

[261] 'Polygamy is universal, regulated simply by the facilities for
subsistence.' _Anderson_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 235. See pp.
231-5, and vol. i., pp. 89-90. The women 'cohabit almost promiscuously
with their own tribe though rarely with other tribes.' Poole, spending
the night with a chief, was given the place of honor, under the same
blanket with the chief's daughter--and her father. _Poole's Q. Char.
Isl._, pp. 312-15, 115-16, 155. 'The Indians are in general very jealous
of their women.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 225-6. 'Tous les individus d'une
famille couchent pêle-mêle sur le sol plancheyé de l'habitation.'
_Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 144. 'Soon after I had retired ... the
chief paid me a visit to insist on my going to his bed-companion, and
taking my place himself.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 331. See pp. 300,
371-2. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 263. 'On the weddingday they have a
public feast, at which they dance and sing.' _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 252-3,
289-90. 'According to a custom of the Bellabollahs, the widow of the
deceased is transferred to his brother's harem.' _Simpson's Overland
Journ._, vol. i., p. 203-4. 'The temporary present of a wife is one of
the greatest honours that can be shown there to a guest.' _Sproat's
Scenes_, p. 95.

[262] 'The Queen Charlotte Islanders surpass any people that I ever saw
in passionate addiction' to gambling. _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p.
318-20. See pp. 186-87, 232-33. _Mackenzie's Voy._, pp. 288, 311. The
Sebassas are great gamblers, and 'resemble the Chinooks in their games.'
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 25-7, 252-9, 281-3, 293. 'The Indian mode of
dancing bears a strange resemblance to that in use among the Chinese.'
_Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 82. _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 258;
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 263; _Ind. Life_, p. 63.

[263] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 223;
_Duncan_, in _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 285-8, and in _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._,
pp. 434-7; _White's Oregon_, p. 246; _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol.
i., p. 205; _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, Nov. 1860, pp. 222-8; _Ind. Life_,
p. 68; _Reed's Nar._; _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 79.

[264] The Indians of Millbank Sound became exasperated against me, 'and
they gave me the name of "_Schloapes_," i. e., "_stingy_:" and when near
them, if I should spit, they would run and try to take up the spittle in
something; for, according as they afterwards informed me, they intended
to give it to their doctor or magician; and he would charm my life
away.' _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 246-7. See pp. 279-80; _Poole's Q. Char.
Isl._, pp. 320-1.

[265] _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 32-4, 53-4; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 367,
274-5.

[266] _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 385-9.

[267] _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 109-10, 116; _Anderson_, in _Lord's
Nat._, vol. ii., p. 242.

[268] At about 52° 40´, between the Fraser River and the Pacific,
Mackenzie observed the treatment of a man with a bad ulcer on his back.
They blew on him and whistled, pressed their fingers on his stomach, put
their fists into his mouth, and spouted water into his face. Then he was
carried into the woods, laid down in a clear spot, and a fire was built
against his back while the doctor scarified the ulcer with a blunt
instrument. _Voy._, pp. 331-33; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 258, 284; _Poole's
Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 316-18; _Duncan_, in _Mayne's B. C._, 289-91;
_Reed's Nar._, in _Olympia Wash. Stand._, _May 16, 1868_.

[269] At Boca de Quadra, Vancouver found 'a box about three feet square,
and a foot and a half deep, in which were the remains of a human
skeleton, which appeared from the confused situation of the bones,
either to have been cut to pieces, or thrust with great violence into
this small space.' ... 'I was inclined to suppose that this mode of
depositing their dead is practised only in respect to certain persons of
their society.' _Voy._, vol. ii., p. 351. At Cape Northumberland, in 54°
45´, 'was a kind of vault formed partly by the natural cavity of the
rocks, and partly by the rude artists of the country. It was lined with
boards, and contained some fragments of warlike implements, lying near a
square box covered with mats and very curiously corded down.' _Id._, p.
370; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, pp. 106-7. On Queen Charlotte Islands,
'Ces monumens sont de deux espèces: les premiers et les plus simples ne
sont composés que d'un seul pilier d'environ dix pieds d'élévation et
d'un pied de diamètre, sur le sommet duquel sont fixées des planches
formant un plateau; et dans quelques-uns ce plateau est supporté par
deux piliers. Le corps, déposé sur cette plate-forme, est recouvert de
mousse et de grosses pierres' ... 'Les mausolées de la seconde espèce
sont plus composés: quatre poteaux plantés en terre, et élevés de deux
pieds seulement au-dessus du sol portent un sarcophage travaillé avec
art, et hermétiquement clos.' _Marchand_, _Voy._, tom. ii., pp. 135-6.
'According to another account it appeared that they actually bury their
dead; and when another of the family dies, the remains of the person who
was last interred, are taken from the grave and burned.' _Mackenzie's
Voy._, p. 308. See also pp. 374, 295-98; _Simpson's Overland Journ._,
vol. i., pp. 203-4; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 272, 276, 280; _Mayne's B. C._,
pp. 272, 293; _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 235; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._,
pp. 440-41; _Dall's Alaska_, p. 417.

[270] On the coast, at 52° 12´, Vancouver found them 'civil,
good-humoured and friendly.' At Cascade Canal, about 52° 24´, 'in
traffic they proved themselves to be keen traders, but acted with the
strictest honesty;' at Point Hopkins 'they all behaved very civilly and
honestly;' while further north, at Observatory Inlet, 'in their
countenances was expressed a degree of savage ferocity infinitely
surpassing any thing of the sort I had before observed,' presents being
scornfully rejected. _Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 281, 269, 303, 337. The
Kitswinscolds on Skeena River 'are represented as a very superior race,
industrious, sober, cleanly, and peaceable.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p.
533. The Chimsyans are fiercer and more uncivilized than the Indians of
the South. _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 317. 'Finer and fiercer men than the
Indians of the South.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 250. 'They appear to be of a
friendly disposition, but they are subject to sudden gusts of passion,
which are as quickly composed; and the transition is instantaneous, from
violent irritation to the most tranquil demeanor. Of the many tribes ...
whom I have seen, these appear to be the most susceptible of
civilization.' _Mackenzie's Voy._, p. 375, 322. At Stewart's Lake the
natives, whenever there is any advantage to be gained are just as
readily tempted to betray each other as to deceive the colonists.
_Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 466-68, 458-59; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p.
174. A Kygarnie chief being asked to go to America or England, refused
to go where even chiefs were slaves--that is, had duties to
perform--while he at home was served by slaves and wives. The Sebassas
'are more active and enterprising than the Milbank tribes, but the
greatest thieves and robbers on the coast.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 287,
273. 'All these visitors of Fort Simpson are turbulent and fierce. Their
broils, which are invariably attended with bloodshed, generally arise
from the most trivial causes.' _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., p.
206. The Kygarnies 'are very cleanly, fierce and daring.' The islanders,
'when they visit the mainland, they are bold and treacherous, and always
ready for mischief.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi.,
p. 219. The Kygarnies 'are a very fierce, treacherous race, and have not
been improved by the rum and fire-arms sold to them.' _Dall's Alaska_,
p. 411. Queen Charlotte Islanders look upon white men as superior
beings, but conceal the conviction. The Skidagates are the most
intelligent race upon the islands. Wonderfully acute in reading
character, yet clumsy in their own dissimulation.... 'Not revengeful or
blood-thirsty, except when smarting under injury or seeking to avert an
imaginary wrong.' ... 'I never met with a really brave man among them.'
The Acoltas have 'given more trouble to the Colonial Government than any
other along the coast.' _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 83, 151-2, 185-6,
208, 214, 233, 235, 245, 257, 271-72, 289, 309, 320-21. 'Of a cruel and
treacherous disposition.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
vi., p. 197. They will stand up and fight Englishmen with their fists.
_Sproat's Scenes_, p. 23. Intellectually superior to the Puget Sound
tribes. _Reed's Nar._ 'Mansos y de buena indole.' _Crespi_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646. On Skeena River, 'the worst I
have seen in all my travels.' _Downie_, in _B. C. Papers_, vol. iii., p.
73. 'As rogues, where all are rogues,' preëminence is awarded them.
_Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., pp. 74-5.

[271] 'On my arrival at this inlet, I had honoured it with the name of
King George's Sound; but I afterward found, that it is called Nootka by
the natives.' _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., p. 288. 'No Aht Indian of
the present day ever heard of such a name as Nootkah, though most of
them recognize the other words in Cook's account of their language.'
_Sproat's Scenes_, p. 315. Sproat conjectures that the name may have
come from _Noochee! Noochee!_ the Aht word for mountain. A large
proportion of geographical names originate in like manner through
accident.

[272] For full particulars see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES at end of this chapter.

[273] 'The Newatees, mentioned in many books, are not known on the west
coast. Probably the Klah-oh-quahts are meant.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p.
314.

[274] There are no Indians in the interior. _Fitzwilliam's Evidence_, in
_Hud. B. Co., Rept. Spec. Com._, 1857, p. 115.

[275] The same name is also applied to one of the _Sound_ nations across
the strait in Washington.

[276] The Teets or Haitlins are called by the Tacullies, '_Sa-Chinco_'
strangers. _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., pp. 73-4.

[277] Sproat's division into nations, 'almost as distinct as the
nations of Europe' is into the Quoquoulth (Quackoll) or Fort Rupert,
in the north and north-east; the Kowitchan, or Thongeith, on the east
and south; Aht on the west coast; and Komux, a distinct tribe also on
the east of Vancouver. 'These tribes of the Ahts are not confederated;
and I have no other warrant for calling them a nation than the fact of
their occupying adjacent territories, and having the same
superstitions and language.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 18-19, 311. Mayne
makes by language four nations; the first including the Cowitchen in
the harbor and valley of the same name north of Victoria, with the
Nanaimo and Kwantlum Indians about the mouth of the Fraser River, and
the Songhies; the second comprising the Comoux, Nanoose, Nimpkish,
Quawguult, etc., on Vancouver, and the Squawmisht, Sechelt, Clahoose,
Ucle-tah, Mama-lil-a-culla, etc., on the main, and islands, between
Nanaimo and Fort Rupert; the third and fourth groups include the
twenty-four west-coast tribes who speak two distinct languages, not
named. _Mayne's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 243-51. Grant's division gives four
languages on Vancouver, viz., the Quackoll, from Clayoquot Sound north
to C. Scott, and thence S. to Johnson's Strait; the Cowitchin, from
Johnson's Strait to Sanetch Arm; the Tsclallum, or Clellum, from
Sanetch to Soke, and on the opposite American shore; and the Macaw,
from Patcheena to Clayoquot Sound. 'These four principal languages ...
are totally distinct from each other, both in sound, formation, and
modes of expression.' _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., p. 295. Scouler attempts no division into nations or
languages. _Lond. Geo. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 221, 224. Mofras
singularly designates them as one nation of 20,000 souls, under the
name of _Ouakich_. _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 343. Recent
investigations have shown a somewhat different relationship of these
languages, which I shall give more particularly in a subsequent
volume.

[278] See _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 272-86, on the 'effects upon savages of
intercourse with civilized men.' 'Hitherto, (1856) in Vancouver Island,
the tribes who have principally been in intercourse with the white man,
have found it for their interest to keep up that intercourse in amity
for the purposes of trade, and the white adventurers have been so few in
number, that they have not at all interfered with the ordinary pursuits
of the natives.' _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p.
303.

[279] 'Muy robustos y bien apersonados.' 'De mediana estatura, excepto
los Xefes cuya corpulencia se hace notar.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_,
pp. 55, 124. 'The young princess was of low stature, very plump.'
_Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 395. Macquilla, the chief was five feet
eight inches, with square shoulders and muscular limbs; his son was five
feet nine inches. _Belcher's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 110-12. The seaboard
tribes have 'not much physical strength.' _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p.
73. 'La gente dicen ser muy robusta.' _Perez_, _Rel. del Viage, MS._, p.
20. 'Leur taille est moyenne.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 343.
'In general, robust and well proportioned.' _Meares' Voy._, p. 249.
Under the common stature, pretty full and plump, but not muscular--never
corpulent, old people lean--short neck and clumsy body; women nearly the
same size as the men. _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 301-3. 'Of
smaller stature than the Northern Tribes; they are usually fatter and
more muscular.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p.
221. In the north, among the Clayoquots and Quackolls, men are often met
of five feet ten inches and over; on the south coast the stature varies
from five feet three inches to five feet six inches. _Grant_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 297. 'The men are in general from
about five feet six to five feet eight inches in height; remarkably
straight, of a good form, robust and strong.' Only one dwarf was seen.
_Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 60-61. The Klah-oh-quahts are 'as a tribe
physically the finest. Individuals may be found in all the tribes who
reach a height of five feet eleven inches, and a weight of 180 pounds,
without much flesh on their bodies.' Extreme average height: men, five
feet six inches, women, five feet one-fourth inch. 'Many of the men have
well-shaped forms and limbs. None are corpulent.' 'The men generally
have well-set, strong frames, and, if they had pluck and skill, could
probably hold their own in a grapple with Englishmen of the same
stature.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 22-3. 'Rather above the middle stature,
copper- and of an athletic make.' _Spark's Life of Ledyard_, p.
71; _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 442. 'Spare muscular forms.'
_Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, pp. 44; _Gordon's Hist. and Geog. Mem._, pp.
14-22.

[280] Limbs small, crooked, or ill-made; large feet; badly shaped, and
projecting ankles from sitting so much on their hams and knees. _Cook's
Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 301-3. 'Their limbs, though stout and
athletic, are crooked and ill-shaped.' _Meares' Voy._, p. 250. 'Ils ont
les membres inférieures légèrement arqués, les chevilles
très-saillantes, et la pointe des pieds tournée en dedans, difformité
qui provient de la manière dont ils sont assis dans leurs canots.'
_Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., pp. 343-4. 'Stunted, and move with a lazy
waddling gait.' _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 428. 'Skeleton shanks ... not
much physical strength ... bow-legged--defects common to the seaboard
tribes.' _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 73-4. All the females of the
Northwest Coast are very short-limbed. 'Raro es el que no tiene muy
salientes los tobillos y las puntas de los pies inclinadas hácia dentro
... y una especie de entumecimiento que se advierte, particularmente en
las mugeres.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 124, 30, 62-3. They have
great strength in the fingers. _Sproat's Scenes_ p. 33. Women,
short-limbed, and toe in. _Id._, p. 22; _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 282-3. 'The
limbs of both sexes are ill-formed, and the toes turned inwards.' 'The
legs of the women, especially those of the slaves, are often swollen as
if oedematous, so that the leg appears of an uniform thickness from the
ankle to the calf,' from wearing a garter. _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 221.

[281] The different Aht tribes vary in physiognomy somewhat--'faces of the
Chinese and Spanish types may be seen.' 'The face of the Ahts is rather
broad and flat; the mouth and lips of both men and women are large,
though to this there are exceptions, and the cheekbones are broad but
not high. The skull is fairly shaped, the eyes small and long, deep set,
in colour a lustreless inexpressive black, or very dark hazel, none being
blue, grey, or brown.... One occasionally sees an Indian with eyes
distinctly Chinese. The nose ... in some instances is remarkably
well-shaped.' 'The teeth are regular, but stumpy, and are deficient in
enamel at the points,' perhaps from eating sanded salmon. _Sproat's
Scenes_, pp. 19, 27. 'Their faces are large and full, their cheeks high
and prominent, with small black eyes; their noses are broad and flat;
their lips thick, and they have generally very fine teeth, and of the
most brilliant whiteness.' _Meares' Voy._, pp. 249-50; _Barrett-Lennard's
Trav._, p. 44. 'La fisonomia de estos (Nitinats) era differente de la de
los habitantes de Nutka: tenian el cráneo de figura natural, los ojos
chicos muy próximos, cargados los párpados.' Many have a languid look,
but few a stupid appearance. _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 28, 30,
62-3, 124. 'Dull and inexpressive eye.' 'Unprepossessing and stupid
countenances.' _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 74, 80. The Wickinninish
have 'a much less open and pleasing expression of countenance' than the
Klaizzarts. The Newchemass 'were the most savage looking and ugly men
that I ever saw.' 'The shape of the face is oval; the features are
tolerably regular, the lips being thin and the teeth very white and
even: their eyes are black but rather small, and the nose pretty well
formed, being neither flat nor very prominent.' The women 'are in
general very well-looking, and some quite handsome.' _Jewitt's Nar._,
pp. 76, 77, 61. 'Features that would have attracted notice for their
delicacy and beauty, in those parts of the world where the qualities of
the human form are best understood.' _Meares' Voy._, p. 250. Face round
and full, sometimes broad, with prominent cheek-bones ... falling in
between the temples, the nose flattening at the base, wide nostrils and
a rounded point ... forehead low; eyes small, black and languishing;
mouth round, with large, round, thickish lips; teeth tolerably equal and
well-set, but not very white. Remarkable sameness, a dull phlegmatic
want of expression; no pretensions to beauty among the women. _Cook's
Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 301-2. See portraits of Nootkas in
_Belcher's Voy._, vol. i., p. 108; _Cook's Atlas_, pl. 38-9; _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, _Atlas_; _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 75. 'Long nose, high
cheek bones, large ugly mouth, very long eyes, and foreheads
villainously low.' 'The women of Vancouver Island have seldom or ever
good features; they are almost invariably pug-nosed; they have however,
frequently a pleasing expression, and there is no lack of intelligence
in their dark hazel eyes.' _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., pp. 297-8. 'Though without any pretensions to beauty, could not
be considered as disagreeable.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 395.
'Have the common facial characteristics of low foreheads, high
cheek-bones, aquiline noses, and large mouths.' 'Among some of the
tribes pretty women may be seen.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 277.

[282] 'Her skin was clean, and being nearly white,' etc. _Vancouver's
Voy._, vol. i., p. 395. 'Reddish brown, like that of a dirty copper
kettle.' Some, when washed, have 'almost a florid complexion.' _Grant_,
in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. 297, 299. 'Brown, somewhat
inclining to a copper cast.' The women are much whiter, 'many of them
not being darker than those in some of the Southern parts of Europe.'
The Newchemass are much darker than the other tribes. _Jewitt's Nar._,
pp. 61, 77. 'Their complexion, though light, has more of a copper hue'
than that of the Haidahs. _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xi., p. 221. 'Skin white, with the clear complexion of Europe.' _Meares'
Voy._, p. 250. The color hard to tell on account of the paint, but in a
few cases 'the whiteness of the skin appeared almost to equal that of
Europeans; though rather of that pale effete cast ... of our southern
nations.... Their children ... also equalled ours in whiteness.' _Cook's
Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., p. 303. 'Their complexion is a dull brown,'
darker than the Haidahs. 'Cook and Meares probably mentioned exceptional
cases.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 23-4. 'Tan blancos como el mejor
Español.' _Perez_, _Rel. del Viage, MS._, p. 20. 'Por lo que se puede
inferir del (color) de los niños, parece menos obscuro que el de los
Mexicanos,' but judging by the chiefs' daughters they are wholly white.
_Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 125. 'A dark, swarthy copper-
figure.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 143. They 'have lighter complexions
than other aborigines of America.' _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, p. 116.
'Sallow complexion, verging towards copper colour.' _Barrett-Lennard's
Trav._, pp. 44-6. Copper-. _Spark's Life of Ledyard_, p. 71.

[283] 'The hair of the natives is never shaven from the head. It is
black or dark brown, without gloss, coarse and lank, but not scanty,
worn long.... Slaves wear their hair short. Now and then, but rarely, a
light-haired native is seen. There is one woman in the Opechisat tribe
at Alberni who had curly, or rather wavy, brown hair. Few grey-haired
men can be noticed in any tribe. The men's beards and whiskers are
deficient, probably from the old alleged custom, now seldom practiced,
of extirpating the hairs with small shells. Several of the Nootkah Sound
natives (Moouchahts) have large moustaches and whiskers.' _Sproat's
Scenes_, pp. 25-7. 'El cabello es largo lacio y grueso, variando su
color entre rubio, obscuro, castaño y <DW64>. La barba sale á los mozos
con la misma regularidad que á los de otros paises, y llega á ser en los
ancianos tan poblada y larga como la de los Turcos; pero los jóvenes
parecen imberbes porque se la arrancan con los dedos, ó mas comunmente
con pinzas formadas de pequeñas conchas.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_,
pp. 124-5, 57. 'Hair of the head is in great abundance, very coarse, and
strong; and without a single exception, black, straight and lank.' No
beards at all, or a small thin one on the chin, not from a natural
defect, but from plucking. Old men often have beards. Eyebrows scanty
and narrow. _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 301-3. 'Neither beard,
whisker, nor moustache ever adorns the face of the redskin.' _Lord's
Nat._, vol. i., p. 143; _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 61, 75, 77. Hair
'invariably either black or dark brown.' _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 297; _Meares' Voy._, p. 250; _Mayne's B. C._,
pp. 277-8; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 442; _Spark's Life of Ledyard_, p.
71.

[284] _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 304-8; _Sutil y Mexicana_,
_Viage_, pp. 126-7; _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 26-7; _Meares' Voy._, p. 254;
_Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 442; _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 21, 23, 62, 65,
77-8; _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 297;
_Mayne's B. C._, pp. 277-8; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 44.

[285] _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 242, 277, with cut of a child with bandaged
head, and of a girl with a sugar-loaf head, measuring eighteen inches
from the eyes to the summit. _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 28-30; _Grant_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 298; _Scouler_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 222; Meares' Voy., p. 249; _Macfie's
Vanc. Isl._, p. 441; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 124; _Lord's Nat._,
vol. i., p. 171; vol. ii., p. 103, cut of three skulls of flattened,
conical, and natural form; _Kane's Wand._, p. 241; _Jewitt's Nar._, p.
76; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 325; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._,
p. 45; _Gordon's Hist. and Geog. Mem._, p. 115.

[286] At Valdes Island, 'the faces of some were made intirely white,
some red, black, or lead colour.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 307,
341. At Nuñez Gaona Bay, 'se pintan de encarnado y <DW64>.' _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 30. At Nootka Sound, 'Con esta grasa (de ballena)
se untan todo el cuerpo, y despues se pintan con una especie de barniz
compuesto de la misma grasa ó aceyte, y de almagre en términos que
parece este su color natural.' Chiefs only may paint in varied colors,
plebeians being restricted to one.' _Id._, pp. 125-7. 'Many of the
females painting their faces on all occasions, but the men only at set
periods.' Vermilion is obtained by barter. Black, their war and mourning
color, is made by themselves. _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 442. 'Ces
Indiens enduisent leur corps d'huile de baleine, et se peignent avec des
ocres.' Chiefs only may wear different colors, and figures of animals.
_Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 344. 'Rub their bodies constantly with
a red paint, of a clayey or coarse ochry substance, mixed with oil....
Their faces are often stained with a black, a brighter red, or a white
colour, by way of ornament.... They also strew the brown martial mica
upon the paint, which makes it glitter.' _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol.
ii., p. 305. 'A line of vermilion extends from the centre of the
forehead to the tip of the nose, and from this "trunk line" others
radiate over and under the eyes and across the cheeks. Between these red
lines white and blue streaks alternately fill the interstices. A similar
pattern ornaments chest, arms, and back, the frescoing being
artistically arranged to give apparent width to the chest.' _Lord's
Nat._, vol. i., p. 143. 'They paint the face in hideous designs of black
and red (the only colours used), and the parting of the hair is also
 red.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 277. 'At great feasts the faces of
the women are painted red with vermilion or berry-juice, and the men's
faces are blackened with burnt wood. About the age of twenty-five the
women cease to use paint.... Some of the young men streak their faces
with red, but grown-up men seldom now use paint, unless on particular
occasions.... The leader of a war expedition is distinguished by a
streaked visage from his black-faced followers.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p.
27-8. The manner of painting is often a matter of whim. 'The most usual
method is to paint the eye-brows black, in form of a half moon, and the
face red in small squares, with the arms and legs and part of the body
red; sometimes one half of the face is painted red in squares, and the
other black; at others, dotted with red spots, or red and black instead
of squares, with a variety of other devices, such as painting one half
of the face and body red, and the other black.' _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 64;
_Meares' Voy._, p. 252; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 46; _Spark's Life
of Ledyard_, p. 71.

[287] 'The habit of tattooing the legs and arms is common to all the
women of Vancouver's Island; the men do not adopt it.' _Grant_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 307. 'No such practice as
tattooing exists among these natives.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 27. 'The
ornament on which they appear to set the most value, is the nose-jewel,
if such an appellation may be given to the wooden stick, which some of
them employ for this purpose.... I have seen them projecting not less
than eight or nine inches beyond the face on each side; this is made
fast or secured in its place by little wedges on each side of it.'
_Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 65-6, 75; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 344.
_Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 304-8; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_,
pp. 30, 126-7; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 442; _Whymper's Alaska_, pp.
37, 74, with cut of mask. _Mayne's B. C._, p. 268; _Kane's Wand._, pp.
221-2, and illustration of a hair medicine-cap.

[288] 'Their cloaks, which are circular capes with a hole in the centre,
edged with sea-otter skin, are constructed from the inner bark of the
cypress. It turns the rain, is very soft and pliable,' etc. _Belcher's
Voy._, vol. i., p. 112. The usual dress of the Newchemass 'is a
_kootsuck_ made of wolf skin, with a number of the tails attached to it
... hanging from the top to the bottom; though they sometimes wear a
similar mantle of bark cloth, of a much coarser texture than that of
Nootka.' _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 77-8, 21-3, 56-8, 62-6. 'Their common
dress is a flaxen garment, or mantle, ornamented on the upper edge by a
narrow strip of fur, and at the lower edge, by fringes or tassels. It
passes under the left arm, and is tied over the right shoulder, by a
string before, and one behind, near its middle.... Over this, which
reaches below the knees, is worn a small cloak of the same substance,
likewise fringed at the lower part.... Their head is covered with a cap,
of the figure of a truncated cone, or like a flower-pot, made of fine
matting, having the top frequently ornamented with a round or pointed
knob, or bunch of leathern tassels.' _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp.
304-8, 270-1, 280. 'The men's dress is a blanket; the women's a strip of
cloth, or shift, and blanket. The old costume of the natives was the
same as at present, but the material was different.' _Sproat's Scenes_,
pp. 25, 315. 'Their clothing generally consists of skins,' but they have
two other garments of bark or dog's hair. 'Their garments of all kinds
are worn mantlewise, and the borders of them are fringed' with wampum.
_Spark's Life of Ledyard_, pp. 71-2; _Colyer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1869, p. 533; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 30-1, 38, 56-7, 126-8;
_Meares' Voy._, pp. 251-4; _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., p. 297; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 143-4; _Mofras_, _Explor._,
tom. ii., pp. 344-5; _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 37; _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._,
p. 116; _Macfie's Van. Isl._, pp. 431, 443; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p.
46. See portraits in _Cook's Atlas_, _Belcher's Voy._, _Sutil y
Mexicana, Atlas_, and _Whymper's Alaska._

[289] On the east side of Vancouver was a village of thirty-four houses,
arranged in regular streets. The house of the leader 'was distinguished
by three rafters of stout timber raised above the roof, according to the
architecture of Nootka, though much inferior to those I had there seen,
in point of size.' Bed-rooms were separated, and more decency observed
than at Nootka Sound. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 346-7, with a
view of this village; also pp. 324-5, description of the village on
Desolation Sound; p. 338, on Valdes Island; p. 326, view of village on
Bute Canal; and vol. iii., pp. 310-11, a peculiarity not noticed by
Cook--'immense pieces of timber which are raised, and horizontally
placed on wooden pillars, about eighteen inches above the roof of the
largest houses in that village; one of which pieces of timber was of a
size sufficient to have made a lower mast for a third rate man of war.'
See _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 281, 313-19, and _Atlas_, plate
40. A sort of a duplicate inside building, with shorter posts, furnishes
on its roof a stage, where all kinds of property and supplies are
stored. _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 37-43. 'The planks or boards which they
make use of for building their houses, and for other uses, they procure
of different lengths, as occasion requires, by splitting them out, with
hard wooden wedges from pine logs, and afterwards dubbing them down with
their chizzels.' _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 52-4. Grant states that the Nootka
houses are palisade inclosures formed of stakes or young fir-trees, some
twelve or thirteen feet high, driven into the ground close together,
roofed in with slabs of fir or cedar. _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., p. 299. The Teets have palisaded enclosures. _Anderson_, in
_Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 74. 'The chief resides at the upper end, the
proximity of his relatives to him being according to their degree of
kindred.' _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 443-4; _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 243;
_Belcher's Voy._, vol. i., p. 112; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 158,
164-5, 167, 320-21; _Seemann's Voy. of Herald_, vol. i., pp. 105-6. The
carved pillars are not regarded by the natives as idols in any sense.
_Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 128-9, 102; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._,
pp. 47, 73-4. Some houses eighty by two hundred feet. _Colyer_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 533; _Mayne's B. C._, p. 296; _Gordon's Hist. and
Geog. Mem._, pp. 120-1.

[290] 'Their heads and their garments swarm with vermin, which, ... we
used to see them pick off with great composure, and eat.' _Cook's Voy.
to Pac._, vol. ii., p. 305. See also pp. 279-80, 318-24. 'Their mode of
living is very simple--their food consisting almost wholly of fish, or
fish spawn fresh or dried, the blubber of the whale, seal, or sea-cow,
muscles, clams, and berries of various kinds; all of which are eaten
with a profusion of train oil.' _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 58-60, 68-9, 86-8,
94-7, 103. _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 52-7, 61, 87, 144-9, 216-70. 'The
common business of fishing for ordinary sustenance is carried on by
slaves, or the lower class of people;--While the more noble occupation
of killing the whale and hunting the sea-otter, is followed by none but
the chiefs and warriors.' _Meares' Voy._, p. 258. 'They make use of the
dried fucus giganteus, anointed with oil, for lines, in taking salmon
and sea-otters.' _Belcher's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 112-13. _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 17, 26, 45-6, 59-60, 76, 129-30, 134-5; _Grant_,
in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. 299-300; _Mayne's B. C._,
pp. 252-7; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 165-442; _Simpson's Overland
Journ._, vol. i., p. 239; _Pemberton's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 28-32; _Dunn's
Oregon_, p. 243; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 338. The
Sau-kau-lutuck tribe 'are said to live on the edge of a lake, and
subsist principally on deer and bear, and such fish as they can take in
the lake.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 158-9; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._,
pp. 48, 74-5, 76-7, 85-6, 90-1, 144-50, 197-8; vol. ii., p. 111;
_Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, p. 100; _Forbes' Vanc. Isl._, pp. 54-5;
_Rattray's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 77-8, 82-3; _Hud. Bay Co., Rept. Spec. Com._,
1857, p. 114.

[291] _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 57, 63, 78; _Jewitt's Nar._, pp.
78-81; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 307; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p.
443; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., p. 100. 'The native bow, like the canoe
and paddle, is beautifully formed. It is generally made of yew or
crab-apple wood, and is three and a half feet long, with about two
inches at each end turned sharply backwards from the string. The string
is a piece of dried seal-gut, deer-sinew, or twisted bark. The arrows
are about thirty inches long, and are made of pine or cedar, tipped with
six inches of serrated bone, or with two unbarbed bone or iron prongs. I
have never seen an Aht arrow with a barbed head.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p.
82. 'Having now to a great extent discarded the use of the traditional
tomahawk and spear. Many of these weapons are, however, still preserved
as heirlooms among them.' _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 42. 'No bows and
arrows.' 'Generally fight hand to hand, and not with missiles.'
_Fitzwilliam's Evidence_, in _Hud. Bay Co. Rept._, 1857, p. 115.

[292] The Ahts 'do not take the scalp of the enemy, but cut off his
head, by three dexterous movements of the knife ... and the warrior who
has taken most heads is most praised and feared.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp.
186-202. 'Scalp every one they kill.' _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 470,
443, 467. One of the Nootka princes assured the Spaniards that the
bravest captains ate human flesh before engaging in battle. _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 130. The Nittinahts consider the heads of enemies
slain in battle as _spolia opima_. _Whymper's Alaska_, pp. 54, 78;
_Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 120-1; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 155-6, 158, 166,
171, vol. ii., p. 251-3. Women keep watch during the night, and tell the
exploits of their nation to keep awake. _Meares' Voy._, p. 267.
_Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 396; _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 296; _Mayne's B. C._, p. 270; _Barrett-Lennard's
Trav._, pp. 41-2, 129-36.

[293] 'They have no seats.... The rowers generally sit on their hams,
but sometimes they make use of a kind of small stool.' _Meares' Voy._,
pp. 263-4. The larger canoes are used for sleeping and eating, being dry
and more comfortable than the houses. _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii.,
pp. 319, 327, and _Atlas_, pl. 41. 'The most skillful canoe-makers among
the tribes are the Nitinahts and the Klah-oh-quahts. They make canoes
for sale to other tribes.' 'The baling-dish of the canoes, is always of
one shape--the shape of the gable-roof of a cottage.' _Sproat's Scenes_,
pp. 85, 87-8; _Mayne's B. C._, p. 283, and cut on title-page. Canoes not
in use are hauled up on the beach in front of their villages. _Grant_,
in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 301. 'They keep time to the
stroke of the paddle with their songs.' _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 69-71, 75;
_Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 39, 133; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p.
144; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 338. Their canoes 'are believed to
supply the pattern after which clipper ships are built.' _Macfie's Vanc.
Isl._, pp. 484, 430. _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 50. _Colyer_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 533.

[294] _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 271, 308, 316, 326, 329-30.
_Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 86-9, 317; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 129;
_Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 257-8, which describes a painted and
ornamented plate of native copper some one and a half by two and a half
feet, kept with great care in a wooden case, also elaborately
ornamented. It was the property of the tribe at Fort Rupert, and was
highly prized, and only brought out on great occasions, though its use
was not discovered. _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, p. 165.

[295] Woolen cloths of all degrees of fineness, made by hand and worked
in figures, by a method not known. _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., p.
325. _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 46, 136; _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii.,
p. 254; _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 88-9; _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 55; _Macfie's
Vanc. Isl._, pp. 442, 451, 483-5; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 344;
_Pemberton's Vanc. Isl._, p. 131; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, pp.
99-100. 'The implement used for weaving, (by the Teets) differed in no
apparent respect from the rude loom of the days of the Pharaohs.'
_Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 78.

[296] _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 79-81, 89, 96, 111-13; _Kane's Wand._, pp.
220-1; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 429, 437; _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol.
ii., p. 284; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 147; _Lord's Nat._, vol.
i., pp. 165-6; _Mayne's B. C._, 263-5.

[297] _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 78-80; _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 19, 55, 78-9,
92. Before the adoption of blankets as a currency, they used small
shells from the coast bays for coin, and they are still used by some of
the more remote tribes. _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxvii., p. 307. 'Their acuteness in barter is remarkable.' _Forbes'
Vanc. Isl._, p. 25.

[298] The Ahts 'divide the year into thirteen months, or rather moons,
and begin with the one that pretty well answers to our November. At the
same time, as their names are applied to each actual new moon as it
appears, they are not, by half a month and more (sometimes), identical
with our calendar months.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 121-4. 'Las personas
mas cultas dividen el año en catorce meses, y cada uno de estos en
veinte dias, agregando luego algunos dias intercalares al fin de cada
mes. El de Julio, que ellos llaman _Satz-tzi-mitl_, y es el primero de
su año, á mas de sus veinte dias ordinarios tiene tantos intercalares
quantos dura la abundancia de lenguados, atunes, etc.' _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 153-4, 148; _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. 295, 304; _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 242-4.

[299] 'They shew themselves ingenious sculptors. They not only preserve,
with great exactness, the general character of their own faces, but
finish the more minute parts, with a degree of accuracy in proportion,
and neatness in execution.' _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 326-7,
and _Atlas_, pl. 40; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 164-5, vol. ii., pp.
257-8, and cut, p. 103; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 444-7, 484; _Mayne's
B. C._, cut on p. 271.

[300] 'In an Aht tribe of two hundred men, perhaps fifty possess various
degrees of acquired or inherited rank; there may be about as many
slaves; the remainder are independent members.' Some of the
Klah-oh-quahts 'pay annually to their chief certain contributions,
consisting of blankets, skins, etc.' 'A chief's "blue blood" avails not
in a dispute with one of his own people; he must fight his battle like a
common man.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 113-17, 18-20, 226. Cheslakees, a
chief on Johnson's Strait, was inferior but not subordinate in authority
to Maquinna, the famous king at Nootka Sound, but the chief at
Loughborough's Channel claimed to be under Maquinna. _Vancouver's Voy._,
vol. i., pp. 346, 331. 'La dignidad de Tays es hereditaria de padres á
hijos, y pasa regularmente á estos luego que estan en edad de gobernar,
si los padres por ancianidad ú otras causas no pueden seguir mandando.'
'El gobierno de estos naturales puede llamarse Patriarcal; pues el Xefe
de la nacion hace á un mismo tiempo los oficios de padre de familia, de
Rey y de Sumo Sacerdote.' 'Los nobles gozan de tanta consideracion en
Nutka, que ni aun de palabra se atreven los Tayses á reprehenderlos.'
'Todos consideraban á este (Maquinna) como Soberano de las costas, desde
la de Buena Esperanza hasta la punta de Arrecifes, con todos los Canales
interiores.' To steal, or to know carnally a girl nine years old, is
punished with death. _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 140, 136, 147, 19,
25. 'There are such men as Chiefs, who are distinguished by the name or
title of _Acweek_, and to whom the others are, in some measure,
subordinate. But, I should guess, the authority of each of these great
men extends no farther than the family to which he belongs.' _Cook's
Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 333-4. 'La forme de leur gouvernement est
toute patriarcale, et la dignité de chef, héréditaire.' _Mofras_,
_Explor._, tom. ii., p. 346. Several very populous villages to the
northward, included in the territory of Maquilla, the head chief, were
entrusted to the government of the principal of his female relations.
The whole government formed a political bond of union similar to the
feudal system which formerly obtained in Europe. _Meares' Voy._, pp.
228-9. 'The king or head Tyee, is their leader in war, in the management
of which he is perfectly absolute. He is also president of their
councils, which are almost always regulated by his opinion. But he has
no kind of power over the property of his subjects.' _Jewitt's Nar._,
pp. 138-9, 47, 69, 73. _Kane's Wand._, pp. 220-1. 'There is no code of
laws, nor do the chiefs possess the power or means of maintaining a
regular government; but their personal influence is nevertheless very
great with their followers.' _Douglas_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xxiv., p. 246.

[301] 'Usually kindly treated, eat of the same food, and live as well as
their masters.' 'None but the king and chiefs have slaves.' 'Maquinna
had nearly fifty, male and female, in his house.' _Jewitt's Nar._, pp.
73-4. Meares states that slaves are occasionally sacrificed and feasted
upon. _Voy._, p. 255. The Newettee tribe nearly exterminated by
kidnappers. _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 242. 'An owner might bring half a dozen
slaves out of his house and kill them publicly in a row without any
notice being taken of the atrocity. But the slave, as a rule, is not
harshly treated.' 'Some of the smaller tribes at the north of the Island
are practically regarded as slave-breeding tribes, and are attacked
periodically by stronger tribes.' The American shore of the strait is
also a fruitful source of slaves. _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 89-92. 'They
say that one Flathead slave is worth more than two Roundheads.' _Rept.
Ind. Aff._, 1857, p. 327; _Mayne's B. C._, p. 284; _Grant_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 296; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp.
154-5, 166; _Kane's Wand._, p. 220; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 131;
_Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 431, 442, 470-1.

[302] 'The women go to bed first, and are up first in the morning to
prepare breakfast,' p. 52. 'The condition of the Aht women is not one of
unseemly inferiority,' p. 93. 'Their female relations act as midwives.
There is no separate place for lying-in. The child, on being born, is
rolled up in a mat among feathers.' 'They suckle one child till another
comes,' p. 94. 'A girl who was known to have lost her virtue, lost with
it one of her chances of a favourable marriage, and a chief ... would
have put his daughter to death for such a lapse,' p. 95. In case of a
separation, if the parties belong to different tribes, the children go
with the mother, p. 96. 'No traces of the existence of polyandry among
the Ahts,' p. 99. The personal modesty of the Aht women when young is
much greater than that of the men, p. 315. _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 28-30,
50-2, 93-102, 160, 264, 315. One of the chiefs said that three was the
number of wives permitted: 'como número necesario para no comunicar con
la que estuviese en cinta.' 'Muchos de ellos mueren sin casarse.' 'El
Tays no puede hacer uso de sus mugeres sin ver enteramente iluminado el
disco de la luna.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 141-6. Women treated
with no particular respect in any situation. _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol.
ii., p. 318. Persons of the same crest are not allowed to marry. 'The
child again always takes the crest of the mother.' 'As a rule also,
descent is traced from the mother, not from the father.' 'Intrigue with
the wives of men of other tribes is one of the commonest causes of
quarrel among the Indians.' _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 257-8, 276; _Macfie's
Vanc. Isl._, pp. 444-7. The women are 'very reserved and chaste.'
_Meares' Voy._, pp. 251, 258, 265, 268; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 239-40. The
Indian woman, to sooth her child, makes use of a springy stick fixed
obliquely in the ground to which the cradle is attached by a string,
forming a convenient baby-jumper. _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 259;
_Pemberton's Vanc. Isl._, p. 131; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., pp.
346-7. 'Where there are no slaves in the tribe or family they perform
all the drudgery of bringing firewood, water, &c.' _Grant_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. 298-9, 304. No intercourse between
the newly married pair for a period of ten days, p. 129. 'Perhaps in no
part of the world is virtue more prized,' p. 74. _Jewitt's Nar._, pp.
59-60, 74, 127-9; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, p. 101.

[303] 'When relieved from the presence of strangers, they have much easy
and social conversation among themselves.' 'The conversation is
frequently coarse and indecent.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 50-1. 'Cantando
y baylando al rededor de las hogueras, abandonándose á todos los excesos
de la liviandad.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 133.

[304] _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 55-6; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 144.

[305] _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 299;
_Mayne's B. C._, pp. 275-6; _Pemberton's Vanc. Isl._, p. 134; _Macfie's
Vanc. Isl._, p. 444; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 53.

[306] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 269. But Lord says 'nothing can be done
without it.' _Nat._, vol. i., p. 168.

[307] The Indian never invites any of the same crest as himself.
_Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, 445. 'They are very particular about whom they
invite to their feasts, and, on great occasions, men and women feast
separately, the women always taking the precedence.' _Duncan_, in
_Mayne's B. C._, pp. 263-6; _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 59-63.

[308] _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 259-60.

[309] 'I have never seen an Indian woman dance at a feast, and believe
it is seldom if ever done.' _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 267-9. The women
generally 'form a separate circle, and chaunt and jump by themselves.'
_Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 306. 'As a rule,
the men and women do not dance together; when the men are dancing the
women sing and beat time,' but there is a dance performed by both sexes.
_Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 66-7. 'On other occasions a male chief will
invite a party of female guests to share his hospitality.' _Macfie's
Vanc. Isl._, p. 431. 'Las mugeres baylan desayradisimamente; rara vez se
prestan á esta diversion.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 152.

[310] 'La decencia obliga á pasar en silencio los bayles obscenos de los
Mischîmis (common people), especialmente el del impotente á causa de la
edad, y el del pobre que no ha podido casarse.' _Sutil y Mexicana_,
_Viage_, pp. 151-2, 18; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 432-7; _Sproat's
Scenes_, pp. 65-71; _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 266-7; _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 389;
_Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 306; _Cornwallis'
New El Dorado_, pp. 99-103.

[311] _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 39, 60, 72-3; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. iii.,
pp. 307-10; _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 310-11.

[312] Their music is mostly grave and serious, and in exact concert,
when sung by great numbers. 'Variations numerous and expressive, and the
cadence or melody powerfully soothing.' _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii.,
pp. 310-11, 283. Dislike European music. _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_,
pp. 151-2. 'Their tunes are generally soft and plaintive, and though not
possessing great variety, are not deficient in harmony.' Jewitt thinks
the words of the songs may be borrowed from other tribes. _Jewitt's
Nar._, p. 72, and specimen of war song, p. 166. Airs consist of five or
six bars, varying slightly, time being beaten in the middle of the bar.
'Melody they have none, there is nothing soft, pleasing, or touching in
their airs; they are not, however, without some degree of rude harmony.'
_Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xviii., p. 306. 'A certain
beauty of natural expression in many of the native strains, if it were
possible to relieve them from the monotony which is their fault.' There
are old men, wandering minstrels, who sing war songs and beg. 'It is
remarkable how aptly the natives catch and imitate songs heard from
settlers or travelers.' _Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 63-5.

[313] _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 430-1; _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 39.

[314] 'I have seen the sorcerers at work a hundred times, but they use
so many charms, which appear to me ridiculous,--they sing, howl, and
gesticulate in so extravagant a manner, and surround their office with
such dread and mystery,--that I am quite unable to describe their
performances,' pp. 169-70. 'An unlucky dream will stop a sale, a treaty,
a fishing, hunting, or war expedition,' p. 175. _Sproat's Scenes_, pp.
165-75. A chief, offered a piece of tobacco for allowing his portrait to
be made, said it was a small reward for risking his life. _Kane's
Wand._, p. 240. Shrewd individuals impose on their neighbors by
pretending to receive a revelation, telling them where fish or berries
are most abundant. Description of initiatory ceremonies of the
sorcerers. _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 446, 433-7, 451. _Jewitt's Nar._,
pp. 98-9. A brave prince goes to a distant lake, jumps from a high rock
into the water, and rubs all the skin off his face with pieces of rough
bark, amid the applause of his attendants. Description of king's
prayers, and ceremonies to bring rain. _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp.
145-6, 37. Candidates are thrown into a state of _mesmerism_ before
their initiation. _'Medicus'_, in _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. v., pp.
227-8; _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, pp. 51-3; _Californias, Noticias_, pp.
61-85.

[315] They brought for sale 'human skulls, and hands not yet quite
stripped of the flesh, which they made our people plainly understand
they had eaten; and, indeed, some of them had evident marks that they
had been upon the fire.' _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., p. 271. Slaves
are occasionally sacrificed and feasted upon. _Meares' Voy._, p. 255.
'No todos habian comido la carne humana, ni en todo tiempo, sino
solamente los guerreros mas animosos quando se preparaban para salir á
campaña.' 'Parece indudable que estos salvages han sido antropófagos.'
_Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 130. 'At Nootka Sound, and at the
Sandwich Islands, Ledyard witnessed instances of cannibalism. In both
places he saw human flesh prepared for food.' _Spark's Life of Ledyard_,
p. 74; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, pp. 104-6. 'Cannibalism, all-though
unknown among the Indians of the Columbia, is practised by the savages
on the coast to the northward.' _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 310-11. The
cannibal ceremonies quoted by Macfie and referred to Vancouver Island,
probably were intended for the Haidahs farther north. _Vanc. Isl._, p.
434. A slave as late as 1850 was drawn up and down a pole by a hook
through the skin and tendons of the back, and afterwards devoured.
_Medicus_, in _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. v., p. 223. 'L'anthropophagie
á été longtemps en usage ... et peut-être y existe-t-elle encore.... Le
chef Maquina ... tuait un prisonnier à chaque lune nouvelle. Tous les
chefs étaient invités à cette horrible fête.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom.
ii., p. 345. 'It is not improbable that the suspicion that the Nootkans
are cannibals may be traced to the practice of some custom analagous to
the _Tzeet-tzaiak_ of the Haeel tzuk.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 223-4. 'The horrid practice of sacrificing a
victim is not annual, but only occurs either once in three years or else
at uncertain intervals.' _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 156.

[316] 'Rheumatism and paralysis are rare maladies.' Syphilis is probably
indigenous. Amputation, blood-letting, and metallic medicine not
employed. Medicines to produce love are numerous. 'Young and old of both
sexes are exposed when afflicted with lingering disease.' _Sproat's
Scenes_, pp. 251-7, 282, 213-4. 'Headache is cured by striking the part
affected with small branches of the spruce tree.' Doctors are generally
chosen from men who have themselves suffered serious maladies. _Macfie's
Vanc. Isl._, pp. 438-40. 'Their cure for rheumatism or similar pains ...
is by cutting or scarifying the part affected.' _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 142.
They are sea sick on European vessels. _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, p. 81.
Description of ceremonies. _Swan_, in _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 261-3, 304.
'The patient is put to bed, and for the most part starved, lest the food
should be consumed by his internal enemy.' 'The warm and steam bath is
very frequently employed.' _Medicus_, in _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol.
v., pp. 226-8.

[317] The custom of burning or burying property is wholly confined to
chiefs. 'Night is their time for interring the dead.' Buffoon tricks,
with a feast and dance, formed part of the ceremony. _Jewitt's Nar._,
pp. 105, 111-2, 136. At Valdes Island, 'we saw two sepulchres built with
plank about five feet in height, seven in length, and four in breadth.
These boards were curiously perforated at the ends and sides, and the
tops covered with loose pieces of plank;' inclosed evidently the relics
of many different bodies. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 338-9. 'The
coffin is usually an old canoe, lashed round and round, like an Egyptian
mummy-case.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 170. 'There is generally some
grotesque figure painted on the outside of the box, or roughly
sculptured out of wood and placed by the side of it. For some days after
death the relatives burn salmon or venison before the tomb.' 'They will
never mention the name of a dead man.' _Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. 301-3. 'As a rule, the Indians burn their dead,
and then bury the ashes.' 'It was at one time not uncommon for Indians
to desert forever a lodge in which one of their family had died.'
_Mayne's B. C._, pp. 271-2, with cut of graves. For thirty days after
the funeral, dirges are chanted at sunrise and sunset. _Macfie's Vanc.
Isl._, pp. 447-8. Children frequently, but grown persons never, were
found hanging in trees. _Meares' Voy._, p. 268; _Sproat's Scenes_, pp.
258-63. The bodies of chiefs are hung in trees on high mountains, while
those of the commons are buried, that their souls may have a shorter
journey to their residence in a future life. _Sutil y Mexicana_,
_Viage_, pp. 139-40. 'The Indians never inter their dead,' and rarely
burn them. _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p. 51.

[318] 'As light-fingered as any of the Sandwich Islanders. Of a quiet,
phlegmatic, and inactive disposition.' 'A docile, courteous,
good-natured people ... but quick in resenting what they look upon as an
injury; and, like most other passionate people, as soon forgetting it.'
Not curious; indolent; generally fair in trade, and would steal only
such articles as they wanted for some purpose. _Cook's Voy. to Pac._,
vol. ii., pp. 272, 308-12, etc. 'Exceedingly hospitable in their own
homes, ... lack neither courage nor intelligence.' _Pemberton's Vanc.
Isl._, p. 131. The Kla-iz-zarts 'appear to be more civilized than any of
the others.' The Cayuquets are thought to be deficient in courage; and
the Kla-os-quates 'are a fierce, bold, and enterprizing people.'
_Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 75-7. 'Civil and inoffensive' at Horse Sound.
_Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 307. 'Their moral deformities are as
great as their physical ones.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 88. The
Nittinahts given to aggressive war, and consequently 'bear a bad
reputation.' _Whymper's Alaska_, p. 74. Not brave, and a slight repulse
daunts them. 'Sincere in his friendship, kind to his wife and children,
and devotedly loyal to his own tribe,' p. 51. 'In sickness and
approaching death, the savage always becomes melancholy,' p. 162.
_Sproat's Scenes_, pp. 30, 36, 52, 91, 119-24, 150-66, 187, 216. 'Comux
and Yucletah fellows very savage and uncivilized dogs,' and the Nootkas
not to be trusted. 'Cruel, bloodthirsty, treacherous and cowardly.'
_Grant_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. 294, 296, 298,
305, 307. _Mayne's B. C._, p. 246; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 190,
460-1, 472, 477, 484; _Poole's Q. Char. Isl._, pp. 294-6. The Spaniards
gave the Nootkas a much better character than voyagers of other nations.
_Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 25, 31-2, 57-9, 63, 99, 107, 133,
149-51, 154-6; _Forbes' Vanc. Isl._, p. 25; _Rattray's Vanc. Isl._, pp.
172-3. The Ucultas 'are a band of lawless pirates and robbers, levying
black-mail on all the surrounding tribes.' _Barrett-Lennard's Trav._, p.
43. 'Bold and ferocious, sly and reserved, not easily provoked, but
revengeful.' _Spark's Life of Ledyard_, p. 72. The Teets have 'all the
vices of the coast tribes' with 'none of the redeeming qualities of the
interior nations.' _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 78.

[319] 'Those who came within our notice so nearly resembled the people
of Nootka, that the best delineation I can offer is a reference to the
description of those people' (by Cook), p. 252. At Cape Flattery they
closely resembled those of Nootka and spoke the same language, p. 218.
At Gray Harbor they seemed to vary in little or no respect 'from those
on the sound, and understood the Nootka tongue', p. 83. 'The character
and appearance of their several tribes here did not seem to differ in
any material respect from each other,' p. 288. Evidence that the country
was once much more thickly peopled, p. 254. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i.,
pp. 218, 252, 254, 288; vol. ii., p. 83. The Chehalis come down as far
as Shoal-water Bay. A band of Klikatats (Sahaptins) is spoken of near
the head of the Cowlitz. 'The Makahs resemble the northwestern Indians
far more than their neighbors.' The Lummi are a branch of the Clallams.
_Rept. Ind. Aff._, 1854, pp. 240-4. The Lummi 'traditions lead them to
believe that they are descendants of a better race than common savages.'
The Semianmas 'are intermarried with the north band of the Lummis, and
Cowegans, and Quantlums.' The Neuk-wers and Siamanas are called Stick
Indians, and in 1852 had never seen a white. 'The Neuk-sacks (Mountain
Men) trace from the salt water Indians,' and 'are entirely different
from the others.' 'The Loomis appear to be more of a wandering class
than the others about Bellingham Bay.' _Id._, 1857, pp. 327-9. 'They can
be divided into two classes--the salt-water and the Stick Indians.'
_Id._, 1857, p. 224. Of the Nisquallies 'some live in the plains, and
others on the banks of the Sound.' The Classets have been less affected
than the Chinooks by fever and ague. _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 231-5. The
Clallams speak a kindred language to that of the Ahts. _Sproat's
Scenes_, p. 270. 'El gobierno de estos naturales de la entrada y canales
de Fuca, la disposicion interior de las habitaciones las manufacturas y
vestidos que usan son muy parecidos á los de los habitantes de Nutka.'
_Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 111. The Sound Indians live in great
dread of the Northern tribes. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
iv., p. 513. The Makahs deem themselves much superior to the tribes of
the interior, because they go out on the ocean. _Scammon_, in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. vii., pp. 277-8. The Nooksaks are entirely distinct from
the Lummi, and some suppose them to have come from the Clallam country.
_Coleman_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xxxix., p. 799. _Stevens_, in _Pac.
R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 428.

[320] At Port Discovery they 'seemed capable of enduring great fatigue.'
'Their cheek-bones were high.' 'The oblique eye of the Chinese was not
uncommon.' 'Their countenances wore an expression of wildness, and they
had, in the opinion of some of us, a melancholy cast of features.' Some
of women would with difficulty be distinguished in colour from those of
European race. The Classet women 'were much better looking than those of
other tribes.' Portrait of a Tatouche chief. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 317-8, 320, 517-8. 'All are bow-legged.' 'All of
a sad-, Caravaggio brown.' 'All have coarse, black hair, and are
beardless.' _Winthrop's Canoe and Saddle_, p. 32. 'Tall and stout.'
_Maurelle's Jour._, p. 28. Sproat mentions a Clallam slave who 'could
see in the dark like a racoon.' _Scenes_, p. 52. The Classet 'cast of
countenance is very different from that of the Nootkians ... their
complexion in also much fairer and their stature shorter.' _Jewitt's
Nar._, p. 75. The Nisqually Indians 'are of very large stature; indeed,
the largest I have met with on the continent. The women are particularly
large and stout.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 207, 228, 234. The Nisquallies are
by no means a large race, being from five feet five inches to five feet
nine inches in height, and weighing from one hundred and thirty to one
hundred and eighty pounds. _Anderson_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p.
227. 'De rostro hermoso y da gallarda figura.' _Navarrete_, in _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. xciv. The Queniults, 'the finest-looking Indians
I had ever seen.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 78-9. Neuksacks stronger and
more athletic than other tribes. Many of the Lummi 'very fair and have
light hair.' _Rept. Ind. Aff._, 1857, p. 328; _Pickering's Races_, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 23; _Morton's Crania_, p. 215, with plate
of Cowlitz skull; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, p. 97; _Vancouver's
Voy._, vol. i., p. 252; _Murphy and Harned_, _Puget Sound Directory_,
pp. 64-71; _Clark's Lights and Shadows_, pp. 214-15, 224-6.

[321] 'Less bedaubed with paint and less filthy' than the Nootkas. At
Port Discovery 'they wore ornaments, though none were observed in their
noses.' At Cape Flattery the nose ornament was straight, instead of
crescent-shaped, as among the Nootkas. Vancouver supposed their garments
to be composed of dog's hair mixed with the wool of some wild animal,
which he did not see. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 218, 230, 266. At
Port Discovery some had small brass bells hung in the rim of the ears,
p. 318. Some of the Skagits were tattooed with lines on the arms and
face, and fond of brass rings, pp. 511-12. The Classets 'wore small
pieces of an iridescent mussel-shell, attached to the cartilage of their
nose, which was in some, of the size of a ten cents piece, and
triangular in shape. It is generally kept in motion by their breathing,'
p. 517. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 317-20, 334,
404, 444, 511-2, 517-8. The conical hats and stout bodies 'brought to
mind representations of Siberian tribes.' _Pickering's Races_, in
_Idem._, vol. ix., p. 23. The Clallams 'wear no clothing in summer.'
Faces daubed with red and white mud. Illustration of head-flattening.
_Kane's Wand._, pp. 180, 207, 210-11, 224. _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
i., pp. 108-9; _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, p. 299; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 232-3;
_San Francisco Bulletin_, _May 24, 1859_; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p.
243; _Id._, 1857, p. 329; _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p.
430. Above Gray Harbor they were dressed with red deer skins.
_Navarrete_, in _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. xciv: _Cornwallis' New
El Dorado_, p. 97; _Winthrop's Canoe and Saddle_, p. 32-3; _Murphy and
Harned_, in _Puget Sd. Direct._, pp. 64-71.

[322] The Skagit tribe being exposed to attacks from the north, combine
dwellings and fort, and build themselves 'enclosures, four hundred feet
long, and capable of containing many families, which are constructed of
pickets made of thick planks, about thirty feet high. The pickets are
firmly fixed into the ground, the spaces between them being only
sufficient to point a musket through.... The interior of the enclosure
is divided into lodges,' p. 511. At Port Discovery the lodges were 'no
more than a few rudely-cut slabs, covered in part by coarse mats,' p.
319. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 319-20, 511, 517.
The Clallams also have a fort of pickets one hundred and fifty feet
square, roofed over and divided into compartments for families. 'There
were about two hundred of the tribe in the fort at the time of my
arrival.' 'The lodges are built of cedar like the Chinook lodges, but
much larger, some of them being sixty or seventy feet long.' _Kane's
Wand._, pp. 210, 219, 227-9. 'Their houses are of considerable size,
often fifty to one hundred feet in length, and strongly built.' _Rept.
Ind. Aff._, 1854, pp. 242-3. 'The planks forming the roof run the whole
length of the building, being guttered to carry off the water, and
sloping slightly to one end.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i.,
pp. 429-30. Well built lodges of timber and plank on Whidbey Island.
_Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., p. 300. At New Dungeness, 'composed
of nothing more than a few mats thrown over cross sticks;' and on Puget
Sound 'constructed something after the fashion of a soldier's tent, by
two cross sticks about five feet high, connected at each end by a
ridge-pole from one to the other, over some of which was thrown a coarse
kind of mat; over others a few loose branches of trees, shrubs or
grass.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 225, 262. The Queniults
sometimes, but not always, whitewash the interior of their lodges with
pipe-clay, and then paint figures of fishes and animals in red and black
on the white surface. See description and cuts of exterior and interior
of Indian lodge in _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 266-7, 330, 338; _Crane's
Top. Mem._, p. 65; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, p. 98; _Clark's Lights
and Shadows_, p. 225.

[323] The Nootsaks, 'like all inland tribes, they subsist principally by
the chase.' _Coleman_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xxxix., pp. 795, 799,
815; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 328. Sturgeon abound weighing 400 to
600 pounds, and are taken by the Clallams by means of a spear with a
handle seventy to eighty feet long, while lying on the bottom of the
river in spawning time. Fish-hooks are made of cedar root with bone
barbs. Their only vegetables are the camas, wappatoo, and fern roots.
_Kane's Wand._, pp. 213-14, 230-4, 289. At Puget Sound, 'men, women and
children were busily engaged like swine, rooting up this beautiful
verdant meadow in quest of a species of wild onion, and two other roots,
which in appearance and taste greatly resembled the saranne.'
_Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 225, 234, 262. In fishing for salmon at
Port Discovery 'they have two nets, the drawing and casting net, made of
a silky grass,' 'or of the fibres of the roots of trees, or of the inner
bark of the white cedar.' _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 147. 'The line is
made either of kelp or the fibre of the cypress, and to it is attached
an inflated bladder.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i., p. 109. At Port
Townsend, 'leurs provisions, consistaient en poisson séché au soleil ou
boucané; ... tout rempli de sable.' _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, pp. 182-3,
299. The Clallams 'live by fishing and hunting around their homes, and
never pursue the whale and seal as do the sea-coast tribes.' _Scammon_,
in _Overland Monthly_, vol. vii., p. 278. The Uthlecan or candle-fish is
used on Fuca Strait for food as well as candles. _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., p. 241. Lamprey eels are dried for food and light by the
Nisquallies and Chehalis. 'Cammass root, ... stored in baskets. It is a
kind of sweet squills, and about the size of a small onion. It is
extremely abundant on the open prairies, and particularly on those which
are overflowed by the small streams.' Cut of salmon fishery, p. 335.
'Hooks are made in an ingenious manner of the yew tree.' 'They are
chiefly employed in trailing for fish.' Cut of hooks, pp. 444-5. The
Classets make a cut in the nose when a whale is taken. Each seal-skin
float has a different pattern painted on it, p. 517. _Wilkes' Nar._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 318-19, 335, 444-5, 517-18. The Chehalis
live chiefly on salmon. _Id._, vol. v., p. 140. According to Swan the
Puget Sound Indians sometimes wander as far as Shoalwater Bay in Chinook
territory, in the spring. The Queniult Indians are fond of large
barnacles, not eaten by the Chinooks of Shoalwater Bay. Cut of a
sea-otter hunt. The Indians never catch salmon with a _baited_ hook, but
always use the hook as a _gaff_. _N. W. Coast_, pp. 59, 87, 92, 163,
264, 271; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., pp. 293-4, 301, 388-9;
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 241; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 732-5; _Stevens_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 429. 'They all depend upon fish,
berries, and roots for a subsistence, and get their living with great
ease.' _Starling_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 600-2. The
Makahs live 'by catching cod and halibut on the banks north and east of
Cape Flattery.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._ 1858, p. 231. 'When in a state of
semi-starvation the beast shows very plainly in them (Stick Indians):
they are generally foul feeders, but at such a time they eat anything,
and are disgusting in the extreme.' _Id._, 1858, p. 225; _Id._, 1860, p.
195; _Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, p. 97; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp.
102-5; _Hittell_, in _Hesperian_, vol. iii., p. 408; _Winthrop's Canoe
and Saddle_, pp. 33-7; _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 28.

[324] _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 253. At Gray Harbor the bows were
somewhat more circular than elsewhere. _Id._, vol. ii., p. 84; _Wilkes'
Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 319; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 209-10.

[325] _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 321; _Kane's
Wand._, pp. 231-2; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 234. 'They have been
nearly annihilated by the hordes of northern savages that have infested,
and do now, even at the present day, infest our own shores' for slaves.
They had fire-arms before our tribes, thus gaining an advantage.' _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 327; _Clark's Lights and Shadows_, p. 224.

[326] _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 287.

[327] 'A single thread is wound over rollers at the top and bottom of a
square frame, so as to form a continuous woof through which an alternate
thread is carried by the hand, and pressed closely together by a sort of
wooden comb; by turning the rollers every part of the woof is brought
within reach of the weaver; by this means a bag formed, open at each
end, which being cut down makes a square blanket.' _Kane's Wand._, pp.
210-11. Cuts showing the loom and process of weaving among the Nootsaks,
also house, canoes, and willow baskets. _Coleman_, in _Harper's Mag._,
vol. xxxix., pp. 799-800. The Clallams 'have a kind of cur with soft and
long white hair, which they shear and mix with a little wool or the
ravelings of old blankets.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i.,
p. 431. The Makahs have 'blankets and capes made of the inner bark of
the cedar, and edged with fur.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 241-2;
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 32. The candle-fish
'furnishes the natives with their best oil, which is extracted by the
very simple process of hanging it up, exposed to the sun, which in a few
days seems to melt it away.' _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., p.
388. They 'manufacture some of their blankets from the wool of the wild
goat.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 231. The Queniults showed 'a blanket
manufactured from the wool of mountain sheep, which are to be found on
the precipitous <DW72>s of the Olympian Mountains.' _Alta California_,
_Feb. 9, 1861_, quoted in _California Farmer_, _July 25, 1862_;
_Cornwallis' New El Dorado_, p. 97; _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, vol. ix., p. 26.

[328] 'They present a model of which a white mechanic might well be
proud.' Description of method of making, and cuts of Queniult, Clallam,
and Cowlitz canoes, and a Queniult paddle. _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp.
79-82. At Port Orchard they 'exactly corresponded with the canoes of
Nootka,' while those of some visitors were 'cut off square at each end,'
and like those seen below Cape Orford. At Gray Harbor the war canoes
'had a piece of wood rudely carved, perforated, and placed at each end,
three feet above the gunwale; through these holes they are able to
discharge their arrows.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 264; vol. ii.,
p. 84. The Clallam boats were 'low and straight, and only adapted to the
smoother interior waters.' _Scammon_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. vii.,
p. 278. Cut showing Nootsak canoes in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xxxix., p.
799. 'The sides are exceedingly thin, seldom exceeding three-fourths of
an inch.' To mend the canoe when cracks occur, 'holes are made in the
sides, through which withes are passed, and pegged in such a way that
the strain will draw it tighter; the withe is then crossed, and the end
secured in the same manner. When the tying is finished, the whole is
pitched with the gum of the pine.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. iv., pp. 320-1. The Clallams have 'a very large canoe of ruder
shape and workmanship, being wide and shovel-nosed,' used for the
transportation of baggage. _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 243; _Stevens_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 430-1; _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
i., p. 108; _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., pp. 25-6;
_Winthrop's Canoe and Saddle_, p. 20; _Clark's Lights and Shadows_, pp.
224-6.

[329] _Kane's Wand._, pp. 237-9; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, p. 409;
_Starling_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 601; _Pickering's
Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 26.

[330] 'Ils obéissent à un chef, qui n'exerce son pouvoir qu'en temps de
guerre.' _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, p. 299. At Gray Harbor 'they appeared to
be divided into three different tribes, or parties, each having one or
two chiefs.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 84. Wilkes met a squaw
chief at Nisqually, who 'seemed to exercise more authority than any that
had been met with.' 'Little or no distinction of rank seems to exist
among them; the authority of the chiefs is no longer recognized.'
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 444; vol. v., p. 131.
Yellow-cum had become chief of the Makahs from his own personal prowess.
_Kane's Wand._, pp. 237-9; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, pp. 327-8.

[331] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 92; _Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i.,
pp. 242-3; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 214-15. The Nooksaks 'have no slaves.'
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, pp. 327-8; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p.
601. It is said 'that the descendants of slaves obtain freedom at the
expiration of three centuries.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. ix., p. 28.

[332] The Makahs have some marriage ceremonies, 'such as going through
the performance of taking the whale, manning a canoe, and throwing the
harpoon into the bride's house.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, p. 242. The Nooksak
women 'are very industrious, and do most of the work, and procure the
principal part of their sustenance.' _Id._, 1857, p. 327. 'The women
have not the slightest pretension to virtue.' _Id._, 1858, p. 225;
_Siwash Nuptials_, in _Olympia Washington Standard, July 30, 1870_. In
matters of trade the opinion of the women is always called in, and their
decision decides the bargain. _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i., p. 108.
'The whole burden of domestic occupation is thrown upon them.' Cut of
the native baby-jumper. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv.,
pp. 319-20, 361. At Gray Harbor they were not jealous. At Port Discovery
they offered their children for sale. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p.
231; vol. ii., pp. 83-4. 'Rarely having more than three or four'
children. _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 266; _Clark's Lights and Shadows_,
pp. 224-6.

[333] _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 320, 444;
_Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, pp. 298-9; _San Francisco Bulletin_, _May 24,
1859._

[334] _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 263, 270. The Lummi 'are a very
superstitious tribe, and pretend to have traditions--legends handed down
to them by their ancestors.' 'No persuasion or pay will induce them to
kill an owl or eat a pheasant.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, pp. 327-8;
_Kane's Wand._, pp. 216-17, 229. No forms of salutation. _Pickering's
Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., pp. 23-4; _Winthrop's Canoe and
Saddle_, pp. 21-2.

[335] Among the Skagits 'Dr. Holmes saw an old man in the last stage of
consumption, shivering from the effects of a cold bath at the
temperature of 40° Fahrenheit. A favourite remedy in pulmonary
consumption is to tie a rope tightly around the thorax, so as to force
the diaphram to perform respiration without the aid of the thoracic
muscles.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 512. Among
the Clallams, to cure a girl of a disease of the side, after stripping
the patient naked, the medicine-man, throwing off his blanket,
'commenced singing and gesticulating in the most violent manner, whilst
the others kept time by beating with little sticks on hollow wooden
bowls and drums, singing continually. After exercising himself in this
manner for about half an hour, until the perspiration ran down his body,
he darted suddenly upon the young woman, catching hold of her side with
his teeth and shaking her for a few minutes, while the patient seemed to
suffer great agony. He then relinquished his hold, and cried out that he
had got it, at the same time holding his hands to his mouth; after which
he plunged them in the water and pretended to hold down with great
difficulty the disease which he had extracted.' _Kane's Wand._, pp.
225-6. Small-pox seemed very prevalent by which many had lost the sight
of one eye. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 242. To cure a cold in the
face the Queniults burned certain herbs to a cinder and mixing them with
grease, anointed the face. _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 265. Among the
Nooksaks mortality has not increased with civilization. 'As yet the only
causes of any amount are consumption and the old diseases.' _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1857, p. 327. At Neah Bay, 'a scrofulous affection pervades the
whole tribe.' The old, sick and maimed are abandoned by their friends to
die. _Id._, 1872, p. 350.

[336] Slaves have no right to burial. _Kane's Wand._, p. 215. At a
Queniult burial place 'the different  blankets and calicoes hung
round gave the place an appearance of clothes hung out to dry on a
washing day.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 267. At Port Orchard bodies were
'wrapped firmly in matting, beneath which was a white blanket, closely
fastened round the body, and under this a covering of blue cotton.' At
Port Discovery bodies 'are wrapped in mats and placed upon the ground in
a sitting posture, and surrounded with stakes and pieces of plank to
protect them.' On the Cowlitz the burial canoes are painted with
figures, and gifts are not deposited till several months after the
funeral. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 323, 347-8,
509-10. Among the Nisquallies bodies of relatives are sometimes
disinterred at different places, washed, re-wrapped and buried again in
one grave. _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 238-9. 'Ornés de rubans de
diverses couleurs, de dents de poissons, de chapelets et d'autres
brimborions du goût des sauvages.' _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, pp. 74-5. On
Penn Cove, in a deserted village, were found 'several sepulchres formed
exactly like a centry box. Some of them were open, and contained the
skeletons of many young children tied up in baskets.' _Vancouver's
Voy._, vol. i., pp. 254-6, 287; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 242;
_Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 429. A correspondent
describes a flathead mummy from Puget Sound preserved in San Francisco.
'The eye-balls are still round under the lid; the teeth, the muscles,
and tendons perfect, the veins injected with some preserving liquid, the
bowels, stomach and liver dried up, but not decayed, all perfectly
preserved. The very blanket that entwines him, made of some threads of
bark and saturated with a pitchy substance, is entire.' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., p. 693; _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
ix., p. 32.

[337] 'Their native bashfulness renders all squaws peculiarly sensitive
to any public notice or ridicule.' Probably the laziest people in the
world. The mails are intrusted with safety to Indian carriers, who are
perfectly safe from interference on the part of any Indian they may
meet. _Kane's Wand._, p. 209-16, 227-8, 234, 247-8. 'La mémoire locale
et personelle du sauvage est admirable; il n'oublie jamais un endroit ni
une personne.' Nature seems to have given him memory to supply the want
of intelligence. 'Much inclined to vengeance. Those having means may
avert vengeance by payments.' _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, pp. 113, 295-9.
'Perfectly indifferent to exposure; decency has no meaning in their
language.' Although always begging, they refuse to accept any article
not in good condition, calling it _Peeshaaak_, a term of contempt.
_Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i., pp. 108-9. Murder of a Spanish boat's
crew in latitude 47° 20´. _Maurelle's Jour._, pp. 29, 31. 'Cheerful and
well disposed' at Port Orchard. At Strait of Fuca 'little more elevated
in their moral qualities than the Fuegians.' At Nisqually, 'addicted to
stealing.' 'Vicious and exceedingly lazy, sleeping all day.' The Skagits
are catholics, and are more advanced than others in civilization.
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 317, 444, 510-11, 517.
Both at Gray Harbor and Puget Sound they were uniformly civil and
friendly, fair and honest in trade. Each tribe claimed that 'the others
were bad people and that the party questioned were the only good Indians
in the harbor.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 256; vol. ii., pp. 83-4.
'The Clallam tribe has always had a bad character, which their
intercourse with shipping, and the introduction of whiskey, has by no
means improved.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 243. 'The superior courage
of the Makahs, as well as their treachery, will make them more difficult
of management than most other tribes.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. i., p. 429. The Lummis and other tribes at Bellingham Bay have
already abandoned their ancient barbarous habits, and have adopted those
of civilization. _Coleman_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xxxix., pp. 795-7;
_Simpson's Overland Journ._, vol. i., pp. 240-2. 'The instincts of these
people are of a very degraded character. They are filthy, cowardly,
lazy, treacherous, drunken, avaricious, and much given to thieving. The
women have not the slightest pretension to virtue.' The Makahs 'are the
most independent Indians in my district--they and the Quilleyutes, their
near neighbors.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1858, pp. 225, 231; _Id._, 1862, p.
390; _Id._, 1870, p. 20; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 601;
_Winthrop's Canoe and Saddle_, p. 58; _Cram's Top. Mem._, p. 65.

[338] Perhaps the Cascades might more properly be named as the boundary,
since the region of the Dalles, from the earliest records, has been the
rendezvous for fishing, trading, and gambling purposes, of tribes from
every part of the surrounding country, rather than the home of any
particular nation.

[339] For details see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES at the end of this chapter. The
Chinooks, Clatsops, Wakiakums and Cathlamets, 'resembling each other in
person, dress, language, and manners.' The Chinooks and Wakiakums were
originally one tribe, and Wakiakum was the name of the chief who seceded
with his adherents. _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 335-6. 'They may be regarded
as the distinctive type of the tribes to the north of the Oregon, for it
is in them that the peculiarities of the population of these regions are
seen in the most striking manner.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp.
15-6, 36. All the tribes about the mouth of the Columbia 'appear to be
descended from the same stock ... and resemble one another in language,
dress, and habits.' _Ross' Adven._, pp. 87-8. The Cathleyacheyachs at the
Cascades differ but little from the Chinooks. _Id._, p. 111. Scouler
calls the Columbia tribes _Cathlascons_, and considers them 'intimately
related to the Kalapooiah Family.' _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi.,
p. 225. The Willamette tribes 'differ very little in their habits and
modes of life, from those on the Columbia River.' _Hunter's Cap._, p.
72. Mofras makes _Killimous_ a general name for all Indians south of the
Columbia. _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 357; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 114-18;
_Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 133. The Nechecolees on the Willamette
claimed an affinity with the Eloots at the Narrows of the Columbia. The
Killamucks 'resemble in almost every particular the Clatsops and
Chinnooks. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 427, 504. 'Of the Coast
Indians that I have seen there seems to be so little difference in their
style of living that a description of one family will answer for the
whole.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 153-4. 'All the natives inhabiting the
southern shore of the Straits, and the deeply indented territory as far
and including the tide-waters of the Columbia, may be comprehended under
the general term of Chinooks.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. ix., p. 25.

[340] 'The race of the Chenooks is nearly run. From a large and powerful
tribe ... they have dwindled down to about a hundred individuals, ...
and these are a depraved, licentious, drunken set.' _Swan's N. W.
Coast_, pp. 108-10. The Willopahs 'may be considered as extinct, a few
women only remaining.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p.
428; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 351; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp.
239-40; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 354; vol. ii., p. 217; _De Smet_,
_Missions de l'Orégon_, pp. 163-4; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 173-6, 196-7;
_Irving's Astoria_, pp. 335-6; _Fitzgerald's Hud. B. Co._, pp. 170-2;
_Hines' Oregon_, pp. 103-19, 236; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. ii.,
pp. 52-3; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 36; _Palmer's Jour._, pp.
84, 87; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 191-2. 'In the Wallamette valley,
their favorite country, ... there are but few remnants left, and they
are dispirited and broken-hearted.' _Robertson's Oregon_, p. 130.

[341] 'The personal appearance of the Chinooks differs so much from that
of the aboriginal tribes of the United States, that it was difficult at
first to recognize the affinity.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, vol. ix., p. 27. 'There are no two nations in Europe so dissimilar
as the tribes to the north and those to the south of the Columbia.'
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 88; vol. ii., p. 36. 'Thick set limbs,'
north; 'slight,' south. _Id._, vol. i., p. 88; vol. ii., p. 16. 'Very
inferior in muscular power.' _Id._, vol. ii., pp. 15-16. 'Among the
ugliest of their race. They are below the middle size, with squat,
clumsy forms.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 198,
216. The men from five feet to five feet six inches high, with
well-shaped limbs; the women six to eight inches shorter, with bandy
legs, thick ankles, broad, flat feet, loose hanging breasts. _Cox's
Adven._, vol. i., pp. 303-4. 'A diminutive race, generally below five
feet five inches, with crooked legs and thick ankles.' 'Broad, flat
feet.' _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 87, 336. 'But not deficient in strength
or activity.' _Nicolay's Oregon_, p. 145. Men 'stout, muscular and
strong, but not tall;' women 'of the middle size, but very stout and
flabby, with short necks and shapeless limbs.' _Ross' Adven._, pp.
89-93. At Cape Orford none exceed five feet six inches; 'tolerably well
limbed, though slender in their persons.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i.,
p. 204. The Willamette tribes were somewhat larger and better shaped
than those of the Columbia and the coast. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._,
pp. 425, 436-7, 504, 508. _Hunter's Cap._, pp. 70-73; _Hines' Voy._, pp.
88, 91. 'Persons of the men generally are rather symmetrical; their
stature is low, with light sinewy limbs, and remarkably small, delicate
hands. The women are usually more rotund, and, in some instances, even
approach obesity.' _Townsend's Nar._, p. 178. 'Many not even five feet.'
_Franchère's Nar._, pp. 240-1. Can endure cold, but not fatigue; sharp
sight and hearing, but obtuse smell and taste. 'The women are uncouth,
and from a combination of causes appear old at an early age. _Parker's
Explor. Tour_, pp. 244-5. 'The Indians north of the Columbia are, for
the most part good-looking, robust men, some of them having fine,
symmetrical, forms. They have been represented as diminutive, with
crooked legs and uncouth features. This is not correct; but, as a
general rule, the direct reverse is the truth.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p.
154; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 122-3.

[342] The following terms applied to Chinook complexion are taken from
the authors quoted in the preceding note: 'Copper- brown;' 'light
copper color;' 'light olive;' 'fair complexion.' 'Not dark' when young.
'Rough tanned skins.' 'Dingy copper.' 'Fairer' than eastern Indians.
Fairer on the coast than on the Columbia. Half-breeds partake of the
swarthy hue of their mothers.

[343] 'The Cheenook cranium, even when not flattened, is long and
narrow, compressed laterally, keel-shaped, like the skull of the
Esquimaux.' Broad and high cheek-bones, with a receding forehead.'
_Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 220. 'Skulls ...
totally devoid of any peculiar development.' Nose flat, nostrils
distended, short irregular teeth; eyes black, piercing and treacherous.
_Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 115, 303. 'Broad faces, low foreheads, lank
black hair, wide mouths.' 'Flat noses, and eyes turned obliquely upward
at the outer corner.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi.,
pp. 198, 216. 'Faces are round, with small, but animated eyes. Their
noses are broad and flat at the top, and fleshy at the end, with large
nostrils.' _Irving's Astoria_, p. 336. Portraits of two Calapooya
Indians. _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 14. South
of the Columbia they have 'long faces, thin lips,' but the Calapooyas in
Willamette Valley have 'broad faces, low foreheads,' and the Chinooks
have 'a wide face, flat nose, and eyes turned obliquely outwards.'
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 88; vol. ii., pp. 15-16. 'Dull
phlegmatic want of expression' common to all adults. _Nicolay's Ogn.
Ter._, p. 145. Women 'well-featured,' with 'light hair, and prominent
eyes.' _Ross' Adven._, pp. 89-93. 'Their features rather partook of the
general European character.' Hair long and black, clean and neatly
combed. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 204. 'Women have, in general,
handsome faces.' 'There are rare instances of high aquiline noses; the
eyes are generally black,' but sometimes 'of a dark yellowish brown,
with a black pupil.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 425, 436-7. The men
carefully eradicate every vestige of a beard. _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 124.
'The features of many are regular, though often devoid of expression.'
_Townsend's Nar._, p. 178. 'Pluck out the beard at its first
appearance.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 181. Portrait of chief, p. 174. 'A few
of the old men only suffer a tuft to grow upon their chins.'
_Franchère's Nar._, p. 240. One of the Clatsops 'had the reddest hair I
ever saw, and a fair skin, much freckled.' _Gass' Jour._, p. 244;
_Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 75. For descriptions and plates of Chinook
skulls see _Morton's Crania_, pp. 202-13; pl. 42-7, 49, 50, and
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., pp. 318-34.

[344] 'Practiced by at least ten or twelve distinct tribes of the lower
country.' _Townsend's Nar._, pp. 175-6. 'On the coast it is limited to a
space of about one hundred and seventy miles, extending between Cape
Flattery and Cape Look-out. Inland, it extends up the Columbia to the
first rapids, or one hundred and forty miles, and is checked at the
falls on the Wallamette.' _Belcher's Voy._, vol. i., p. 307. The custom
'prevails among all the nations we have seen west of the Rocky
Mountains,' but 'diminishes in receding eastward.' _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, p. 437. 'The Indians at the Dalles do not distort the head.'
_Kane's Wand._, pp. 263, 180-2. 'The Chinooks are the most distinguished
for their attachment to this singular usage.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 198. The tribes from the Columbia River to
Millbank Sound flatten the forehead, also the Yakimas and Klikitats of
the interior. _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 231-2, 249. 'The
practice prevails, generally, from the mouth of the Columbia to the
Dalles, about one hundred and eighty miles, and from the Straits of Fuca
on the north, to Coos Bay.... Northward of the Straits it diminishes
gradually to a mere slight compression, finally confined to women, and
abandoned entirely north of Milbank Sound. So east of the Cascade
Mountains, it dies out in like manner.' _Gibbs_, in _Nott and Gliddon's
Indig. Races_, p. 337. 'None but such as are of noble birth are allowed
to flatten their skulls.' _Gray's Hist. Ogn._, p. 197.

[345] All authors who mention the Chinooks have something to say of this
custom; the following give some description of the process and its
effects, containing, however, no points not included in that given
above. _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 122-3, 128-30; _Ross' Adven._, pp. 99-100;
_Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 167-8, with cut; _Chamber's Jour._, vol. x.,
pp. 111-2; _Belcher's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 307-11, with cuts; _Townsend's
Nar._, pp. 175-6; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p.
216; _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 150; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p.
294; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 89; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., p. 302;
_Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., pp. 110-11, with plate. Females remain
longer than the boys. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 476, 437. 'Not so
great a deformity as is generally supposed.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_,
pp. 142-3, 251-2. 'Looking with contempt even upon the white for having
round heads.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 181, 204, cut. 'As a general thing the
tribes that have followed the practice of flattening the skull are
inferior in intellect, less stirring and enterprising in their habits,
and far more degraded in their morals than other tribes.' _Gray's Hist.
Ogn._, p. 197. Mr. Gray is the only authority I have seen for this
injurious effect, except Domenech, who pronounces the flat-heads more
subject to apoplexy than others. _Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 87; _Gass'
Jour._, pp. 224-5; _Brownell's Ind. Races_, pp. 335-7; _Morton's Crania
Am._, pp. 203-13, cut of cradle and of skulls; _Mofras_, _Explor._,
tom. ii., pp. 349-50, _Atlas_, pl. 26; _Foster's Pre-Hist. Races_, pp.
294-5, 328, with cut; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_ p. 124; _Wilson_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1862, p. 287.

[346] The Multnomah women's hair 'is most commonly braided into two
tresses falling over each ear in front of the body.' _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, pp. 508-9, 416, 425-6, 437-8. The Clackamas 'tattoo themselves
below the mouth, which gives a light blue appearance to the
countenance.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 241, 184-5, 256. At Cape Orford 'they
seemed to prefer the comforts of cleanliness to the painting of their
bodies.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 204. On the Columbia 'in the
decoration of their persons they surpassed all the other tribes with
paints of different colours, feathers and other ornaments.' _Id._, vol.
ii., p. 77. 'Ils mettent toute leur vanité dans leurs colliers et leurs
pendants d'oreilles.' _De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 45. 'Some of
these girls I have seen with the whole rim of their ears bored full of
holes, into each of which would be inserted a string of these shells
that reached to the floor, and the whole weighing so heavy that to save
their ears from being pulled off they were obliged to wear a band across
the top of the head.' 'I never have seen either men or women put oil or
grease of any kind on their bodies.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 112,
158-9. See _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 115, 123-4; _Cox's Adven._, pp. 111-12;
_Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 25; _Irving's
Astoria_, pp. 336-8; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 354;
_Franchère's Nar._, p. 244.

[347] 'These robes are in general, composed of the skins of a small
animal, which we have supposed to be the brown mungo.' 'Sometimes they
have a blanket woven with the fingers, from the wool of their native
sheep.' Every part of the body but the back and shoulders is exposed to
view. The Nechecolies had 'larger and longer robes, which are generally
of deer skin dressed in the hair.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 392,
425-6, 438, 504-9, 522. 'I have often seen them going about, half naked,
when the thermometer ranged between 30° and 40°, and their children
barefooted and barelegged in the snow.' 'The lower Indians do not dress
as well, nor with as good taste, as the upper.' _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, pp. 244-5. The fringed skirt 'is still used by old women, and by
all the females when they are at work in the water, and is called by
them their _siwash coat_.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 154-5. _Ross'
Adven._, pp. 89-93; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 123-4; _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., pp. 15-16, 281-2, 288; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 178; _Kane's
Wand._, pp. 184-5; _Franchère's Nar._, pp. 242-4. The conical cap
reminded Pickering of the Siberian tribes. _Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. ix., pp. 25, 39; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 111-12, 126-7;
_Hines' Voy._, p. 107. Collars of bears' claws, for the men, and elks'
tusks for the women and children. _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 336-8; _Gass'
Jour._, pp. 232, 239-40, 242-4, 267, 274, 278, 282.

[348] 'Their houses seemed to be more comfortable than those at Nootka,
the roof having a greater inclination, and the planking being thatched
over with the bark of trees. The entrance is through a hole, in a broad
plank, covered in such a manner as to resemble the face of a man, the
mouth serving the purpose of a door-way. The fire-place is sunk into the
earth, and confined from spreading above by a wooden frame.'
_Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 77. Emmons, in _Schoolcraft's
Archives_, vol. iii., p. 206, speaks of a palisade enclosure ten or
fifteen feet high, with a covered way to the river. 'The Indian huts on
the banks of the Columbia are, for the most part, constructed of the
bark of trees, pine branches, and brambles, which are sometimes covered
with skins or rags.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 260. But 'the
Chinooks build their houses of thick and broad planks,' etc. _Id._ Lewis
and Clarke saw a house in the Willamette Valley two hundred and
twenty-six feet long, divided into two ranges of large apartments
separated by a narrow alley four feet wide. _Travels_, pp. 502-4, 509,
431-2, 415-16, 409, 392. The door is a piece of board 'which hangs loose
by a string, like a sort of pendulum,' and is self-closing. _Swan's N.
W. Coast_, pp. 110-11. 'The tribes near the coast remove less frequently
than those of the interior.' _California, Past, Present and Future_, p.
136. 'I never saw more than four fires, or above eighty persons--slaves
and all--in the largest house.' _Ross' Adven._, pp. 98-9; _Palmer's
Jour._, pp. 86, 108; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 322; _Nicolay's Ogn._, pp.
144, 148-9; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., p. 327, from _Lewis and Clarke_;
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 135-7, from _Lewis and Clarke_; _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, pp. 144-5, 178-9, 245; _Franchère's Nar._, pp. 247-8; _Lord's
Nat._, vol. i., p. 65; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 181; _Kane's Wand._, pp.
187-8; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 204, 216-17;
_Strickland's Hist. Missions_, pp. 136-9.

[349] 'In the summer they resort to the principal rivers and the sea
coast, ... retiring to the smaller rivers of the interior during the
cold season.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud. Bay_, p. 83. All
small fish are driven into the small coves or shallow waters, 'when a
number of Indians in canoes continue splashing the water; while others
sink branches of pine. The fish are then taken easily out with scoops or
wicker baskets.' _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., pp. 389, 288-9,
384-6, 390-1. Fish 'are not eaten till they become soft from keeping,
when they are mashed with water.' In the Willamette Valley they raised
corn, beans, and squashes. _Hunter's Cap._, pp. 70-2. A 'sturgeon,
though weighing upwards of three hundred pounds, is, by the single
effort of one Indian, jerked into the boat'! _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 135,
114-15, 134, 137-9. The Umpquas, to cook salmon, 'all provided
themselves with sticks about three feet long, pointed at one end and
split at the other. They then apportioned the salmon, each one taking a
large piece, and filling it with splinters to prevent its falling to
pieces when cooking, which they fastened with great care, into the
forked end of the stick; ... then placing themselves around the fire so
as to describe a circle, they stuck the pointed end of the stick into
the ground, a short distance from the fire, inclining the top towards
the flames, so as to bring the salmon in contact with the heat, thus
forming a kind of pyramid of salmon over the whole fire.' _Hines' Voy._,
p. 102; _Id. Ogn._, p. 305. 'There are some articles of food which are
mashed by the teeth before being boiled or roasted; this mastication is
performed by the women.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 314, 316,
240-2. 'The salmon in this country are never caught with a (baited)
hook.' _Wilkes' Hist. Ogn._, p. 107. 'Turbot and flounders are caught
(at Shoalwater Bay) while wading in the water, by means of the feet.'
_Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 38, 83, 103-8, 140, 163-6, with cuts. On food,
see _Ross' Adven._, vol. i., pp. 94-5, 97, 112-3; _Lord's Nat._, vol.
i., pp. 68-9, 181-3; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 409-15, 422, 425,
430-1, 445, 506; _Wells_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xiii., pp. 605-7,
with cuts; _Nicolay's Ogn._, pp. 144, 147-8; _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 84,
105; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 244; _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 86, 335;
_Cox's Adven._, vol. i., p. 329-32; vol. ii., pp. 128-31; _Catlin's N.
Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113; _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. vi.,
p. 89; _Ind. Life_, p. 165; _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. ix., p. 26; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 185-9; _Franchère's Nar._, pp.
235-7; _Gass' Jour._, pp. 224, 230-1, 282-3; _Fédix_, _L'Orégon_, pp.
44-5; _Stanley's Portraits_, pp. 59-62.

[350] For description of the various roots and berries used by the
Chinooks as food, see _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 450-5.

[351] The Multnomahs 'are very fond of cold, hot, and vapour baths,
which are used at all seasons, and for the purpose of health as well as
pleasure. They, however, add a species of bath peculiar to themselves,
by washing the whole body with urine every morning.' _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, pp. 509, 409. Eat insects from each other's head, for the
animals bite them, and they claim the right to bite back. _Kane's
Wand._, pp. 183-4.

[352] _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 323-4; vol. ii., p. 13; _Irving's
Astoria_, pp. 324, 338; _Ross' Adven._, p. 90; _Kane's Wand._, p. 189;
_Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113, pl. 210½; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp.
124-5; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 429-31, 509; _Hines' Ogn._, p.
110; _Franchère's Nar._, p. 253; _Emmons_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., pp. 206-7, 215-16, 468.

[353] 'When the conflict is postponed till the next day, ... they keep
up frightful cries all night long, and, when they are sufficiently near
to understand each other, defy one another by menaces, railleries, and
sarcasms, like the heroes of Homer and Virgil.' _Franchère's Nar._, pp.
251-4; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 322-3; _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 124;
_Irving's Astoria_, pp. 340-1; _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 88,
105-8; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 354; _Stanley's Portraits_,
pp. 61-2; _Foster's Pre-Hist. Races_, p. 232.

[354] Pickering makes 'the substitution of the water-proof basket, for
the square wooden bucket of the straits' the chief difference between
this and the Sound Family. _Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 25;
_Emmons_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 206; _Vancouver's
Voy._, vol. ii., p. 77; _Ross' Adven._, p. 92; _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., pp. 241, 260; _Franchère's Nar._, pp. 248-9; _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, pp. 432-5; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 329-32; _Dunn's
Oregon_, pp. 138-9; _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 113, pl. 210½,
showing cradle, ladles, Wapato diggers, _Pautomaugons_, or war clubs and
pipes. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 248-9; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 184-5,
188-9.

[355] _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 161-3; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 253.

[356] _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 433-5. 'Hollowed out of the cedar
by fire, and smoothed off with stone axes.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 189. At
Cape Orford 'their shape much resembled that of a butcher's tray.'
_Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 204. 'A human face or a white-headed
eagle, as large as life, carved on the prow, and raised high in front.'
_Ross' Adven._, pp. 97-8. 'In landing they put the canoe round, so as to
strike the beach stern on.' _Franchère's Nar._, p. 246. 'The larger
canoes on the Columbia are sometimes propelled by short oars.' _Emmons_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 218. 'Finest canoes in the
world.' _Wilkes' Hist. Ogn._, p. 107; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 252;
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 121-2; _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 79-82, with cuts;
_Irving's Astoria_, pp. 86, 324; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 325-7;
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 217; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 276-7; _Brownell's Ind. Races_, pp. 535-7;
_Gass' Jour._, p. 279.

[357] Dried and pounded salmon, prepared by a method not understood
except at the falls, formed a prominent article of commerce, both with
coast and interior nations. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 444-7, 413.
A fathom of the largest hiaqua shells is worth about ten beaver-skins. A
dying man gave his property to his intimate friends 'with a promise on
their part to restore them if he recovered.' _Franchère's Nar._, pp.
244-5, 137; _Ross' Adven._, pp. 87-8, 95-6; _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p.
166; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 322; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 133-4; _Cox's
Adven._, vol. i., p. 333; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., p. 392;
_Kane's Wand._, p. 185; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 250; _Gass'
Jour._, p. 227; _Morton's Crania Am._, pp. 202-14; _Fédix_, _l'Orégon_,
pp. 44-5.

[358] Have no idea of drawing maps on the sand. 'Their powers of
computation ... are very limited.' _Emmons_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., pp. 205, 207; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 493; _Ross'
Adven._, pp. 88-9, 98; _Kane's Wand._, p. 185.

[359] The Willamette tribes, nine in number, were under four principal
chiefs. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 235-6, 88, 216. Casanov, a famous chief at
Fort Vancouver employed a hired assassin to remove obnoxious persons.
_Kane's Wand._, pp. 173-6; _Franchère's Nar._, p. 250; _Irving's
Astoria_, pp. 88, 340; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 322-3; _Parker's
Explor. Tour_, p. 253; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 443.

[360] 'Live in the same dwelling with their masters, and often
intermarry with those who are free.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 197,
247. 'Treat them with humanity while their services are useful.'
_Franchère's Nar._, p. 241. Treated with great severity. _Kane's Wand._,
pp. 181-2; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 447; _Ross' Adven._, pp. 92-3;
_Irving's Astoria_, p. 88; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 305-6; _Dunn's
Oregon_, pp. 129-30; _Fitzgerald's Hud. B. Co._, pp. 196-7; _Stanley's
Portraits_, pp. 61-2.

[361] _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 161, 171; _Emmons_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 211-2. 'In proportion as we approach the rapids
from the sea, female impurity becomes less perceptible; beyond this
point it entirely ceases.' _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., pp. 134, 159; vol.
i., pp. 366-7, 318; _Wells_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xiii., p. 602;
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 439-43. Ceremonies of a widow in her
endeavors to obtain a new husband. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. v., p. 124; _Ross' Adven._, pp. 88, 92-3; _Franchère's Nar._, pp.
245, 254-5; _Hunter's Cap._, p. 70; _Hines' Voy._, p. 113; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 16, 294-5; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 340; _Dunn's
Oregon_, pp. 132-3; _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 231-2; _Kane's Wand._,
pp. 175-7, 182; _Gass' Jour._, p. 275; _Strickland's Hist. Missions_,
pp. 139-40.

[362] 'I saw neither musical instruments, nor dancing, among the Oregon
tribes.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 43. 'All
extravagantly fond of ardent spirits, and are not particular what kind
they have, provided it is strong, and gets them drunk quickly.' _Swan's
N. W. Coast_, pp. 155-8, 197-202. 'Not addicted to intemperance.'
_Franchère's Nar._, p. 242. At gambling 'they will cheat if they can,
and pride themselves on their success.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 190, 196.
Seldom cheat, and submit to their losses with resignation. _Cox's
Adven._, vol. i., p. 332; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 410, 443-4;
_Wells_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xiii., p. 601, and cut of dance at
Coos Bay; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 392-3; vol.
v., p. 123; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 77; _Ross' Fur Hunters_,
vol. i., pp. 90-4, 112-13; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 114-15, 121, 125-8,
130-1; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 247-8; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., p. 242; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 341; _Palmer's Jour._, p. 86.

[363] _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 248; _Gass' Jour._, pp.
232, 275; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 123-8; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 205, 255-6;
_Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 267; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 654.

[364] Doctors, if unsuccessful, are sometimes subjected to rough
treatment, but rarely killed, except when they have previously
threatened the life of the patient. _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 176-185.
At the Dalles an old woman, whose incantations had caused a fatal
sickness, was beheaded by a brother of the deceased. _Ind. Life_, pp.
173-4, 142-3. Whole tribes have been almost exterminated by the
small-pox. _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 82, 179.
Venereal disease prevalent, and a complete cure is never effected.
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 440, 508. Generally succeed in curing
venereal disease even in its worst stage. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 96-9. The
unsuccessful doctor killed, unless able to buy his life. _Wilkes' Nar._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 394. Flatheads more subject to apoplexy
than others. _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 87; _Cox's Adven._, vol.
i., p. 126-7, 307, 312-15, 335, vol. ii., pp. 94-5; _Townsend's Nar._,
pp. 158, 178-9; _Franchère's Nar._, p. 250; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 115-9,
127; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. ii., p. 53; _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, pp. 176, 191-2; _Fitzgerald's Hud. B. Co._, pp. 171-2;
_Strickland's Hist. Missions_, pp. 139-40.

[365] A chief on the death of his daughter 'had an Indian slave bound
hand and foot, and fastened to the body of the deceased, and enclosed
the two in another mat, leaving out the head of the living one. The
Indian then took the canoe and carried it to a high rock and left it
there. Their custom is to let the slave live for three days; then
another slave is compelled to strangle the victim by a cord.' _Letter_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 71. See also vol. iii., pp.
217-18; vol. vi., pp. 616-23, with plate; vol. v., p. 655. 'The emblem
of a squaw's grave is generally a camass-root digger, made of a deer's
horns, and fastened on the end of a stick.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. v., pp. 233-4, vol. iv., p. 394. 'I believe I saw as many
as an hundred canoes at one burying place of the Chinooks.' _Gass'
Jour._, p. 274. 'Four stakes, interlaced with twigs and covered with
brush,' filled with dead bodies. _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
vi., p. 88. At Coos Bay, 'formerly the body was burned, and the wife of
the corpse killed and interred.' Now the body is sprinkled with sand and
ashes, the ankles are bent up and fastened to the neck; relatives shave
their heads and put the hair on the body with shells and roots, and the
corpse is then buried and trampled on by the whole tribe. _Wells_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xiii., p. 602. 'The canoe-coffins were decorated
with rude carved work.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 54. Strangers
are paid to join in the lamentations. _Ross' Adven._, p. 97. Children
who die during the head-flattening process are set afloat in their
cradles upon the surface of some sacred pool, where the bodies of the
old are also placed in their canoes. _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii.,
p. 111. On burial and mourning see also, _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 72-3,
13, 186-9, with cut of canoe on platform. _Mofras' Explor._, vol. ii.,
p. 355, and pl. 18 of _Atlas_; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 423, 429,
509; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 176-8, 181, 202-5; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp.
124-5, 335-6, vol. ii., p. 157; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 144,
151-2; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., pp. 281-2, vol. ii., p. 53;
_Belcher's Voy._, vol. i., p. 292; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p.
255; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 119-20, 131-2; _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, pp.
149-50; _Fremont's Ogn. and Cal._, p. 186; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 99;
_Franchère's Nar._, p. 106; _Palmer's Jour._, p. 87; _Ind. Life_, p.
210; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 180.

[366] 'The clumsy thief, who is detected, is scoffed at and despised.'
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 130-1, 114. 'The Kalapuya, like the Umkwa, ... are
more regular and quiet' than the inland tribes, 'and more cleanly,
honest and moral than the' coast tribes. The Chinooks are a quarrelsome,
thievish, and treacherous people. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. vi., pp. 217, 215, 198, 204. 'A rascally, thieving set.' _Gass'
Jour._, p. 304. 'When well treated, kind and hospitable.' _Swan's N. W.
Coast_, pp. 215, 110, 152. At Cape Orford 'pleasing and courteous
deportment ... scrupulously honest.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., pp.
204-5. Laziness is probably induced by the ease with which they obtain
food. _Kane's Wand._, pp. 181, 185. 'Crafty and intriguing.' Easily
irritated, but a trifle will appease him. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i.,
p. 61, 70-1, 77, 88, 90-1, 124-5, 235-6. 'They possess in an eminent
degree, the qualities opposed to indolence, improvidence, and stupidity:
the chiefs above all, are distinguished for their good sense and
intelligence. Generally speaking, they have a ready intellect and a
tenacious memory.' 'Rarely resist the temptation of stealing' white
men's goods. _Franchère's Nar._, pp. 241-2, 261. Loquacious, never gay,
knavish, impertinent. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 416, 441-2, 504,
523-4. 'Thorough-bred hypocrites and liars.' 'The Killymucks the most
roguish.' Industry, patience, sobriety and ingenuity are their chief
virtues; thieving, lying, incontinence, gambling and cruelty may be
classed among their vices. _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 115, 131, 296-7,
302, 304-5, 321, vol. ii., p. 133. At Wishiam 'they were a community of
arrant rogues and freebooters.' _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 322, 342. 'Lying
is very common; thieving comparatively rare.' _White's Ogn._, p. 207.
'Do not appear to possess a particle of natural good feeling.'
_Townsend's Nar._, p. 183. At Coos Bay 'by no means the fierce and
warlike race found further to the northward.' _Wells_, in _Harper's
Mag._, vol. xiii., p. 601. Umqua and Coose tribes are naturally
industrious; the Suislaws the most advanced; the Alcea not so
enterprising. _Sykes_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1860, p. 215. Calapooias, a
poor, cowardly, and thievish race. _Miller_, in _Id._, 1857, p. 364;
_Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 151; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 87,
vol. ii., pp. 16, 36; _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud. B._, p.
83; _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 84, 105; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 249-50;
_Ind. Life_, pp. 1-4, 210; _Fitzgerald's Vanc. Isl._, p. 196;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 207, etc.

[367] 'They all resemble each other in general characteristics.'
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 229. Shushwaps and Salish all one race.
_Mayne's B. C._, p. 296-7. 'The Indians of the interior are, both
physically and morally, vastly superior to the tribes of the coast.'
_Id._, p. 242. 'The Kliketat near Mount Rainier, the Walla-Wallas, and
the Okanagan ... speak kindred dialects.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p.
170. The best-supported opinion is that the inland were of the same
original stock with the lower tribes. _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 316. 'On
leaving the verge of the Carrier country, near Alexandria, a marked
change is at once perceptible.' _Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii.,
p. 77. Inland tribes differ widely from the piscatorial tribes. _Ross'
Adven._, p. 127. 'Those residing near the Rocky Mountains ... are and
always have been superior races to those living on the lower Columbia.'
_Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 654. 'I was particularly
struck with their vast superiority (on the Similkameen River, Lat. 49°
30´, Long. 120° 30´) in point of intelligence and energy to the Fish
Indians on the Fraser River, and in its neighbourhood.' _Palmer_, in
_B. C. Papers_, vol. iii., p. 84. Striking contrast noted in passing
up the Columbia. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p.
199.

[368] 'The Shewhapmuch ... who compose a large branch of the Saeliss
family,' known as _Nicute-much_--corrupted by the Canadians into
Couteaux--below the junction of the Fraser and Thompson. _Anderson_, in
_Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 76-7. Atnahs is their name in the Takali
language, and signifies 'strangers.' 'Differ so little from their
southern neighbors, the Salish, as to render a particular description
unnecessary.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 205.
They were called by Mackenzie the Chin tribe, according to _Prichard's
Researches_, vol. v., p. 427, but Mackenzie's Chin tribe was north of
the Atnahs, being the Nagailer tribe of the Carriers. See _Mackenzie's
Voy._, pp. 257-8, and map.

[369] 'About Okanagan, various branches of the Carrier tribe.'
_Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 143. 'Okanagans, on the upper part of Frazer's
River.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 170.

[370] Also known as Flat-bows. 'The poorest of the tribes composing the
Flathead nation.' _McCormick_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1867, p. 211.
'Speaking a language of their own, it is not easy to imagine their
origin; but it appears probable that they once belonged to some more
southern tribe, from which they became shut off by the intervention of
larger tribes.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 297. 'In appearance, character, and
customs, they resemble more the Indians east of the Rocky Mountains than
those of Lower Oregon.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi.,
p. 205. 'Les Arcs-à-Plats, et les Koetenais sont connus dans le pays
sous le nom de Skalzi.' _De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 80.

[371] The origin of the name Flathead, as applied to this nation, is not
known, as they have never been known to flatten the head. 'The mass of
the nation consists of persons who have more or less of the blood of the
Spokanes, Pend d'Oreilles, Nez Perces, and Iroquois.' _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 207; _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 150;
_Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 108; _Stuart's Montana_, p. 82.
Gass applied the name apparently to tribes on the Clearwater of the
Sahaptin family. _Jour._, p. 224.

[372] Also called _Kalispelms_ and _Ponderas_. The Upper Pend d'Oreilles
consist of a number of wandering families of Spokanes, Kalispelms
proper, and Flatheads. _Suckley_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p.
294; _Stevens_, in _Id._, p. 149; _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854,
p. 210. 'Very similar in manners, etc., to the Flatheads, and form one
people with them.' _De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 32.

[373] The native name, according to Hale, is _Skitsuish_, and Coeur
d'Alêne, 'Awl heart,' is a nickname applied from the circumstance that a
chief used these words to express his idea of the Canadian traders'
meanness. _Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 210.

[374] _Quiarlpi_, 'Basket People,' _Chaudieres_, 'Kettles,' _Kettle
Falls_, _Chualpays_, _Skoielpoi_, and _Lakes_, are some of the names
applied to these bands.

[375] 'Ils s'appellent entre eux les Enfants du Soleil, dans leur langue
Spokane.' _De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 31. 'Differing very little
from the Indians at Colville, either in their appearance, habits, or
language.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 307.

[376] So much intermarried with the Yakamas that they have almost lost
their nationality.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 236.

[377] 'Pierced Noses,' so named by the Canadians, perhaps from the nasal
ornaments of the first of the tribe seen, although the custom of
piercing the nose has never been known to be prevalent with this people.
'Generally known and distinguished by the name of "black robes," in
contradistinction to those who live on fish.' Named Nez Perces from the
custom of boring the nose to receive a white shell, like the fluke of an
anchor. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 305, 185-6. 'There are two
tribes of the Pierced-Nose Indians, the upper and the lower. _Brownell's
Ind. Races_, pp. 533-5. 'Though originally the same people, their
dialect varies very perceptibly from that of the Tushepaws.' _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, p. 341. Called _Thoiga-rik-kah_, _Tsoi-gah_,
'Cowse-eaters,' by the Snakes. 'Ten times better off to-day than they
were then'--'a practical refutation of the time-honored lie, that
intercourse with whites is an injury to Indians.' _Stuart's Montana_,
pp. 76-7. 'In character and appearance, they resemble more the Indians
of the Missouri than their neighbors, the Salish.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 212; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p.
54.

[378] 'La tribu Paloose appartient à la nation des Nez-percés et leur
ressemble sous tous les rapports.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 31.

[379] The name comes from that of the river. It should be pronounced
Wala-Wala, very short. _Pandosy's Gram._, p. 9. 'Descended
from slaves formerly owned and liberated by the Nez Perces.' _Parker's
Explor. Tour_, p. 247. 'Not unlike the Pierced-Noses in general
appearance, language, and habits.' _Brownell's Ind. Races_, pp. 533-5.
Parts of three different nations at the confluence of the Snake and
Columbia. _Gass' Jour._, pp. 218-19, 'None of the Indians have any
permanent habitations' on the south bank of the Columbia about and above
the Dalles. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 365. 'Generally camping in
winter on the north side of the river.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 223.

[380] The name Yakima is a word meaning 'Black Bear' in the Walla Walla
dialect. They are called Klikatats west of the mountains. _Gibbs_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 407. 'The Klikatats and Yakimas, in all
essential peculiarities of character, are identical, and their
intercourse is constant.' _Id._, p. 403, and _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 225. 'Pshawanwappam bands, usually called Yakamas.' The
name signifies 'Stony Ground.' _Gibbs_, in _Pandosy's Gram._, p. vii.
'Roil-roil-pam, is the Klikatat country.' 'Its meaning is "the Mouse
country."' _Id._ The Yakima valley is a great national rendezvous for
these and surrounding nations. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 19, 21.
Kliketats, meaning robbers, was first the name given to the Whulwhypums,
and then extended to all speaking the same language. For twenty-five
years before 1854 they overran the Willamette Valley, but at that time
were forced by government to retire to their own country. _Tolmie_, in
_Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 244-7.

[381] Wasco is said to mean 'basin,' and the tribe derives its name,
traditionally, from the fact that formerly one of their chiefs, his wife
having died, spent much of his time in making cavities or basins in the
soft rock for his children to fill with water and pebbles, and thereby
amuse themselves. _Victor's All over Ogn._, pp. 94-5. The word Cayuse is
perhaps the French _Cailloux_, 'pebbles.' Called by Tolmie, 'Wyeilats or
Kyoose.' He says their language has an affinity to that of the Carriers
and Umpquas. _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 249-50. 'Resemble the
Walla-Wallas very much.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 279-80. 'The imperial tribe
of Oregon' claiming jurisdiction over the whole Columbia region.
_Farnham's Trav._, p. 81. The Snakes, Walla-Wallas, and Cayuse meet
annually in the Grande Ronde Valley. _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol.
i., p. 270. 'Individuals of the pure blood are few, the majority being
intermixed with the Nez Perces and the Wallah-Wallahs.' _Stevens_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 218-19. The region which I give to the
Wascos and Cayuses is divided on Hale's map between the Walla-Wallas,
Waiilatpu, and Molele.

[382] In the interior the 'men are tall, the women are of common
stature, and both are well formed.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 229. 'Of
middle height, slender.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi.,
p. 199. The inland tribes of British Columbia, compared with those on
the coast, 'are of a better cast, being generally of the middle height.'
_Id._, p. 198. See also p. 206. The Nez Percés and Cayuses 'are almost
universally fine-looking, robust men.' In criticising the person of one
of that tribe 'one was forcibly reminded of the Apollo Belvidere.'
_Townsend's Nar._, pp. 148, 98. The Klikatat 'stature is low, with
light, sinewy limbs.' _Id._, p. 178; also pp. 158-174. The Walla-Wallas
are generally powerful men, at least six feet high, and the Cayuse are
still 'stouter and more athletic.' _Gairdner_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xi., p. 256. The Umatillas 'may be a superior race to the
"Snakes," but I doubt it.' _Barnhart_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, p.
271. The Salish are 'rather below the average size, but are well knit,
muscular, and good-looking.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p.
208. 'Well made and active.' _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 311, 327. 'Below the
middle hight, with thick-set limbs.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p.
88, vol. ii., pp. 55-6, 64-5. The Cootonais are above the medium height.
Very few Shushwaps reach the height of five feet nine inches. _Cox's
Adven._, vol. ii., pp. 155, 376, vol. i., p. 240. See also on physique
of the inland nations, _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 321, 340, 356,
359, 382, 527-8, 556-7; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p.
475; _Dunn_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April 26, 1861_; _San Francisco Herald_,
_June, 1858_; _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 309, 414;
_Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 151; _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 105-6, and
vol. i., frontispiece, cut of a group of Spokanes. _De Smet_, _Voy._,
pp. 30, 198; _Palmer's Jour._, p. 54; _Ross' Adven._, pp. 127, 294;
_Stuart's Montana_, p. 82.

[383] The interior tribes have 'long faces, and bold features, thin
lips, wide cheek-bones, smooth skins, and the usual tawny complexion of
the American tribes.' 'Features of a less exaggerated harshness' than
the coast tribes. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p.
198-9. 'Hair and eyes are black, their cheek bones high, and very
frequently they have aquiline noses.' 'They wear their hair long, part
it upon their forehead, and let it hang in tresses on each side, or down
behind.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 229. Complexion 'a little fairer
than other Indians.' _Id._ The Okanagans are 'better featured and
handsomer in their persons, though darker, than the Chinooks or other
Indians along the sea-coast.' 'Teeth white as ivory, well set and
regular.' The voices of Walla Wallas, Nez Percés, and Cayuses, are
strong and masculine. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 294, 127. The Flatheads (Nez
Percés) are 'the whitest Indians I ever saw.' _Gass' Jour._, p. 189. The
Shushwap 'complexion is darker, and of a more muddy, coppery hue than
that of the true Red Indian.' _Milton and Cheadle's N. W. Pass._, p.
335. The Nez Perces darker than the Tushepaws. Dignified and pleasant
features. Would have quite heavy beards if they shaved. _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, pp. 340, 356, 359, 527-8, 556-7, 321. The inland
natives are an ugly race, with 'broad faces, low foreheads, and rough,
coppery and tanned skins.' The Salish 'features are less regular, and
their complexion darker' than the Sahaptins. _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
i., p. 88, vol. ii., pp. 55-6. Teeth of the river tribes worn down by
sanded salmon. _Anderson_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 228; _Kane's
Wand._, p. 273. Nez Perces and Cayuses 'are almost universally fine
looking, robust men, with strong aquiline features, and a much more
cheerful cast of countenance than is usual amongst the race. Some of the
women might almost be called beautiful, and none that I have seen are
homely.' Some very handsome young girls among the Walla Wallas. The
Kliketat features are 'regular, though often devoid of expression.'
_Townsend's Nar._, pp. 78, 148, 158, 178. Flatheads 'comparatively very
fair in complexion, ... with oval faces, and a mild, and playful
expression of countenance.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 311. The Kayuls had long
dark hair, and regular features. _Coke's Rocky Mountains_, p. 304. Cut
and description of a Clickitat skull, in _Morton's Crania_, p. 214, pl.
48. 'The Flatheads are the ugliest, and most of their women are far from
being beauties.' _Stuart's Montana_, p. 82.

[384] 'The Sahaptin and Wallawallas compress the head, but not so much
as the tribes near the coast. It merely serves with them to make the
forehead more retreating, which, with the aquiline nose common to these
natives, gives to them occasionally, a physiognomy similar to that
represented in the hieroglyphical paintings of Central America.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 214, 205. All the Shushwaps
flatten the head more or less. _Mayne's B. C._, p. 303. 'Il est à
remarquer que les tribus établies au-dessus de la jonction de la branche
sud de la Colombie, et désignées sous le nom de Têtes Plates, ont
renoncé depuis longtemps à cet usage.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii.,
p. 349. 'A roundhead Klickatat woman would be a pariah.' _Winthrop's
Canoe and Saddle_, p. 204. Nez Percés 'seldom known to flatten the
head.' _Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 108. See _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 55-6, 64-5; _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol.
ii., pp. 231-2, 249-51; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 175; _Kane's Wand._, p.
263; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 207-8; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, vol. iv., p. 415, with cut. Walla Wallas, Skyuse, and Nez Percés
flatten the head and perforate the nose. _Farnham's Trav._, p. 85;
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 374, 359; _Gass' Jour._, p. 224.

[385] _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., pp. 38-9;
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 362, 382-3.

[386] The Salish 'profuse in the use of paint.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, pp. 207-8, and in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 309. Nez
Percés painted in  stripes. _Hines' Voy._, p. 173. 'Four Indians
(Nez Percés) streaked all over with white mud.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 291.
Walla Walla 'faces painted red.' The Okanagan 'young of both sexes
always paint their faces with red and black bars.' _Ross' Adven._, pp.
127, 294-8. The inland tribes 'appear to have less of the propensity to
adorn themselves with painting, than the Indians east of the mountains,
but not unfrequently vermilion mixed with red clay, is used not only
upon their faces but upon their hair.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 229.
Red clay for face paint, obtained at Vermilion Forks of the Similkameen
River, in B. C. _Palmer_, in _B. C. Papers_, vol. iii., p. 84. Pend
d'Oreille women rub the face every morning with a mixture of red and
brown powder, which is made to stick by a coating of fish-oil. _De
Smet_, _Voy._, p. 198.

[387] The Oakinack 'women wear their hair neatly clubbed on each side of
the head behind the ears, and ornamented with double rows of the snowy
higua, which are among the Oakinackens called Shet-la-cane; but they
keep it shed or divided in front. The men's hair is queued or rolled up
into a knot behind the head, and ornamented like that of the women; but
in front it falls or hangs down loosely before the face, covering the
forehead and the eyes, which causes them every now and then to shake the
head, or use the hands to uncover their eyes.' _Ross' Adven._, pp.
294-5. The head of the Nez Perces not ornamented. _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, pp. 341, 321, 351, 377, 528, 532-3; _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 304;
_Kane's Wand._, p. 274.

[388] The Ootlashoot women wear 'a long shirt of skin, reaching down to
the ancles, and tied round the waist.' Few ornaments. The Nez Percés
wear 'the buffalo or elk-skin robe decorated with beads, sea-shells,
chiefly mother-of-pearl, attached to an otter-skin collar and hung in
the hair.' Leggins and moccasins are painted; a plait of twisted grass
is worn round the neck. The women wear their long robe without a girdle,
but to it 'are tied little pieces of brass and shells, and other small
articles.' 'The dress of the female is indeed more modest, and more
studiously so than any we have observed, though the other sex is
careless of the indelicacy of exposure.' 'The Sokulk females have no
other covering but a truss or piece of leather tied round the hips and
then drawn tight between the legs.' Three fourths of the Pisquitpaws
'have scarcely any robes at all.' The Chilluckittequaws use skins of
wolves, deer, elk, and wild cats. 'Round their neck is put a strip of
some skin with the tail of the animal hanging down over the breast.'
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 321, 340-1, 351, 359, 361, 377, 526,
528, 532-3. Many of the Walla Walla, Nez Percé, and Cayuse females wore
robes 'richly garnished with beads, higuas,' etc. The war chief wears as
a head-dress the whole skin of a wolf's head, with the ears standing
erect. The Okanagans wear in winter long detachable sleeves or mittens
of wolf or fox skin, also wolf or bear skin caps when hunting. Men and
women dress nearly alike, and are profuse in the use of ornaments.
_Ross' Adven._, p. 127, 294-8; _Id._, _Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 306.
The Flatheads often change their clothing and clean it with pipe-clay.
They have no regular head-dress. From the Yakima to the Okanagan the men
go naked, and the women wear only a belt with a slip passing between the
legs. _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 133, 148, 240-1, vol. ii., p. 144.
Nez Percés better clad than any others, Cayuses well clothed, Walla
Wallas naked and half starved. _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 54, 124, 127-8. At
the Dalles, women 'go nearly naked, for they wear little else than what
may be termed a breech-cloth, of buckskin, which is black and filthy
with dirt.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 409-10,
426, 473. The Kliketat women wear a short pine-bark petticoat tied round
the loins. _Townsend's Nar._, pp. 78, 178, 148. 'Their buffaloe robes
and other skins they chiefly procure on the Missouri, when they go over
to hunt, as there are no buffaloe in this part of the country and very
little other game.' _Gass' Jour._, pp. 189, 205, 218-19, 295. Tusshepaw
'women wore caps of willow neatly worked and figured.' _Irving's
Astoria_, pp. 315, 317, 319; _Id._, _Bonneville's Adven._, p. 301. The
Flathead women wear straw hats, used also for drinking and cooking
purposes. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 45-7, 198. The Shushwaps wear in wet
weather capes of bark trimmed with fur, and reaching to the elbows.
Moccasins are more common than on the coast, but they often ride
barefoot. _Mayne's B. C._, p. 301. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 229-30;
_Kane's Wand._, p. 264, and cut; _Fremont's Ogn. and Cal._, pp. 186-7;
_Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 222; _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p.
153; _Franchère's Nar._, p. 268; _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 311; _Coke's Rocky
Mts._, p. 304; _Hunt_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, tom. x., 1821,
pp. 74-5, 78.

[389] The Sokulk houses 'generally of a square or oblong form, varying
in length from fifteen to sixty feet, and supported in the inside by
poles or forks about six feet high.' The roof is nearly flat. The
Echeloot and Chilluckittequaw houses were of the Chinook style,
partially sunk in the ground. The Nez Percés live in houses built 'of
straw and mats, in the form of the roof of a house.' One of these 'was
one hundred and fifty-six feet long, and about fifteen wide, closed at
the ends, and having a number of doors on each side.' _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, pp. 340, 351, 369-70, 381-2, 540. Nez Percé dwellings
twenty to seventy feet long and from ten to fifteen feet wide; free from
vermin. Flathead houses conical but spacious, made of buffalo and moose
skins over long poles. Spokane lodges oblong or conical, covered with
skins or mats. _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 148, 192, 200. Nez Percé and
Cayuse lodges 'composed of ten long poles, the lower ends of which are
pointed and driven into the ground; the upper blunt and drawn together
at the top by thongs' covered with skins. 'Universally used by the
mountain Indians while travelling.' Umatillas live in 'shantys or
wigwams of driftwood, covered with buffalo or deer skins.' Klicatats 'in
miserable loose hovels.' _Townsend's Nar._, pp. 104-5, 156, 174.
Okanagan winter lodges are long and narrow, 'chiefly of mats and poles,
covered over with grass and earth;' dug one or two feet below the
surface; look like the roof of a common house set on the ground. _Ross'
Adven._, pp. 313-4. On the Yakima River 'a small canopy, hardly
sufficient to shelter a sheep, was found to contain four generations of
human beings.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., pp.
34, 37. On the Clearwater 'there are not more than four lodges in a
place or village, and these small camps or villages are eight or ten
miles apart.' 'Summer lodges are made of willows and flags, and their
winter lodges of split pine.' _Gass' Jour._, pp. 212, 221, 223. 'At
Kettle Falls, the lodges are of rush mats.' 'A flooring is made of
sticks, raised three or four feet from the ground, leaving the space
beneath it entirely open, and forming a cool, airy, and shady place, in
which to hang their salmon.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 309, 272-3. The Pend
d'Oreilles roll their tent-mats into cylindrical bundles for convenience
in traveling. _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 215, 238, 282.
_Barnhart_, in _Id._, 1862, p. 271. The Shushwap den is warm but
'necessarily unwholesome, and redolent ... of anything but roses.'
_Anderson_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 77. Yakimas, 'rude huts
covered with mats.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 407.
Shushwaps erect rude slants of bark or matting; have no tents or houses.
_Milton and Cheadle's N. W. Pass._, p. 242. From the swamps south of
Flatbow Lake, 'the Kootanie Indians obtain the klusquis or thick reed,
which is the only article that serves them in the construction of their
lodges,' and is traded with other tribes. _Sullivan_, in _Palliser's
Explor._, p. 15. In winter the Salish cover their mats with earth.
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 207. Flag huts of the
Walla Wallas. _Farnham's Trav._, p. 85; _Mullan's Rept._, pp. 49-50;
_Palmer's Jour._, p. 61; _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 295; _Irving's
Astoria_, pp. 315, 319; _Id._, _Bonneville's Adven._, p. 301; _De Smet_,
_Voy._, p. 185; _Id._, _West. Missions_, p. 284; _Lord's Nat._, vol.
ii., pp. 105-6. _Hunt_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, tom. x., 1821,
pp. 74-5, 79.

[390] Natives begin to assemble at Kettle Falls about three weeks before
the salmon begin to run; feuds are laid by; horse-racing, gambling,
love-making, etc., occupy the assembly; and the medicine-men are busy
working charms for a successful season. The fish are cut open, dried on
poles over a small fire, and packed in bales. On the Fraser each family
or village fishes for itself; near the mouth large gaff-hooks are used,
higher up a net managed between two canoes. All the principal Indian
fishing-stations on the Fraser are below Fort Hope. For sturgeon a spear
seventy to eighty feet long is used. Cut of sturgeon-fishing. _Lord's
Nat._, vol. i., pp. 71-6, 181, 184-6. The Pend d'Oreilles 'annually
construct a fence which reaches across the stream, and guides the fish
into a weir or rack,' on Clarke River, just above the lake. The Walla
Walla 'fisheries at the Dalles and the falls, ten miles above, are the
finest on the river.' The Yakima weirs constructed 'upon horizontal
spars, and supported by tripods of strong poles erected at short
distances apart; two of the logs fronting up stream, and one supporting
them below;' some fifty or sixty yards long. The salmon of the Okanagan
were 'of a small species, which had assumed a uniform red color.' 'The
fishery at the Kettle Falls is one of the most important on the river,
and the arrangements of the Indians in the shape of drying-scaffolds and
store-houses are on a corresponding scale.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp.
214, 223, 231, 233; _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 407-8.
The salmon chief at Kettle Falls distributes the fish among the people,
every one, even the smallest child, getting an equal share. _Kane's
Wand._, pp. 311-14. On Des Chutes River 'they spear the fish with barbed
iron points, fitted loosely by sockets to the ends of poles about eight
feet long,' to which they are fastened by a thong about twelve feet
long. _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. vi., p. 90. On the upper
Columbia an Indian 'cut off a bit of his leathern shirt, about the size
of a small bean; then pulling out two or three hairs from his horse's
tail for a line, tied the bit of leather to one end of it, in place of a
hook or fly.' _Ross' Adven._, pp. 132-3. At the mouth of Flatbow River
'a dike of round stones, which runs up obliquely against the main
stream, on the west side, for more than one hundred yards in length,
resembling the foundation of a wall.' Similar range on the east side,
supposed to be for taking fish at low water. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol.
ii., pp. 165-6. West of the Rocky Mountains they fish 'with great
success by means of a kind of large basket suspended from a long cord.'
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 240-1. On Powder River they use the
hook as a gaff. _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 283. A Wasco spears three or
four salmon of twenty to thirty pounds each in ten minutes. _Remy and
Brenchley's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 506. No salmon are taken above the
upper falls of the Columbia. _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., p.
392. Walla Walla fish-weirs 'formed of two curtains of small willow
switches matted together with withes of the same plant, and extending
across the river in two parallel lines, six feet asunder. These are
supported by several parcels of poles, ... and are either rolled up or
let down at pleasure for a few feet.... A seine of fifteen or eighteen
feet in length is then dragged down the river by two persons, and the
bottom drawn up against the curtain of willows.' _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, p. 532. Make fishing-nets of flax. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p.
90. 'The Inland, as well as the Coast, tribes, live to a great extent
upon salmon.' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 242; _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, pp. 152-3.
Palouse 'live solely by fishing.' _Mullan's Rept._, p. 49. Salmon cannot
ascend to Coeur d'Alêne Lake. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
vi., pp. 209-10. Okanagan food 'consists principally of salmon and a
small fish which they call carp.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. iv., p. 462. The Walla Wallas 'may well be termed the fishermen of
the Skyuse camp.' _Farnham's Trav._, p. 82.

[391] The Shushwaps formerly crossed the mountains to the Assinniboine
territory. The Okanagans when hunting wear wolf or bear skin caps; there
is no bird or beast whose voice they cannot imitate. War and hunting
were the Nez Percé occupation; cross the mountains for buffalo. _Ross'
Fur Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 148, 219, 297-8, 305. The chief game of the
Nez Percés is the deer, 'and whenever the ground will permit, the
favourite hunt is on horseback.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 555. The
Salish live by the chase, on elk, moose, deer, big-horn and bears; make
two trips annually, spring to fall, and fall to mid-winter, across the
mountains, accompanied by other nations. The Pend d'Oreilles hunt deer
in the snow with clubs; have distinct localities for hunting each kind
of game. Nez Percés, Flatheads, Coeurs d'Alêne, Spokanes, Pend
d'Oreilles, etc., hunt together. Yakimas formerly joined the Flatheads
in eastern hunt. _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 207-8, 212-15, 218, 225-6.
'Two hunts annually across the mountains--one in April, for the bulls,
from which they return in June and July; and another, after about a
month's recruit, to kill cows, which have by that time become fat.'
_Stevens, Gibbs, and Suckley_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp.
415, 408, 296-7, vol. xii., p. 134. Kootenais live by the chase
principally. _Hutchins_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 455. Spokanes
rather indolent in hunting; hunting deer by fire. _Cox's Adven._, vol.
i., pp. 197, vol. ii., pp. 46-7. The Kootenais 'seldom hunt;' there is
not much to shoot except wild fowl in fall. Trap beaver and carriboeuf
on a tributary of the Kootanie River. _Palliser's Explor._, pp. 10, 15,
73. Flatheads 'follow the buffalo upon the headwaters of Clarke and
Salmon rivers.' Nez Percé women accompany the men to the buffalo-hunt.
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 107, 311. Kootenais cross the mountains
for buffalo. _Mayne's B. C._, p. 297. Coeurs d'Alêne ditto. _Mullan's
Rept._, p. 49. Half of the Nez Percés 'usually make a trip to the
buffalo country for three months.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. iv., p. 494. Shushwaps 'live by hunting the bighorns, mountain
goats, and marmots.' _Milton and Cheadle's N. W. Pass._, p. 242. Buffalo
never pass to west of the Rocky Mountains. _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p.
179; _Kane's Wand._, p. 328; _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 31, 45, 144-5; _Ind.
Life_, pp. 23-4, 34-41; _Franchère's Nar._, pp. 268-9; _Hunt_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, tom. x., 1821, pp. 77-82; _Stuart_, in
_Id._, tom. xii., pp. 25, 35-6; _Joset_, in _Id._, tom. cxxiii., 1849,
pp. 334-40.

[392] The Kliketats gather and eat _peahay_, a bitter root boiled into a
jelly; _n'poolthla_, ground into flour; _mamum_ and _seekywa_, made into
bitter white cakes; _kamass_; _calz_, a kind of wild sunflower.
_Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 247. The Flatheads go every
spring to Camass Prairie. _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 183. The Kootenais eat
kamash and an edible moss. _Id._, _Missions de l'Orégon_, pp. 75-6. 'The
Cayooses, Nez Percés, and other warlike tribes assemble (in Yakima
Valley) every spring to lay in a stock of the favourite kamass and
pelua, or sweet potatoes.' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 19. Quamash,
round, onion-shaped, and sweet, eaten by the Nez Percés. _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, p. 330. Couse root dug in April or May; camas in June
and July. _Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 656. The
Skyuses 'main subsistence is however upon roots.' The Nez Percés eat
_kamash_, _cowish_ or biscuit root, _jackap_, _aisish_, _quako_, etc.
_Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 301, 388. Okanagans live extensively
on moss made into bread. The Nez Percés also eat moss. _Wilkes' Nar._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 462, 494. Pend d'Oreilles at the last
extremity live on pine-tree moss; also collect camash, bitter-roots, and
sugar pears. _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 211, 214-15. 'I
never saw any berry in the course of my travels which the Indians
scruple to eat, nor have I seen any ill effect from their doing so.'
_Kane's Wand._, p. 327. The Kootenai food in September 'appears to be
almost entirely berries; namely, the "sasketoom" of the Crees, a
delicious fruit, and a small species of cherry, also a sweet root which
they obtain to the southward.' _Blakiston_, in _Palliser's Explor._, p.
73. Flatheads dig _konah_, 'bitter root' in May. It is very nutritious
and very bitter. _Pahseego_, camas, or 'water seego,' is a sweet, gummy,
bulbous root. _Stuart's Montana_, pp. 57-8. Colvilles cut down pines for
their moss (alectoria?). Kamas also eaten. _Pickering's Races_, in _U.
S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 34. The Shushwaps eat moss and lichens,
chiefly the black lichen, or _whyelkine_. _Mayne's B. C._, p. 301;
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 127. The Salish in March and April eat
_popkah_, an onion-like bulb; in May, _spatlam_, a root like vermicelli;
in June and July, _itwha_, like roasted chestnuts; in August, wild
fruits; in September, _marani_, a grain. _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii.,
p. 312.

[393] At the Dalles 'during the fishing season, the Indians live
entirely on the heads, hearts and offal of the salmon, which they string
on sticks, and roast over a small fire.' Besides pine-moss, the
Okanagans use the seed of the balsam oriza pounded into meal, called
_mielito_. 'To this is added the _siffleurs_.' Berries made into cakes
by the Nez Percés. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp.
410, 462, 494. Quamash, 'eaten either in its natural state, or boiled
into a kind of soup, or made into a cake, which is then called pasheco.'
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 330, 353, 365, 369. Women's head-dress
serves the Flatheads for cooking, etc. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 47, 193-9;
_Id._, _Missions de l'Orégon_, pp. 75-6. 'The dog's tongue is the only
dish-cloth known' to the Okanagans. Pine-moss cooked, or _squill-ape_,
will keep for years. 'At their meals they generally eat separately and
in succession--man, woman and child.' _Ross' Adven._, pp. 132-3, 295,
317-18. 'Most of their food is roasted, and they excel in roasting
fish.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 231, 107. 'Pine moss, which they
boil till it is reduced to a sort of glue or black paste, of a
sufficient consistence to take the form of biscuit.' _Franchère's Nar._,
p. 279. Couse tastes like parsnips, is dried and pulverized, and
sometimes boiled with meat. _Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 656. Root bread on the Clearwater tastes like that made of pumpkins.
_Gass' Jour._, pp. 202-3. Kamas after coming from the kiln is 'made into
large cakes, by being mashed, and pressed together, and slightly baked
in the sun.' White-root, pulverized with stones, moistened and
sun-baked, tastes not unlike stale biscuits. _Townsend's Nar._, pp.
126-7. Camas and sun-flower seed mixed with salmon-heads caused in the
eater great distension of the stomach. _Remy and Brenchley's Jour._,
vol. ii., pp. 509-11. _Sowete_, is the name of the mixture last named,
among the Cayuses. _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 310; _Ind. Life_, p. 41;
_Stuart's Montana_, pp. 57-8; _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. ix., p. 34; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 272-3; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp.
214-15.

[394] Additional notes and references on procuring food. The Okanagans
break up winter quarters in February; wander about in small bands till
June. Assemble on the river and divide into two parties of men and two
of women for fishing and dressing fish, hunting and digging roots, until
October; hunt in small parties in the mountains or the interior for four
or six weeks; and then go into winter quarters on the small rivers.
_Ross' Adven._, pp. 314-16. Further south on the Columbia plains the
natives collect and dry roots until May; fish on the north bank of the
river till September, burying the fish; dig camas on the plains till
snow falls; and retire to the foot of the mountains to hunt deer and elk
through the winter. The Nez Percés catch salmon and dig roots in summer;
hunt deer on snow-shoes in winter; and cross the mountains for buffalo
in spring. Sokulks live on fish, roots, and antelope. Eneeshur,
Echeloots, and Chilluckittequaw, on fish, berries, roots and nuts.
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 444-5, 340-1, 352, 365, 370. Spokanes
live on deer, wild fowl, salmon, trout, carp, pine-moss, roots and wild
fruit. They have no repugnance to horse-flesh, but never kill horses for
food. The Sinapoils live on salmon, camas, and an occasional small deer.
The Chaudiere country well stocked with game, fish and fruit. _Cox's
Adven._, vol. i., p. 201, vol. ii., p. 145. The Kayuse live on fish,
game, and camass bread. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 30-1. 'Ils cultivent avec
succès le blé, les patates, les pois et plusieurs autres légumes et
fruits.' _Id._, _Miss. de l'Orégon._, p. 67. Pend d'Oreilles; fish,
Kamash, and pine-tree moss. _Id._, _West. Missions_, p. 284. 'Whole time
was occupied in providing for their bellies, which were rarely full.'
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 211. Yakimas and Kliketats; Unis or
fresh-water muscles, little game, sage-fowl and grouse, kamas, berries,
salmon. The Okanagans raise some potatoes. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., pp. 404, 408, 413. Kootenais; fish and wild fowl,
berries and pounded meat, have cows and oxen. _Palliser's Explor._, pp.
10, 72. Palouse; fish, birds, and small animals. Umatillas; fish,
sage-cocks, prairie-hares. _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 97, 105-6.
Tushepaws would not permit horses or dogs to be eaten. _Irving's
Astoria_, p. 316. Nez Percés; beaver, elk, deer, white bear, and
mountain sheep, also steamed roots. _Id._, _Bonneville's Adven._, p.
301. Sahaptin; gather cherries and berries on Clarke River. _Gass'
Jour._, p. 193; _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 151; _Hines' Voy._, p. 167;
_Brownell's Ind. Races_, pp. 533-5; _Stanley's Portraits_, pp. 63-71;
_Catlin's N. Am. Ind._, vol. ii., p. 108; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 263-4;
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 228-31, 309; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, vol. iv., p. 474; _Hale's Ethnog._, _Ib._, vol. vi., p. 206.

[395] _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 383, 548; _Parker's Explor. Tour_,
pp. 230, 312; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 148; _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 46-7,
198; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 197-9, 358, vol. ii., pp. 155, 373,
375; _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 295; _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 54, 58, 59.

[396] The Okanagan weapon is called a _Spampt_. _Ross' Adven._, pp.
318-19; _Id._, _Fur Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 306-8. 'Ils ... faire leurs
arcs d'un bois très-élastique, ou de la corne du cerf.' _De Smet_,
_Voy._, p. 48; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 488;
_Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 405; _Townsend's Nar._, p.
98; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 317; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 351;
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 106-7, 233; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., p.
216.

[397] Torture of Blackfeet prisoners; burning with a red-hot gun-barrel,
pulling out the nails, taking off fingers, scooping out the eyes,
scalping, revolting cruelties to female captives. The disputed right of
the Flatheads to hunt buffalo at the eastern foot of the mountains is
the cause of the long-continued hostility. The wisest and bravest is
annually elected war chief. The war chief carries a long whip and
secures discipline by flagellation. Except a few feathers and pieces of
red cloth, both the Flathead and Kootenai enter battle perfectly naked.
_Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 232-45, vol. ii., p. 160. The Cayuse and
Sahaptin are the most warlike of all the southern tribes. The Nez Percés
good warriors, but do not follow war as a profession. _Ross' Fur
Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 185-6, 305, 308-12, vol. ii., pp. 93-6, 139.
Among the Okanagans 'the hot bath, council, and ceremony of smoking the
great pipe before war, is always religiously observed. Their laws,
however, admit of no compulsion, nor is the chief's authority implicitly
obeyed on these occasions; consequently, every one judges for himself,
and either goes or stays as he thinks proper. With a view, however, to
obviate this defect in their system, they have instituted the dance,
which answers every purpose of a recruiting service.' 'Every man,
therefore, who enters within this ring and joins in the dance ... is in
honour bound to assist in carrying on the war.' _Id._, _Adven._, pp.
319-20. Mock battles and military display for the entertainment of white
visitors. _Hines' Voy._, pp. 173-4. The Chilluckittequaws cut off the
forefingers of a slain enemy as trophies. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._,
pp. 375-6. When scouting, 'Flathead chief would ride at full gallop so
near the foe as to flap in their faces the eagle's tail streaming behind
(from his cap), yet no one dared seize the tail or streamer, it being
considered sacrilegious and fraught with misfortune to touch it.'
_Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 238. A thousand Walla Wallas
came to the Sacramento River in 1846, to avenge the death of a young
chief killed by an American about a year before. _Colton's Three Years
in Cal._, p. 52. One Flathead is said to be equal to four Blackfeet in
battle. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 31, 49; _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 312-13;
_Gray's Hist. Ogn._, pp. 171-4; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 233-7;
_Stanley's Portraits_, pp. 65-71; _Ind. Life_, pp. 23-5; _Wilkes' Nar._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 495.

[398] White marl clay used to cleanse skin robes, by making it into a
paste, rubbing it on the hide and leaving it to dry, after which it is
rubbed off. Saddles usually sit uneasily on the horse's back. _Parker's
Explor. Tour_, pp. 106, 232-4. 'Mallet of stone curiously carved' among
the Sokulks. Near the Cascades was seen a ladder resembling those used
by the whites. The Pishquitpaws used 'a saddle or pad of dressed skin,
stuffed with goats' hair.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 353, 370,
375, 528. On the Fraser a rough kind of isinglass was at one time
prepared and traded to the Hudson Bay Company. _Lord's Nat._, vol. i.,
p. 177. 'The Sahaptins still make a kind of vase of lava, somewhat in
the shape of a crucible, but very wide; they use it as a mortar for
pounding the grain, of which they make cakes.' _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., pp. 64, 243. (Undoubtedly an error.) Pend d'Oreilles; 'les
femmes ... font des nattes de joncs, des paniers, et des chapeaux sans
bords.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 199. 'Nearly all (the Shushwaps) use the
Spanish wooden saddle, which they make with much skill.' _Mayne's B.
C._, pp. 301-2. 'The saddles for women differ in form, being furnished
with the antlers of a deer, so as to resemble the high pommelled saddle
of the Mexican ladies.' _Franchère's Nar._, pp. 269-70; _Palmer's
Jour._, p. 129; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 317, 365; _Cox's Adven._, vol.
i., pp. 148-9.

[399] 'The white-pine bark is a very good substitute for birch, but has
the disadvantage of being more brittle in cold weather.' _Suckley_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 296. Yakima boats are 'simply logs
hollowed out and sloped up at the ends, without form or finish.'
_Gibbs_, in _Id._, p. 408. The Flatheads 'have no canoes, but in
ferrying streams use their lodge skins, which are drawn up into an oval
form by cords, and stretched on a few twigs. These they tow with horses,
riding sometimes three abreast.' _Stevens_, in _Id._, p. 415. In the
Kootenai canoe 'the upper part is covered, except a space in the
middle.' The length is twenty-two feet, the bottom being a dead level
from end to end. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. ii., pp. 169-70. 'The length
of the bottom of the one I measured was twelve feet, the width between
the gunwales only seven and one half feet.' 'When an Indian paddles it,
he sits at the extreme end, and thus sinks the conical point, which
serves to steady the canoe like a fish's tail.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii.,
pp. 178-9, 255-7. On the Arrow Lakes 'their form is also peculiar and
very beautiful. These canoes run the rapids with more safety than those
of any other shape.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 328. See _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp.
35, 187; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 319; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 375;
_Hector_, in _Palliser's Explor._, p. 27; _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, pp. 208, 214, 223, 238.

[400] 'The tradition is that horses were obtained from the southward,'
not many generations back. _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp.
247, 177-8. Individuals of the Walla Wallas have over one thousand
horses. _Warre and Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hud. Bay_, p. 83. Kootenais
rich in horses and cattle. _Palliser's Explor._, pp. 44, 73. Kliketat
and Yakima horses sometimes fine, but injured by early usage;
deteriorated from a good stock; vicious and lazy. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R.
R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 405. 'La richesse principale des sauvages de
l'ouest consiste en chevaux.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 47, 56. At an
assemblage of Walla Wallas, Shahaptains and Kyoots, 'the plains were
literally covered with horses, of which there could not have been less
than four thousand in sight of the camp.' _Ross' Adven._, p. 127. The
Kootanies about Arrow Lake, or Sinatcheggs have no horses, as the
country is not suitable for them. _Id._, _Fur Hunters_, vol. ii., pp.
171-2. Of the Spokanes the 'chief riches are their horses, which they
generally obtain in barter from the Nez Percés.' _Cox's Adven._, vol.
i., p. 200. A Skyuse is poor who has but fifteen or twenty horses. The
horses are a fine race, 'as large and of better form and more activity
than most of the horses of the States.' _Farnham's Trav._, p. 82. The
Flatheads 'are the most northern of the equestrian tribes.' _Nicolay's
Ogn. Ter._, p. 153. Many Nez Percés 'have from five to fifteen hundred
head of horses.' _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 128-9. Indians of the Spokane and
Flathead tribes 'own from one thousand to four thousand head of horses
and cattle.' _Stevens' Address_, p. 12. The Nez Percé horses 'are
principally of the pony breed; but remarkably stout and long-winded.'
_Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 301; _Hastings' Em. Guide_, p. 59;
_Hines' Voy._, p. 344; _Gass' Jour._, p. 295; _Parker's Explor. Tour_,
p. 230.

[401] The Chilluckittequaw intercourse seems to be an intermediate trade
with the nations near the mouth of the Columbia. The Chopunnish trade
for, as well as hunt, buffalo-robes east of the mountains. Course of
trade in the Sahaptin county: The plain Indians during their stay on the
river from May to September, before they begin fishing, go down to the
falls with skins, mats, silk-grass, rushes and chapelell bread. Here
they meet the mountain tribes from the Kooskooskie (Clearwater) and
Lewis rivers, who bring bear-grass, horses, quamash and a few skins
obtained by hunting or by barter from the Tushepaws. At the falls are
the Chilluckittequaws, Eneeshurs, Echeloots and Skilloots, the latter
being intermediate traders between the upper and lower tribes. These
tribes have pounded fish for sale; and the Chinooks bring wappato,
sea-fish, berries, and trinkets obtained from the whites. Then the trade
begins; the Chopunnish and mountain tribes buy wappato, pounded fish and
beads; and the plain Indians buy wappato, horses, beads, etc. _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, pp. 341, 382, 444-5. Horse-fairs in which the natives
display the qualities of their steeds with a view to sell. _Lord's
Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 86-7. The Oakinacks make trips to the Pacific to
trade wild hemp for hiaqua shells and trinkets. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 291,
323. Trade conducted in silence between a Flathead and Crow. _De Smet_,
_Voy._, p. 56. Kliketats and Yakimas 'have become to the neighboring
tribes what the Yankees were to the once Western States, the traveling
retailers of notions.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 403,
406. Cayuses, Walla Wallas, and Nez Percés meet in Grande Ronde Valley
to trade with the Snakes. _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., p. 270;
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 208; _Cox's Adven._,
vol. ii., pp. 88-9, 156; _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 46, 54; _Dunniway's Capt.
Gray's Comp._, p. 160; _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 294; _Mayne's B. C._, p.
299; _Gass' Jour._, p. 205.

[402] In calculating time the Okanagans use their fingers, each finger
standing for ten; some will reckon to a thousand with tolerable
accuracy, but most can scarcely count to twenty. _Ross' Adven._, p. 324.
The Flatheads 'font néanmoins avec précision, sur des écorces d'arbres
ou sur des peaux le plan, des pays qu'ils ont parcourus, marquant les
distances par journées, demi-journées ou quarts de journées.' _De Smet_,
_Voy._, p. 205. Count years by snows, months by moons, and days by
sleeps. Have names for each number up to ten; then add ten to each; and
then add a word to multiply by ten. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 242.
Names of the months in the Pisquouse and Salish languages beginning with
January;--'cold, a certain herb, snow-gone, bitter-root, going to
root-ground, camass-root, hot, gathering berries, exhausted salmon, dry,
house-building, snow.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi.,
p. 211. 'Menses computant lunis, ex spkani, _sol_ vel _luna_ et dies per
ferias. Hebdomadam unicam per splcháskat, _septem dies_, plures vero
hebdomadas per s'chaxèus, id est, _vexillum_ quod a duce maximo qualibet
die dominica suspendebatur. Dies antem in novem dividitur partes.'
_Mengarini_, _Grammatica Linguae Selicae_, p. 120; _Sproat's Scenes_, p.
270; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 374.

[403] The twelve Oakinack tribes 'form, as it were, so many states
belonging to the same union, and are governed by petty chiefs.' The
chieftainship descends from father to son; and though merely nominal in
authority, the chief is rarely disobeyed. Property pays for all crimes.
_Ross' Adven._, pp. 289-94, 322-3, 327. The Chualpays are governed by
the 'chief of the earth' and 'chief of the waters,' the latter having
exclusive authority in the fishing-season. _Kane's Wand._, pp. 309-13.
The Nez Percés offered a Flathead the position of head chief, through
admiration of his qualities. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 50, 171. Among the
Kalispels the chief appoints his successor, or if he fails to do so, one
is elected. _De Smet_, _Western Miss._, p. 297. The Flathead war chief
carries a long whip, decorated with scalps and feathers to enforce
strict discipline. The principal chief is hereditary. _Cox's Adven._,
vol. i., pp. 241-2, vol. ii., p. 88. The 'camp chief' of the Flatheads
as well as the war chief was chosen for his merits. _Ind. Life_, pp.
28-9. Among the Nez Percés and Wascos 'the form of government is
patriarchal. They acknowledge the hereditary principle--blood generally
decides who shall be the chief.' _Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. v., pp. 652-4. No regularly recognized chief among the Spokanes,
but an intelligent and rich man often controls the tribe by his
influence. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 475-6. 'The
Salish can hardly be said to have any regular form of government.'
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 207-8. Every winter
the Cayuses go down to the Dalles to hold a council over the Chinooks
'to ascertain their misdemeanors and punish them therefor by whipping'!
_Farnham's Trav._, p. 81-2. Among the Salish 'criminals are sometimes
punished by banishment from their tribe.' 'Fraternal union and the
obedience to the chiefs are truly admirable.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., pp. 343-4; _Hines' Voy._, p. 157; _Stanley's Portraits_, p. 63;
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 311-12; _White's Oregon_, p. 189; _Pickering's
Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 108; _Joset_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, tom. cxxiii., 1849, pp. 334-40.

[404] 'Slavery is common with all the tribes.' _Warre and Vavasour_, in
_Martin's Hud. B._, p. 83. Sahaptins always make slaves of prisoners of
war. The Cayuses have many. _Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 654; _Palmer's Jour._, p. 56. Among the Okanagans 'there are but few
slaves ... and these few are adopted as children, and treated in all
respects as members of the family.' _Ross' Adven._, p. 320. The inland
tribes formerly practiced slavery, but long since abolished it.
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 247. 'Not practised in the interior.'
_Mayne's B. C._, p. 243. Not practiced by the Shushwaps. _Anderson_, in
_Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 78.

[405] Each Okanagan 'family is ruled by the joint will or authority of
the husband and wife, but more particularly by the latter.' Wives live
at different camps among their relatives; one or two being constantly
with the husband. Brawls constantly occur when several wives meet. The
women are chaste, and attached to husband and children. At the age of
fourteen or fifteen the young man pays his addresses in person to the
object of his love, aged eleven or twelve. After the old folks are in
bed, he goes to her wigwam, builds a fire, and if welcome the mother
permits the girl to come and sit with him for a short time. These visits
are several times repeated, and he finally goes in the day-time with
friends and his purchase money. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 295-302. The Spokane
husband joins his wife's tribe; women are held in great respect; and
much affection is shown for children. Among the Nez Percés both men and
women have the power of dissolving the marriage tie at pleasure.
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 410, 475-6, 486, 495.
The Coeurs d'Alêne 'have abandoned polygamy.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., pp. 149, 309; _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i.,
p. 406. Pend d'Oreille women less enslaved than in the mountains, but
yet have much heavy work, paddle canoes, etc. Generally no marriage
among savages. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 198-9, 210. The Nez Percés
generally confine themselves to two wives, and rarely marry cousins. No
wedding ceremony. _Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 655.
Polygamy not general on the Fraser; and unknown to Kootenais. _Cox's
Adven._, vol. ii., pp. 155, 379, vol. i., pp. 256-9. Nez Percés have
abandoned polygamy. _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 129, 56. Flathead women do
everything but hunt and fight. _Ind. Life_, p. 41. Flathead women 'by no
means treated as slaves, but, on the contrary, have much consideration
and authority.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 207.
'Rarely marry out of their own nation,' and do not like their women to
marry whites. _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 313-14. The Sokulk men 'are said to
content themselves with a single wife, with whom ... the husband shares
the labours of procuring subsistence much more than is usual among
savages.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 351; _Dunniway's Capt. Gray's
Comp._, p. 161; _Gray's Hist. Ogn._, p. 171; _Tolmie and Anderson_, in
_Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 231-5; _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 208; _De
Smet's West. Miss._, p. 289.

[406] The wife of a young Kootenai left him for another, whereupon he
shot himself. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. ii., p. 169. Among the Flatheads
'conjugal infidelity is scarcely known.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 311. The
Sahaptins 'do not exhibit those loose feelings of carnal desire, nor
appear addicted to the common customs of prostitution.' _Gass' Jour._,
p. 275. Inland tribes have a reputation for chastity, probably due to
circumstances rather than to fixed principles. _Mayne's B. C._, p. 300.
Spokanes 'free from the vice of incontinence'. Among the Walla Wallas
prostitution is unknown, 'and I believe no inducement would tempt them
to commit a breach of chastity.' Prostitution common on the Fraser.
_Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 145, 199-200. Nez Percé women remarkable
for their chastity. _Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 655.

[407] In the Salish family on the birth of a child wealthy relatives
make presents of food and clothing. The Nez Percé mother gives presents
but receives none on such an occasion. The Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles
bandage the waist and legs of infants with a view to producing
broad-shouldered, small-waisted and straight-limbed adults. _Tolmie and
Anderson_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 231-2. Among the Walla Wallas
'when traveling a hoop, bent over the head of the child, protects it
from injury.' The confinement after child-birth continues forty days. At
the first menstruation the Spokane woman must conceal herself two days
in the forest; for a man to see her would be fatal; she must then be
confined for twenty days longer in a separate lodge. _Wilkes' Nar._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 426-8, 485. The Okanagan mother is not
allowed to prepare her unborn infant's swaddling clothes, which consist
of a piece of board, a bit of skin, a bunch of moss, and a string.
_Ross' Adven._, pp. 324-30. 'Small children, not more than three years
old, are mounted alone and generally upon colts.' Younger ones are
carried on the mother's back 'or suspended from a high knob upon the
forepart of their saddles.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 98. Houses among
the Chopunnish 'appropriated for women who are undergoing the operation
of the menses.' 'When anything is to be conveyed to these deserted
females, the person throws it to them forty or fifty paces off, and then
retires.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 539; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 78;
_Alvord_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 655.

[408] With the Pend d'Oreilles 'it was not uncommon for them to bury the
very old and the very young alive, because, they said, "these cannot
take care of themselves, and we cannot take care of them, and they had
better die."' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 211; _Suckley_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 297; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii.,
p. 328; _White's Ogn._, p. 96; _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 148-9.

[409] In the Yakima Valley 'we visited every street, alley, hole and
corner of the camp.... Here was gambling, there scalp-dancing; laughter
in one place, mourning in another. Crowds were passing to and fro,
whooping, yelling, dancing, drumming, singing. Men, women, and children
were huddled together; flags flying, horses neighing, dogs howling,
chained bears, tied wolves, grunting and growling, all pell-mell among
the tents.' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 28. At Kettle Falls 'whilst
awaiting the coming salmon, the scene is one great revel: horse-racing,
gambling, love-making, dancing, and diversions of all sorts, occupy the
singular assembly; for at these annual gatherings ... feuds and dislikes
are for the time laid by.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 72-3.

[410] The principal amusement of the Okanagans is gambling, 'at which
they are not so quarrelsome as the Spokans and other tribes,' disputes
being settled by arbitration. _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 88. A young
man at Kettle Falls committed suicide, having lost everything at
gambling. _Kane's Wand._, pp. 309-10. 'Les Indiens de la Colombie ont
porté les jeux de hasard au dernier excès. Après avoir perdu tout ce
qu'ils ont, ils se mettent eux-mêmes sur le tapis, d'abord une main,
ensuite l'autre; s'ils les perdent, les bras, et ainsi de suite tous les
membres du corps; la tête suit, et s'ils la perdent, ils deviennent
esclaves pour la vie avec leurs femmes et leurs enfants.' _De Smet_,
_Voy._, pp. 49-50. Many Kooteneais have abandoned gambling. _De Smet_,
_West. Miss._, p. 300. 'Whatever the poor Indian can call his own, is
ruthlessly sacrificed to this Moloch of human weakness.' _Ind. Life_, p.
42; _Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 102-3.

[411] Spokanes; 'one of their great amusements is horse-racing.'
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 487. Kliketats and
Yakimas; 'the racing season is the grand annual occasion of these
tribes. A horse of proved reputation is a source of wealth or ruin to
his owner. On his speed he stakes his whole stud, his household goods,
clothes, and finally his wives; and a single heat doubles his fortune,
or sends him forth an impoverished adventurer. The interest, however is
not confined to the individual directly concerned; the tribe share it
with him, and a common pile of goods, of motley description, apportioned
according to their ideas of value, is put up by either party, to be
divided among the backers of the winner.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. i., pp. 404, 412. 'Running horses and foot-races by men,
women and children, and they have games of chance played with sticks or
bones;' do not drink to excess. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 237, 406.
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 557; _Franchère's Nar._, p. 269.

[412] _Kane's Wand._, pp. 310-11.

[413] The principal Okanagan amusement is a game called by the voyageurs
'jeu de main,' like our odd and even. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, p. 463. It sometimes takes a week to decide the game. The loser
never repines. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 308-11; _Stuart's Montana_, p. 71.

[414] Among the Wahowpums 'the spectators formed a circle round the
dancers, who, with their robes drawn tightly round the shoulders, and
divided into parties of five or six men, perform by crossing in a line
from one side of the circle to the other. All the parties, performers as
well as spectators, sing, and after proceeding in this way for some
time, the spectators join, and the whole concludes by a promiscuous
dance and song.' The Walla Wallas 'were formed into a solid column,
round a kind of hollow square, stood on the same place, and merely
jumped up at intervals, to keep time to the music.' _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, pp. 526, 531. Nez Percés dance round a pole on Sundays, and the
chiefs exhort during the pauses. _Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, pp.
101-2, 245. In singing 'they use _hi_, _ah_, in constant repetition, ...
and instead of several parts harmonizing, they only take eighths one
above another, never exceeding three.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp.
242-3. 'The song was a simple expression of a few sounds, no
intelligible words being uttered. It resembled the words
_ho-ha-ho-ha-ho-ha-ha-ha_, commencing in a low tone, and gradually
swelling to a full, round, and beautifully modulated chorus.'
_Townsend's Nar._, p. 106. Chualpay scalp-dance. _Kane's Wand._, p. 315.
Religious songs. _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 338-40; _Palmer's Jour._, p. 124.

[415] De Smet thinks inhaling tobacco smoke may prevent its injurious
effects. _Voy._, p. 207. In all religious ceremonies the pipe of peace
is smoked. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 288-9. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 286;
_Hines' Voy._, p. 184. 'The medicine-pipe is a sacred pledge of
friendship among all the north-western tribes.' _Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 220.

[416] In moving, the girls and small boys ride three or four on a horse
with their mothers, while the men drive the herds of horses that run
loose ahead. _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 71-3, 306. Horses left for
months without a guard, and rarely stray far. They call this 'caging'
them. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 187, 47, 56. 'Babies of fifteen months old,
packed in a sitting posture, rode along without fear, grasping the reins
with their tiny hands.' _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. xii., pt.
ii., p. 130, with plate; _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp.
404-5; _Palliser's Rept._, p. 73; _Farnham's Trav._, pp. 81-;
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 64; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 365;
_Franchère's Nar._, pp. 269-71; _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., pp. 110-11.

[417] 'L'aigle ... est le grand oiseau de médecine.' _De Smet_, _Voy._,
pp. 46, 205; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 494-5;
_Stevens_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 212, and in _De Smet's West.
Miss._, pp. 285-6; _Suckley_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 297;
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 208-9; _Ross' Fur
Hunters_, vol. i., p. 64, vol. ii., p. 19; _Kane's Wand._, pp. 267,
280-1, 318.

[418] _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 343-4; _Parker's Explor. Tour_,
pp. 241-2; _Ross' Adven._, pp. 311-12.

[419] The Walla Wallas receive bad news with a howl. The Spokanes
'cache' their salmon. They are willing to change names with any one they
esteem. 'Suicide prevails more among the Indians of the Columbia River
than in any other portion of the continent which I have visited.'
_Kane's Wand._, pp. 282-3, 307-10. 'Preserve particular order in their
movements. The first chief leads the way, the next chiefs follow, then
the common men, and after these the women and children.' They arrange
themselves in similar order in coming forward to receive visitors. Do
not usually know their own age. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 87, 133-4,
242. Distance is calculated by time; a day's ride is seventy miles on
horseback, thirty-five miles on foot. _Ross' Adven._, p. 329. Natives
can tell by examining arrows to what tribe they belong. _Ross' Fur
Hunters_, vol. ii., p. 167. Kliketats and Yakimas often unwilling to
tell their name. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 405.
'D'après toutes les observations que j'ai faites, leur journée équivaut
à peu près à cinquante ou soixante milles anglais lorsqu'ils voyagent
seuls, et à quinze ou vingt milles seulement lorsqu'ils lèvent leur
camps.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 205. Among the Nez Percés everything was
promulgated by criers. 'The office of crier is generally filled by some
old man, who is good for little else. A village has generally several.'
_Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 286. Habits of worship of the
Flatheads in the missions. _Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 315-6. 'A pack of
prick-eared curs, simply tamed prairie wolves, always in attendance.'
_Lord's Nat._, vol. i., pp. 71-3.

[420] The Nez Percés 'are generally healthy, the only disorders which we
have had occasion to remark being of scrophulous kind.' With the Sokulks
'a bad soreness of the eyes is a very common disorder.' 'Bad teeth are
very general.' The Chilluckittequaws' diseases are sore eyes, decayed
teeth, and tumors. The Walla Wallas have ulcers and eruptions of the
skin, and occasionally rheumatism. The Chopunnish had 'scrofula,
rheumatism, and sore eyes,' and a few have entirely lost the use of
their limbs. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 341, 352, 382, 531, 549.
The medicine-man uses a medicine-bag of relics in his incantations.
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 240-1. The Okanagan medicine-men are called
_tlaquillaughs_, and 'are men generally past the meridian of life; in
their habits grave and sedate.' 'They possess a good knowledge of herbs
and roots, and their virtues.' I have often 'seen him throw out whole
mouthfuls of blood, and yet not the least mark would appear on the
skin.' 'I once saw an Indian who had been nearly devoured by a grizzly
bear, and had his skull split open in several places, and several pieces
of bone taken out just above the brain, and measuring three-fourths of
an inch in length, cured so effectually by one of these jugglers, that
in less than two months after he was riding on his horse again at the
chase. I have also seen them cut open the belly with a knife, extract a
large quantity of fat from the inside, sew up the part again, and the
patient soon after perfectly recovered.' The most frequent diseases are
'indigestion, fluxes, asthmas, and consumptions.' Instances of longevity
rare. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 302-8. A desperate case of consumption cured
by killing a dog each day for thirty-two days, ripping it open and
placing the patient's legs in the warm intestines, administering some
barks meanwhile. The Flatheads subject to few diseases; splints used for
fractures, bleeding with sharp flints for contusions, ice-cold baths for
ordinary rheumatism, and vapor bath with cold plunge for chronic
rheumatism. _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., pp. 90-3, vol. i., pp. 248-51.
Among the Walla Wallas convalescents are directed to sing some hours
each day. The Spokanes require all garments, etc., about the death-bed
to be buried with the body, hence few comforts for the sick. _Wilkes'
Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 426-7, 485. The Flatheads say
their wounds cure themselves. _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 198-200. The Wascos
cure rattlesnake bites by salt applied to the wound or by whisky taken
internally. _Kane's Wand._, pp. 265, 273, 317-18. A female doctor's
throat cut by the father of a patient she had failed to cure. _Hines'
Voy._, p. 190. The office of medicine-men among the Sahaptins is
generally hereditary. Men often die from fear of a medicine-man's evil
glance. Rival doctors work on the fears of patients to get each other
killed. Murders of doctors somewhat rare among the Nez Percés. _Alvord_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., pp. 652-3, 655. Small-pox seems to
have come among the Yakimas and Kliketats before direct intercourse with
whites. _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 405, 408. A Nez
Percé doctor killed by a brother of a man who had shot himself in
mourning for his dead relative; the brother in turn killed, and several
other lives lost. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 239.

[421] The Sokulks wrap the dead in skins, bury them in graves, cover
with earth, and mark the grave by little pickets of wood struck over and
about it. On the Columbia below the Snake was a shed-tomb sixty by
twelve feet, open at the ends, standing east and west. Recently dead
bodies wrapped in leather and arranged on boards at the west end. About
the centre a promiscuous heap of partially decayed corpses; and at
eastern end a mat with twenty-one skulls arranged in a circle. Articles
of property suspended on the inside and skeletons of horses scattered
outside. About the Dalles eight vaults of boards eight feet square, and
six feet high, and all the walls decorated with pictures and carvings.
The bodies were laid east and west. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp.
344-5, 359-60, 379-80, 557-8. Okanagans observe silence about the
death-bed, but the moment the person dies the house is abandoned, and
clamorous mourning is joined in by all the camp for some hours; then
dead silence while the body is wrapped in a new garment, brought out,
and the lodge torn down. Then alternate mourning and silence, and the
deceased is buried in a sitting posture in a round hole. Widows must
mourn two years, incessantly for some months, then only morning and
evening. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 321-2. Frantic mourning, cutting the flesh,
etc., by Nez Percés. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 234-5, 238-9,
vol. ii., p. 139. Destruction of horses and other property by Spokanes.
_Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 200-1. A Shushwap widow instigates the
murder of a victim as a sacrifice to her husband. The horses of a Walla
Walla chief not used after his death. _Kane's Wand._, pp. 178-9, 264-5,
277, 289. Hundreds of Wasco bodies piled in a small house on an island,
just below the Dalles. A Walla Walla chief caused himself to be buried
alive in the grave of his last son. _Hines' Voy._, pp. 159, 184-8. Among
the Yakimas and Kliketats the women do the mourning, living apart for a
few days, and then bathing. Okanagan bodies strapped to a tree. Stone
mounds over Spokane graves. _Gibbs and Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. i., pp. 405, 413, vol. xii., pt. i., p. 150. Pend d'Oreilles buried
old and young alive when unable to take care of them. _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1854, pp. 211, 238. 'High conical stacks of drift-wood' over Walla Walla
graves. _Townsend's Nar._, p. 157. Shushwaps often deposit dead in
trees. If in the ground, always cover grave with stones. _Mayne's B.
C._, p. 304. Killing a slave by Wascos. _White's Ogn._, pp. 260-3.
Dances and prayers for three days at Nez Percé chief's burial. _Irving's
Bonneville's Adven._, p. 283. Burying infant with parents by Flatheads.
_De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 173. Light wooden pilings about Shushwap graves.
_Milton and Cheadle's Northw. Pass._, p. 242; _Alvord_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 655; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 104;
_Palmer_, in _B. C. Papers_, pt. iii., p. 85; _Gass' Jour._, p. 219;
_Ind. Life_, p. 55; _Tolmie_, in _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 237-8,
260-1.

[422] Sokulks 'of a mild and peaceable disposition,' respectful to old
age. Chilluckittequaws 'unusually hospitable and good humoured.'
Chopunnish 'the most amiable we have seen. Their character is placid and
gentle, rarely moved into passion.' 'They are indeed selfish and
avaricious.' Will pilfer small articles. _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp.
338, 341, 351, 376, 556-8, 564. The Flatheads 'se distinguent par la
civilité, l'honnétété, et la bonté.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 31-2, 38-40,
47-50, 166-74, 202-4. Flatheads 'the best Indians of the mountains and
the plains,--honest, brave, and docile.' Kootenais 'men of great
docility and artlessness of character.' _Stevens and Hoecken_, in _De
Smet's West. Miss._, pp. 281, 284, 290, 300. Coeurs d'Alène selfish and
poor-spirited. _De Smet_, _Miss. de l'Orégon_, p. 329. In the Walla
Wallas 'an air of open unsuspecting confidence,' 'natural politeness,'
no obtrusive familiarity. Flatheads 'frank and hospitable.' Except
cruelty to captives have 'fewer failings than any of the tribes I ever
met.' Brave, quiet, and amenable to their chiefs. Spokanes 'quiet,
honest, inoffensive,' but rather indolent. 'Thoughtless and
improvident.' Okanagans 'Indolent rascals;' 'an honest and quiet tribe.'
Sanspoils dirty, slothful, dishonest, quarrelsome, etc. Coeurs d'Alène
'uniformly honest;' 'more savage than their neighbours.' Kootenais
honest, brave, jealous, truthful. Kamloops 'thieving and quarrelling.'
_Cox's Adven._, vol. i., pp. 145, 148, 192, 199, 239-40, 262-3, 344,
vol. ii., pp. 44, 87-8, 109, 145-60. Okanagans active and industrious,
revengeful, generous and brave. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 142, 290-5, 327-9.
Skeen 'a hardy, brave people.' Cayuses far more vicious and ungovernable
than the Walla Wallas. Nez Percés treacherous and villainous. _Kane's
Wand._, pp. 263, 280, 290, 307-8, 315. Nez Percés 'a quiet, civil,
people, but proud and haughty.' _Palmer's Jour._, pp. 128, 48, 53, 59,
61, 124-7. 'Kind to each other.' 'Cheerful and often gay, sociable, kind
and affectionate, and anxious to receive instruction.' 'Lying scarcely
known.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 97, 105, 232, 239, 303-4, 311-12.
Of the Nicutemuchs 'the habitual vindictiveness of their character is
fostered by the ceaseless feuds.' 'Nearly every family has a minor
vendetta of its own.' 'The races that depend entirely or chiefly on
fishing, are immeasurably inferior to those tribes who, with nerves and
sinews braced by exercise, and minds comparatively ennobled by frequent
excitement, live constantly amid war and the chase.' _Anderson_, in
_Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., pp. 77-80. Inland tribes of British Columbia
less industrious and less provident than the more sedentary coast
Indians. _Mayne's B. C._, pp. 301, 297. Sahaptins 'cold, taciturn,
high-tempered, warlike, fond of hunting.' Palouse, Yakimas, Kliketats,
etc., of a 'less hardy and active temperament' than the Nez Percés.
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 199, 210-13. Cayuses
'dreaded by their neighbors on account of their courage and warlike
spirit.' Walla Wallas 'notorious as thieves since their first
intercourse with whites.' 'Indolent, superstitious, drunken and
debauched.' Character of Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles, Umatillas. _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 207-9, 211, 218, 223, 282, 1861, pp. 164-5.
Yakimas and Kliketats 'much superior to the river Indians.' _Stevens_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 405, 298, 403, 416, vol. xii., pt.
i., p. 139. Wascos 'exceedingly vicious.' _Hines' Voy._, pp. 159, 169.
The Nez Percés 'are, certainly, more like a nation of saints than a
horde of savages.' Skyuses, Walla Wallas. _Irving's Bonneville's
Adven._, pp. 101, 287, 289-90, 300. Tushepaws; _Irving's Astoria_, p.
316. Thompson River Indians rather a superior and clever race. _Victoria
Colonist_, Oct., 1860. 'Indians from the Rocky mountains to the falls of
Columbia, are an honest, ingenuous, and well disposed people,' but
rascals below the falls. _Gass' Jour._, p. 304. Flathead 'fierceness and
barbarity in war could not be exceeded.' _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 153.
Flatheads, Walla Wallas and Nez Percés; _Gray's Hist. Ogn._, pp. 171,
219. Kootenais; _Palliser's Explor._, pp. 44, 73. Salish, Walla Wallas;
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 88, vol. ii., p. 64. Walla Wallas,
Cayuses, and Nez Percés; _White's Oregon_, p. 174. Walla Wallas,
Kootenais; _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 85, 178. Flatheads, Nez Percés;
_Dunn's Oregon_, pp. 311, 315, 326-8. Nez Percés; _Catlin's N. Am.
Ind._, vol. ii., p. 109; _Franchère's Nar._, p. 268. Kayuses, Walla
Wallas; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 156. Sahaptins; _Wilkes' Hist. Ogn._, p.
106. Nez Percés; _Hastings' Emigrants' Guide_, p. 59. Flatheads; _Ind.
Life_, pp. ix., x., 25. At Dalles; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. iv., p. 412. Shushwaps; _Grant's Ocean to Ocean_, pp. 288-304, 313.
At Dalles; _Hunt_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821, tom. x., p.
82; _Stuart_, in _Id._, 1821, tom. xii., p. 43. Pend d'Oreilles;
_Joset_, in _Id._, 1849, tom. cxxiii., pp. 334-40.




  [Illustration: NATIVE RACES of the PACIFIC STATES
   CALIFORNIAN GROUP]


CHAPTER IV.

CALIFORNIANS.

      GROUPAL DIVISIONS; NORTHERN, CENTRAL, AND SOUTHERN
      CALIFORNIANS, AND SHOSHONES--COUNTRY OF THE CALIFORNIANS--
      THE KLAMATHS, MODOCS, SHASTAS, PITT RIVER INDIANS, EUROCS,
      CAHROCS, HOOPAHS, WEEYOTS, TOLEWAS, AND ROGUE RIVER INDIANS
      AND THEIR CUSTOMS--THE TEHAMAS, POMOS, UKIAHS, GUALALAS,
      SONOMAS, PETALUMAS, NAPAS, SUSCOLS, SUISUNES, TAMALES,
      KARQUINES, OHLONES, TULOMOS, THAMIENS, OLCHONES, RUMSENS,
      ESCELENS, AND OTHERS OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA--THE CAHUILLAS,
      DIEGUEÑOS, ISLANDERS, AND MISSION RANCHERIAS OF SOUTHERN
      CALIFORNIA--THE SNAKES OR SHOSHONES PROPER, UTAHS,
      BANNOCKS, WASHOES AND OTHER SHOSHONE NATIONS.


Of the seven groups into which this work separates the nations of
western North America, the CALIFORNIANS constitute the third, and cover
the territory between latitude 43° and 32° 30´, extending back
irregularly into the Rocky Mountains. There being few distinctly marked
families in this group, I cannot do better in subdividing it for the
purpose of description than make of the Californians proper three
geographical divisions, namely, the _Northern Californians_, the
_Central Californians_, and the _Southern Californians_. The
_Shoshones_, or fourth division of this group, who spread out over
south-eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and the whole of Nevada and Utah,
present more distinctly marked family characteristics, and will
therefore be treated as a family.

  [Sidenote: HOME OF THE CALIFORNIANS.]

The same chain of mountains, which, as the Cascade Range, divides the
land of the Columbians, holds its course steadily southward, and
entering the territory of the Californian group forms, under the
name of the Sierra Nevada, the partition between the Californians proper
and the Shoshones of Idaho and Nevada. The influence of this range upon
the climate is also here manifest, only intenser in degree than farther
north. The lands of the Northern Californians are well watered and
wooded, those of the central division have an abundance of water for six
months in the year, namely, from November to May, and the soil is
fertile, yielding abundantly under cultivation. Sycamore, oak,
cotton-wood, willow, and white alder, fringe the banks of the rivers;
laurel, buckeye, manzanita, and innumerable berry-bearing bushes, clothe
the lesser hills; thousands of acres are annually covered with wild
oats; the moist bottoms yield heavy crops of grass; and in summer the
valleys are gorgeous with wild-flowers of every hue. Before the
blighting touch of the white man was laid upon the land, the rivers
swarmed with salmon and trout; deer, antelope, and mountain sheep roamed
over the foot-hills, bear and other carnivora occupied the forests, and
numberless wild fowl covered the lakes. Decreasing in moisture toward
the tropics, the climate of the Southern Californians is warm and dry,
while the Shoshones, a large part of whose territory falls in the Great
Basin, are cursed with a yet greater dryness.

The region known as the Great Basin, lying between the eastern base of
the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch Mountains, and stretching north and
south from latitude 33° to 42°, presents a very different picture from
the land of the Californians. This district is triangular in shape, the
apex pointing toward the south, or southwest; from this apex, which,
round the head of the Gulf of California, is at tide level, the ground
gradually rises until, in central Nevada, it reaches an altitude of
about five thousand feet, and this, with the exception of a few local
depressions, is about the level of the whole of the broad part of the
basin. The entire surface of this plateau is alkaline. Being in parts
almost destitute of water, there is comparatively little timber;
sage-brush and greasewood being the chief signs of vegetation, except
at rare intervals where some small stream struggling against almost
universal aridity, supports on its banks a little scanty herbage and a
few forlorn-looking cotton-wood trees. The northern part of this region,
as is the case with the lands of the Californians proper, is somewhat
less destitute of vegetable and animal life than the southern portion
which is indeed a desert occupied chiefly by rabbits, prairie-dogs,
sage-hens, and reptiles. The desert of the Colorado, once perhaps a
fertile bottom, extending northward from the San Bernardino Mountains
one hundred and eighty miles, and spreading over an area of about nine
thousand square miles, is a silent unbroken sea of sand, upon whose ashy
surface glares the mid-day sun and where at night the stars draw near
through the thin air and brilliantly illumine the eternal solitude. Here
the gigantic cereus, emblem of barrenness, rears its contorted form,
casting weird shadows upon the moonlit level. In such a country, where
in winter the keen dust-bearing blast rushes over the unbroken desolate
plains, and in summer the very earth cracks open with intense heat, what
can we expect of man but that he should be distinguished for the depths
of his low attainment.

But although the poverty and barrenness of his country account
satisfactorily for the low type of the inhabitant of the Great Basin,
yet no such excuse is offered for the degradation of the native of
fertile California. On every side, if we except the Shoshone, in regions
possessing far fewer advantages than California, we find a higher type
of man. Among the Tuscaroras, Cherokees, and Iroquois of the Atlantic
<DW72>, barbarism assumes its grandest proportions; proceeding west it
bursts its fetters in the incipient civilization of the Gila; but if we
continue the line to the shores of the Pacific we find this intellectual
dawn checked, and man sunk almost to the utter darkness of the brute.
Coming southward from the frozen land of the Eskimo, or northward from
tropical Darien we pass through nations possessing the necessaries and
even the comforts of life. Some of them raise and grind wheat and corn,
many of them make pottery and other utensils, at the north they venture
out to sea in good boats and make Behemoth their spoil. The Californians
on the other hand, comparatively speaking, wear no clothes, they build
no houses, do not cultivate the soil, they have no boats, nor do they
hunt to any considerable extent; they have no morals nor any religion
worth calling such. The missionary Fathers found a virgin field whereon
neither god nor devil was worshiped. We must look, then, to other causes
for a solution of the question why a nobler race is not found in
California; such for instance as revolutions and migrations of nations,
or upheavals and convulsions of nature, causes arising before the
commencement of the short period within which we are accustomed to
reckon time.

  [Sidenote: TRIBAL DIVERSITY.]

There is, perhaps, a greater diversity of tribal names among the
Californians than elsewhere in America; the whole system of nomenclature
is so complicated and contradictory that it is impossible to reduce it
to perfect order. There are tribes that call themselves by one name, but
whose neighbors call them by another; tribes that are known by three or
four names, and tribes that have no name except that of their village or
chief.[423] Tribal names are frequently given by one writer which are
never mentioned by any other;[424] nevertheless there are tribes on
whose names authorities agree, and though the spelling differs, the
sound expressed in these instances is about the same. Less trouble is
experienced in distinguishing the tribes of the northern division, which
is composed of people who resemble their neighbors more than is the case
in central California, where the meaningless term 'Indians,' is almost
universally applied in speaking of them.[425]

Another fruitful source of confusion is the indefinite nickname 'Digger'
which is applied indiscriminately to all the tribes of northern and
middle California, and to those of Nevada, Utah, and the southern part
of Oregon. These tribes are popularly known as the Californian Diggers,
Washoe Diggers, Shoshone Diggers of Utah, etc., the signification of the
term pointing to the digging of roots, and in some parts, possibly, to
burrowing in the ground. The name is seemingly opprobrious, and is
certainly no more applicable to this people than to many others. By this
territorial division I hope to avoid, as far as possible, the two causes
of bewilderment before alluded to; neither treating the inhabitants of
an immense country as one tribe, nor attempting to ascribe distinct
names and idiosyncrasies to hundreds of small, insignificant bands,
roaming over a comparatively narrow area of country and to all of which
one description will apply.


  [Sidenote: NATIONS OF NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

THE NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS, the first tribal group, or division, of which
I shall speak, might, not improperly, be called the Klamath family,
extending as they do from Rogue River on the north, to the Eel River
south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary east, and
including the Upper and Lower Klamath and other lakes. The principal
tribes occupying this region are the _Klamaths_,[426] who live on the
headwaters of the river and on the shores of the lake of that name; the
_Modocs_,[427] on Lower Klamath Lake and along Lost River; the
_Shastas_, to the south-west of the lakes, near the Shasta Mountains;
the _Pitt River Indians_; the _Eurocs_ on the Klamath River between
Weitspek and the coast; the _Cahrocs_[428] on the Klamath River from a
short distance above the junction of the Trinity to the Klamath
Mountains; the _Hoopahs_ in Hoopah Valley on the Trinity near its
junction with the Klamath; numerous tribes on the coast from Eel River
and Humboldt Bay north, such as the _Weeyots_,[429] _Wallies_,
_Tolewahs_, etc., and the _Rogue River Indians_,[430] on and about the
river of that name.[431]

The Northern Californians are in every way superior to the central and
southern tribes.[432] Their physique and character, in fact, approach
nearer to the Oregon nations than to the people of the Sacramento and
San Joaquin valleys. This applies more particularly to the inland
tribes. The race gradually deteriorates as it approaches the coast,
growing less in stature, darker in color, more and more degraded in
character, habits, and religion. The Rogue River Indians must, however,
be made an exception to this rule. The tendency to improve toward the
north, which is so marked among the Californians, holds good in this
case; so that the natives on the extreme north-west coast of the region
under consideration, are in many respects superior to the interior but
more southerly tribes.

  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES.]

The Northern Californians round the Klamath lakes, and the Klamath,
Trinity, and Rogue rivers, are tall, muscular, and well made,[433] with
a complexion varying from nearly black to light brown, in proportion to
their proximity to, or distance, from the ocean or other large bodies of
water; their face is large, oval, and heavily made, with slightly
prominent cheek-bones, nose well set on the face and frequently
straight, and eyes which, when not blurred by ophthalmia, are keen and
bright. The women are short and some of them quite handsome, even in the
Caucasian sense of the word;[434] and although their beauty rapidly
fades, yet they do not in old age present that unnaturally wrinkled and
shriveled appearance, characteristic of the Central Californians. This
description scarcely applies to the people inhabiting the coast about
Redwood Creek, Humboldt Bay, and Eel River, who are squat and fat in
figure, rather stoutly built, with large heads covered with coarse thick
hair, and repulsive countenances, who are of a much darker color, and
altogether of a lower type than the tribes to the east and north of
them.[435]

  [Sidenote: DRESS IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

Dress depends more on the state of the climate than on their own sense
of decency. The men wear a belt, sometimes a breech-clout, and the women
an apron or skirt of deer-skin or braided grass; then they sometimes
throw over the shoulders a sort of cloak, or robe, of marten or rabbit
skins sewn together, deer-skin, or, among the coast tribes, seal or
sea-otter skin. When they indulge in this luxury, however, the men
usually dispense with all other covering.[436] Occasionally we find them
taking great pride in their gala dresses and sparing no pains to render
them beautiful. The Modocs, for instance, took large-sized skins, and
inlaid them with brilliant- duck-scalps, sewed on in various
figures; others, again, embroidered their aprons with  grasses,
and attached beads and shells to a deep fringe falling from the lower
part.[437] A bowl-shaped hat, or cap, of basket-work, is usually worn
by the women, in making which some of them are very skillful. This hat
is sometimes painted with various figures, and sometimes interwoven with
gay feathers of the woodpecker or blue quail.[438] The men generally go
bare-headed, their thick hair being sufficient protection from sun and
weather. In the vicinity of the lakes, where, from living constantly
among the long grass and reeds, the greatest skill is acquired in
weaving and braiding, moccasins of straw or grass are worn.[439] At the
junction of the Klamath and Trinity rivers their moccasins have soles of
several thicknesses of leather.[440] The natives seen by Maurelle at
Trinidad Bay, bound their loins and legs down to the ankle with strips
of hide or thread, both men and women.

The manner of dressing the hair varies; the most common way being to
club it together behind in a queue, sometimes in two, worn down the
back, or occasionally in the latter case drawn forward over the
shoulders. The queue is frequently twisted up in a knot on the back of
the head--_en castanna_--as Maurelle calls it. Occasionally the hair is
worn loose, and flowing, and some of the women cut it short on the
forehead. It is not uncommon to see wreaths of oak or laurel leaves,
feathers, or the tails of gray squirrels twisted in the hair; indeed,
from the trouble which they frequently take to adorn their coiffure, one
would imagine that these people were of a somewhat æsthetic turn of
mind, but a closer acquaintance quickly dispels the illusion. On Eel
River some cut all the hair short, a custom practiced to some extent by
the Central Californians.[441]

  [Sidenote: FACIAL ORNAMENTATION.]

As usual these savages are beardless, or nearly so.[442] Tattooing,
though not carried to any great extent, is universal among the women,
and much practiced by the men, the latter confining this ornamentation
to the breast and arms. The women tattoo in three blue lines, extending
perpendicularly from the centre and corners of the lower lip to the
chin. In some tribes they tattoo the arms, and occasionally the back of
the hands. As they grow older the lines on the chin, which at first are
very faint, are increased in width and color, thus gradually narrowing
the intervening spaces. Now, as the social importance of the female is
gauged by the width and depth of color of these lines, one might imagine
that before long the whole chin would be what Southey calls "blue,
darkly, deeply, beautifully blue;" but fashion ordains, as in the
lip-ornament of the Thlinkeets, that the lines should be materially
enlarged only as the charms of youth fade, thus therewith gauging both
age and respectability.[443] In some few tribes, more especially in the
vicinity of the lakes, the men paint themselves in various colors and
grotesque patterns. Among the Modocs the women also paint. Miller says
that when a Modoc warrior paints his face black before going into battle
it means victory or death, and he will not survive a defeat.[444] Both
men and women pierce the dividing cartilage of the nose, and wear
various kinds of ornaments in the aperture. Sometimes it is a
goose-quill, three or four inches long, at others, a string of beads or
shells. Some of the more northerly tribes wear large round pieces of
wood or metal in the ears.[445] Maurelle, in his bucolic description of
the natives at Trinidad bay, says that "on their necks they wear various
fruits, instead of beads."[446] Vancouver, who visited the same place
nearly twenty years later, states that "all the teeth of both sexes
were by some process ground uniformly down horizontally to the gums, the
women especially, carrying the fashion to an extreme, had their teeth
reduced even below this level."[447]

Here also we see in their habitations the usual summer and winter
residences common to nomadic tribes. The winter dwellings, varying with
locality, are principally of two forms--conical and square. Those of the
former shape, which is the most widely prevailing, and obtains chiefly
in the vicinity of the Klamath lakes and on the Klamath and Trinity
rivers, are built in the manner following: A circular hole, from two to
five feet in depth, and varying in diameter, is dug in the ground. Round
this pit, or cellar, stout poles are sunk, which are drawn together at
the top until they nearly meet; the whole is then covered with earth to
the depth of several inches. A hole is left in the top, which serves as
chimney and door, a rude ladder or notched pole communicating with the
cellar below, and a similar one with the ground outside. This, however,
is only the commoner and lighter kind of conical house. Many of them are
built of much heavier timbers, which, instead of being bent over at the
top, and so forming a bee-hive-shaped structure, are leaned one against
the other.

The dwellings built by the Hoopahs are somewhat better. The inside of
the cellar is walled up with stone; round this, and at a distance of a
few feet from it, another stone wall is built on the surface level,
against which heavy beams or split logs are leaned up, meeting at the
top, or sometimes the lower ends of the poles rest against the inside of
the wall, thus insuring the inmates against a sudden collapse of the
hut.[448]

  [Sidenote: CALIFORNIAN HABITATIONS.]

The square style of dwelling is affected more by the coast tribes,
although occasionally seen in the interior. A cellar, either square or
round, is dug in the same manner as with the conical houses. The sides
of the hole are walled with upright slabs, which project some feet above
the surface of the ground. The whole structure is covered with a roof of
sticks or planks, sloping gently outward, and resting upon a ridge-pole.
The position of the door varies, being sometimes in the roof, sometimes
on a level with the ground, and occasionally high up in the gable. Its
shape and dimensions, however, never alter; it is always circular,
barely large enough to admit a full-grown man on hands and knees. When
on the roof or in the gable, a notched pole or mud steps lead up to the
entrance; when on the ground, a sliding panel closes the entrance. In
some cases, the excavation is planked up only to a level with the
ground. The upper part is then raised several feet from the sides,
leaving a bank, or rim, on which the inmates sleep; occasionally there
is no excavation, the house being erected on the level ground, with
merely a small fire-hole in the centre. The floors are kept smooth and
clean, and a small space in front of the door, paved with stones and
swept clean, serves as gossiping and working ground for the women.[449]

The temporary summer houses of the Northern Californians are square,
conical, and inverted-bowl-shaped huts; built, when square, by driving
light poles into the ground and laying others horizontally across them;
when conical, the poles are drawn together at the top into a point; when
bowl-shaped, both ends of the poles are driven into the ground, making a
semi-circular hut. These frames, however shaped, are covered with neatly
woven tule matting,[450] or with bushes or ferns.[451]

  [Sidenote: HUNTING AND FISHING.]

The Californians are but poor hunters; they prefer the snare to the bow
and arrow. Yet some of the mountain tribes display considerable
dexterity in the chase. To hunt the prong-buck, the Klamath fastens to
each heel a strip of ermine-skin, and keeping the herd to the windward,
he approaches craftily through the tall grass as near as possible, then
throwing himself on his back, or standing on his head, he executes a
pantomime in the air with his legs. Naturally the antelope wonder, and
being cursed with curiosity, the simple animals gradually approach. As
soon as they arrive within easy shooting-distance, down go the hunter's
legs and up comes the body. Too late the antelope learn their mistake;
swift as they are, the arrow is swifter; and the fattest buck pays the
penalty of his inquisitiveness with his life. The Veeards, at Humboldt
Bay, construct a slight fence from tree to tree, into which inclosure
elk are driven, the only exit being by a narrow opening at one end,
where a pole is placed in such a manner as to force the animal to stoop
in passing under it, when its head is caught in a noose suspended from
the pole. This pole is dragged down by the entangled elk, but soon he is
caught fast in the thick undergrowth, and firmly held until the hunter
comes up.[452] Pitfalls are also extensively used in trapping game. A
narrow pass, through which an elk or deer trail leads, is selected for
the pit, which is ten or twelve feet deep. The animals are then suddenly
stampeded from their feeding-grounds, and, in their wild terror, rush
blindly along the trail to destruction.[453] The bear they seldom hunt,
and if one is taken, it is usually by accident, in one of their strong
elk-traps. Many of the tribes refuse to eat bear-meat, alleging that the
flesh of a man-eating animal is unclean; but no doubt Bruin owes his
immunity as much to his teeth and claws as to his uncleanness.

  [Sidenote: FISHING BY NIGHT ON THE KLAMATH.]

Fishing is more congenial to the lazy taste of these people than the
nobler but more arduous craft of hunting; consequently fish, being
abundant, are generally more plentiful in the aboriginal larder than
venison. Several methods are adopted in taking them. Sometimes a dam of
interwoven willows is constructed across a rapid at the time when salmon
are ascending the river; niches four or five feet square are made at
intervals across the dam, in which the fish, pressed on by those behind,
collect in great numbers and are there speared or netted without mercy.
Much ingenuity and labor are required to build some of the larger of
these dams. Mr Gibbs describes one thrown across the Klamath, where the
river was about seventy-five yards wide, elbowing up the stream in its
deepest part. It was built by first driving stout posts into the bed of
the river, at a distance of some two feet apart, having a moderate
<DW72>, and supported from below, at intervals of ten or twelve feet, by
two braces; the one coming to the surface of the water, the other
reaching to the string-pieces. These last were heavy spars, about thirty
feet in length, and secured to each post by withes. The whole dam was
faced with twigs, carefully peeled, and placed so close together as to
prevent the fish from passing up. The top, at this stage of the water,
was two or three feet above the surface. The labor of constructing this
work must, with the few and insufficient tools of the natives, have been
immense. Slight scaffolds were built out below it, from which the fish
were taken in scoop-nets; they also employ drag-nets and spears, the
latter having a movable barb, which is fastened to the shaft with a
string in order to afford the salmon play.[454] On Rogue River, spearing
by torch-light--a most picturesque sight--is resorted to. Twenty canoes
sometimes start out together, each carrying three persons--two women,
one to row and the other to hold the torch, and a spearman. Sometimes
the canoes move in concert, sometimes independently of each other; one
moment the lights are seen in line, like an army of fire-flies, then
they are scattered over the dark surface of the water like ignes fatui.
The fish, attracted by the glare, rise to the surface, where they are
transfixed by the unerring aim of the spearmen. Torchlight spearing is
also done by driving the fish down stream in the day-time by dint of
much wading, yelling, and howling, and many splashes, until they are
stopped by a dam previously erected lower down; another dam is then
built above, so that the fish cannot escape. At night fires are built
round the edge of the enclosed space, and the finny game speared from
the bank.[455] Some tribes on the Klamath erect platforms over the
stream on upright poles, on which they sleep and fish at the same time.
A string leads from the net either to the fisherman himself or to some
kind of alarm; and as soon as a salmon is caught, its floundering
immediately awakens the slumberer. On the sea-shore smelts are taken in
a triangular net stretched on two slender poles; the fisherman wades
into the water up to his waist, turns his face to the shore, and his
back to the incoming waves, against whose force he braces himself with a
stout stick, then as the smelts are washed back from the beach by the
returning waves, he receives them in his net. The net is deep, and a
narrow neck connects it with a long network bag behind; into this bag
the fish drop when the net is raised, but they cannot return. In this
manner the fisherman can remain for some time at his post, without
unloading.

Eels are caught in traps having a funnel-shaped entrance, into which the
eels can easily go, but which closes on them as soon as they are in.
These traps are fastened to stakes and kept down by weights. Similar
traps are used to take salmon.

When preserved for winter use, the fish are split open at the back, the
bone taken out, then dried or smoked. Both fish and meat, when eaten
fresh, are either broiled on hot stones or boiled in water-tight
baskets, hot stones being thrown in to make the water boil. Bread is
made of acorns ground to flour in a rough stone mortar with a heavy
stone pestle, and baked in the ashes. Acorn-flour is the principal
ingredient, but berries of various kinds are usually mixed in, and
frequently it is seasoned with some high-flavored herb. A sort of
pudding is also made in the same manner, but is boiled instead of baked.

They gather a great variety of roots, berries, and seeds. The principal
root is the camas,[456] great quantities of which are dried every
summer, and stored away for winter provision. Another root, called
_kice_, or _kace_,[457] is much sought after. Of seeds they have the
_wocus_,[458] and several varieties of grass-seeds. Among berries the
huckleberry and the manzanita berry are the most plentiful.[459] The
women do the cooking, root and berry gathering, and all the drudgery.

The winter stock of smoked fish hangs in the family room, sending forth
an ancient and fish-like smell. Roots and seeds are, among some of the
more northerly tribes, stored in large wicker boxes, built in the lower
branches of strong, wide-spreading trees. The trunk of the tree below
the granary is smeared with pitch to keep away vermin.[459] The Modocs
are sometimes obliged to cache their winter hoard under rocks and
bushes; the great number of their enemies and bad character of their
ostensibly friendly neighbors, rendering it unsafe for them to store it
in their villages. So cunningly do they conceal their treasure that one
winter, after an unusually heavy fall of snow, they themselves could not
find it, and numbers starved in consequence.[460]

Although the Northern Californians seldom fail to take a cold bath in
the morning, and frequently bathe at intervals during the day, yet they
are never clean.[461]

  [Sidenote: WAR AND WEAPONS.]

The Northern Californians are not of a very warlike disposition, hence
their weapons are few, being confined chiefly to the bow and arrow.[462]
The bow is about three feet in length, made of yew, cedar, or some other
tough or elastic wood, and generally painted. The back is flat, from an
inch and a half to two inches wide, and covered with elk-sinews, which
greatly add both to its strength and elasticity; the string is also of
sinew. The bow is held horizontally when discharged, instead of
perpendicularly as in most countries. The arrows are from two to three
feet long, and are made sometimes of reed, sometimes of light wood. The
points, which are of flint, obsidian, bone, iron, or copper, are ground
to a very fine point, fastened firmly into a short piece of wood, and
fitted into a socket in the main shaft, so that on withdrawing the arrow
the head will be left in the wound. The feathered part, which is from
five to eight inches long, is also sometimes a separate piece bound on
with sinews. The quiver is made of the skin of a fox, wild-cat, or some
other small animal, in the same shape as when the animal wore it, except
at the tail end, where room is left for the feathered ends of arrows to
project. It is usually carried on the arm.[463]

Mr Powers says: "doubtless many persons who have seen the flint
arrow-heads made by the Indians, have wondered how they succeeded with
their rude implements, in trimming them down to such sharp, thin points,
without breaking them to pieces. The Veeards--and probably other tribes
do likewise--employ for this purpose a pair of buck-horn pincers, tied
together at the point with a thong. They first hammer out the arrow-head
in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nip off one tiny
fragment after another, using that infinite patience which is
characteristic of the Indian, spending days, perhaps weeks, on one
piece. There are Indians who make arrows as a specialty, just as there
are others who concoct herbs and roots for the healing of men."[464] The
Shastas especially excelled in making obsidian arrow-heads; Mr Wilkes of
the Exploring Expedition notices them as being "beautifully wrought,"
and Lyon, in a letter to the American Ethnological Society, communicated
through Dr E. H. Davis, describes the very remarkable ingenuity and
skill which they display in this particular. The arrow-point maker, who
is one of a regular guild, places the obsidian pebble upon an anvil of
talcose slate and splits it with an agate chisel to the required size;
then holding the piece with his finger and thumb against the anvil, he
finishes it off with repeated slight blows, administered with marvelous
adroitness and judgment. One of these artists made an arrow-point for Mr
Lyon out of a piece of a broken porter-bottle. Owing to his not being
acquainted with the grain of the glass, he failed twice, but the third
time produced a perfect specimen.[465] The Wallies poison their arrows
with rattlesnake-virus, but poisoned weapons seem to be the
exception.[466] The bow is skilfully used; war-clubs are not
common.[467]

  [Sidenote: WAR AND ITS MOTIVES.]

Wars, though of frequent occurrence, were not particularly bloody. The
casus belli was usually that which brought the Spartan King before the
walls of Ilion, and Titus Tatius to incipient Rome--woman. It is true,
the Northern Californians are less classic abductors than the spoilers
of the Sabine women, but their wars ended in the same manner--the
ravished fair cleaving to her warrior-lover. Religion also, that
ever-fruitful source of war, is not without its conflicts in savagedom;
thus more than once the Shastas and the Umpquas have taken up arms
because of wicked sorceries, which caused the death of the people.[468]
So when one people obstructed the river with their weir, thereby
preventing the ascent of salmon, there was nothing left for those above
but to fight or starve.

Along Pitt River, pits from ten to fifteen feet deep were formerly dug,
in which the natives caught man and beast. These man-traps, for such was
their primary use, were small at the mouth, widening toward the bottom,
so that exit was impossible, even were the victim to escape impalement
upon sharpened elk and deer horns, which were favorably placed for his
reception. The opening was craftily concealed by means of light sticks,
over which earth was scattered, and the better to deceive the unwary
traveler, footprints were frequently stamped with a moccasin in the
loose soil. Certain landmarks and stones or branches, placed in a
peculiar manner, warned the initiated, but otherwise there was no sign
of impending danger.[469]

Some few nations maintain the predominancy and force the weaker to pay
tribute.[470] When two of these dominant nations war with each other,
the conflict is more sanguinary. No scalps are taken, but in some cases
the head, hands, or feet of the conquered slain are severed as trophies.
The Cahrocs sometimes fight hand to hand with ragged stones, which they
use with deadly effect. The Rogue River Indians kill all their male
prisoners, but spare the women and children.[471] The elk-horn knives
and hatchets are the result of much labor and patience.[472]

The women are very ingenious in plaiting grass, or fine willow-roots,
into mats, baskets, hats, and strips of parti- braid for binding
up the hair. On these, angular patterns are worked by using different
shades of material, or by means of dyes of vegetable extraction. The
baskets are of various sizes, from the flat, basin-shaped, water-tight,
rush bowl for boiling food, to the large pointed cone which the women
carry on their backs when root-digging or berry-picking.[473] They are
also expert tanners, and, by a comparatively simple process, will render
skins as soft and pliable as cloth. The hide is first soaked in water
till the hair loosens, then stretched between trees or upright posts
till half dry, when it is scraped thoroughly on both sides, well beaten
with sticks, and the brains of some animal, heated at a fire, are rubbed
on the inner side to soften it. Finally it is buried in moist ground for
some weeks.

  [Sidenote: MANUFACTURES AND BOATS.]

The interior tribes manifest no great skill in boat-making, but along
the coast and near the mouth of the Klamath and Rogue rivers, very good
canoes are found. They are still, however, inferior to those used on the
Columbia and its tributaries. The lashed-up-hammock-shaped bundle of
rushes, which is so frequently met in the more southern parts of
California, has been seen on the Klamath,[474] but I have reason to
think that it is only used as a matter of convenience, and not because
no better boat is known. It is certain that dug-out canoes were in use
on the same river, and within a few miles of the spot where tule buoys
obtain. The fact is, this bundle of rushes is the best craft that could
be invented for salmon-spearing. Seated astride, the weight of the
fisherman sinks it below the surface; he can move it noiselessly with
his feet so that there is no splashing of paddles in the sun to frighten
the fish; it cannot capsize, and striking a rock does it no injury.
Canoes are hollowed from the trunk of a single redwood, pine, fir,
sycamore, or cottonwood tree. They are blunt at both ends and on Rogue
River many of them are flat-bottomed. It is a curious fact that some of
these canoes are made from first to last without being touched with a
sharp-edged tool of any sort. The native finds the tree ready felled by
the wind, burns it off to the required length, and hollows it out by
fire. Pitch is spread on the parts to be burned away, and a piece of
fresh bark prevents the flames from extending too far in the wrong
direction. A small shelf, projecting inward from the stern, serves as a
seat. Much trouble is sometimes taken with the finishing up of these
canoes, in the way of scraping and polishing, but in shape they lack
symmetry. On the coast they are frequently large; Mr Powers mentions
having seen one at Smith River forty-two feet long, eight feet four
inches wide, and capable of carrying twenty-four men and five tons of
merchandise. The natives take great care of their canoes, and always
cover them when out of the water to protect them from the sun. Should a
crack appear they do not caulk it, but stitch the sides of the split
tightly together with withes. They are propelled with a piece of wood,
half pole, half paddle.[475]

  [Sidenote: WEALTH IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

Wealth, which is quite as important here as in any civilized
communities, and of much more importance than is customary among savage
nations, consists in shell-money, called _allicochick_, white
deer-skins, canoes, and, indirectly, in women. The shell which is the
regular circulating medium is white, hollow, about a quarter of an inch
through, and from one to two inches in length. On its length depends its
value. A gentleman, who writes from personal observation, says: "all of
the older Indians have tattooed on their arms their standard of value. A
piece of shell corresponding in length to one of the marks being worth
five dollars, 'Boston money,' the scale gradually increases until the
highest mark is reached. For five perfect shells corresponding in length
to this mark they will readily give one hundred dollars in gold or
silver."[476] White deer-skins are rare and considered very valuable,
one constituting quite an estate in itself.[477] A scalp of the
red-headed woodpecker is equivalent to about five dollars, and is
extensively used as currency on the Klamath. Canoes are valued according
to their size and finish. Wives, as they must be bought, are a sign of
wealth, and the owner of many is respected accordingly.[478]

Among the Northern Californians, hereditary chieftainship is almost
unknown. If the son succeed the father it is because the son has
inherited the father's wealth, and if a richer than he arise the
ancient ruler is deposed and the new chief reigns in his stead. But to
be chief means to have position, not power. He can advise, but not
command; at least, if his subjects do not choose to obey him, he cannot
compel obedience.

There is most frequently a head man to each village, and sometimes a
chief of the whole tribe, but in reality each head of a family governs
his own domestic circle as he thinks best. As in certain republics, when
powerful applicants become multiplied--new offices are created, as
salmon-chief, elk-chief, and the like. In one or two coast tribes the
office is hereditary, as with the Patawats on Mad River, and that
mysterious tribe at Trinidad Bay, mentioned by Mr Meyer, the
Allequas.[479]

Their penal code is far from Draconian. A fine of a few strings of
allicochick appeases the wrath of a murdered man's relatives and
satisfies the requirements of custom. A woman may be slaughtered for
half the sum it costs to kill a man. Occasionally banishment from the
tribe is the penalty for murder, but capital punishment is never
resorted to. The fine, whatever it is, must be promptly paid, or neither
city of refuge nor sacred altar-horns will shield the murderer from the
vengeance of his victim's friends.[480]

  [Sidenote: WOMEN AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.]

In vain do we look for traces of that Arcadian simplicity and disregard
for worldly advantages generally accorded to children of nature.
Although I find no description of an actual system of slavery existing
among them, yet there is no doubt that they have slaves. We shall see
that illegitimate children are considered and treated as such, and that
women, entitled by courtesy wives, are bought and sold. Mr Drew asserts
that the Klamath children of slave parents, who, it may be, prevent the
profitable prostitution or sale of the mother, are killed without
compunction.[481]

Marriage, with the Northern Californians, is essentially a matter of
business. The young brave must not hope to win his bride by feats of
arms or softer wooing, but must buy her of her father, like any other
chattel, and pay the price at once, or resign in favor of a richer man.
The inclinations of the girl are in nowise consulted; no matter where
her affections are placed, she goes to the highest bidder, and "Mammon
wins his way where seraphs might despair." Neither is it a trifling
matter to be bought as a wife; the social position of the bride herself,
as well as that of her father's family thereafter, depends greatly upon
the price she brings; her value is voted by society at the price her
husband pays for her, and the father whose daughter commands the
greatest number of strings of allicochick, is greatly to be honored. The
purchase effected, the successful suitor leads his blushing property to
his hut and she becomes his wife without further ceremony. Wherever this
system of wife-purchase obtains, the rich old men almost absorb the
female youth and beauty of the tribe, while the younger and poorer men
must content themselves with old and ugly wives. Hence their eagerness
for that wealth which will enable them to throw away their old wives and
buy new ones. When a marriage takes place among the Modocs, a feast is
given at the house of the bride's father, in which, however, neither she
nor the bridegroom partake. The girl is escorted by the women to a
lodge, previously furnished by public contributions, where she is
subsequently joined by the man, who is conducted by his male friends.
All the company bear torches, which are piled up as a fire in the lodge
of the wedded pair, who are then left alone. In some tribes this
wife-traffic is done on credit, or at least partially so; but the credit
system is never so advantageous to the buyer as the ready-money system,
for until the full price is paid, the man is only 'half-married,' and
besides he must live with his wife's family and be their slave until he
shall have paid in full.[482] The children of a wife who has cost her
husband nothing are considered no better than bastards, and are treated
by society with contumely; nobody associates with them, and they become
essentially ostracized. In all this there is one redeeming feature for
the wife-buyer; should he happen to make a bad bargain he can, in most
instances, send his wife home and get his money back. Mr Gibbs asserts
that they shoot their wives when tired of them, but this appears
inconsistent with custom.

  [Sidenote: ADULTERY AND CHASTITY.]

Polygamy is almost universal, the number of wives depending only on the
limit of a man's wealth. The loss of one eye, or expulsion from the
tribe, are common punishments for adultery committed by a man. A string
of beads, however, makes amends. Should the wife venture on any
irregularity without just compensation, the outraged honor of her lord
is never satisfied until he has seen her publicly disemboweled. Among
the Hoopahs the women are held irresponsible and the men alone suffer
for the crime.[483] Illegitimate children are life-slaves to some male
relative of the mother, and upon them the drudgery falls; they are only
allowed to marry one in their own station, and their sole hope of
emancipation lies in a slow accumulation of allicochick, with which they
can buy their freedom. We are told by Mr Powers that a Modoc may kill
his mother-in-law with impunity. Adultery, being attended with so much
danger, is comparatively rare, but among the unmarried, who have nothing
to fear, a gross licentiousness prevails.[484]

Among the Muckalucs a dance is instituted in honor of the arrival of the
girls at the age of puberty. On the Klamath, during the period of
menstruation the women are banished from the village, and no man may
approach them. Although the principal labor falls to the lot of the
women, the men sometimes assist in building the wigwam, or even in
gathering acorns and roots.[485] Kane mentions that the Shastas, or, as
he calls them, the Chastays, frequently sell their children as slaves to
the Chinooks.[486] Dances and festivities, of a religio-playful
character, are common, as when a whale is stranded, an elk snared, or
when the salmon come. There is generally a kind of thanksgiving-day once
a year, when the people of neighboring tribes meet and dance. The annual
feast of the Veeards is a good illustration of the manner of these
entertainments. The dance, which takes place in a large wigwam, is
performed by as many men as there is room for, and a small proportion of
women. They move in a circle slowly round the fire, accompanying
themselves with their peculiar chant. Each individual is dressed in all
the finery he can muster; every valuable he possesses in the way of
shells, furs, or woodpecker-scalps, does duty on this occasion; so that
the wealth of the dancers may be reckoned at a glance. When the dance
has concluded, an old gray-beard of the tribe rises, and pronounces a
thanksgiving oration, wherein he enumerates the benefits received, the
riches accumulated, and the victories won during the year; exhorting the
hearers meanwhile, by good conduct and moral behavior, to deserve yet
greater benefits. This savage Nestor is listened to in silence and with
respect; his audience seeming to drink in with avidity every drop of
wisdom that falls from his lips; but no sooner is the harangue concluded
than every one does his best to violate the moral precepts so lately
inculcated, by a grand debauch.

The Cahrocs have a similar festival, which they call the Feast of the
Propitiation. Its object is much the same as that of the feast just
described, but in place of the orator, the chief personage of the day is
called the Chareya, which is also the appellation of their deity. No
little honor attaches to the position, but much suffering is also
connected with it. It is the duty of the Chareya-man to retire into the
mountains, with one attendant only, and there to remain for ten days,
eating only enough to keep breath in his body. Meanwhile the Cahrocs
congregate in honor of the occasion, dance, sing, and make merry. When
the appointed period has elapsed, the Chareya-man returns to camp, or is
carried by deputies sent out for the purpose, if he have not strength
to walk. His bearers are blindfolded, for no human being may look upon
the face of the Chareya-man and live. His approach is the signal for the
abrupt breaking up of the festivities. The revelers disperse in terror,
and conceal themselves as best they may to avoid catching sight of the
dreaded face, and where a moment before all was riot and bustle, a
deathly stillness reigns. Then the Chareya-man is conducted to the
sweat-house, where he remains for a time. And now the real
Propitiation-Dance takes place, the men alone participating in its
sacred movements, which are accompanied by the low, monotonous chant of
singers. The dance over, all solemnity vanishes, and a lecherous
saturnalia ensues, which will not bear description. The gods are
conciliated, catastrophes are averted, and all is joy and
happiness.[487]

  [Sidenote: SPORTS AND GAMES.]

A passion for gambling obtains among the northern Californians as
elsewhere. Nothing is too precious or too insignificant to be staked,
from a white or black deer-skin, which is almost priceless, down to a
wife, or any other trifle. In this manner property changes hands with
great rapidity.

I have already stated that on the possession of riches depend power,
rank, and social position, so that there is really much to be lost or
won. They have a game played with little sticks, of which some are
black, but the most white. These they throw around in a circle, the
object being seemingly to make the black ones go farther than the white.
A kind of guess-game is played with clay balls.[488] There is also an
international game, played between friendly tribes, which closely
resembles our 'hockey.' Two poles are set up in the ground at some
distance apart, and each side, being armed with sticks, endeavors to
drive a wooden ball round the goal opposite to it.[489] In almost all
their games and dances they are accompanied by a hoarse chanting, or by
some kind of uncouth music produced by striking on a board with
lobster-claws fastened to sticks, or by some other equally primitive
method. Before the introduction of spirituous liquors by white men
drunkenness was unknown. With their tobacco for smoking, they mix a leaf
called _kinnik-kinnik_.[490]

  [Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

The diseases and ailments most prevalent among these people are
scrofula, consumption, rheumatism, a kind of leprosy, affection of the
lungs, and sore eyes, the last arising from the dense smoke which always
pervades their cabins.[491] In addition to this they have imaginary
disorders caused by wizards, witches, and evil spirits, who, as they
believe, cause snakes and other reptiles to enter into their bodies and
gnaw their vitals. Some few roots and herbs used are really efficient
medicine, but they rely almost entirely upon the mummeries and
incantations of their medicine men and women.[492] Their whole system of
therapeutics having superstition for a basis, mortality is great among
them, which may be one of the causes of the continent being,
comparatively speaking, so thinly populated at the time of its
discovery. Syphilis, one of the curses for which they may thank the
white man, has made fearful havoc among them. Women doctors seem to be
more numerous than men in this region; acquiring their art in the
_temescal_ or sweat-house, where unprofessional women are not admitted.
Their favorite method of cure seems to consist in sucking the affected
part of the patient until the blood flows, by which means they pretend
to extract the disease. Sometimes the doctress vomits a frog, previously
swallowed for the occasion, to prove that she has not sucked in vain.
She is frequently assisted by a second physician, whose duty it is to
discover the exact spot where the malady lies, and this she effects by
barking like a dog at the patient until the spirit discovers to her the
place. Mr Gibbs mentions a case where the patient was first attended by
four young women, and afterward by the same number of old ones. Standing
round the unfortunate, they went through a series of violent
gesticulations, sitting down when they could stand no longer, sucking,
with the most laudable perseverance, and moaning meanwhile most
dismally. Finally, when with their lips and tongue they had raised
blisters all over the patient, and had pounded his miserable body with
hands and knees until they were literally exhausted, the performers
executed a swooning scene, in which they sank down apparently
insensible.[493] The Rogue River medicine-men are supposed to be able to
wield their mysterious power for harm, as well as for good, so that
should a patient die, his relatives kill the doctor who attended him; or
in case deceased could not afford medical attendance, they kill the
first unfortunate disciple of Æsculapius they can lay hands on,
frequently murdering one belonging to another tribe; his death, however,
must be paid for.[494]

But the great institution of the Northern Californians is their
temescal, or sweat-house, which consists of a hole dug in the ground,
and roofed over in such a manner as to render it almost air-tight. A
fire is built in the centre in early fall, and is kept alive till the
following spring, as much attention being given to it as ever was paid
to the sacred fires of Hestia; though between the subterranean temescal,
with its fetid atmosphere, and lurid fire-glow glimmering faintly
through dense smoke on swart, gaunt forms of savages, and the stately
temple on the Forum, fragrant with fumes of incense, the lambent
altar-flame glistening on the pure white robes of the virgin
priestesses, there is little likeness. The temescal[495] is usually
built on the brink of a stream; a small hatchway affords entrance, which
is instantly closed after the person going in or out. Here congregate
the men of the village and enact their sudorific ceremonies, which
ordinarily consist in squatting round the fire until a state of profuse
perspiration sets in, when they rush out and plunge into the water.
Whether this mode of treatment is more potent to kill or to cure is
questionable. The sweat-house serves not only as bath and medicine room,
but also as a general rendezvous for the male drones of the village. The
women, with the exception of those practicing or studying medicine, are
forbidden its sacred precincts on pain of death; thus it offers as
convenient a refuge for henpecked husbands as a civilized club-house. In
many of the tribes the men sleep in the temescal during the winter,
which, notwithstanding the disgusting impurity of the atmosphere,
affords them a snug retreat from the cold gusty weather common to this
region.[496]

  [Sidenote: BURIAL AND MOURNING.]

Incremation obtains but slightly among the Northern Californians, the
body usually being buried in a recumbent position. The possessions of
the deceased are either interred with him, or are hung around the
grave; sometimes his house is burned and the ashes strewn over his
burial-place. Much noisy lamentation on the part of his relatives takes
place at his death, and the widow frequently manifests her grief by
sitting on, or even half burying herself in, her husband's grave for
some days, howling most dismally meanwhile, and refusing food and drink;
or, on the upper Klamath, by cutting her hair close to the head, and so
wearing it until she obtains consolation in another spouse. The Modocs
hired mourners to lament at different places for a certain number of
days, so that the whole country was filled with lamentation. These paid
mourners were closely watched, and disputes frequently arose as to
whether they had fulfilled their contract or not.[497] Occasionally the
body is doubled up and interred in a sitting position, and, rarely, it
is burned instead of buried. On the Klamath a fire is kept burning near
the grave for several nights after the burial, for which rite various
reasons are assigned. Mr Powers states that it is to light the departed
shade across a certain greased pole, which is supposed to constitute its
only approach to a better world. Mr Gibbs affirms that the fire is
intended to scare away the devil, obviously an unnecessary precaution as
applied to the Satan of civilization, who by this time must be pretty
familiar with the element. The grave is generally covered with a slab of
wood, and sometimes two more are placed erect at the head and foot; that
of a chief is often surrounded with a fence; nor must the name of a dead
person ever be mentioned under any circumstances.[498]

  [Sidenote: BURIAL CEREMONIES AT PITT RIVER.]

The following vivid description of a last sickness and burial by the
Pitt River Indians, is taken from the letter of a lady eye-witness to
her son in San Francisco:--

It was evening. We seated ourselves upon a log, your father, Bertie, and
I, near the fire round which the natives had congregated to sing for old
Gesnip, the chief's wife. Presently Sootim, the doctor, appeared,
dressed in a low-necked, loose, white muslin, sleeveless waist fastened
to a breech-cloth, and red buck-skin cap fringed and ornamented with
beads; the face painted with white stripes down to the chin, the arms
from wrist to shoulder, in black, red, and white circles, which by the
lurid camp-fire looked like bracelets, and the legs in white and black
stripes,--presenting altogether a merry-Andrew appearance. Creeping
softly along, singing in a low, gradually-increasing voice, Sootim
approached the invalid and poised his hands over her as in the act of
blessing. The one nearest him took up the song, singing low at first,
then the next until the circle was completed; after this the pipe went
round; then the doctor taking a sip of water, partly uncovered the
patient and commenced sucking the left side; last of all he took a pinch
of dirt and blew it over her. This is their curative process, continued
night after night, and long into the night, until the patient recovers
or dies.

Next day the doctor came to see me, and I determined if possible to
ascertain his own ideas of these things. Giving him some
_muck-a-muck_,[499] I asked him, "What do you say when you talk over old
Gesnip?" "I talk to the trees, and to the springs, and birds, and sky,
and rocks," replied Sootim, "to the wind, and rain, and leaves, I beg
them all to help me." Iofalet, the doctor's companion on this occasion,
volunteered the remark: "When Indian die, doctor very shamed, all same
Boston doctor;[500] when Indian get well, doctor very smart, all same
Boston doctor." Gesnip said she wanted after death to be put in a box
and buried in the ground, and not burned. That same day the poor old
woman breathed her last--the last spark of that wonderful thing called
life flickered and went out; there remained in that rude camp the
shriveled dusky carcass, the low dim intelligence that so lately
animated it having fled--whither? When I heard of it I went to the camp
and found them dressing the body. First they put on Gesnip her best
white clothes, then the next best, placing all the while whatever was
most valuable, beads, belts, and necklaces, next the body. Money they
put into the mouth, her daughter contributing about five dollars. The
knees were then pressed up against the chest, and after all of her own
clothing was put on, the body was rolled up in the best family
bear-skin, and tied with strips of buckskin.

Then Soomut, the chief and husband, threw the bundle over his shoulders,
and started off for the cave where they deposit their dead, accompanied
by the whole band crying and singing, and throwing ashes from the
camp-fire into the air. And thus the old barbarian mourns: "Soomut had
two wives--one good, one bad; but she that was good was taken away,
while she that is bad remains. O Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" And the
mournful procession take up the refrain: "O Gesnip gone, gone, gone!"
Again the ancient chief: "Soomut has a little boy, Soomut has a little
girl, but no one is left to cook their food, no one to dig them roots. O
Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" followed by the chorus. Then again Soomut:
"White woman knows that Gesnip was strong to work; she told me her
sorrow when Gesnip died. O Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" and this was kept
up during the entire march, the dead wife's virtues sung and chorused by
the whole tribe, accompanied by the scattering of ashes and lamentations
which now had become very noisy. The lady further states that the scene
at the grave was so impressive that she was unable to restrain her
tears. No wonder then that these impulsive children of nature carry
their joy and sorrow to excess, even so far as in this instance, where
the affectionate daughter of the old crone had to be held by her
companions from throwing herself into the grave of her dead mother.
After all, how slight the shades of difference in hearts human, whether
barbaric or cultured!

As before mentioned, the ruling passion of the savage seems to be love
of wealth; having it, he is respected, without it he is despised;
consequently he is treacherous when it profits him to be so, thievish
when he can steal without danger, cunning when gain is at stake, brave
in defense of his lares and penates. Next to his excessive venality,
abject superstition forms the most prominent feature of his
character. He seems to believe that everything instinct with animal
life--with some, as with the Siahs, it extends to vegetable life
also--is possessed by evil spirits; horrible fancies fill his
imagination. The rattling of acorns on the roof, the rustling of leaves
in the deep stillness of the forest is sufficient to excite terror. His
wicked spirit is the very incarnation of fiendishness; a monster who
falls suddenly upon the unwary traveler in solitary places and rends him
in pieces, and whose imps are ghouls that exhume the dead to devour
them.[501]

Were it not for the diabolic view he takes of nature, his life would be
a comparatively easy one. His wants are few, and such as they are, he
has the means of supplying them. He is somewhat of a stoic, his motto
being never do to-day what can be put off until to-morrow, and he
concerns himself little with the glories of peace or war. Now and then
we find him daubing himself with great stripes of paint, and looking
ferocious, but ordinarily he prefers the calm of the peaceful temescal
to the din of battle. The task of collecting a winter store of food he
converts into a kind of summer picnic, and altogether is inclined to
make the best of things, in spite of the annoyance given him in the way
of reservations and other benefits of civilization. Taken as a whole,
the Northern Californian is not such a bad specimen of a savage, as
savages go, but filthiness and greed are not enviable qualities, and he
has a full share of both.[502]


  [Sidenote: THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS.]

THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy a yet larger extent of territory,
comprising the whole of that portion of California extending, north and
south, from about 40° 30´ to 35°, and, east and west, from the Pacific
Ocean to the Californian boundary.

  [Sidenote: NATIONS OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.]

The Native Races of this region are not divided, as in the northern part
of the state, into comparatively large tribes, but are scattered over
the face of the country in innumerable little bands, with a system of
nomenclature so intricate as to puzzle an Oedipus. Nevertheless, as
among the most important, I may mention the following: The _Tehamas_,
from whom the county takes its name; the _Pomos_, which name signifies
'people', and is the collective appellation of a number of tribes living
in Potter Valley, where the head-waters of Eel and Russian rivers
interlace, and extending west to the ocean and south to Clear Lake. Each
tribe of the nation takes a distinguishing prefix to the name of Pomo,
as, the _Castel Pomos_ and _Ki Pomos_ on the head-waters of Eel River;
the _Pome Pomos_, Earth People, in Potter Valley; the _Cahto Pomos_, in
the valley of that name; the _Choam Chadéla Pomos_, Pitch-pine People,
in Redwood Valley; the _Matomey Ki Pomos_, Wooded Valley People, about
Little Lake; the _Usals_, or _Camalél Pomos_, Coast People, on Usal
Creek; the _Shebalne Pomos_, Neighbor People, in Sherwood Valley, and
many others. On Russian River, the _Gallinomeros_ occupy the valley
below Healdsburg; the _Sanéls_, _Socoas_, _Lamas_, and _Seacos_, live in
the vicinity of the village of Sanél; the _Comachos_ dwell in Ranchería
and Anderson valleys; the _Ukiahs_, or Yokias, near the town of Ukiah,
which is a corruption of their name;[503] the _Gualalas_[504] on the
creek which takes its name from them, about twenty miles above the mouth
of Russian River. On the borders of Clear Lake were the _Lopillamillos_,
the _Mipacmas_, and _Tyugas_; the _Yolos_, or Yolays, that is to say,
'region thick with rushes,' of which the present name of the county of
Yolo is a corruption, lived on Cache Creek; the _Colusas_ occupied the
west bank of the Sacramento; in the Valley of the Moon, as the _Sonomas_
called their country, besides themselves there were the _Guillicas_, the
_Kanimares_, the _Simbalakees_, the _Petalumas_, and the _Wapos_; the
_Yachichumnes_ inhabited the country between Stockton and Mount Diablo.
According to Hittel, there were six tribes in Napa Valley: the
_Mayacomas_, the _Calajomanas_, the _Caymus_, the _Napas_, the _Ulucas_,
and the _Suscols_; Mr Taylor also mentions the _Guenocks_, the
_Tulkays_, and the _Socollomillos_; in Suisun Valley were the
_Suisunes_, the _Pulpones_, the _Tolenos_, and the _Ullulatas_; the
tribe of the celebrated chief Marin lived near the mission of San
Rafael, and on the ocean-coast of Marin County were the _Bolanos_ and
_Tamales_; the _Karquines_ lived on the straits of that name. Humboldt
and Mülhlenpfordt mention the _Matalanes_, _Salses_, and _Quirotes_, as
living round the bay of San Francisco. According to Adam Johnson, who
was Indian agent for California in 1850, the principal tribes originally
living at the Mission Dolores, and Yerba Buena, were the _Ahwashtes_,
_Altahmos_, _Romanans_, and _Tulomos_; Choris gives the names of more
than fifteen tribes seen at the Mission, Chamisso of nineteen, and
transcribed from the mission books to the TRIBAL BOUNDARIES of this
group, are the names of nearly two hundred rancherías. The _Socoisukas_,
_Thamiens_, and _Gergecensens_ roamed through Santa Clara County. The
_Olchones_ inhabited the coast between San Francisco and Monterey; in
the vicinity of the latter place were the _Rumsens_ or Runsiens, the
_Ecclemaches_, _Escelens_ or Eslens, the _Achastliens_, and the
_Mutsunes_. On the San Joaquin lived the _Costrowers_, the _Pitiaches_,
_Talluches_, _Loomnears_, and _Amonces_; on Fresno River the _Chowclas_,
_Cookchaneys_, _Fonechas_, _Nookchues_, and _Howetsers_; the _Eemitches_
and _Cowiahs_, lived on Four Creeks; the _Waches_, _Notoowthas_, and
_Chunemmes_ on King River, and on Tulare Lake, the _Talches_ and
_Woowells_.

In their aboriginal manners and customs they differ but little, so
little, in fact, that one description will apply to the whole division
within the above-named limits. The reader will therefore understand
that, except where a tribe is specially named, I am speaking of the
whole people collectively.

The conflicting statements of men who had ample opportunity for
observation, and who saw the people they describe, if not in the same
place, at least in the same vicinity, render it difficult to give a
correct description of their physique. They do not appear to deteriorate
toward the coast, or improve toward the interior, so uniformly as their
northern neighbors; but this may be accounted for by the fact that
several tribes that formerly lived on the coast have been driven inland
by the settlers and vice versa.

  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES.]

Some ethnologists see in the Californians a stock different from that of
any other American race; but the more I dwell upon the subject, the more
convinced I am, that, except in the broader distinctions, specific
classifications of humanity are but idle speculations. Their height
rarely exceeds five feet eight inches, and is more frequently five feet
four or five inches, and although strongly they are seldom symmetrically
built. A low retreating forehead, black deep-set eyes, thick bushy
eyebrows, salient cheek-bones, a nose depressed at the root and somewhat
wide-spreading at the nostrils, a large mouth with thick prominent lips,
teeth large and white, but not always regular, and rather large ears, is
the prevailing type. Their complexion is much darker than that of the
tribes farther north, often being nearly black; so that with their
matted, bushy hair, which is frequently cut short, they present a very
uncouth appearance.[505]

The question of beard has been much mooted; some travelers asserting
that they are bearded like Turks, others that they are beardless as
women. Having carefully compared the pros and cons, I think I am
justified in stating that the Central Californians have beards, though
not strong ones, and that some tribes suffer it to grow, while others
pluck it out as soon as it appears.[506]

  [Sidenote: DRESS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.]

During summer, except on festal occasions, the apparel of the men is of
the most primitive character, a slight strip of covering round the loins
being full dress; but even this is unusual, the majority preferring to
be perfectly unencumbered by clothing. In winter the skin of a deer or
other animal is thrown over the shoulders, or sometimes a species of
rope made from the feathers of water-fowl, or strips of otter-skin,
twisted together, is wound round the body, forming an effectual
protection against the weather. The women are scarcely better clad,
their summer costume being a fringed apron of tule-grass, which falls
from the waist before and behind nearly down to the knees, and is open
at the sides. Some tribes in the northern part of the Sacramento Valley
wear the round bowl-shaped hat worn by the natives on the Klamath.
During the cold season a half-tanned deer-skin, or the rope garment
above mentioned, is added. The hair is worn in various styles. Some bind
it up in a knot on the back of the head, others draw it back and club it
behind; farther south it is worn cut short, and occasionally we find it
loose and flowing. It is not uncommon to see the head adorned with
chaplets of leaves or flowers, reminding one of a badly executed bronze
of Apollo or Bacchus. Ear-ornaments are much in vogue; a favorite
variety being a long round piece of carved bone or wood, sometimes with
beads attached, which is also used as a needle-case. Strings of shells
and beads also serve as ear-ornaments and necklaces. The head-dress for
gala days and dances is elaborate, composed of gay feathers, skillfully
arranged in various fashions.[507]

  [Sidenote: PERSONAL ADORNMENT.]

Tattooing is universal with the women, though confined within narrow
limits. They mark the chin in perpendicular lines drawn downward from
the corners and centre of the mouth, in the same manner as the Northern
Californians; they also tattoo slightly on the neck and breast. It is
said that by these marks women of different tribes can be easily
distinguished. The men rarely tattoo, but paint the body in stripes and
grotesque patterns to a considerable extent. Red was the favorite color,
except for mourning, when black was used. The friars succeeded in
abolishing this custom except on occasions of mourning, when affection
for their dead would not permit them to relinquish it. The New Almaden
cinnabar mine has been from time immemorial a source of contention
between adjacent tribes. Thither, from a hundred miles away, resorted
vermilion-loving savages, and often such visits were not free from
blood-shed.[508] A thick coat of mud sometimes affords protection from
a chilly wind. It is a convenient dress, as it costs nothing, is easily
put on, and is no incumbrance to the wearer. The nudity of the savage
more often proceeds from an indifference to clothing than from actual
want. No people are found entirely destitute of clothing when the
weather is cold, and if they can manage to obtain garments of any sort
at one time of year they can at another.

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.]

Their dwellings are about as primitive as their dress. In summer all
they require is to be shaded from the sun, and for this a pile of bushes
or a tree will suffice. The winter huts are a little more pretentious.
These are sometimes erected on the level ground, but more frequently
over an excavation three or four feet deep, and varying from ten to
thirty feet in diameter. Round the brink of this hole willow poles are
sunk upright in the ground and the tops drawn together, forming a
conical structure, or the upper ends are bent over and driven into the
earth on the opposite side of the pit, thus giving the hut a
semi-globular shape. Bushes, or strips of bark, are then piled up
against the poles, and the whole is covered with a thick layer of earth
or mud. In some instances, the interstices of the frame are filled by
twigs woven cross-wise, over and under, between the poles, and the
outside covering is of tule-reeds instead of earth. A hole at the top
gives egress to the smoke, and a small opening close to the ground
admits the occupants.

Each hut generally shelters a whole family of relations by blood and
marriage, so that the dimensions of the habitation depend on the size of
the family.[509]

Thatched oblong houses are occasionally met with in Russian River
Valley, and Mr Powers mentions having seen one among the Gallinomeros
which was of the form of the letter L, made of slats leaned up against
each other, and heavily thatched. Along the centre the different
families or generations had their fires, while they slept next the
walls. Three narrow holes served as doors, one at either end and one at
the elbow.[510] A collection of native huts is in California called a
_ranchería_, from rancho, a word first applied by the Spaniards to the
spot where, in the island of Cuba, food was distributed to repartimiento
Indians.

  [Sidenote: FOOD AND METHODS OF OBTAINING IT.]

The bestial laziness of the Central Californian prevents him from
following the chase to any extent, or from even inventing efficient
game-traps. Deer are, however, sometimes shot with bow and arrow. The
hunter, disguised with the head and horns of a stag, creeps through the
long grass to within a few yards of the unsuspecting herd, and drops the
fattest buck at his pleasure. Small game, such as hares, rabbits, and
birds, are also shot with the arrow. Reptiles and insects of all
descriptions not poisonous are greedily devoured; in fact, any
life-sustaining substance which can be procured with little trouble, is
food for them. But their main reliance is on acorns, roots, grass-seeds,
berries and the like. These are eaten both raw and prepared. The acorns
are shelled, dried in the sun, and then pounded into a powder with large
stones. From this flour a species of coarse bread is made, which is
sometimes flavored with various kinds of berries or herbs. This bread is
of a black color when cooked, of about the consistency of cheese, and is
said, by those who have tasted it, to be not at all unpalatable.[511]
The dough is frequently boiled into pudding instead of being baked. A
sort of mush is made from clover-seed, which is also described as being
rather a savory dish. Grasshoppers constitute another toothsome
delicacy. When for winter use, they are dried in the sun; when for
present consumption, they are either mashed into a paste, which is eaten
with the fingers, ground into a fine powder and mixed with mush, or they
are saturated with salt water, placed in a hole in the ground previously
heated, covered with hot stones, and eaten like shrimps when well
roasted. Dried chrysalides are considered a bonne bouche, as are all
varieties of insects and worms. The boiled dishes are cooked in
water-tight baskets, into which hot stones are dropped. Meat is roasted
on sticks before the fire, or baked in a hole in the ground. The food is
conveyed to the mouth with the fingers.

  [Sidenote: ACORNS AND WILD FOWL.]

Grasshoppers are taken in pits, into which they are driven by setting
the grass on fire, or by beating the grass in a gradually lessening
circle, of which the pit is the centre. For seed-gathering two baskets
are used; a large one, which is borne on the back, and another smaller
and scoop-shaped, which is carried in the hand; with this latter the
tops of the ripe grass are swept, and the seed thus taken is thrown over
the left shoulder into the larger basket. The seeds are then parched and
pulverized, and usually stored as pinole,[512] for winter use.[513]
When acorns are scarce the Central Californian resorts to a curious
expedient to obtain them. The woodpecker, or _carpintero_ as the
Spaniards call it, stores away acorns for its own use in the trunks of
trees. Each acorn is placed in a separate hole, which it fits quite
tightly. These the natives take; but it is never until hunger compels
them to do so, as they have great respect for their little caterer, and
would hold it sacrilege to rob him except in time of extreme need.[514]
Wild fowl are taken with a net stretched across a narrow stream between
two poles, one on either bank. Decoys are placed on the water just
before the net, one end of which is fastened to the top of the pole on
the farther bank. A line passing through a hole in the top of the pole
on the bank where the fowler is concealed, is attached to the nearest
end of the net, which is allowed to hang low. When the fowl fly rapidly
up to the decoys, this end is suddenly raised with a jerk, so that the
birds strike it with great force, and, stunned by the shock, fall into a
large pouch, contrived for the purpose in the lower part of the
net.[515]

Fish are both speared and netted. A long pole, projecting sometimes as
much as a hundred feet over the stream, is run out from the bank. The
farther end is supported by a small raft or buoy. Along this boom the
net is stretched, the nearer corner being held by a native. As soon as a
fish becomes entangled in the meshes it can be easily felt, and the net
is then hauled in.[516] On the coast a small fish resembling the sardine
is caught on the beach in the receding waves by means of a hand-net, in
the manner practiced by the Northern Californian heretofore
described.[517] The Central Californians do not hunt the whale, but it
is a great day with them when one is stranded.[518] In reality their
food was not so bad as some writers assert. Before the arrival of miners
game was so plentiful that even the lazy natives could supply their
necessities. The 'nobler race,' as usual, thrust them down upon a level
with swine. Johnson thus describes the feeding of the natives at
Sutter's Fort: "Long troughs inside the walls were filled with a kind of
boiled mush made of the wheat-bran; and the Indians, huddled in rows
upon their knees before these troughs, quickly conveyed their contents
by the hand to the mouth." "But," writes Powers to the author, "it is a
well-established fact that California Indians, even when reared by
Americans from infancy, if they have been permitted to associate
meantime with others of their race, will, in the season of lush
blossoming clover, go out and eat it in preference to all other
food."[519]

In their personal habits they are filthy in the extreme. Both their
dwellings and their persons abound in vermin, which they catch and eat
in the same manner as their northern neighbors.[520]

  [Sidenote: CALIFORNIAN WEAPONS.]

Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and sometimes clubs. The
first-named do not differ in any essential respect from those described
as being used by the Northern Californians. They are well made, from two
and a half to three feet long, and backed with sinew; the string of wild
flax or sinew, and partially covered with bird's down or a piece of
skin, to deaden the twang.

The arrows are short, made of reed or light wood, and winged with three
or four feathers. The head is of flint, bone, obsidian, or volcanic
glass, sometimes barbed and sometimes diamond-shaped. It is fastened
loosely to the shaft, and can be extracted only from a wound by cutting
it out. The shaft is frequently painted in order that the owner may be
able to distinguish his own arrows from others. Spears, or rather
javelins, are used, seldom exceeding from four and a half to five feet
in length. They are made of some tough kind of wood and headed with the
same materials as the arrows. Occasionally the point of the stick is
merely sharpened and hardened in the fire.[521] The head of the
fishing-spear is movable, being attached to the shaft by a line, so that
when a fish is struck the pole serves as a float. Some of the tribes
formerly poisoned their arrows, but it is probable that the custom never
prevailed to any great extent. M. du Petit-Thouars was told that they
used for this purpose a species of climbing plant which grows in shady
places. It is said that they also poison their weapons with the venom of
serpents.[522] Pedro Fages mentions that the natives in the country
round San Miguel use a kind of sabre, made of hard wood, shaped like a
cimeter, and edged with sharp flints. This they employ for hunting as
well as in war, and with such address that they rarely fail to break the
leg of the animal at which they hurl it.[523]

  [Sidenote: BATTLES AND WEAPONS.]

Battles, though frequent, were not attended with much loss of life. Each
side was anxious for the fight to be over, and the first blood would
often terminate the contest. Challenging by heralds obtained. Thus the
Shumeias challenge the Pomos by placing three little sticks, notched in
the middle and at both ends, on a mound which marked the boundary
between the two tribes. If the Pomos accept, they tie a string round the
middle notch. Heralds then meet and arrange time and place, and the
battle comes off as appointed.[524] Among some tribes, children are sent
by mutual arrangement into the enemy's ranks during the heat of battle
to pick up the fallen arrows and carry them back to their owners to be
used again.[525] When fighting, they stretch out in a long single line
and endeavor by shouts and gestures to intimidate the foe.[526]

Notwithstanding the mildness of their disposition and the inferiority of
their weapons, the Central Californians do not lack courage in battle,
and when captured will meet their fate with all the stoicism of a true
Indian. For many years after the occupation of the country by the
Spaniards, by abandoning their villages and lying in ambush upon the
approach of the enemy, they were enabled to resist the small squads of
Mexicans sent against them from the presidios for the recovery of
deserters from the missions. During the settlement of the country by
white people, there were the usual skirmishes growing out of wrong and
oppression on the one side, and retaliation on the other; the usual
uprising among miners and rancheros, and vindication of border law,
which demanded the massacre of a village for the stealing of a cow.

Trespass on lands and abduction of women are the usual causes of war
among themselves. Opposing armies, on approaching each other in battle
array, dance and leap from side to side in order to prevent their
enemies from taking deliberate aim. Upon the invasion of their territory
they rapidly convey the intelligence by means of signals. A great smoke
is made upon the nearest hilltop, which is quickly repeated upon the
surrounding hills, and thus a wide extent of country is aroused in a
remarkably short time.

The custom of scalping, though not universal in California, was
practiced in some localities. The yet more barbarous habit of cutting
off the hands, feet, or head of a fallen enemy, as trophies of victory,
prevailed more widely. They also plucked out and carefully preserved the
eyes of the slain.

It has been asserted that these savages were cannibals, and there seems
to be good reason to believe that they did devour pieces of the flesh of
a renowned enemy slain in battle. Human flesh was, however, not eaten as
food, nor for the purpose of wreaking vengeance on or showing hate for a
dead adversary, but because they thought that by eating part of a brave
man they absorbed a portion of his courage. They do not appear to have
kept or sold prisoners as slaves, but to have either exchanged or killed
them.[527]

  [Sidenote: IMPLEMENTS AND MANUFACTURES.]

They are not ingenious, and manufacture but few articles requiring any
skill. The principal of these are the baskets in which, as I have
already mentioned, they carry water and boil their food. They are made
of fine grass, so closely woven as to be perfectly water-tight, and are
frequently ornamented with feathers, beads, shells, and the like, worked
into them in a very pretty manner. Fletcher, who visited the coast with
Sir Francis Drake in 1579, describes them as being "made in fashion like
a deep boale, and though the matter were rushes, or such other kind of
stuffe, yet it was so cunningly handled that the most part of them would
hold water; about the brimmes they were hanged with peeces of the shels
of pearles, and in some places with two or three linkes at a place, of
the chaines forenamed ... and besides this, they were wrought vpon with
the matted downe of red feathers, distinguished into diuers workes and
formes."[528] The baskets are of various sizes and shapes, the most
common being conical or wide and flat. Their pipes are straight, the
bowl being merely a continuation of the stem, only thicker and hollowed
out.[529]

  [Sidenote: NO BOATS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY.]

It is a singular fact that these natives about the bay of San Francisco
and the regions adjacent, had no canoes of any description. Their only
means of navigation were bundles of tule-rushes about ten feet long and
three or four wide, lashed firmly together in rolls, and pointed at both
ends. They were propelled, either end foremost, with long double-bladed
paddles. In calm weather, and on a river, the centre, or thickest part
of these rafts might be tolerably dry, but in rough water the rower, who
sat astride, was up to his waist in water.[530] It has been asserted
that they even ventured far out to sea on them, but that this was common
I much doubt.[531] They were useful to spear fish from, but for little
else; in proof of which I may mention, on the authority of Roquefeuil,
that in 1809-11, the Koniagas employed by the Russians at Bodega, killed
seals and otters in San Francisco Bay under the very noses of the
Spaniards, and in spite of all the latter, who appear to have had no
boats of their own, could do to prevent them. In their light skin
baidarkas, each with places for two persons only, these bold northern
boatmen would drop down the coast from Bodega Bay, where the Russians
were stationed, or cross over from the Farallones in fleets of from
forty to fifty boats, and entering the Golden Gate creep along the
northern shore, beyond the range of the Presidio's guns, securely
establish themselves upon the islands of the bay and pursue their
avocation unmolested. For three years, namely from 1809 to 1811, these
northern fishermen held possession of the bay of San Francisco, during
which time they captured over eight thousand otters. Finally, it
occurred to the governor, Don Luis Argüello, that it would be well for
the Spaniards to have boats of their own. Accordingly four were built,
but they were so clumsily constructed, ill equipped, and poorly manned,
that had the Russians and Koniagas felt disposed, they could easily have
continued their incursions. Once within the entrance, these northern
barbarians were masters of the bay, and such was their sense of security
that they would sometimes venture for a time to stretch their limbs upon
the shore. The capture of several of their number, however, by the
soldiers from the fort, made them more wary thereafter. Maurelle, who
touched at Point Arenas in 1775, but did not enter the bay of San
Francisco, says that "a vast number of Indians now presented themselves
on both points, who passed from one to the other in small canoes made of
fule, where they talked loudly for two hours or more, till at last two
of them came alongside of the ship, and most liberally presented us with
plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also
garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head, and a
canister of seeds which tasted much like walnuts." The only account of
this voyage in my possession is an English translation, in which "canoes
made of fule" might easily have been mistaken for boats or floats of
tule.[532] Split logs were occasionally used to cross rivers, and
frequently all means of transportation were dispensed with, and swimming
resorted to.

Captain Phelps, in a letter to the author, mentions having seen skin
boats, or baidarkas, on the Sacramento River, but supposes that they
were left there by those same Russian employés.[533] Vancouver, speaking
of a canoe which he saw below Monterey, says: "Instead of being composed
of straw, like those we had seen on our first visit to San Francisco, it
was neatly formed of wood, much after the Nootka fashion, and was
navigated with much adroitness by four natives of the country. Their
paddles were about four feet long with a blade at each end; these were
handled with great dexterity, either entirely on one side or alternately
on each side of their canoe."[534] I account for the presence of this
canoe in the same manner that Captain Phelps accounts for the skin
canoes on the Sacramento, and think that it must have come either from
the south or north.

The probable cause of this absence of boats in Central California is the
scarcity of suitable, favorably located timber. Doubtless if the banks
of the Sacramento and the shores of San Francisco Bay had been lined
with large straight pine or fir trees, their waters would have been
filled with canoes; yet after all, this is but a poor excuse; for not
only on the hills and mountains, at a little distance from the water,
are forests of fine trees, but quantities of driftwood come floating
down every stream during the rainy season, out of which surely
sufficient material could be secured for some sort of boats.

Shells of different kinds, but especially the variety known as _aulone_,
form the circulating medium. They are polished, sometimes ground down to
a certain size, and arranged on strings of different lengths.[535]

  [Sidenote: CHIEFTAINSHIP AND ITS RIGHTS.]

Chieftainship is hereditary, almost without exception. In a few
instances I find it depending upon wealth, influence, family, or prowess
in war, but this rarely. In some parts, in default of male descent, the
females of the family are empowered to appoint a successor.[536]
Although considerable dignity attaches to a chief, and his family are
treated with consideration, yet his power is limited, his principal
duties consisting in making peace and war, and in appointing and
presiding over feasts. Every band has its separate head, and two or
even three have been known to preside at the same time.[537] Sometimes
when several bands are dwelling together they are united under one head
chief, who, however, cannot act for the whole without consulting the
lesser chiefs. Practically, the heads of families rule in their own
circle, and their internal arrangements are seldom interfered with.
Their medicine-men also wield a very powerful influence among them.[538]
Sometimes, when a flagrant murder has been committed, the chiefs meet in
council and decide upon the punishment of the offender. The matter is,
however, more frequently settled by the relatives of the victim, who
either exact blood for blood from the murderer or let the thing drop for
a consideration. Among the Neeshenams revenge must be had within twelve
months after the murder or not at all.[539]

  [Sidenote: RULERS OF NEW ALBION.]

According to Fletcher's narrative, there seems to have been much more
distinction of rank at the time of Drake's visit to California than
subsequent travelers have seen; however, allowance must be made for the
exaggerations invariably found in the reports of early voyagers. In
proof of this, we have only to take up almost any book of travel in
foreign lands printed at that time; wherein dragons and other impossible
animals are not only zoölogically described, but carefully drawn and
engraved, as well as other marvels in abundance. Captain Drake had
several temptations to exaggerate. The richer and more important the
country he discovered, the more would it redound to his credit to have
been the discoverer; the greater the power and authority of the chief
who formally made over his dominions to the queen of England, the less
likely to be disputed would be that sovereign's claims to the ceded
territory. Fletcher never speaks of the chief of the tribe that received
Drake, but as 'the king,' and states that this dignitary was treated
with great respect and ceremony by the courtiers who surrounded him.
These latter were distinguished from the canaille by various badges of
rank. They wore as ornaments chains "of a bony substance, euery linke or
part thereof being very little, and thinne, most finely burnished, with
a hole pierced through the middest. The number of linkes going to make
one chaine, is in a manner infinite; but of such estimation it is
amongst them, that few be the persons that are admitted to weare the
same; and euen they to whom its lawfull to use them, yet are stinted
what number they shall vse, as some ten, some twelue, some twentie, and
as they exceed in number of chaines, so thereby are they knowne to be
the more honorable personages." Another mark of distinction was a
"certain downe, which groweth vp in the countrey vpon an herbe much like
our lectuce, which exceeds any other downe in the world for finenesse,
and beeing layed vpon their cawles, by no winds can be remoued. Of such
estimation is this herbe amongst them, that the downe thereof is not
lawfull to be worne, but of such persons as are about the king (to whom
also it is permitted to weare a plume of feather on their heads, in
signe of honour), and the seeds are not vsed but onely in sacrifice to
their gods." The king, who was gorgeously attired in skins, with a crown
of feather-work upon his head, was attended by a regular body-guard,
uniformly dressed in coats of skins. His coming was announced by two
heralds or ambassadors, one of whom prompted the other, during the
proclamation, in a low voice. His majesty was preceded in the procession
by "a man of large body and goodly aspect, bearing the septer or royall
mace;" all of which happened, if we may believe the worthy chaplain of
the expedition, on the coast just above San Francisco Bay, three hundred
years ago.[540]

  [Sidenote: HOW A BRIDE IS WON.]

Slavery in any form is rare, and hereditary bondage unknown.[541]
Polygamy obtains in most of the tribes, although there are
exceptions.[542] It is common for a man to marry a whole family of
sisters, and sometimes the mother also, if she happen to be free.[543]
Husband and wife are united with very little ceremony. The inclinations
of the bride seem to be consulted here more than among the Northern
Californians. It is true she is sometimes bought from her parents, but
if she violently opposes the match she is seldom compelled to marry or
to be sold. Among some tribes the wooer, after speaking with her
parents, retires with the girl; if they agree, she thenceforth belongs
to him; if not, the match is broken off.[544] The Neeshenam buys his
wife indirectly by making presents of game to her family. He leaves the
gifts at the door of the lodge without a word, and, if they are
accepted, he shortly after claims and takes his bride without further
ceremony. In this tribe the girl has no voice whatever in the matter,
and resistance on her part merely occasions brute force to be used by
her purchaser.[545]

  [Sidenote: CHILD-BIRTH AND THE COUVADE.]

When an Oleepa lover wishes to marry, he first obtains permission from
the parents. The damsel then flies and conceals herself; the lover
searches for her, and should he succeed in finding her twice out of
three times she belongs to him. Should he be unsuccessful he waits a few
weeks and then repeats the performance. If she again elude his search,
the matter is decided against him.[546] The bonds of matrimony can be
thrown aside as easily as they are assumed. The husband has only to say
to his spouse, I cast you off, and the thing is done.[547] The
Gallinomeros acquire their wives by purchase, and are at liberty to sell
them again when tired of them.[548] As usual the women are treated with
great contempt by the men, and forced to do all the hard and menial
labor; they are not even allowed to sit at the same fire or eat at the
same repast with their lords. Both sexes treat children with comparative
kindness;[549] boys are, however, held in much higher estimation than
girls, and from early childhood are taught their superiority over the
weaker sex. It is even stated that many female children are killed as
soon as born,[550] but I am inclined to doubt the correctness of this
statement as applied to a country where polygamy is practiced as
extensively as in California. Old people are treated with contumely,
both men and women, aged warriors being obliged to do menial work under
the supervision of the women. The Gallinomeros kill their aged parents
in a most cold-blooded manner. The doomed creature is led into the
woods, thrown on his back, and firmly fastened in that position to the
ground. A stout pole is then placed across the throat, upon either end
of which a person sits until life is extinct.[551] A husband takes
revenge for his wife's infidelities upon the person of her seducer, whom
he is justified in killing. Sometimes the male offender is compelled to
buy the object of his unholy passions. In consequence of their
strictness in this particular, adultery is not common among themselves,
although a husband is generally willing to prostitute his dearest wife
to a white man for a consideration. The Central Californian women are
inclined to rebel against the tyranny of their masters, more than is
usual in other tribes. A refractory Tahtoo wife is sometimes frightened
into submission. The women have a great dread of evil spirits, and upon
this weakness the husband plays. He paints himself in black and white
stripes to personate an ogre, and suddenly jumping in among his
terrified wives, brings them speedily to penitence. Child-bearing falls
lightly on the Californian mother. When the time for delivery arrives
she betakes herself to a quiet place by the side of a stream; sometimes
accompanied by a female friend, but more frequently alone. As soon as
the child is born the mother washes herself and the infant in the
stream. The child is then swaddled from head to foot in strips of soft
skin, and strapped to a board, which is carried on the mother's back.
When the infant is suckled, it is drawn round in front and allowed to
hang there, the mother meanwhile pursuing her usual avocations. So
little does child-bearing affect these women, that, on a journey, they
will frequently stop by the way-side for half an hour to be delivered,
and then overtake the party, who have traveled on at the usual pace.
Painful parturition, though so rare, usually results fatally to both
mother and child when it does occur. This comparative exemption from the
curse, "in sorrow shalt thou bring forth," is doubtless owing partly to
the fact that the sexes have their regular season for copulation, just
as animals have theirs, the women bringing forth each year with great
regularity. A curious custom prevails, which is, however, by no means
peculiar to California. When child-birth overtakes the wife, the husband
puts himself to bed, and there grunting and groaning he affects to
suffer all the agonies of a woman in labor. Lying there, he is nursed
and tended for some days by the women as carefully as though he were the
actual sufferer. Ridiculous as this custom is, it is asserted by Mr
Tylor to have been practiced in western China, in the country of the
Basques, by the Tibareni at the south of the Black Sea, and in modified
forms by the Dyaks of Borneo, the Arawaks of Surinam, and the
inhabitants of Kamchatka and Greenland.[552] The females arrive early at
the age of puberty,[553] and grow old rapidly.[554]

  [Sidenote: CALIFORNIAN DIVERSIONS.]

Most important events, such as the seasons of hunting, fishing,
acorn-gathering, and the like, are celebrated with feasts and dances
which differ in no essential respect from those practiced by the
Northern Californians. They usually dance naked, having their heads
adorned with feather ornaments, and their bodies and faces painted with
glaring colors in grotesque patterns. Broad stripes, drawn up and down,
across, or spirally round the body, form the favorite device; sometimes
one half of the body is  red and the other blue, or the whole
person is painted jet black and serves as a ground for the
representation of a skeleton, done in white, which gives the wearer a
most ghastly appearance.[555] The dancing is accompanied by chantings,
clapping of hands, blowing on pipes of two or three reeds and played
with the nose or mouth, beating of skin drums, and rattling of
tortoise-shells filled with small pebbles. This horrible discord is,
however, more for the purpose of marking time than for pleasing the
ear.[556] The women are seldom allowed to join in the dance with the
men, and when they are so far honored, take a very unimportant part in
the proceedings, merely swaying their bodies to and fro in silence.

Plays, representing scenes of war, hunting, and private life, serve to
while away the time, and are performed with considerable skill. Though
naturally the very incarnation of sloth, at least as far as useful labor
is concerned, they have one or two games which require some exertion.
One of these, in vogue among the Meewocs, is played with bats and an
oak-knot ball. The former are made of a pliant stick, having the end
bent round and lashed to the main part so as to form a loop, which is
filled with a network of strings. They do not strike but push the ball
along with these bats. The players take sides, and each party endeavors
to drive the ball past the boundaries of the other. Another game, which
was formerly much played at the missions on the coast, requires more
skill and scarcely less activity. It consists in throwing a stick
through a hoop which is rapidly rolled along the ground. If the player
succeeds in this, he gains two points; if the stick merely passes
partially through, so that the hoop remains resting upon it, one point
is scored.

But, as usual, games of chance are much preferred to games of skill. The
chief of these is the same as that already described in the last chapter
as being played by the natives all along the coasts of Oregon,
Washington, and British Columbia, and which bears so close a resemblance
to the odd-and-even of our school-days. They are as infatuated on this
subject as their neighbors, and quite as willing to stake the whole of
their possessions on an issue of chance. They smoke a species of strong
tobacco in the straight pipes before mentioned;[557] but they have no
native intoxicating drink.[558]

  [Sidenote: MEDICINE AND SWEAT-HOUSES.]

The principal diseases are small-pox, various forms of fever, and
syphilis. Owing to their extreme filthiness they are also very subject
to disgusting eruptions of the skin. Women are not allowed to practice
the healing art, as among the Northern Californians, the privileges of
quackery being here reserved exclusively to the men. Chanting
incantations, waving of hands, and the sucking powers obtain. Doctors
are supposed to have power over life and death, hence if they fail to
effect a cure, they are frequently killed.[559] They demand the most
extortionate fees in return for their services, and often refuse to
officiate unless the object they desire is promised them. Sweat-houses
similar to those already described are in like manner used as a means of
cure for every kind of complaint.[560] They have another kind of
sudatory. A hole is dug in the sand of a size sufficient to contain a
person lying at full length; over this a fire is kept burning until the
sand is thoroughly heated, when the fire is removed and the sand stirred
with a stick until it is reduced to the required temperature. The
patient is then placed in the hole and covered, with the exception of
his head, with sand. Here he remains until in a state of profuse
perspiration, when he is unearthed and plunged into cold water. They are
said to practice phlebotomy, using the right arm when the body is
affected and the left when the complaint is in the limbs. A few simple
decoctions are made from herbs, but these are seldom very efficient
medicines, especially when administered for the more complicated
diseases which the whites have brought among them. Owing to the
insufficient or erroneous treatment they receive, many disorders which
would be easily cured by us, degenerate with them into chronic maladies,
and are transmitted to their children.[561]

Incremation is almost universal in this part of California.[562] The
body is decorated with feathers, flowers, and beads, and after lying in
state for some time, is burned amid the howls and lamentations of
friends and relations. The ashes are either preserved by the family of
the deceased or are formally buried. The weapons and effects of the dead
are burned or buried with them.[563] When a body is prepared for
interment the knees are doubled up against the chest and securely bound
with cords. It is placed in a sitting posture in the grave, which is
circular. This is the most common manner of sepulture, but some tribes
bury the body perpendicularly in a hole just large enough to admit it,
sometimes with the head down, sometimes in a standing position. The
Pomos formerly burned their dead, and since they have been influenced by
the whites to bury them, they invariably place the body with its head
toward the south.

  [Sidenote: MOURNING FOR THE DEAD.]

A scene of incremation is a weird spectacle. The friends and relatives
of the deceased gather round the funeral pyre in a circle, howling
dismally. As the flames mount upward their enthusiasm increases, until
in a perfect frenzy of excitement, they leap, shriek, lacerate their
bodies, and even snatch a handful of smoldering flesh from the fire, and
devour it.

The ashes of the dead mixed with grease, are smeared over the face as a
badge of mourning, and the compound is suffered to remain there until
worn off by the action of the weather. The widow keeps her head covered
with pitch for several months. In the Russian River Valley, where
demonstrations of grief appear to be yet more violent than elsewhere,
self-laceration is much practiced. It is customary to have an annual
Dance of Mourning, when the inhabitants of a whole village collect
together and lament their deceased friends with howls and groans. Many
tribes think it necessary to nourish a departed spirit for several
months. This is done by scattering food about the place where the
remains of the dead are deposited. A devoted Neeshenam widow does not
utter a word for several months after the death of her husband; a less
severe sign of grief is to speak only in a low whisper for the same
time.[564]

Regarding a future state their ideas are vague; some say that the
Meewocs believe in utter annihilation after death, but who can fathom
the hopes and fears that struggle in their dark imaginings. They are not
particularly cruel or vicious; they show much sorrow for the death of a
relative; in some instances they are affectionate toward their
families.[565]

  [Sidenote: CENTRAL CALIFORNIAN CHARACTER.]

Although nearly all travelers who have seen and described this people,
place them in the lowest scale of humanity, yet there are some who
assert that the character of the Californian has been maligned. It does
not follow, they say, that he is indolent because he does not work when
the fertility of his native land enables him to live without labor; or
that he is cowardly because he is not incessantly at war, or stupid and
brutal because the mildness of his climate renders clothes and dwellings
superfluous. But is this sound reasoning? Surely a people assisted by
nature should progress faster than another, struggling with depressing
difficulties.

From the frozen, wind-swept plains of Alaska to the malaria-haunted
swamps of Darien, there is not a fairer land than California; it is the
neutral ground, as it were, of the elements, where hyperboreal cold,
stripped of its rugged aspect, and equatorial heat, tamed to a genial
warmth, meet as friends, inviting, all blusterings laid aside. Yet if we
travel northward from the Isthmus, we must pass by ruined cities and
temples, traces of mighty peoples, who there flourished before a foreign
civilization extirpated them. On the arid deserts of Arizona and New
Mexico is found an incipient civilization. Descending from the Arctic
sea we meet races of hunters and traders, which can be called neither
primitive nor primordial, living after their fashion as men, not as
brutes. It is not until we reach the Golden Mean in Central California
that we find whole tribes subsisting on roots, herbs and insects; having
no boats, no clothing, no laws, no God; yielding submissively to the
first touch of the invader; held in awe by a few priests and soldiers.
Men do not civilize themselves. Had not the Greeks and the Egyptians
been driven on by an unseen hand, never would the city of the Violet
Crown have graced the plains of Hellas, nor Thebes nor Memphis have
risen in the fertile valley of the Nile. Why Greece is civilized, while
California breeds a race inferior to the lowest of their neighbors, save
only perhaps the Shoshones on their east, no one yet can tell.

When Father Junípero Serra established the Mission of Dolores in 1776,
the shores of San Francisco Bay were thickly populated by the
Ahwashtees, Ohlones, Altahmos, Romanons, Tuolomos, and other tribes. The
good Father found the field unoccupied, for, in the vocabulary of these
people, there is found no word for god, angel, or devil; they held no
theory of origin or destiny. A ranchería was situated on the spot where
now Beach street intersects Hyde street. Were it there now, as
contrasted with the dwellings of San Francisco, it would resemble a
pig-sty more than a human habitation.

On the Marin and Sonoma shores of the bay were the Tomales and
Camimares, the latter numbering, in 1824, ten thousand souls. Marin,
chief of the Tomales, was for a long time the terror of the Spaniards,
and his warriors were ranked as among the fiercest of the Californians.
He was brave, energetic, and possessed of no ordinary intelligence. When
quite old he consented to be baptized into the Romish Church.

  [Sidenote: YOSEMITE VALLEY INDIANS.]

It has been suspected that the chief Marin was not a full-bred Indian,
but that he was related to a certain Spanish sailor who was cast ashore
from a wrecked galeon on a voyage from Manila to Acapulco about the year
1750. The ship-wrecked Spaniards, it has been surmised, were kindly
treated by the natives; they married native wives, and lived with the
Tomales as of them, and from them descended many of their chiefs; but of
this we have no proof.

Yosemite Valley was formerly a stronghold to which tribes in that
vicinity resorted after committing their depredations upon white
settlers. They used to make their boast that their hiding place could
never be discovered by white men. But during the year 1850, the
marauders growing bold in their fancied security, the whites arose and
drove them into the mountains. Following them thither under the guidance
of Tenaya, an old chief and confederate, the white men were suddenly
confronted by the wondrous beauties of the valley. The Indians,
disheartened at the discovery of their retreat, yielded a reluctant
obedience, but becoming again disaffected they renewed their
depredations. Shortly afterward the Yosemite Indians made a visit to the
Monos. They were hospitably entertained, but upon leaving, could not
resist the temptation to drive off a few stray cattle belonging to their
friends. The Monos, enraged at this breach of good faith, pursued and
gave them battle. The warriors of the valley were nearly exterminated,
scarce half a dozen remaining to mourn their loss. All their women and
children were carried away into captivity. These Yosemite Indians
consisted of a mixture from various tribes, outlaws as it were from the
surrounding tribes. They have left as their legacy a name for every
cliff and waterfall within the valley. How marvelous would be their
history could we go back and trace it from the beginning, these millions
of human bands, who throughout the ages have been coming and going,
unknowing and unknown!


In the SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory lies south of the
thirty-fifth parallel, there are less tribal differences than among any
people whom we have yet encountered, whose domain is of equal extent.
Those who live in the south-eastern corner of the State are thrown by
the Sierra Nevada range of mountains into the Shoshone family, to which,
indeed, by affinity they belong. The chief tribes of this division are
the _Cahuillas_ and the _Diegueños_, the former living around the San
Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, and the latter in the southern
extremity of California. Around each mission were scores of small bands,
whose rancherías were recorded in the mission books, the natives as a
whole being known only by the name of the mission. When first discovered
by Cabrillo in 1542, the islands off the coast were inhabited by a
superior people, but these they were induced by the padres to abandon,
following which event the people rapidly faded away. The natives called
the island of Santa Cruz _Liniooh_, Santa Rosa _Hurmal_, San Miguel
_Twocan_, and San Nicolas _Ghalashat_.

As we approach the southern boundary of California a slight improvement
is manifest in the aborigines. The men are here well made, of a stature
quite up to the average, comparatively fair-complexioned and
pleasant-featured. The children of the islanders are described by the
early voyagers as being white, with light hair and ruddy cheeks, and the
women as having fine forms, beautiful eyes, and a modest demeanor.[566]
The beard is plucked out with a bivalve shell, which answers the
purpose of pincers.

  [Sidenote: DRESS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

A short cloak of deer-skin or rabbit-skins sewed together, suffices the
men for clothing; and sometimes even this is dispensed with, for they
think it no shame to be naked.[567] The women and female children wear a
petticoat of skin, with a heavy fringe reaching down to the knees; in
some districts they also wear short capes covering the breasts.[568] On
the coast and, formerly, on the islands, seals furnished the
material.[569] The more industrious and wealthy embroider their garments
profusely with small shells. Around Santa Barbara rings of bone or shell
were worn in the nose; at Los Angeles nasal ornaments were not the
fashion. The women had cylinder-shaped pieces of ivory, sometimes as
much as eight inches, in length, attached to the ears by a shell ring.
Bracelets and necklaces were made of pieces of ivory ground round and
perforated, small pebbles, and shells.

Paint of various colors was used by warriors and dancers. Mr Hugo Reid,
who has contributed valuable information concerning the natives of Los
Angeles County, states that girls in love paint the cheeks sparingly
with red ochre, and all the women, before they grow old, protect their
complexion from the effects of the sun by a plentiful application of
the same cosmetic.[570] Vizcaino saw natives on the southern coast
painted blue and silvered over with some kind of mineral substance. On
his asking where they obtained the silver-like material they showed him
a kind of mineral ore, which they said they used for purposes of
ornamentation.[571]

They take much pride in their hair, which they wear long. It is braided,
and either wound round the head turban-like,[572] or twisted into a
top-knot; some tie it in a queue behind. According to Father Boscana the
girls are tattooed in infancy on the face, breast, and arms. The most
usual method was to prick the flesh with a thorn of the cactus-plant;
charcoal produced from the maguey was then rubbed into the wounds, and
an ineffaceable blue was the result.[573]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS AND FOOD.]

Dwellings, in the greater part of this region, differ but little from
those of the Central Californians. In shape they are conical or
semi-globular, and usually consist of a frame, formed by driving long
poles into the ground, covered with rushes and earth.[574] On the coast
of the Santa Barbara Channel there seems to have been some improvement
in their style of architecture. It was probably here that Cabrillo saw
houses built after the manner of those in New Spain.[575] It is possible
that the influences of the southern civilization may have extended as
far as this point. Father Boscana's description of the temples or
_vanquechs_ erected by the natives in the vicinity of San Juan
Capistrano, in honor of their god, Chinigchinich, is thus translated:
"They formed an enclosure of about four or five yards in circumference,
not exactly round, but inclining to an oval. This they divided by
drawing a line through the centre, and built another, consisting of the
branches of trees, and mats to the height of about six feet, outside of
which, in the other division, they formed another of small stakes of
wood driven into the ground. This was called the gate, or entrance, to
the vanquech. Inside of this, and close to the larger stakes, was placed
a figure of their god Chinigchinich, elevated upon a kind of hurdle.
This is the edifice of the vanquech."[576]

Almost every living thing that they can lay their hands on serves as
food. Coyotes, skunks, wild cats, rats, mice, crows, hawks, owls,
lizards, frogs, snakes, excepting him of the rattle, grasshoppers and
other insects, all are devoured by the inland tribes. Stranded whales,
animals of the seal genus, fish, and shell-fish, form the main support
of those inhabiting the coast. Venison they are of course glad to eat
when they can get it, but as they are poor hunters, it is a rare luxury.
When they did hunt the deer they resorted to the same artifice as their
northern neighbors, placing a deer's head and horns on their own head,
and thus disguised approaching within bow-shot. Bear-meat the majority
refuse to eat from superstitious motives.[577] Grasshoppers are eaten
roasted. Acorns are shelled, dried, and pounded in stone mortars into
flour, which is washed and rewashed in hot and cold water until the
bitterness is removed, when it is made into gruel with cold water, or
baked into bread. Various kinds of grass-seeds, herbs, berries, and
roots, are also eaten, both roasted and raw. Wild fowl are caught in
nets made of tules, spread over channels cut through the rushes in
places frequented by the fowl, at a sufficient height above the water to
allow the birds to swim easily beneath them. The game is gently driven
or decoyed under the nets, when at a given signal, a great noise is
made, and the terrified fowl, rising suddenly, become hopelessly
entangled in the meshes, and fall an easy prey. Or selecting a spot
containing clear water about two feet deep, they fasten a net midway
between the surface and the bottom, and strewing the place with berries,
which sink to the bottom under the net, they retire. The fowl approach
and dive for the berries. The meshes of the net readily admit the head,
but hold the prisoner tight upon attempting to withdraw it. And what is
more, their position prevents them from making a noise, and they serve
also as a decoy for others. Fish are taken in seines made from the tough
bark of the tioñe-tree. They are also killed with spears having a
movable bone head, attached to a long line, so that when a fish is
struck the barb becomes loosened; line is then paid out until the fish
is exhausted with running, when it is drawn in. Many of the inland
tribes come down to the coast in the fishing season, and remain there
until the shoals leave, when they return to the interior. Food is either
boiled by dropping hot stones into water-baskets, or, more frequently,
in vessels made of soap-stone.[578]

In their cooking, as in other respects, they are excessively unclean.
They bathe frequently, it is true, but when not in the water they are
wallowing in filth. Their dwellings are full of offal and other
impurities, and vermin abound on their persons.

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS AND WAR.]

Bows and arrows, and clubs, are as usual the weapons most in use. Sabres
of hard wood, with edges that cut like steel, are mentioned by Father
Junípero Serra.[579] War is a mere pretext for plunder; the slightest
wrong, real or imaginary, being sufficient cause for a strong tribe to
attack a weaker one. The smaller bands form temporary alliances; the
women and children accompanying the men on a raid, carrying provisions
for the march, and during an engagement they pick up the fallen arrows
of the enemy and so keep their own warriors supplied. Boscana says that
no male prisoners are taken, and no quarter given; and Hugo Reid affirms
of the natives of Los Angeles County that all prisoners of war, after
being tormented in the most cruel manner, are invariably put to death.
The dead are decapitated and scalped. Female prisoners are either sold
or retained as slaves. Scalps, highly prized as trophies, and publicly
exhibited at feasts, may be ransomed, but no consideration would induce
them to part with their living captives.[580]

Among the few articles they manufacture are fish-hooks, needles, and
awls, made of bone or shell; mortars and pestles of granite, and
soap-stone cooking vessels, and water-tight baskets.[581] The clay
vessels which are frequently found among them now, were not made by
them before the arrival of the Spaniards. The stone implements, however,
are of aboriginal manufacture, and are well made. The former are said to
have been procured mostly by the tribes of the mainland from the Santa
Rosa islanders.[582] The instruments which they used in their
manufactures were flint knives and awls; the latter Fages describes as
being made from the small bone of a deer's fore-foot. The knife is
double-edged, made of a flint, and has a wooden haft, inlaid with mother
of pearl.[583]

On this coast we again meet with wooden canoes, although the balsa, or
tule raft, is also in use. These boats are made of planks neatly
fastened together and paid with bitumen;[584] prow and stern, both
equally sharp, are elevated above the centre, which made them appear to
Vizcaino "como barquillos" when seen beside his own junk-like craft. The
paddles were long and double-bladed, and their boats, though generally
manned by three or four men, were sometimes large enough to carry
twenty. Canoes dug out of a single log, scraped smooth on the outside,
with both ends shaped alike, were sometimes, though more rarely,
used.[585] The circulating medium consisted of small round pieces of
the white mussel-shell. These were perforated and arranged on strings,
the value of which depended upon their length.[586] I have said before
that this money is supposed to have been manufactured for the most part
on Santa Rosa Island. Hence it was distributed among the coast tribes,
who bought with it deer-skins, seeds, etc., from the people of the
interior.

  [Sidenote: GOVERNMENT AND PUNISHMENTS.]

Each tribe acknowledged one head, whose province it was to settle
disputes,[587] levy war, make peace, appoint feasts, and give good
advice. Beyond this he had little power.[588] He was assisted in his
duties by a council of elders. The office of chief was hereditary, and
in the absence of a male heir devolved upon the female nearest of kin.
She could marry whom she pleased, but her husband obtained no authority
through the alliance, all the power remaining in his wife's hands until
their eldest boy attained his majority, when the latter at once assumed
the command.

A murderer's life was taken by the relatives of his victim, unless he
should gain refuge in the temple, in which case his punishment was left
to their god. Vengeance was, however, only deferred; the children of
the murdered man invariably avenged his death, sooner or later, upon the
murderer or his descendants. When a chief grew too old to govern he
abdicated in favor of his son, on which occasion a great feast was
given. When all the people had been called together by criers, "the
crown was placed upon the head of the chief elect, and he was enrobed
with the imperial vestments," as Father Boscana has it; that is to say,
he was dressed in a head-ornament of feathers, and a feather petticoat
reaching from the waist half-way down to the knees, and the rest of his
body painted black. He then went into the temple and performed a pas
seul before the god Chinigchinich. Here, in a short time, he was joined
by the other chiefs, who, forming a circle, danced round him,
accompanied by the rattling of turtle-shells filled with small stones.
When this ceremony was over he was publicly acknowledged chief.

As I said before, the chief had little actual authority over
individuals; neither was the real power vested in the heads of families;
but a system of influencing the people was adopted by the chief and the
elders, which is somewhat singular. Whenever an important step was to be
taken, such as the killing of a malefactor, or the invasion of an
enemy's territory, the sympathies of the people were enlisted by means
of criers, who were sent round to proclaim aloud the crime and the
criminal, or to dilate upon the wrongs suffered at the hands of the
hostile tribe; and their eloquence seldom failed to attain the desired
object.[589]

  [Sidenote: MARRIAGE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

The chief could have a plurality of wives, but the common people were
only allowed one.[590] The form of contracting a marriage varied. In
Los Angeles County, according to Mr Reid, the matter was arranged by a
preliminary interchange of presents between the male relatives of the
bridegroom and the female relatives of the bride. The former proceeded
in a body to the dwelling of the girl, and distributed small sums in
shell money among her female kinsfolk, who were collected there for the
occasion. These afterward returned the compliment by visiting the man
and giving baskets of meal to his people. A time was then fixed for the
final ceremony. On the appointed day the girl, decked in all her finery,
and accompanied by her family and relations, was carried in the arms of
one of her kinsfolk toward the house of her lover; edible seeds and
berries were scattered before her on the way, which were scrambled for
by the spectators. The party was met half-way by a deputation from the
bridegroom, one of whom now took the young woman in his arms and carried
her to the house of her husband, who waited expectantly. She was then
placed by his side, and the guests, after scattering more seeds, left
the couple alone. A great feast followed, of which the most prominent
feature was a character-dance. The young men took part in this dance in
the rôles of hunters and warriors, and were assisted by the old women,
who feigned to carry off game, or dispatch wounded enemies, as the case
might be. The spectators sat in a circle and chanted an accompaniment.

According to another form of marriage the man either asked the girl's
parents for permission to marry their daughter, or commissioned one of
his friends to do so. If the parents approved, their future son-in-law
took up his abode with them, on condition that he should provide a
certain quantity of food every day. This was done to afford him an
opportunity to judge of the domestic qualities of his future wife. If
satisfied, he appointed a day for the marriage, and the ceremony was
conducted much in the same manner as that last described, except that
he received the girl in a temporary shelter erected in front of his hut,
and that she was disrobed before being placed by his side.

Children were often betrothed in infancy, kept continually in each
other's society until they grew up, and the contract was scarcely ever
broken. Many obtained their wives by abduction, and this was the cause
of many of the inter-tribal quarrels in which they were so constantly
engaged.

If a man ill-treated his wife, her relations took her away, after paying
back the value of her wedding presents, and then married her to another.
Little difficulty was experienced in obtaining a divorce on any ground;
indeed, in many of the tribes the parties separated whenever they grew
tired of each other. Adultery was severely punished. If a husband caught
his wife in the act, he was justified in killing her, or, he could give
her up to her seducer and appropriate the spouse of the latter to
himself.

  [Sidenote: CHILD-BIRTH.]

At the time of child-birth many singular observances obtained; for
instance, the old women washed the child as soon as it was born, and
drank of the water; the unhappy infant was forced to take a draught of
urine medicinally, and although the husband did not affect the
sufferings of labor, his conduct was supposed in some manner to affect
the unborn child, and he was consequently laid under certain
restrictions, such as not being allowed to leave the house, or to eat
fish and meat. The women as usual suffer little from child-bearing. One
writer thus describes the accouchement of a woman in the vicinity of San
Diego: "A few hours before the time arrives she gets up and quietly
walks off alone, as if nothing extraordinary was about to occur. In this
manner she deceives all, even her husband, and hides herself away in
some secluded nook, near a stream or hole of water. At the foot of a
small tree, which she can easily grasp with both hands, she prepares her
'lying-in-couch,' on which she lies down as soon as the labor pains
come on. When the pain is on, she grasps the tree with both hands,
thrown up backward over her head, and pulls and strains with all her
might, thus assisting each pain, until her accouchement is over. As soon
as the child is born, the mother herself ties the navel-cord with a bit
of buck-skin string, severing it with a pair of sharp scissors, prepared
for the occasion, after which the end is burned with a coal of fire; the
child is then thrown into the water; if it rises to the surface and
cries, it is taken out and cared for; if it sinks, there it remains, and
is not even awarded an Indian burial. The affair being all over, she
returns to her usual duties, just as if nothing had happened, so matter
of fact are they in such matters." Purification at child-birth lasted
for three days, during which time the mother was allowed no food, and no
drink but warm water. The ceremony, in which mother and child
participated, was as follows: In the centre of the hut a pit was filled
with heated stones, upon which herbs were placed, and the whole covered
with earth, except a small aperture through which water was introduced.
The mother and child, wrapped in blankets, stood over the pit and were
soon in a violent perspiration. When they became exhausted from the
effect of the steam and the heated air, they lay upon the ground and
were covered with earth, after which they again took to the heated
stones and steam. The mother was allowed to eat no meat for two moons,
after which pills made of meat and wild tobacco were given her. In some
tribes she could hold no intercourse with her husband until the child
was weaned.

Children, until they arrived at the age of puberty, remained under the
control of their parents, afterward they were subject only to the chief.
Like the Spartan youth, they were taught that abstinence, and
indifference to hardship and privations, constitute the only true
manhood. To render them hardy much unnecessary pain was inflicted. They
were forbidden to approach the fire to warm themselves, or to eat
certain seeds and berries which were considered luxuries.

A youth, to become a warrior, must first undergo a severe ordeal; his
naked body was beaten with stinging nettles until he was literally
unable to move; then he was placed upon the nest of a species of
virulent ant, while his friends irritated the insects by stirring them
up with sticks. The infuriated ants swarmed over every part of the
sufferer's body, into his eyes, his ears, his mouth, his nose, causing
indescribable pain.

Boscana states that the young were instructed to love truth, to do good,
and to venerate old age.[592] At an early age they were placed under the
protection of a tutelar divinity, which was supposed to take the form of
some animal. To discover the particular beast which was to guide his
future destinies, the child was intoxicated,[593] and for three or four
days kept without food of any kind. During this period he was
continually harassed and questioned, until, weak from want of food,
crazed with drink and importunity, and knowing that the persecution
would not cease until he yielded, he confessed to seeing his divinity,
and described what kind of brute it was. The outline of the figure was
then molded in a paste made of crushed herbs, on the breast and arms of
the novitiate. This was ignited and allowed to burn until entirely
consumed, and thus the figure of the divinity remained indelibly
delineated in the flesh. Hunters, before starting on an expedition,
would beat their faces with nettles to render them clear-sighted. A
girl, on arriving at the age of puberty, was laid upon a bed of branches
placed over a hole, which had been previously heated, where she was
kept with very little food for two or three days. Old women chanted
songs, and young women danced round her at intervals during her
purification. In the vicinity of San Diego the girl is buried all but
her head, and the ground above her is beaten until she is in a profuse
perspiration. This is continued for twenty-four hours, the patient being
at intervals during this time taken out and washed, and then reimbedded.
A feast and dance follow.[594]

When the missionaries first arrived in this region, they found men
dressed as women and performing women's duties, who were kept for
unnatural purposes. From their youth up they were treated, instructed,
and used as females, and were even frequently publicly married to the
chiefs or great men.[595]

  [Sidenote: AMUSEMENTS.]

Gambling and dancing formed, as usual, their principal means of
recreation. Their games of chance differed little from those played
farther north. That of guessing in which hand a piece of wood was held,
before described, was played by eight, four on a side, instead of four.
Another game was played by two. Fifty small pieces of wood, placed
upright in a row in the ground, at distances of two inches apart, formed
the score. The players were provided with a number of pieces of split
reed, blackened on one side; these were thrown, points down, on the
ground, and the thrower counted one for every piece that remained white
side uppermost; if he gained eight he was entitled to another throw. If
the pieces all fell with the blackened side up they counted also. Small
pieces of wood placed against the upright pegs, marked the game. They
reckoned from opposite ends of the row, and if one of the players threw
just so many as to make his score exactly meet that of his opponent, the
former had to commence again. Throwing lances of reed through a rolling
hoop was another source of amusement. Professional singers were employed
to furnish music to a party of gamblers. An umpire was engaged, whose
duty it was to hold the stakes, count the game, prevent cheating, and
act as referee; he was also expected to supply wood for the fire.

When they were not eating, sleeping, or gambling, they were generally
dancing; indeed, says Father Boscana, "such was the delight with which
they took part in their festivities, that they often continued dancing
day and night, and sometimes entire weeks." They danced at a birth, at a
marriage, at a burial; they danced to propitiate the divinity, and they
thanked the divinity for being propitiated by dancing. They decorated
themselves with shells and beads, and painted their bodies with divers
colors. Sometimes head-dresses and petticoats of feathers were worn, at
other times they danced naked. The women painted the upper part of their
bodies brown. They frequently danced at the same time as the men, but
seldom with them. Time was kept by singers, and the rattling of
turtle-shells filled with pebbles. They were good actors, and some of
their character-dances were well executed; the step, however, like their
chanting, was monotonous and unvarying. Many of their dances were
extremely licentious, and were accompanied with obscenities too
disgusting to bear recital. Most of them were connected in some way with
their superstitions and religious rites.[596]

These people never wandered far from their own territory, and knew
little or nothing of the nations lying beyond their immediate neighbors.
Mr Reid relates that one who traveled some distance beyond the limits of
his own domain, returned with the report that he had seen men whose ears
descended to their hips; then he had met with a race of Lilliputians;
and finally had reached a people so subtly constituted that they "would
take a rabbit, or other animal, and merely with the breath, inhale the
essence; throwing the rest away, which on examination proved to be
excrement."

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS.]

They had a great number of traditions, legends, and fables. Some of
these give evidence of a powerful imagination; a few are pointed with a
moral; but the majority are puerile, meaningless, to us at least, and
filled with obscenities. It is said that, in some parts, the Southern
Californians are great snake-charmers, and that they allow the reptiles
to wind themselves about their bodies and bite them, with impunity.

Feuds between families are nursed for generations; the war is seldom
more than one of words, however, unless a murder is to be avenged, and
consists of mutual vituperations, and singing obscene songs about each
other. Friends salute by inquiries after each other's health. On parting
one says 'I am going,' the other answers 'go.'

They are very superstitious, and believe in all sorts of omens and
auguries. An eclipse frightens them beyond measure, and shooting stars
cause them to fall down in the dust and cover their heads in abject
terror. Many of them believe that, should a hunter eat meat or fish
which he himself had procured, his luck would leave him. For this
reason they generally hunt or fish in pairs, and when the day's sport is
over, each takes what the other has killed. Living as they do from hand
to mouth, content to eat, sleep, and dance away their existence, we
cannot expect to find much glimmering of the simpler arts or sciences
among them.

Their year begins at the winter solstice, and they count by lunar
months, so that to complete their year they are obliged to add several
supplementary days. All these months have symbolic names. Thus December
and January are called the month of cold; February and March, the rain;
March and April, the first grass; April and May, the rise of waters; May
and June, the month of roots; June and July, of salmon fishing; July and
August, of heat; August and September, of wild fruits; September and
October, of bulbous roots; October and November, of acorns and nuts;
November and December, of bear and other hunting.

  [Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

Sorcerers are numerous, and as unbounded confidence is placed in their
power to work both good and evil, their influence is great. As
astrologers and soothsayers, they can tell by the appearance of the moon
the most propitious day and hour in which to celebrate a feast, or
attack an enemy. Sorcerers also serve as almanacs for the people, as it
is their duty to note by the aspect of the moon the time of the decease
of a chief or prominent man, and to give notice of the anniversary when
it comes round, in order that it may be duly celebrated. They extort
black-mail from individuals by threatening them with evil. The charm
which they use is a ball made of mescal mixed with wild honey; this is
carried under the left arm, in a small leather bag,--and the spell is
effected by simply laying the right hand upon this bag. Neither does
their power end here; they hold intercourse with supernatural beings,
metamorphose themselves at will, see into the future, and even control
the elements. They are potent to cure as well as to kill. For all
complaints, as usual, they 'put forth the charm of woven paces and of
waving hands,' and in some cases add other remedies. For internal
complaints they prescribe cold baths; wounds and sores are treated with
lotions and poultices of crushed herbs, such as sage and rosemary, and
of a kind of black oily resin, extracted from certain seeds. Other
maladies they affirm to be caused by small pieces of wood, stone, or
other hard substance, which by some means have entered the flesh, and
which they pretend to extract by sucking the affected part. In a case of
paralysis the stricken parts were whipped with nettles. Blisters are
raised by means of dry paste made from nettle-stalks, placed on the bare
flesh of the patient, set on fire, and allowed to burn out. Cold water
or an emetic is used for fever and like diseases, or, sometimes, the
sufferer is placed naked upon dry sand or ashes, with a fire close to
his feet, and a bowl of water or gruel at his head, and there left for
nature to take its course, while his friends and relatives sit round and
howl him into life or into eternity. Snake-bites are cured by an
internal dose of ashes, or the dust found at the bottom of ants' nests,
and an external application of herbs.[598] The medicine-men fare better
here than their northern brethren, as, in the event of the non-recovery
of their patient, the death of the latter is attributed to the just
anger of their god, and consequently the physician is not held
responsible. To avert the displeasure of the divinity, and to counteract
the evil influence of the sorcerers, regular dances of propitiation or
deprecation are held, in which the whole tribe join.[599]

  [Sidenote: DEATH AND BURIAL.]

The temescal, or sweat-house, is the same here as elsewhere, which
renders a description unnecessary.[600] The dead were either burned or
buried. Father Boscana says that no particular ceremonies were observed
during the burning of the corpse. The body was allowed to lie untouched
some days after death, in order to be certain that no spark of life
remained. It was then borne out and laid upon the funeral pyre, which
was ignited by a person specially appointed for that purpose. Everything
belonging to the deceased was burned with him. When all was over the
mourners betook themselves to the outskirts of the village, and there
gave vent to their lamentation for the space of three days and nights.
During this period songs were sung, in which the cause of the late death
was related, and even the progress of the disease which brought him to
his grave minutely described in all its stages. As an emblem of grief
the hair was cut short in proportion to nearness of relation to or
affection for the deceased, but laceration was not resorted to.[602] Mr
Taylor relates that the Santa Inez Indians buried their dead in regular
cemeteries. The body was placed in a sitting posture in a box made of
slabs of claystone, and interred with all the effects of the dead
person.[603] According to Reid, the natives of Los Angeles County waited
until the body began to show signs of decay and then bound it together
in the shape of a ball, and buried it in a place set apart for that
purpose, with offerings of seeds contributed by the family. At the first
news of his death all the relatives of the deceased gathered together,
and mourned his departure with groans, each having a groan peculiar to
himself. The dirge was presently changed to a song, in which all united,
while an accompaniment was whistled through a deer's leg-bone. The
dancing consisted merely in a monotonous shuffling of the feet.[604]
Pedro Fages thus describes a burial ceremony at the place named by him
Sitio de los Pedernales.[605] Immediately after an Indian has breathed
his last, the corpse is borne out and placed before the idol which
stands in the village, there it is watched by persons who pass the night
round a large fire built for the purpose; the following morning all the
inhabitants of the place gather about the idol and the ceremony
commences. At the head of the procession marches one smoking gravely
from a large stone pipe; followed by three others, he three times walks
round the idol and the corpse; each time the head of the deceased is
passed the coverings are lifted, and he who holds the pipe blows three
puffs of smoke upon the body. When the feet are reached, a kind of
prayer is chanted in chorus, and the parents and relatives of the
defunct advance in succession and offer to the priest a string of
threaded seeds, about a fathom long; all present then unite in loud
cries and groans, while the four, taking the corpse upon their
shoulders, proceed with it to the place of interment. Care is taken to
place near the body articles which have been manufactured by the
deceased during his life-time. A spear or javelin, painted in various
vivid colors, is planted erect over the tomb, and articles indicating
the occupation of the dead are placed at his foot; if the deceased be a
woman, baskets or mats of her manufacture are hung on the javelin.[606]

Death they believed to be a real though invisible being, who gratified
his own anger and malice by slowly taking away the breath of his victim
until finally life was extinguished. The future abode of good spirits
resembled the Scandinavian Valhalla; there, in the dwelling-place of
their god, they would live for ever and ever, eating, and drinking, and
dancing, and having wives in abundance. As their ideas of reward in the
next world were matter-of-fact and material, so were their fears of
punishment in this life; all accidents, such as broken limbs or
bereavement by death, were attributed to the direct vengeance of their
god, for crimes which they had committed.[607]

Though good-natured and inordinately fond of amusement, they are
treacherous and unreliable. Under a grave and composed exterior they
conceal their thoughts and character so well as to defy interpretation.
And this is why we find men, who have lived among them for years, unable
to foretell their probable action under any given circumstances.


  [Sidenote: THE SHOSHONE FAMILY.]

THE SHOSHONE FAMILY, which forms the fourth and last division of the
Californian group, may be said to consist of two great nations, the
Snakes, or Shoshones proper, and the Utahs. The former inhabit
south-eastern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and the northern portions
of Utah and Nevada, are subdivided into several small tribes, and
include the more considerable nation of the Bannacks. The Utahs occupy
nearly the whole of Utah and Nevada, and extend into Arizona and
California, on each side of the Colorado. Among the many tribes into
which the Utahs are divided may be mentioned the _Utahs_ proper, whose
territory covers a great part of Utah and eastern Nevada; the _Washoes_
along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, between Honey Lake and the
west fork of Walker River; the _Pah Utes_, or, as they are sometimes
called, Piutes, in western and central Nevada, stretching into Arizona
and south-eastern California; the _Pah Vants_ in the vicinity of Sevier
Lake, the _Pi Edes_ south of them, and the _Gosh Utes_, a mixed tribe of
Snakes and Utahs, dwelling in the vicinity of Gosh Ute Lake and
Mountains.

The Shoshones[608] are below the medium stature; the Utahs, though more
powerfully built than the Snakes, are coarser-featured and less agile.
All are of a dark bronze-color when free from paint and dirt, and, as
usual, beardless. The women are clumsily made, although some of them
have good hands and feet.[609]

On the barren plains of Nevada, where there is no large game, the rabbit
furnishes nearly the only clothing. The skins are sewn together in the
form of a cloak, which is thrown over the shoulders, or tied about the
body with thongs of the same. In warm weather, or when they cannot
obtain rabbit-skins, men, women and children are, for the most part, in
a state of nudity. The hair is generally allowed to grow long, and to
flow loosely over the shoulders; sometimes it is cut straight over the
forehead, and among the Utahs of New Mexico it is plaited into two long
queues by the men, and worn short by the women. Ornaments are rare; I
find mention in two instances[610] of a nose-ornament, worn by the Pah
Utes, consisting of a slender piece of bone, several inches in length,
thrust through the septum of the nose. Tattooing is not practiced but
paint of all colors is used unsparingly.[611]

The Snakes are better dressed than the Utahs, their clothing being made
from the skins of larger game, and ornamented with beads, shells,
fringes, feathers, and, since their acquaintance with the whites, with
pieces of brilliant- cloth. A common costume is a shirt, leggins,
and moccasins, all of buck-skin, over which is thrown, in cold weather,
a heavy robe, generally of buffalo-skin, but sometimes of wolf, deer,
elk, or beaver. The dress of the women differs but little from that of
the men, except that it is less ornamented and the shirt is
longer.[612]

  [Sidenote: DRESS OF THE SNAKES.]

The dress of the Snakes seen by captains Lewis and Clarke was richer
than is usually worn by them now; it was composed of a robe, short
cloak, shirt, long leggins, and moccasins.

The robe was of buffalo or smaller skins, dressed with the hair on; the
collar of the cloak, a strip of skin from the back of the otter, the
head being at one end and the tail at the other. From this collar were
suspended from one hundred to two hundred and fifty ermine-skins,[613]
or rather strips from the back of the ermine, including the head and
tail; each of these strips was sewn round a cord of twisted silk-grass,
which tapered in thickness toward the tail. The seams were concealed
with a fringe of ermine-skin; little tassels of white fur were also
attached to each tail, to show off its blackness to advantage. The
collar was further ornamented with shells of the pearl-oyster; the
shirt, made of the dressed hides of various kinds of deer, was loose and
reached half-way down the thigh; the sleeves were open on the under side
as low as the elbow,--the edges being cut into a fringe from the elbow
to the wrist,--and they fitted close to the arm. The collar was square,
and cut into fringe, or adorned with the tails of the animals which
furnished the hide; the shirt was garnished with fringes and stained
porcupine-quills; the leggins were made each from nearly an entire
antelope-skin, and reached from the ankle to the upper part of the
thigh. The hind legs of the skin were worn uppermost, and tucked into
the girdle; the neck, highly ornamented with fringes and quills, trailed
on the ground behind the heel of the wearer; the side seams were
fringed, and for this purpose the scalps of fallen enemies were
frequently used.

The moccasins were also of dressed hide, without the hair, except in
winter, when buffalo-hide, with the hair inside, answered the purpose.
They were made with a single seam on the outside edge, and were
embellished with quills; sometimes they were covered with the skin of a
polecat, the tail of which dragged behind on the ground. Ear-ornaments
of beads, necklaces of shells, twisted-grass, elk-tushes, round bones,
like joints of a fish's back-bone, and the claws of the brown bear, were
all worn. Eagles' feathers stuck in the hair, or a strip of otter-skin
tied round the head, seem to have been the only head-dresses in
use.[614] This, or something similar, was the dress only of the wealthy
and prosperous tribes. Like the Utahs, the Snakes paint extensively,
especially when intent upon war.[615]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE SHOSHONES.]

The Snakes also build better dwellings than the Utahs. Long poles are
leaned against each other in a circle, and are then covered with skins,
thus forming a conical tent. A hole in the top, which can be closed in
bad weather, serves as chimney, and an opening at the bottom three or
four feet high, admits the occupants on pushing aside a piece of hide
stretched on a stick, which hangs over the aperture as a door. These
skin tents, as is necessary to a nomadic people, are struck and pitched
with very little labor. When being moved from one place to another, the
skins are folded and packed on the ponies, and the poles are hitched to
each side of the animal by one end, while the other drags. The
habitations of the people of Nevada and the greater part of Utah are
very primitive and consist of heaps of brush, under which they crawl, or
even of a mere shelter of bushes, semi-circular in shape, roofless, and
three or four feet high, which serves only to break the force of the
wind. Some of them build absolutely no dwellings, but live in caves and
among the rocks, while others burrow like reptiles in the ground.
Farnham gives us a very doleful picture of their condition; he says:
"When the lizard, and snail, and wild roots are buried in the snows of
winter, they are said to retire to the vicinity of timber, dig holes in
the form of ovens in the steep sides of the sand-hills, and, having
heated them to a certain degree, deposit themselves in them, and sleep
and fast till the weather permits them to go abroad again for food.
Persons who have visited their haunts after a severe winter, have found
the ground around these family ovens strewn with the unburied bodies of
the dead, and others crawling among them, who had various degrees of
strength, from a bare sufficiency to gasp in death, to those that
crawled upon their hands and feet, eating grass like cattle."[616]
Naturally pusillanimous, weak in development, sunk below the common baser
passions of the savage, more improvident than birds, more beastly than
beasts, it may be possible to conceive of a lower phase of humanity, but
I confess my inability to do so.

Pine-nuts, roots, berries, reptiles, insects, rats, mice, and
occasionally rabbits are the only food of the poorer Shoshone tribes.
Those living in the vicinity of streams or lakes depend more or less for
their subsistence upon fish. The Snakes of Idaho and Oregon, and the
tribes occupying the more fertile parts of Utah, having abundance of
fish and game, live well the year round, but the miserable root-eating
people, partly owing to their inherent improvidence, partly to the
scantiness of their food-supply, never store sufficient provision for
the winter, and consequently before the arrival of spring they are
invariably reduced to extreme destitution. To avoid starvation they will
eat dead bodies, and even kill their children for food.[617] A rat or a
rabbit is prepared for eating by singeing the hair, pressing the offal
from the entrails and cooking body and intestines together. Lizards,
snakes, grasshoppers, and ants are thrown alive into a dish containing
hot embers, and are tossed about until roasted; they are then eaten dry
or used to thicken soup. Grasshoppers, seeds, and roots, are also
gathered and cooked in the same manner as by the nations already
described. The Gosh Utes take rabbits in nets made of flax-twine, about
three feet wide and of considerable length. A fence of sage-brush is
erected across the rabbit-paths, and on this the net is hung. The
rabbits in running quickly along the trail become entangled in the
meshes and are taken before they can escape. Lizards are dragged from
their holes by means of a hooked stick. To catch ants a piece of fresh
hide or bark is placed upon the ant-hill; this is soon covered by vast
swarms of the insects, which are then brushed off into a bag and kept
there until dead, when they are dried for future use. Among the hunting
tribes antelope are gradually closed in upon by a circle of horsemen and
beaten to death with clubs. They are also stalked after the fashion of
the Californians proper, the hunter placing the head and horns of an
antelope or deer upon his own head and thus disguised approaching within
shooting distance.

  [Sidenote: NATIVE FISH-WEIR.]

Fish are killed with spears having movable heads, which become detached
when the game is struck, and are also taken in nets made of rushes or
twigs. In the latter case a place is chosen where the river is crossed
by a bar, the net is then floated down the stream and on reaching the
bar both ends are drawn together. The fish thus enclosed are taken from
the circle by hand, and the Shoshone as he takes each one, puts its head
in his mouth and kills it with his teeth. Captain Clarke describes an
ingeniously constructed weir on Snake River, where it was divided into
four channels by three small islands. Three of these channels were
narrow "and stopped by means of trees which were stretched across, and
supported by willow stakes, sufficiently near to prevent the passage of
the fish. About the centre of each was placed a basket formed of
willows, eighteen or twenty feet in length, of a cylindrical form, and
terminating in a conic shape at its lower extremity; this was situated
with its mouth upwards, opposite to an aperture in the weir. The main
channel of the water was then conducted to this weir, and as the fish
entered it they were so entangled with each other, that they could not
move, and were taken out by emptying the small end of the willow basket.
The weir in the main channel was formed in a manner somewhat different;
there were, in fact two distinct weirs formed of poles and willow sticks
quite across the river, approaching each other obliquely with an
aperture in each side of the angle. This is made by tying a number of
poles together at the top, in parcels of three, which were then set up
in a triangular form at the base, two of the poles being in the range
desired for the weir, and the third down the stream. To these poles two
ranges of other poles are next lashed horizontally, with willow bark and
withes, and willow sticks joined in with these crosswise, so as to form
a kind of wicker-work from the bottom of the river to the height of
three or four feet above the surface of the water. This is so thick as
to prevent the fish from passing, and even in some parts with the help
of a little gravel and some stone enables them to give any direction
which they wish to the water. These two weirs being placed near to each
other, one for the purpose of catching the fish as they ascend, the
other as they go down the river, are provided with two baskets made in
the form already described, and which are placed at the apertures of the
weir."

For present consumption the fish are boiled in water-tight baskets by
means of red-hot stones, or are broiled on the embers; sometimes the
bones are removed before the fish is cooked; great quantities are also
dried for winter. Some few of the Utahs cultivate a little maize,
vegetables, and tobacco, and raise stock, but efforts at agriculture are
not general. The Snakes sometimes accompany the more northern tribes
into the country of the Blackfeet, for the purpose of killing
buffalo.[618]

In their persons, dwellings and habits, the Utahs are filthy beyond
description. Their bodies swarm with vermin which they catch and eat
with relish. Some of the Snakes are of a more cleanly disposition, but,
generally speaking, the whole Shoshone family is a remarkably dirty
one.[619]

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS OF THE SHOSHONES.]

The bow and arrow are universally used by the Shoshones, excepting only
some of the most degraded root-eaters, who are said to have no weapon,
offensive or defensive, save the club. The bow is made of cedar, pine,
or other wood, backed with sinew after the manner already described, or,
more rarely, of a piece of elk-horn. The string is of sinew. The length
of the bow varies. According to Farnham, that used by the Pi Utes is six
feet long, while that of the Shoshones seen by Lewis and Clark was only
two and a half feet in length. The arrows are from two to four feet, and
are pointed with obsidian, flint, or, among the lower tribes, by merely
hardening the tip with fire. Thirty or forty are usually carried in a
skin quiver, and two in the hand ready for immediate use. Lances, which
are used in some localities, are pointed in the same manner as the
arrows when no iron can be procured. The Snakes have a kind of mace or
club, which they call a _poggamoggon_. It consists of a heavy stone,
sometimes wrapped in leather, attached by a sinew thong about two inches
in length, to the end of a stout leather-covered handle, measuring
nearly two feet. A loop fastened to the end held in the hand prevents
the warrior from losing the weapon in the fight, and allows him to hold
the club in readiness while he uses the bow and arrow.[620] They also
have a circular shield about two and a half feet in diameter, which is
considered a very important part of a warrior's equipment, not so much
from the fact that it is arrow-proof, as from the peculiar virtues
supposed to be given it by the medicine-men. The manufacture of a shield
is a season of great rejoicing. It must be made from the entire fresh
hide of a male two-year-old buffalo, and the process is as follows. A
hole is dug in the ground and filled with red-hot stones; upon these
water is poured until a thick steam arises. The hide is then stretched,
by as many as can take hold of it, over the hole, until the hair can be
removed with the hands and it shrinks to the required size. It is then
placed upon a prepared hide, and pounded by the bare feet of all
present, until the ceremony is concluded. When the shield is completed,
it is supposed to render the bearer invulnerable. Lewis and Clarke also
make mention of a species of defensive armor "something like a coat of
mail, which is formed by a great many folds of dressed antelope skins,
united by means of a mixture of glue and sand. With this they cover
their own bodies and those of their horses, and find it impervious to
the arrow." I find mention in one instance only, of a shield being used
by the Utahs. In that case it was small, circular, and worn suspended
from the neck. The fishing spear I have already described as being a
long pole with an elk-horn point. When a fish is struck the shaft is
loosened from its socket in the head, but remains connected with the
latter by a cord.[621] Arrows are occasionally poisoned by plunging
them into a liver which has been previously bitten by a
rattlesnake.[622]

  [Sidenote: MANNER OF MAKING WAR.]

The tribes that possess horses always fight mounted, and manage their
animals with considerable address. In war they place their reliance upon
strategy and surprise; fires upon the hills give warning of an enemy's
approach. Prisoners of war are killed with great tortures, especially
female captives, who are given over to the women of the victorious tribe
and by them done to death most cruelly; it is said, however, that male
prisoners who have distinguished themselves by their prowess in battle,
are frequently dismissed unhurt. Scalps are taken, and sometimes
portions of the flesh of a brave fallen enemy are eaten that the eater
may become endued with the valor of the slain. He who takes the most
scalps gains the most glory. Whether the warriors who furnished the
trophies fell by the hand of the accumulator or not, is immaterial; he
has but to show the spoils and his fame is established. The Snakes are
said to be peculiarly skillful in eluding pursuit. When on foot, they
will crouch down in the long grass and remain motionless while the
pursuer passes within a few feet of them, or when caught sight of they
will double and twist so that it is impossible to catch them. The custom
of ratifying a peace treaty by a grand smoke, common to so many of the
North American aborigines, is observed by the Shoshones.[623] The pipe,
the bowl of which is usually of red stone, painted or carved with
various figures and adorned with feathers, is solemnly passed from mouth
to mouth, each smoker blowing the smoke in certain directions and
muttering vows at the same time.

The only tools used before iron and steel were introduced by the whites
were of flint, bone, or horn. The flint knife had no regular form, and
had a sharp edge about three or four inches long, which was renewed when
it became dull. Elk-horn hatchets, or rather wedges, were used to fell
trees. They made water-proof baskets of plaited grass, and others of
wicker-work covered with hide. The Snakes and some of the Utahs were
versed in the art of pottery, and made very good vessels from baked
clay. These were not merely open dishes, but often took the form of jars
with narrow necks, having stoppers.[624]

  [Sidenote: LAWS AND GOVERNMENT.]

Boats, as a rule, the Shoshones have none. They usually cross rivers by
fording; otherwise they swim, or pass over on a clumsy and dangerous
raft made of branches and rushes.[625] By way of compensation they all,
except the poorest, have horses, and these constitute their wealth. They
have no regular currency, but use for purposes of barter their stock of
dried fish, their horses, or whatever skins and furs they may possess.
They are very deliberate traders, and a solemn smoke must invariably
precede a bargain.[626] Although each tribe has an ostensible chief, his
power is limited to giving advice, and although his opinion may
influence the tribe, yet he cannot compel obedience to his wishes. Every
man does as he likes. Private revenge, of course, occasionally overtakes
the murderer, or, if the sympathies of the tribe be with the murdered
man, he may possibly be publicly executed, but there are no fixed laws
for such cases. Chieftainship is hereditary in some tribes; in others it
is derived from prestige.[627]

The Utahs do not hesitate to sell their wives and children into slavery
for a few trinkets. Great numbers of these unfortunates are sold to the
Navajos for blankets. An act which passed the legislature of Utah in
1852, legalizing slavery, sets forth that from time immemorial, slavery
has been a customary traffic among the Indians; that it was a common
practice among them to gamble away their wives and children into
slavery, to sell them into slavery to other nations, and that slaves
thus obtained were most barbarously treated by their masters; that they
were packed from place to place on mules; that these unfortunate humans
were staked out to grass and roots like cattle, their limbs mutilated
and swollen from being bound with thongs; that they were frozen,
starved, and killed by their inhuman owners; that families and tribes
living at peace would steal each other's wives and children, and sell
them as slaves. In view of these abuses it was made lawful for a probate
judge, or selectmen, to bind out native captive women and children to
suitable white persons for a term not to exceed twenty years.[628]

Polygamy, though common, is not universal; a wife is generally bought of
her parents;[629] girls are frequently betrothed in infancy; a husband
will prostitute his wife to a stranger for a trifling present, but
should she be unfaithful without his consent, her life must pay the
forfeit. The women, as usual, suffer very little from the pains of
child-bearing. When the time of a Shoshone woman's confinement draws
near, she retires to some secluded place, brings forth unassisted, and
remains there for about a month, alone, and procuring her subsistence
as best she can. When the appointed time has elapsed she is considered
purified and allowed to join her friends again. The weaker sex of course
do the hardest labor, and receive more blows than kind words for their
pains. These people, in common with most nomadic nations, have the
barbarous custom of abandoning the old and infirm the moment they find
them an incumbrance. Lewis and Clarke state that children are never
flogged, as it is thought to break their spirit.[630]

  [Sidenote: GAMBLING AND DRINKING.]

The games of hazard played by the Shoshones differ little from those of
their neighbors; the principal one appears to be the odd-and-even game
so often mentioned; but of late years they have nearly abandoned these,
and have taken to 'poker,' which they are said to play with such
adroitness as to beat a white man. With the voice they imitate with
great exactness the cries of birds and beasts, and their concerts of
this description, which generally take place at midnight, are discordant
beyond measure. Though they manufacture no intoxicating liquor
themselves, they will drink the whisky of the whites whenever
opportunity offers. They smoke the _kinikkinik_ leaf when no tobacco can
be procured from the traders.[631] In connection with their smoking
they have many strange observances. When the pipe is passed round at
the solemnization of a treaty, or the confirmation of a bargain, each
smoker, on receiving it from his neighbor, makes different motions with
it; one turns the pipe round before placing the stem to his lips;
another describes a semicircle with it; a third smokes with the bowl in
the air; a fourth with the bowl on the ground, and so on through the
whole company. All this is done with a most grave and serious
countenance, which makes it the more ludicrous to the looker-on. The
Snakes, before smoking with a stranger, always draw off their moccasins
as a mark of respect. Any great feat performed by a warrior, which adds
to his reputation and renown, such as scalping an enemy, or successfully
stealing his horses, is celebrated by a change of name. Killing a
grizzly bear also entitles him to this honor, for it is considered a
great feat to slay one of these formidable animals, and only he who has
performed it is allowed to wear their highest insignia of glory, the
feet or claws of the victim. To bestow his name upon a friend is the
highest compliment that one man can offer another.

The Snakes, and some of the Utahs, are skillful riders, and possess good
horses. Their horse-furniture is simple. A horse-hair or raw-hide lariat
is fastened round the animal's neck; the bight is passed with a single
half-hitch round his lower jaw, and the other end is held in the rider's
hand; this serves as a bridle. When the horse is turned loose, the
lariat is loosened from his jaw and allowed to trail from his neck. The
old men and the women have saddles similar to those used for packing by
the whites; they are a wooden frame made of two pieces of thin board
fitting close to the sides of the horse, and held together by two
cross-pieces, in shape like the legs of an isosceles triangle. A piece
of hide is placed between this and the horse's back, and a robe is
thrown over the seat when it is ridden on. The younger men use no
saddle, except a small pad, girthed on with a leather thong. When
traveling they greatly overload their horses. All the household goods
and provisions are packed upon the poor animal's back, and then the
women and children seat themselves upon the pile, sometimes as many as
four or five on one horse.[632]

  [Sidenote: DISEASES AND BURIAL.]

The poorer Utahs are very subject to various diseases, owing to exposure
in winter. They have few, if any, efficient remedies. They dress wounds
with pine-gum, after squeezing out the blood. The Snakes are much
affected by rheumatism and consumption, caused chiefly by their being
almost constantly in the water fishing, and by exposure. Syphilis has,
of course, been extensively introduced among all the tribes. A few
plants and herbs are used for medicinal purposes, and the medicine-men
practice their wonted mummeries, but what particular means of cure they
adopt is not stated by the authorities. I find no mention of their
having sweat-houses.[633]

Concerning the disposal of the dead usage differs. In some parts the
body is burned, in others it is buried. In either case the property of
the deceased is destroyed at his burial. His favorite horse, and, in
some instances, his favorite wife, are killed over his grave, that he
may not be alone in the spirit land. Laceration in token of grief is
universal, and the lamentations of the dead person's relatives are heard
for weeks after his death, and are renewed at intervals for many months.
Child-like in this, they rush into extremes, and when not actually
engaged in shrieking and tearing their flesh, they appear perfectly
indifferent to their loss.[634]

  [Sidenote: SHOSHONE CHARACTER.]

The character of the better Shoshone tribes is not much worse than that
of the surrounding nations; they are thieving, treacherous, cunning,
moderately brave after their fashion, fierce when fierceness will avail
them anything, and exceedingly cruel. Of the miserable root and grass
eating Shoshones, however, even this much cannot be said. Those who have
seen them unanimously agree that they of all men are lowest. Lying in a
state of semi-torpor in holes in the ground during the winter, and in
spring crawling forth and eating grass on their hands and knees, until
able to regain their feet; having no clothes, scarcely any cooked food,
in many instances no weapons, with merely a few vague imaginings for
religion, living in the utmost squalor and filth, putting no bridle on
their passions, there is surely room for no missing link between them
and brutes.[635] Yet as in all men there stands out some prominent
good, so in these, the lowest of humanity, there is one virtue: they are
lovers of their country; lovers, not of fair hills and fertile valleys,
but of inhospitable mountains and barren plains; these reptile-like men
love their miserable burrowing-places better than all the comforts of
civilization; indeed, in many instances, when detained by force among
the whites, they have been known to pine away and die.


TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.


  [Sidenote: NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS.]

To the NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory extends from Rogue River
on the north to Eel River south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the
Californian boundary east, including the Klamath, and other lakes, are
assigned, according to the authorities, the following tribal boundaries:
There are 'the Hoopahs, and the Ukiahs of Mendocino;' 'the Umpquas,
Kowooses or Cooses, Macanootoony's of the Umpqua river section, Nomee
Cults, and Nomee Lacks of Tehama County; the Copahs, Hanags, Yatuckets,
Terwars and Tolowas, of the lower Klamath river; the Wylaks and
Noobimucks of Trinity county mountains west from Sacramento plains; the
Modocs of Klamath Lake, the Ylackas of Pitt River, the Ukas and Shastas
of Shasta county.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 8, 1860_.

'The _Tototins_ are divided into twelve bands; eight of them are located
on the coast, one on the forks of the Coquille, and three on Rogue
river.' 'The Tototins, from whom is derived the generic name of the
whole people speaking the language, reside on the north bank of the
Tototin river, about four miles from its mouth. Their country extends
from the eastern boundary of the Yahshutes, a short distance below their
village, up the stream about six miles, where the fishing-grounds of the
Mackanotins commence.' 'The country of the Euquachees commences at the
"Three Sisters," and extends along the coast to a point about three
miles to the south of their village, which is on a stream which bears
their name. The mining town of Elizabeth is about the southern boundary
of the Euquachees, and is called thirty miles from Port Orford. Next
southward of the Euquachees are the Yahshutes, whose villages occupy
both banks of the Tototin or Rogue river, at its mouth. These people
claim but about two and a half miles back from the coast, where the
Tototin country commences. The Yahshutes claim the coast to some
remarkable headlands, about six miles south of Rogue river. South of
these headlands are the Chetlessentuns. Their village is north of, but
near, the mouth of a stream bearing their name, but better known to the
whites as Pistol river. The Chetlessentuns claim but about eight miles
of the coast; but as the country east of them is uninhabited, like
others similarly situated, their lands are supposed to extend to the
summit of the mountains. Next to the Chetlessentuns on the south are the
Wishtenatins, whose village is at the mouth of a small creek bearing
their name. They claim the country to a small trading-post known as the
Whale's Head, about twenty-seven miles south of the mouth of Rogue
River. Next in order are the Cheattee or Chitco band, whose villages
were situated on each side of the mouth, and about six miles up a small
river bearing their name.... The lands of these people extend from
Whale's Head to the California line, and back from the coast
indefinitely.... The Mackanotin village is about seven miles above that
of the Tototins, and is on the same side of the river. They claim about
twelve miles of stream. The Shistakoostees succeed them (the
Mackanotins). Their village is on the north bank of Rogue river, nearly
opposite the confluence of the Illinois. These are the most easterly
band within my district in the South.' _Parrish_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1854, pp. 283-9. 'Dr. Hubbard, in his notes (1856) on the Indians of
Rogue River and South Oregon, on the ocean, before alluded to, gives the
following list of names of Rancherias and clans of the Lototen or
Tutatamys tribe. Masonah Band, location, Coquille river; Chockrelatan
Band, location, Coquille forks; Quatomah Band, location, Flore's creek;
Laguaacha Band, location, Elk river; Cosulhenten Band, location, Port
Orford; Yuquache Band, location, Yugua creek; Chetlessenten Band,
location, Pistol river; Yah Shutes Band, location, Rogue river;
Wishtanatan Band, location, Whale's head; Cheahtoc Band, location,
Chetko; Tototen Band, location, six miles above the mouth of Rogue
river; Sisticoosta Band, location, above Big Bend, of Rogue river;
Maquelnoteer Band, location, fourteen miles above the mouth of Rogue
river.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 18, 1860_. The Tutotens were a large tribe,
numbering thirteen clans, inhabiting the southern coast of Oregon.
_Golden Era_, _March, 1856_. 'Toutounis ou Coquins, sur la rivière de ce
nom et dans l'intérieur des terres.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.
335. 'On the lower part of the Clamet River are the Totutune, known by
the unfavorable soubriquet of the Rogue, or Rascal Indians.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 221. The bands of the
Tootooton tribe 'are scattered over a great extent of country--along the
coast and on the streams from the California line to twenty miles north
of the Coquille, and from the ocean to the summit of the coast range of
mountains.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 259. Taylor places
the Tutunahs in the northwest corner of Del Norte County. _MS. Map._

The _Hunas_ live in California a little south of Rogue River, on the way
north from Crescent City. _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 314.

_Modoc_, by some _Moädoc_, is a word which originated with the
Shasteecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies.
'Their proper habitat is on the southern shore of Lower Klamath Lake, on
Hot Creek, around Clear Lake, and along Lost River in Oregon.' _Powers_,
in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 535. They own the Klamath River from
the lake 'to where it breaks through the Siskiyou range to the
westward.' _Id._, vol. xi., p. 21. In the northern part of Siskiyou
County. _MS. Map_. 'The Modocs of the Klamath Lake were also called
Moahtockna.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. East of the Klamaths, whose
eastern boundary is twenty-five or thirty miles east of the Cascade
Range, along the southern boundary of Oregon, 'and extending some
distance into California, is a tribe known as the Modocks. East of these
again, but extending farther south, are the Moetwas.' 'The country round
Ancoose and Modoc lakes, is claimed and occupied by the Modoc Indians.'
_Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 262-3. 'The Modocs (or Moadoc,
as the word is pronounced) known in their language as the Okkowish,
inhabit the Goose lake country, and are mostly within the State of
California.... The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word, and means all
distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to these
Indians by white men in early days from hearing the Shastas speak of
them.' See _Steele_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 121.

The _Oukskenahs_, in the north-western part of Siskiyou County. _MS.
Map._

  [Sidenote: THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBES.]

The _Klamaths_ or _Lutuami_--'Lutuami, or Tlamatl, or Clamet Indians.
The first of these names is the proper designation of the people in
their own language. The second is that by which they are known to the
Chinooks, and through them to the whites. They live on the head waters
of the river and about the lake, which have both received from
foreigners the name of Clamet.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. vi., p. 218. That portion of the eastern base of the Cascade Range,
south of the forty-fourth parallel, 'extending twenty-five or thirty
miles east, and south to the California line, is the country of the
Klamath Indians.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 262. The
Tlameths 'inhabit the country along the eastern base of the Cascade and
Sierra Nevada Mountains, and south to the Great Klameth Lake.'
_Thompson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 283. The Clamets inhabit
'Roquas River, near the south boundary' (of Oregon). _Warre and
Vavasour_, in _Martin's Hudson's Bay_, p. 81. 'Lutuami, Clamets; also
Tlamatl--Indians of southwestern Oregon, near the Clamet Lake.'
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 100. 'Klamacs, sur la rivière de ce nom et
dans l'intérieur des terres.' _De Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335.
Clamet: on the upper part of the river, and sixty miles below the lake
so named. _Framboise_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255.
'Next east of the Shastas are the Klamath Lake Indians, known in their
language as the Okshee, who inhabit the country about the Klamath lakes,
and east about half way to the Goose Lake, to Wright Lake, and south to
a line running about due east from Shasta Butte.' _Steele_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1864, pp. 120-1. 'The name of Klamath or Tlamath, belonging
to the tribes on the lake where the river rises, is not known among
those farther down.... Thus, at the forks, the Weitspeks call the river
below Pohlik, signifying down; and that above Pehtsik, or up; giving,
moreover, the same name to the population in speaking of them
collectively. Three distinct tribes, speaking different languages,
occupy its banks between the sea and the mouth of the Shasté, of which
the lowest extends up to Bluff Creek, a few miles above the forks. Of
these there are, according to our information, in all, thirty-two
villages.... The names of the principal villages ... are the Weitspek
(at the forks), Wahsherr, Kaipetl, Moraiuh, Nohtscho, Méhteh, Schregon,
Yauterrh, Pecquan, Kauweh, Wauhtecq, Scheperrh, Oiyotl, Naiagutl,
Schaitl, Hopaiuh, Rekqua, and Weht'lqua, the two last at the mouth of
the river.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 138.

The _Eurocs_ inhabit 'the lower Klamath from Weitspeck down, and along
the coast for about twenty miles.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.
viii., p. 530. The Eurocs 'inhabit the banks of the Klamath from the
junction of the Trinity to the mouth, and the sea coast from Gold Bluff
up to a point about six miles above the mouth of the Klamath.' _Powers'
Pomo, MS._

The _Cahrocs_ live between the Eurocs and the foot of the Klamath
Mountains, also a short distance up Salmon River. 'On the Klamath River
there live three distinct tribes, called the Eurocs, Cahrocs, and
Modocs; which names mean respectively, "down the river," "up the river,"
and "head of the river."' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii.,
p. 328. Speaking of Indians at the junction of Salmon and Klamath
Rivers, Mr. Gibbs says: 'they do not seem to have any generic
appellation for themselves, but apply the terms "Kahruk," up, and
"Youruk," down, to all who live above or below themselves, without
discrimination, in the same manner that the others (at the junction of
the Trinity) do "Pehtsik," and "Pohlik."' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iii., p. 151.

The _Tolewahs_ are the first tribe on the coast north of Klamath River.
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139. The Tahlewahs are
a 'tribe on the Klamath River.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 179. 'In the
vicinity of Crescent City and Smith's River there are the ... Lopas,
Talawas, and Lagoons.' _Heintzelman_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, pp.
391-2. 'In Del Norte County ... the Haynaggis live along Smith River,
the Tolowas on the Lagoon, and the Tahatens around Crescent City.'
_Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Cops, Hanags, Yantuckets, and Tolawas, are
'Indian tribes living near the Oregon and California coast frontiers.'
_Crescent City Herald_, _Aug. 1857_. The Tolowas at the meeting point of
Trinity, Humboldt, and Klamath counties. _MS. Map._

The _Terwars_, north-west of the Tolowas. _MS. Map._

The _Weitspeks_ are the 'principal band on the Klamath, at the junction
of the Trinity.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 422;
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 200.

The _Oppegachs_ are a tribe at Red-Cap's Bar, on the Klamath River.
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 148.

The _Hoopahs_ live 'am unteren Rio de la Trinidad, oder Trinity River.'
_Buschmann_, _Das Apache als eine Athhapask. Spr._, p. 218. 'Indian
tribe on the lower part of the Trinity River.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p.
82. The Hoopas live 'in Hoopa Valley, on the lower Trinity River.'
_Power's Pomo, MS._, p. 85. 'The lower Trinity tribe is, as well as the
river itself, known to the Klamaths by the name of Hoopah.' _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139; see also p. 422. In the
northern part of Klamath County. _MS. Map._

'Upon the Trinity, or Hoopah, below the entrance of the south fork or
Otahweiaket, there are said to be eleven ranches, the Okenoke, Agaraits,
Uplegoh, Olleppauh'lkahtehtl and Pephtsoh; ... and the Haslintah,
Aheltah, Sokéakeit, Tashhuanta, and Witspuk above it; A twelfth, the
Méyemma, now burnt, was situated just above "New" or "Arkansas" River.'
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139.

The _Copahs_, in the extreme north of Klamath county, north of the
Hoopahs. _MS. Map._ The Cops are mentioned as 'living near the Oregon
and California coast frontiers,' in the _Crescent City Herald_, _Aug.,
1857_.

The _Kailtas_ live on the south fork of Trinity River. _Powers' Pomo,
MS._

The _Pataways_ occupy the banks of the Trinity, from the vicinity of Big
Bar to South Fork. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Chimalquays_ lived on New River, a tributary of the Trinity.
_Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Siahs_ 'occupied the tongue of land jutting down between Eel River,
and Van Dusen's Fork.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Sians or Siahs lived on
the headwaters of Smith River. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iii., p. 139.

The _Ehneks_, Eenahs, or Eenaghs, lived above the Tolewas on Smith
River. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 139. 'Ehnek was
the name of a band at the mouth of the Salmon or Quoratem River.' _Id._,
p. 422; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 67.

_Wishosk_ 'is the name given to the Bay (Humboldt) and Mad River Indians
by those of Eel River.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.
422; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 201.

The _Weeyots_ are 'a band on the mouth of Eel River and near Humboldt
Bay.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 200. The Humboldt Bay Indians call
themselves Wishosk; and those of the hills Teokawilk; 'but the tribes to
the northward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel River, Weyot, or
Walla-walloo.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 133.

'The _Patawats_ live on the lower waters of Mad River, and around
Humboldt Bay, as far south as Arcata, perhaps originally as far down as
Eureka.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

_Ossegon_ is the name given to the Indians of Gold Bluff, between
Trinidad and the Klamath. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii.,
p. 133.

'The _Lassics_ formerly dwelt in Mad River Valley, from the head waters
down to Low Gap, or thereabout, where they borrowed on the Wheelcuttas.'
_Powers' Pomo, MS._

_Chori_ was the name given to the Indians of Trinidad by the Weeyots.
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 133.

The _Chillulahs_ 'occupied the banks of Redwood Creek, from the coast up
about twenty miles.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Oruk, Tchololah, or Bald
Hill Indians, lived on Redwood Creek. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., p. 139.

The _Wallies_ occupy the sandy country north of Humboldt Bay. _Overland
Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 536.

'The _Wheelcuttas_ had their place on the Upper Redwood Creek, from the
land of the Chillulahs up to the mountains. They ranged across southward
by the foot of the Bald Hills, which appear to have marked the boundary
between them and the Chillulahs in that direction; and penetrated to Van
Dusen's Fork, anent the Siahs and Lassics, with whom they occasionally
came in bloody collision.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Veeards_ 'live around lower Humboldt Bay, and up Eel River to Eagle
Prairie.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Shastas_ live to the south-west of the Lutuamis or Klamaths.
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 218. 'Sastés, dans
l'intérieur au Nord de la Californie.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.
335. 'The Shasta Indians, known in their language as Weohow--it meaning
stone house, from the large cave in their country--occupy the land east
of Shasta river, and south of the Siskiyou mountains, and west of the
lower Klamath lake.' _Steele_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 120. The
Shastas occupy the centre of the county of that name. _MS. Map._
'Indians of south-western Oregon, on the northern frontiers of Upper
California.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 168. Watsahewah is the name 'of
one of the Scott River bands of the Shasta family.' _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 422. The name is spelled variously
as Shasty, Shaste, Sasté, &c.

The _Palaiks_ live to the southeast of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 218. 'Indians of
south-western Oregon, on the northern frontiers of Upper California.'
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 145.

On the Klamath are the Odeeilahs; in Shasta Valley the Ikarucks,
Kosetahs, and Idakariúkes; and in Scott's Valley the Watsahewas and
Eehs. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 171.

'The _Hamburg Indians_, known in their language as the Tka, inhabit
immediately at the mouth of Scott's river, known in their language as
the Ottetiewa river.' _Steele_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 120.

'The _Scott's Valley Indians_, known in their language as the Iddoa,
inhabit Scott's Valley above the cañon.' _Ib._

'The _Yreka_ (a misnomer for Yeka--Shasta Butte) Indians, known in their
language as the Hoteday, inhabit that part of the country lying south of
Klamath river, and west of Shasta river.' _Ib._

The _Yuka_ or Uka tribe 'inhabited the Shasta Mountains in the vicinity
of McCloud's fork of Pitt River.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. The
Ukas are directly south of the Modocs. _MS. Map._ 'The Yukeh, or as the
name is variously spelt, Yuka, Yuques, and Uca, are the original
inhabitants of the Nome-Cult, or Round Valley, in Tehama County ... and
are not to be confounded with the Yukai Indians of Russian River.'
_Gibbs_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. vii., p. 123.

'The _Noser_ or _Noza_ Indians ... live in the vicinity of Lassen's
Butte.' _Siskiyou Chronicle_, _May, 1859_.

The _Ylakas_ are to the southeast of the Ukas. _MS. Map._


The CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy the whole of that portion of California
extending north and south, from about 40° 30´ to 35°, and east and west,
from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary. They are tribally
divided as follows:

'The _Mattoles_ have their habitat on the creek which bears their name,
and on the still smaller stream dignified with the appellation of Bear
River. From the coast they range across to Eel River, and by immemorial
Indian usage and prescriptive right, they hold the western bank of this
river from about Eagle Prairie, where they border upon the Veeards, up
southward to the mouth of South Fork.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Betumkes_ live on the South Fork of Eel River. _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 634. In the northern part of
Mendocino County. _MS. Map._

The _Choweshaks_ live on the head of Eel river. _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 421. Tribes living on the Middle
Fork of Eel River, in the valley called by the Indians Betumki were the
Naboh Choweshak, Chawteuh Bakowa, and Samunda. _Id._, p. 116. The
Choweshaks lived on the head of Eel River. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 48.

'The _Loloncooks_ live on Bull Creek and the lower South Fork of Eel
River, owning the territory between those streams and the Pacific.'
_Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Batemdakaiees_ live in the valley of that name on the head of Eel
River. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 17.

  [Sidenote: RUSSIAN RIVER AND COAST TRIBES.]

The _Pomos_ consist of 'a great number of tribes or little bands,
sometimes one in a valley, sometimes three or four, clustered in the
region where the headwaters of Eel and Russian rivers interlace, along
the estuaries of the coast and around Clear Lake. Really, the Indians
all along Russian river to its mouth are branches of this great family,
but below Calpello they no longer call themselves Pomos.... The broadest
and most obvious division of this large family is, into Eel river Pomos
and Russian river Pomos.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ix., pp.
498-9.

The Castel Pomos 'live between the forks of the river extending as far
south as Big Chamise and Blue Rock.' _Id._, p. 499.

The Ki-Pomos 'dwell on the extreme headwaters of South Fork, ranging
eastward to Eel River, westward to the ocean and northward to the Castel
Pomos.' _Ib._, _MS. Map_.

'The Cahto Pomos (Lake people) were so called from a little lake which
formerly existed in the valley now called by their name.' _Powers_, in
_Overland Monthly_, vol. ix., p. 500.

The Choam Chadéla Pomos (Pitch Pine People) live in Redwood Valley.
_Id._, p. 504.

The Matomey Ki Pomos (Wooded Valley People) live about Little Lake.
_Ib._

The Camalèl Pomos (Coast People) or Usals live on Usal Creek. _Ib._

The Shebalne Pomos (Neighbor People) live in Sherwood Valley. _Ib._

The Pome Pomos (Earth People) live in Potter Valley. Besides the Pome
Pomos there are two or three other little rancherias in Potter Valley,
each with a different name; and the whole body of them are called Ballo
Ki Pomos (Oat Valley People). _Id._

The Camalel Pomos, Yonsal Pomos, and Bayma Pomos live on Ten Mile, and
the country just north of it, in Mendocino County. _Tobin_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 405.

'The Salan Pomas are a tribe of Indians inhabiting a valley called
Potter's Valley.' _Ford_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 257.

The _Niahbella Pomos_ live in the north-west of Mendocino County. _MS.
Map._

The _Ukiahs_ live on Russian River in the vicinity of Parker's Ranch.
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 112, 421. 'The Yuka
tribe are those mostly within and immediately adjoining the mountains.'
_Mendocino Herald_, _March, 1871_. The Yukai live on Russian River.
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 285. The Ukias are in the south-eastern part
of Mendocino County. _MS. Map._

The _Soteomellos_ or Sotomieyos 'lived in Russian River valley.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Shumeias_ 'lived on the extreme upper waters of Eel River, opposite
Potter Valley.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Tahtoos_ 'live in the extreme upper end of Potter Valley.' _Ib._

The _Yeeaths_ live at Cape Mendocino. _Tobin_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1857, p. 406.

The _Kushkish_ Indians live at Shelter Cove. _Id._, p. 405.

The _Comachos_ live in Russian River Valley, in Rancheria and Anderson
Valleys. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Kajatschims_, _Makomas_, and _Japiams_ live in the Russian River
Valley, north of Fort Ross. _Baer_, _Stat. und Ethno._, p. 80.

The _Gallinomeros_ occupy Dry Creek Valley and Russian River Valley
below Healdsburg. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Masalla Magoons_ 'live along Russian river south of Cloverdale.'
_Id._

The _Rincons_ live south of the Masalla Magoons. _Id._

The _Gualalas_ live on Gualala or Wallalla Creek. _Id._

The Nahlohs, Carlotsapos, Chowechaks, Chedochogs, Choiteeu, Misalahs,
Bacowas, Samindas, and Cachenahs, Tuwanahs, lived in the country between
Fort Ross and San Francisco Bay. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iii., p. 634.

_Chwachamaju_ (Russian Severnovskia) or Northerners, is the name of one
of the tribes in the vicinity of Fort Ross. _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_,
_Stat. und Ethno._, p. 80. 'Severnovskia, Severnozer, or "Northerners."
Indians north of Bodega Bay. They call themselves Chwachamaja.'
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 170.

The _Olamentkes_ live at Bodega. _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. und
Ethnog._, p. 80; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 20.

The _Kainamares_ or Kainaméahs are at Fitch's Ranch, extending as far
back as Santa Rosa, down Russian River, about three leagues to Cooper's
Ranch, and thence across the coast at Fort Ross, and for twenty-five
miles above. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 102. 'The
Kanimares had rancherias at Santa Rosa, Petaluma, or Pataloma, and up to
Russian river.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_. 'The proper name of
Russian river in Sonoma valley is Canimairo after the celebrated Indians
of those parts.' _Id._, _June 8, 1860_. The Indians of the plains in
vicinity of Fort Ross, call themselves Kainama. _Kostromitonow_, in
_Baer_, _Stat. und Ethno._, p. 80. The Kyanamaras 'inhabit the section
of country between the cañon of Russian river and its mouth.' _Ford_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 257.

The _Tumalehnias_ live on Bodega Bay. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., p. 102.

The _Socoas_, _Lamas_, and _Seacos_, live in Russian River Valley in
the vicinity of the village of Sanél. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Sonomas_, Sonomis, or Sonomellos, lived at the embarcadero of
Sonoma. _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_. The Sonomas lived in the
south-eastern extremity of what is now the county of Sonoma. _MS. Map._

The _Tchokoyems_ lived in Sonoma valley. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 421. The Chocuyens lived in the region now called
Sonoma county, and from their chief the county takes its name.
_Cronise's Nat. Wealth_, p. 22. The word Sonoma means 'Valley of the
Moon.' _Tuthill's Hist. Cal._, p. 301. The Tchokoyems live in Sonoma
Valley. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 184.

'The _Timbalakees_ lived on the west side of Sonoma valley.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Guillicas_ lived 'northwest of Sonoma,' on the old Wilson ranch of
1846. _Ib._; _MS. Map_.

The _Kinklas_ live in 39° 14´ north lat. and 122° 12´ long. _Wilkes'
Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 201. The Klinkas are a 'tribu
fixée au nord du Rio del Sacramento.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.
358. South of the Rogue River Indians 'the population is very scanty
until we arrive at the valley of the Sacramento, all the tribes of which
are included by the traders under the general name of Kinklá, which is
probably, like Tlamatl, a term of Chinook origin.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 221.

The Talatui live 'on the Kassima River, a tributary to the Sacramento,
on the eastern side, about eighty miles from its mouth.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 631. _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._,
p. 180.

The _Oleepas_ live on the Feather River, twenty miles above Marysville.
_Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 293.

'The Nemshous, as stated by General Sutter, roamed (prior to 1846)
between the Bear and American rivers; across the Sacramento were the
Yolos and Colusas; north of the American Fork were the Bashones. On the
banks of the river north of Fort Helvetia, roamed the Veshanacks, the
Touserlemnies and Youcoolumnies; between the American (plain and hills)
and the Mokalumne roamed the Walacumnies, Cosumnies, Solumnees,
Mokelumnees, Suraminis, Yosumnis, Lacomnis, Kis Kies and Omochumnies.'
_Cal. Farmer_, _June 8, 1860_. The Colusas live in the north-eastern
corner of Colusa County. The Yolos, in the northern part of the county
of that name. West of them the Olashes. The Bushones in the south of
Yolo County. The Nemshoos in the eastern part of Placer County. The
Yukutneys north of them. The Vesnacks south-west of the Nemshoos, and
north of the Pulpenes. The Youcoulumnes and Cosumnes are in the eastern
part of Amador county. The Mokelumnes south of them. The Yachachumnes
west of the Mokelumnes. _MS. Map_. 'Yolo is a corruption of the Indian
Yoloy, which signified a region thick with rushes, and was the name of
the tribe owning the tule lands west of the Sacramento and bordering on
Cache Creek.' _Tuthill's Hist. Cal._, p. 301. The following are names of
rancherias of tame Indians or Neophytes in the Sacramento Valley;
Sakisimme, Shonomnes, Tawalemnes, Seywamenes, Mukelemnes, Cosumne.
Rancherias of wild Indians or Gentiles, are: Sagayacumne, Socklumnes,
Olonutchamne, Newatchumne, Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omatchamne,
Yusumne, Yuleyumne, Tamlocklock, Sapototot, Yalesumne, Wapoomne, Kishey,
Secumne, Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshan, Palanshan, Ustu, Olash, Yukulme,
Hock, Sishu, Mimal, Yulu, Bubu, Honcut. _Indian Tribes of the Sacramento
Valley, MS._ Tame Indians or Neophites: Lakisumne, Shonomne, Fawalomnes,
Mukeemnes, Cosumne. Wild Indians or Gentiles: Sagayacumne, Locklomnee,
Olonutchamne, Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omutchamne, Yusumne,
Yaleyumne, Yamlocklock, Lapototot, Yalesumne, Wajuomne, Kisky, Secumne,
Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshaw, Palanshawl Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock,
Lishu, Mimal, Ubu, Bubu, Honcut. _Sutter's Estimate of Indian
Population, 1847, MS._ The Ochecamnes, Servushamnes, Chupumnes,
Omutchumnes, Sicumnes, Walagumnes, Cosumnes, Sololumnes, Turealemnes,
Saywamines, Nevichumnes, Matchemnes, Sagayayumnes, Muthelemnes, and
Lopstatimnes, lived on the eastern bank of the Sacramento. The Bushumnes
(or Pujuni), (or Sekomne) Yasumnes, Nemshaw, Kisky, Yaesumnes, Huk, and
Yucal, lived on the western bank of the Sacramento. _Hale's Ethnog._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 630, 631.

The _Yubas_ or _Yuvas_ lived on Yuva River, a tributary to the
Sacramento. _Fremont's Geog. Memoir_, p. 22.

The _Meidoos_ and _Neeshenams_ are on the Yuba and Feather Rivers. 'As
you travel south from Chico the Indians call themselves Meidoo until you
reach Bear River; but below that it is Neeshenam, or sometimes mana or
maidec, all of which denote men or Indians.' _Powers_, in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. xii., p. 21.

The _Cushnas_ live near the south fork of the Yuba River. _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. ii., 506; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 59. Taylor also
mentions the Cushnas south of the Yuba. _Cal. Farmer_, _May 31, 1861_.

  [Sidenote: CLEAR LAKE TRIBES.]

The _Guenocks_ and _Locollomillos_ lived between Clear Lake and Napa.
_Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Lopillamillos_ or Lupilomis lived on the borders of Clear lake.
_Ib._; _MS. Map_.

The _Mayacmas_ and _Tyugas_ dwell about Clear Lake. _San Francisco
Herald_, _June, 1858_. The Mayacmas and Tyugas 'inhabited the vicinity
of Clear lake and the mountains of Napa and Mendocino counties.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_; _MS. Map_.

The _Wi-Lackees_ 'live along the western <DW72> of the Shasta mountains
from round Valley to Hay Fork, between those mountains on one side and
Eel and Mad Rivers on the other, and extending down the latter stream
about to Low Gap.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Wye Lakees, Nome Lackees,
Noimucks, Noiyucans and Noisas, lived at Clear Lake. _Geiger_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 438.

_Napobatin_, meaning 'many houses,' was the collective name of six
tribes living at Clear Lake: their names were Hulanapo, Habenapo or
stone house, Dahnohabe, or stone mountain, Möalkai, Shekom, and Howkuma.
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 109.

The _Shanelkayas_ and _Bedahmareks_, or lower people, live on the east
fork of Eel River. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 109.

'The _Sanéls_ live at Clear lake.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., p. 112. 'The Sanels occupy Russian River Valley in the
vicinity of the American village of Sanel.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Bochheafs_, _Ubakheas_, _Tabahteas_, and the _Moiyas_, live between
Clear Lake and the coast. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii.,
p. 112.

The _Socoas_, _Lamas_, and _Seacos_, occupy Russian River Valley in the
vicinity of the village of Sanel. _Powers' Pomo, MS._

The _Napas_ 'inhabited the Salvador Vallejo ranch of Entre-Napa--that is
the place between Napa river and Napa creek.' _Hittell_, in _Hesperian
Mag._, vol. iv., p. 56; _Cal. Farmer_, _June 7, 1861_. 'The Napa Indians
lived near that town and near Yount's ranch.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30,
1860_.

'The _Caymus_ tribe occupied the tract now owned by G. C. Yount.'
_Hittell_, in _Hesperian Mag._, vol. iv., p. 55.

'The _Calajomanas_ had their home on the land now known as the Bale
ranche.' _Ib._

The _Mayacomas_ dwelt in the vicinity of the hot springs in the upper
end of Napa Valley. _Ib._

The _Ulucas_ lived on the east of the river Napa, near the present
townsite. _Id._, p. 56.

'The _Suscols_ lived on the ranch of that name, and between Napa and
Benicia.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_. 'The former domain of the
Suscol Indians was afterwards known as Suscol ranch.' _Hittel_, in
_Hesperian Mag._, vol. iv., p. 56; _MS. Map_.

The _Tulkays_ lived 'below the town of Napa.' _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30,
1860_.

The _Canaumanos_ lived on Bayle's ranch in Napa valley. _Ib._

The _Mutistuls_ live 'between the heads of Napa and Putos creeks.'
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 111.

The _Yachimeses_ originally occupied the ground upon which the city of
Stockton now stands. _Cal. Farmer_, _Dec. 7, 1860_.

The _Yachichumnes_ 'formerly inhabited the country between Stockton and
Mt. Diablo.' _San Francisco Evening Bulletin_, _Sept. 9, 1864_.

The _Suisunes_ live in Suisun valley. _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.
Solano County was named from their chief. _Cronise's Nat. Wealth_, p.
22; _Tuthill's Hist. Cal._, p. 301.

The _Ullulatas_ 'lived on the north side of Suisun Valley.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Pulpenes_ lived on the eastern side of Suisun Valley. _Ib._

The _Tolenos_ lived on the north side of Suisun Valley. _Ib._

The _Karquines_ lived on the straits of that name. _Ib._

The _Tomales_, Tamales, Tamallos, or Tamalanos, and Bollanos, lived
between Bodega Bay and the north shore of San Francisco Bay. _Id._,
_March 2, 1860_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Socoisukas_, _Thamiens_, and _Gerguensens_ or Gerzuensens 'roamed
in the Santa Clara valley, between the Coyote and Guadalupe rivers, and
the country west of San Jose city to the mountains.' _Id._, _June 22,
1860_.

The _Lecatuit_ tribe occupied Marin county, and it is from the name of
their chief that the county takes its name. _Cronise's Nat. Wealth_, p.
22.

'The _Petalumas_ or the _Yolhios_ lived near or around that town.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_.

The _Tulares_, so called by the Spaniards, lived between the northern
shore of the bay of San Francisco and San Rafael. _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 421.

The _Wapos_ inhabited 'the country about the Geysers.' _Ford_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 257.

The _Yosemites_ inhabited the valley of the same name. The Tosemiteiz
are on the headwaters of the Chowchilla. _Lewis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1857, p. 399.

The _Ahwahnachees_ are the inhabitants of Yosemite Valley. _Hittel's
Yosemite_, p. 42.

  [Sidenote: TRIBES NEAR THE MISSION DOLORES.]

The following names of rancherías which formerly existed in the vicinity
of the Mission Dolores, are taken from the Mission Books: Abmoctac,
Amutaja, Altanui, Aleytac, Anchin, Aleta, Aramay, Altajumo, Aluenchi,
Acnagis, Assunta, Atarpe, Anamás, Acyum, Anamon, Cachanegtac, Caprup,
Cazopo, Carascan, Conop, Chutchin, Chagunte, Chapugtac, Chipisclin,
Chynau, Chipletac, Chuchictac, Chiputca, Chanigtac, Churmutcé, Chayen,
Chupcan, Elarroyde, Flunmuda, Génau, Guloismistac, Gamchines, Guanlen,
Hunctu, Halchis, Horocroc, Huimen, Itáes, Juniamuc, Josquigard, Juchium,
Juris, Joquizará, Luidneg, Luianeglua, Lamsim, Livangelva, Livangebra,
Libantone, Macsinum, Mitliné, Malvaitac, Muingpe, Naig, Naique, Napa,
Ompivromo, Ousint, Oturbe, Olestura, Otoacte, Petlenum, or Petaluma,
Pruristac, Puichon, Puycone, Patnetac, Pructaca, Purutea, Proqueu, Quet,
Sitlintaj, Suchni, Subchiam, Siplichiquin, Siscastac, Ssiti, Sitintajea,
Ssupichum, Sicca, Soisehme, Saturaumo, Satumuo, Sittintac, Ssichitca,
Sagunte, Ssalayme, Sunchaque, Ssipudca, Saraise, Sipanum, Sarontac,
Ssogereate, Sadanes, Tuzsint, Tatquinte, Titmictac, Tupuic, Titiyú,
Timita, Timsim, Tubisuste, Timigtac, Torose, Tupuinte, Tuca, Tamalo, or
Tomales, Talcan, Totola, Urebure, Uturpe, Ussete, Uchium, Véctaca,
Vagerpe, Yelamú, Yacmui, Yacomui, Yajumui, Zomiomi, Zucigin ...
Aguasajuchium, Apuasto, Aguasto, Carquin, (Karquines), Cuchian, Chaclan,
Chiguau, Cotejen, Chuscan, Guylpunes, Huchun, Habasto, Junatca, Jarquin,
Sanchines, Oljon, Olpen, Olemos, Olmolococ, Quemelentus, Quirogles,
Salzon, Sichican, Saucon, Suchigin, Sadan, Uquitinac, Volvon (or
Bolbon). 'The tribes of Indians upon the Bay of San Francisco, and who
were, after its establishment, under the supervision of the Mission of
Dolores, were five in number; the Ahwashtees, Ohlones (called in Spanish
Costanos, or Indians of the Coast), Altahmos, Romanons, and Tuolomos.
There were, in addition to these, a few small tribes, but all upon the
land extending from the entrance to the head of San Francisco Bay, spoke
the same language.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _May 31, 1861_. The
tribes mentioned by Adam Johnston in Schoolcraft, who lived around the
Missions of Dolores and Yerba Buena, were the 'Ahwashtes, Ohlones,
Altahmos, Romanans, and Tulomos. The Ohlones were likely the same called
by the old priests, Sulones, Solomnies, the Sonomis were another.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 506. 'The following races of
Californians were named to us living within the precincts of the Mission
of San Francisco; Guymen, Utschim, Olumpali, Soclan, Sonomi, Chulpun,
Umpin, Kosmitas, Bulbones, Tchalabones, Pitem, Lamam, Apalamu,
Tcholoones, Suysum, Numpali, Tamal, and Ululato.' _Chamisso_, in
_Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 51. 'On compte dans cette seul mission
(San Francisco) plus de quinze différentes tribus d'Indiens: les
Khoulpouni; les Oumpini; les Kosmiti; les Lamanès; les Bolbonès; les
Pitemèns; les Khalalons; les Apatamnès, ils parlent la même langue et
habitent le long des bords du Rio Sacramento; les Guimen; les
Outchioung; les Olompalis; les Tamals; les Sonons ils parlent la même
langue; ces tribus sont les plus nombreuses dans la mission de San
Francisco; les Saklans; les Ouloulatines; les Noumpolis; les Souissouns;
ils parlent des langues différentes.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, pt. iii.,
pp. 5, 6. 'California Indians on the Bay of San Francisco, and formerly
under the supervisions of the Mission Dolores. There were five tribes:
Ashwashtes, Olhones (called by the Spaniards Costanos, or Indians of the
coast), Altahmos, Romonans, and Tulomos. A few other small tribes round
the bay speak the same language.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 53. 'Um die
Bai von San Francisco die Matalánes, Salses und Quiróles, deren
Sprachen, eine gemeinsame Quelle haben.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, vol.
ii., pt. ii., p. 454. The Olchones 'inhabit the seacoast between San
Francisco and Monterey.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 78. The
Salsonas, 'viven unas seis leguas distantes rumbo al Sueste (of San
Francisco Bay) por las cercanias del brazo de mar.' _Palou_, _Vida de
Junípero Serra_, p. 214.

The _Korekins_ formerly lived at the mouth of the San Joaquin.
_Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 141.

'The rancherias of Indians near this Mission, all within eight or ten
miles of Santa Cruz, ... were: Aulintac, the rancheria proper to the
Mission; Chalumü, one mile north-west of the Mission; Hottrochtac, two
miles north-west; ... Wallanmai; Sio Cotchmin; Shoremee; Onbi; Choromi;
Turami; Payanmin; Shiuguermi; Hauzaurni. The Mission also had neophytes
of the rancherias of Tomoy, Osacalis (Souquel), Yeunaba, Achilla,
Yeunata, Tejey, Nohioalli, Utalliam, Locobo, Yeunator, Chanech, Huocom,
Chicutae, Aestaca, Sachuen, Hualquilme, Sagin, Ochoyos, Huachi, Apil,
Mallin, Luchasmi, Coot, and Agtism, as detailed in a letter from Friar
Ramon Olbez to Governor de Sola, in November, 1819, in reply to a
circular from him, as to the native names, etc., of the Indians of Santa
Cruz, and their rancherias.' _Cal. Farmer_, _April 5, 1860_.

The _Mutsunes_ are the natives of the Mission of San Juan Baptista.
_Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 23_, and _June 22, 1860_; _Hist. Mag._, vol. i., p.
205.

The _Ansaymas_ lived in the vicinity of San Juan Bautista. _Cal.
Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. 'Four leagues (twelve miles) southeast of the
Mission (Monterey), inside the hills eastward, was the rancheria of
Echilat, called San Francisquita. Eslanagan was one on the east side of
the river and Ecgeagan was another; another was Ichenta or San Jose;
another Xaseum in the Sierra, ten leagues from Carmelo; that of
Pachhepes was in the vicinity of Xaseum, among the Escellens. That of
the Sargentarukas was seven leagues south and east of the river in a
Canaditta de Palo Colorado.' _Cal. Farmer_, _April 20, 1860_.

The _Runsienes_ live near Monterey. _Cal. Farmer_, _April 20, 1860_. The
Rumsen or Runsienes are 'Indians in the neighbourhood of Monterey,
California. The Achastliers speak a dialect of the same language.'
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 163. 'Um den Hafen von Monterey leben die
Rumsen oder Runsien, die Escelen oder Eslen, die Ecclemáches, und
Achastliés.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 454. 'La
partie septentrionale de la Nouvelle-Californie est habitée par les deux
nations des Rumsen et Escelen.... Elles forment la population du preside
et du village de Monterey. Dans la baie de S. Francisco, on distingue
les tribus des Matalans, Salsen et Quirotes.' _Humboldt_, _Pol._, p.
321. 'Eslen y Runsien que ocupan toda la California septentrional.'
_Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 167. 'Um Monterey wohnen zwey Völker ...
die Rumsen, und im Osten von diesen die Escelen.' _Vater_,
_Mithridates_, p. 202. 'The Eslenes clan roamed over the present ranchos
San Francisquito, Tallarcittos, and up and down the Carmelo Valley.'
'The rancheria _per se_ of the Escellens was named by the priests, Santa
Clara; Soccorondo was across the river a few miles. Their other little
clans or septs were called Coyyo, Yampas, Fyules, Nennequi, Jappayon,
Gilimis, and Yanostas.' _Cal. Farmer_, _April 20, 1860_. The Eskelens
are 'California Indians, east of Monterey. The Ekklemaches are said to
be a tribe of the Eskelen, and to speak the richest idiom of all the
California Indians.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 68. The country of the
Ecclemachs extends more than twenty leagues east of Monterey. _Cal.
Farmer_, _Oct. 17, 1862_.

The _Katlendarucas_ seem 'to have been situated near the Esteros or
Lagoons about the mouth of the Salinas river, or in the words of the old
priest, "en los Esteros de la entrada al mar del Rio de Monterey, o
reversa de esta grande Ensenada." Their rancherias were Capanay,
Lucayasta, Paysim, Tiubta, Culul, Mustac, Pytogius, Animpayamo,
Ymunacam, and all on the Pajaro river, or between it and the Salinas.'
_Cal. Farmer_, _April 20, 1860_; _MS. Map_.

The _Sakhones_ had rancherias near Monterey 'on the ranchos now known as
Loucitta, Tarro, National Buena Esperanza, Buena Vista, and lands of
that vicinity.' _Ib._; _MS. Map_.

'The _Wallalshimmez_ live on Tuolumne River.' _Lewis_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1857, p. 399.

'The _Potoancies_ claim the Merced river as their homes.' _Ib._ The
Potaaches occupy the same region on the _MS. Map_.

'The _Nootchoos_ ... live on the headwaters of Chowchilla.' _Lewis_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 399. The Nootchoos live on the south fork of
the Merced. _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 325.

'The _Pohoneeches_ live on the headwaters of Fresno.' _Lewis_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 399. The Pohoneeches live on the north bank of the
Fresno. _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 325.

The _Pitcatches_, the _Tallenches_, and the _Coswas_, live on the San
Joaquin. _Lewis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 399.

  [Sidenote: KING'S RIVER AND TULARE LAKE TRIBES.]

'The _Wattokes_, a nation of Indians, consisting of the Wattokes,
Ituchas, Chokemnies, and Wechummies, live high up on King's river.'
_Lewis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 399.

The _Watches_, the _Notonotoos_, and the _Wemelches_, live in the
neighborhood of King's River Farm. _Ib._

'The _Talches_ and Woowells live on Tulare Lake.' _Ib._

The _Chowchillas_, _Choocchancies_, and _Howachez_, are mentioned as
living at Fresno River Farm. _Id._, p. 399. The Chowchillas inhabit
'from the Kern River of the Tulare deltas to the Feather river.'
_Taylor_, in _Bancroft's Hand Book Almanac_, 1864, p. 32.

The _Wallas_ live in Tuolumne county. _Patrick_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1856, p. 240. There has been much discussion about the word Wallie, or
Walla. Powers asserts that it is derived from the word 'wallim,' which
means 'down below', and was applied by the Yosemite Indians to all
tribes living below them. The Wallies live on the Stanislaus and
Tuolumne. _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 325.

The Mewahs live in Tuolumne county. _Jewett_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1856, p. 244.

The _Meewoc_ nation 'extended from the snow-line of the Sierra to the
San Joaquin River, and from the Cosumnes to the Fresno.... North of the
Stanislaus they call themselves Meewoc (Indians); south of it, to the
Merced, Meewa; south of that to the Fresno, Meewie. On the upper Merced
river is Wakâlla; on the upper Tuolumne, Wakalumy; on the Stanislaus
and Mokelumne, Wakalumytoh.... As to tribal distribution, the Meewocs
north of the Stanislaus, like the Neeshenams, designate principally by
the points of the compass. These are toomun, choomuch, háyzooit, and
ólowit (north, south, east, and west), from which are formed various
tribal names--as Toomuns, Toomedocs, and Tamolécas, Choomuch, Choomwits,
Choomedocs, or Chimedocs, and Choomtéyas; Olowits, Olówedocs, Oloweéyas,
etc. Olówedocs is the name applied to all Indians living on the plains,
as far west as Stockton. But there are several names which are employed
absolutely, and without any reference to direction. On the south bank of
the Cosumnes are the Cawnees; on Sutter Creek, the Yulónees; on the
Stanislaus and Tuolumne the extensive tribe of Wallies; in Yosemite, the
Awánees, on the south fork of Merced, the Nootchoos; on the middle
Merced, the Choomtéyas, on the upper Chowchilla, the Héthtoyas; on the
middle Chowchilla the tribe that named the stream; and on the north bank
of the Fresno the Pohoneechees.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.
x., pp. 322-5; _MS. Map_.

The _Coitch_ tribe live one hundred and fifty miles east of the Vegas of
Santa Clara. _Los Angeles Star_, _May 18, 1861_.

The _Notonatos_ lived on King's river. _Maltby's MS. Letter._

The _Kahweahs_ lived on Four Creeks. _Ib._

The _Yolanchas_ lived on Tule river. _Ib._

The _Pokoninos_ lived on Deer creek. _Ib._

The _Poloyamas_ lived on Pasey creek. _Ib._

The _Polokawynahs_ lived on Kern river. _Ib._

The _Ymithces_ and _Cowiahs_ live on Four Creeks. _Henley_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 303.

The _Waches_, _Notoowthas_, _Ptolmes_, and _Chunemnes_ live on King
river. _Ib._

The _Costrowers_, _Pitiaches_, _Talluches_, _Loomnears_ and _Amonces_
live on the San Joaquin. _Id._, p. 304.

The _Chowclas_, _Chookchaneys_, _Phonechas_, _Nookchues_, and
_Howetsers_, live on the Fresno river. _Ib._

The _Coconoons_ live on the Merced river. _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 413.

The _Monos_ living west of the Sierra Nevada, live on Fine Gold Gulch
and the San Joaquin river. _Ib._ East of the Sierra Nevada they occupy
the country south of Mono Lake. _MS. Map._ 'The Monos, Cosos, and some
other tribes, occupy the eastern <DW72>s of the Sierra Nevadas.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _May 8, 1863_. 'The Olanches, Monos, Siqiurionals, Wasakshes,
Cowhuillas, Chokiamauves, Tenisichs, Yocolles, Paloushiss, Wikachumnis,
Openoches, Taches, Nutonetoos and Choemimnees, roamed from the Tuolumne
to Kings river and the Tejon, on the east of the San Joaquin, the Tulare
lakes and in the Sierra Nevada, as stated by Lieut. Beale, in 1856.'
_Cal. Farmer_, _June 8, 1860_.

The _Tulareños_ live in the mountain wilderness of the Four Creeks,
Porsiuncula (or Kerns or Current) river and the Tejon; and wander thence
towards the headwaters of the Mohave and the neighborhood of the
Cahuillas. Their present common name belongs to the Spanish and Mexican
times and is derived from the word Tularé (a swamp with flags). _Hayes'
MS._ 'Tulareños, Habitant la grande vallée de los Tulares de la
Californie.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 335.

'The _Yocut_ dominion includes the Kern and Tulare basins and the middle
of San Joaquin, stretching from Fresno to Kern River Falls.' _Powers_,
in _Overland Monthly_, vol. xi., p. 105.

Cumbatwas on Pitt river. _Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._

Shastas, in Shasta and Scott valleys. _Ib._


  [Sidenote: SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS.]

The SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory lies south of the
thirty-fifth parallel, are, as far as is known, tribally distributed as
follows:

The _Cahuillos_ 'inhabit principally a tract of country about eighty
miles east from San Bernardino, and known as the Cabeson Valley, and
their villages are on or near the road leading to La Paz on the Colorado
River.... Another branch of this tribe numbering about four hundred
occupy a tract of country lying in the mountains about forty miles
southeast from San Bernardino, known as the Coahuila Valley.' _Stanley_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, pp. 194-5. 'The Coahuillas are scattered
through the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains and eastward in the
Cabesan Valley.' _Whiting_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 691. The
Coahuilas live in the San Jacinto Mountains. _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 17. The Cohuillas reside in the northern half of the
country, commencing on the coast, and extending to within fifty miles of
the Colorado river, following the eastern base of the mountains. _San
Francisco Herald_, _June, 1853_. The Cahuillos or Cawios reside 'near
the Pacific, between the sources of the San Gabriel and Santa Anna.'
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 26. 'The Cahuillas are a little to the north
of the San Luiseños, occupying the mountain ridges and intervening
valleys to the east and southeast of Mount San Bernadino, down towards
the Mohava river and the desert that borders the river Colorado, the
nation of Mohavas lying between them and these rivers. I am unable just
now to give the number and names of all their villages. San Gorgonio,
San Jacinto, Coyote, are among those best known, though others even
nearer the desert, are more populous.' _Hayes' MS._ The Cohuillas occupy
the southwestern part of San Bernardino County, and the northwestern
part of San Diego county. _MS. Map._ 'The Carvilla Indians occupy the
Country from San Gorgonio Pass to the Arroyo Blanco.' _Cram's Topog.
Memoir_, p. 119. 'The _Cowillers_ and _Telemnies_ live on Four Creeks.'
_Id._, p. 400. 'The limits of the Kahweyah and Kahsowah tribes appear to
have been from the Feather river in the northern part of the State, to
the Tulare lakes of the south.' _Cal. Farmer_, _May 25, 1860_.

The _Diegeños_ 'are said to occupy the coast for some fifty miles above,
and about the same distance below San Diego, and to extend about a
hundred miles into the interior.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii. The Dieguinos are in the southern part
of San Diego County, and extend from the coast to the desert. _Henley_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 240. The Dieguinas reside in the southern
part of the country watered by the Colorado, and claim the land from a
point on the Pacific to the eastern part of the mountains impinging on
the desert. _San Francisco Herald_, _June, 1853_. The Comeyas or
Diegenos 'occupy the coast for some fifty miles above, and about the
same distance below San Diego, and extend about a hundred miles into
the interior.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 7. 'The Indians
round San Diego, Deguinos, Diegeños, were in a savage state, and their
language almost unknown. Bartlett says that they are also called Comeya;
but Whipple asserts that the Comeya, a tribe of the Yumas, speak a
different language.' _Ludewig_, _Ab. Lang._, p. 62. On page 220 Ludewig
says that as the name Diegeños means the Indians round San Diego, there
is no such name as Deguinos. 'The villages of the Dieguinos, wherever
they live separately, are a little to the south of the Cahuillas.
Indeed, under this appellation they extend a hundred miles into Lower
California, in about an equal state of civilization, and thence are
scattered through the Tecaté valley over the entire desert on the west
side of New River.... Their villages known to me are San Dieguito (about
twenty souls), San Diego Mission, San Pasqual, Camajal (two villages),
Santa Ysabel, San José, Matahuay, Lorenzo, San Felipe, Cajon, Cuyamaca,
Valle de las Viejas.' _Hayes' MS._

The _Missouris_ 'are scattered over San Bernardino, San Diego and other
counties in the southern part of the State.' _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 17.

The _Kechi_ inhabit the country about Mission San Luis Rey. _Bartlett's
Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 92.

The _Chumas_, or _Kachumas_ live three miles from the Mission of Santa
Inez. _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 18, 1861_.

_Los Cayotes_ was the name given by the Spaniards to the tribe which
originally inhabited San Diego county. _Hoffman_, in _San Francisco
Medical Press_, vol. v., p. 147.

The _New River Indians_ 'live along New River, sixty miles west from
Fort Yuma, and near San Diego.' _Jones_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p.
216.

The _Sierras_, or Caruanas, the _Lagunas_, or Tataguas, and the
_Surillos_ or Cartakas are mentioned as living on the Tejon reservation.
_Wentworth_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, pp. 324-6.

The _Serranos_ lived in the vicinity of San Bernardino. _Reid_, in _Los
Angeles Star, Letter I._, in _Hayes Col._

Mr Taylor claims to have discovered the exact positions of many of the
places mentioned. His statement, for the accuracy of which I by no means
vouch, is as follows: 'Xucu, or Shucu, on the Ortega farm, near Rincon
Point; Missisissepono on Rafel Gonzale's rancho on Saticoy river, near
sea, sometimes called Pono; Coloc, near Carpentaria beach. Mugu, below
Saticoy some thirty miles, near the sea; Anacbuc or Anacarck, near the
islet of La Patera, near the sea shore. Partocac or Paltocac, the Indian
cemetery on the Mesa of La Patera, near sea; Aguin at the beach of Los
Llagos Canada; Casalic, at the Refugio Playa and Canada; Tucumu or playa
of Arroyo Honda. Xocotoc, Cojo, or Cojotoc, near Pt. Concepcion; Pt.
Concepcion, Cancac or Caacac, or Cacat.' _Cal. Farmer_, _Aug. 21, 1863_.

  [Sidenote: SOUTHERN MISSION INDIANS.]

The following names of rancherías were taken from the archives of the
various missions; in the vicinity of La Purissima: Lajuchu, Silimastus,
Sisolop, Jlaacs, or Slacus, Huasna, Estait, Esmischue, Ausion,
Esnispele, Silisne, Sacspili, Estait, Huenejel, Husistaic, Silimi,
Suntaho, Alacupusyuen, Espiiluima, Tutachro, Sisolop, Naila, Tutachro,
Paxpili, or Axpitil, Silino, Lisahuato, Guaslaique, Pacsiol, Sihimi,
Huenepel Ninyuelgual, Lompoc, Nahuey, or Nahajuey, Sipuca, Stipu,
Ialamma, Huasna, Sacsiol, Kachisupal, Salachi, Nocto, Fax, Salachi,
Sitolo, or Sautatho, Omaxtux. Near Santa Inez, were: Sotomoenu,
Katahuac, Asiuhuil, Situchi, Kulahuasa, Sisuchi, Kuyam, or Cuyama,
Ionata, Tekep, Kusil, Sanchu, Sikitipuc, Temesathi, Lujanisuissilac,
Tapanissilac, Ialamne, Chumuchn, Suiesia, Chumuchu, Tahijuas, Tinachi,
Lompoe, Ionata, Aguama, Sotonoemu, Guaislac, Tequepas, Matiliha, Stucu,
Aketsum, or Kachuma, Ahuamhoue, Geguep, Achillimo, Alizway, Souscoc,
Talaxano, Nutonto, Cholicus. Near Santa Barbara were Guainnonost,
Sisabanonase, Huelemen, Inoje, Luijta, Cajpilili, Missopeno (Sopono),
Inajalayehua, Huixapa, Calahuassa, Snihuax, Huililoc, Yxaulo, Anijue,
Sisuch, Cojats, Numguelgar, Lugups, Gleuaxcuyu, Chiuchin, Ipec, Sinicon,
Xalanaj, Xalou, Sisahiahut, Cholosoc, Ituc, Guima, Huixapapa,
Eleunaxciay, Taxlipu, Elmian, Anajue, Huililic, Inajalaihu, Estuc,
Eluaxcu. Sihuicom, Liam. Some of these were from rancherias of the
valleys east of the range on the coast. Some of these Taylor locates as
follows: 'Janaya, above the Mission, Salpilil on the Patera; Aljiman,
near the windmill of La Patera; Geliec, near islet of La Patera;
Tequepes, in Santa Ynez Valley; Cascili, in the Refugio playa; Miguihui,
on the Dos Pueblos; Sisichii, in Dos Pueblos; Maschal, on Santa Cruz
Island; Gelo, the islet of La Patera; Cuyamu on Dos Pueblos also
Cinihuaj on same rancho; Coloc, at the Rincon; Alcax in La Goleta;
Allvatalama, near the La Goleta Estero; Sayokenek, on the Arroyo Burro;
Partocac Cemetery, near Sea Bluffs of La Goleta; Humaliju, of San
Fernando Mission; Calla Wassa and Anijue, of Santa Ynez Mission; Sajcay
in Los Cruces; Sasaguel, in Santa Cruz Island; Lucuyumu, in the same
Island, dated November, 1816; Nanahuani and Chalosas were also on same
Island; Eljman was on San Marcos, Xexulpituc and Taxlipu, were camps of
the Tulares.' _Cal. Farmer_, _Aug. 21, 1863_.

Near San Buenaventura Mission were: 'Miscanaka, name of the Mission
site. Ojai or Aujay, about ten miles up San Buenavent river. Mugu, on
the coast near sea on Guadalasca rancho, not far from the point so
called. Matillija up the S. B. river towards Santa Inez, which mission
also had Matilija Indians. The Matillija Sierra separates the valleys of
S. Buenaventa and S. Inez. Sespe was on the San Cayetano rancho of
Saticoy river, twenty miles from the sea. Mupu and Piiru were on the
arroyos of those names which came into the Saticoy near Sespe. Kamulas
was higher up above Piiru. Cayeguas (not a Spanish name as spelt on some
maps) on rancho of that name. Somes or Somo near hills of that name.
Malico, range of hills south of Somo. Chichilop, Lisichi, Liam, Sisa,
Sisjulcioy, Malahue, Chumpache, Lacayamu, Ypuc, Lojos Aogni, Luupsch,
Miguigui, and Chihucchihui were names of other rancherias.... Ishgua or
Ishguaget, was a rancheria near the mouth of the Saticoy river and not
far from the beach.... Hueneme was a rancheria on the ocean coast a few
miles south of Saticoy river. Tapo and Simi were rancherias on the
present Noriega rancho of Simi. Saticoy is the name of the existing
rancheria ... on the lower part of the Santa Paula or Saticoy rancho,
about eight miles from the sea, near some fine springs of water, not far
from the river, and near the high road going up the valleys.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _July 24, 1863_. 'The site of San Fernando was a rancheria
called Pasheckno. Other clans were Okowvinjha, Kowanga and Saway Yanga.
The Ahapchingas were a clan or rancheria between Los Angeles and San
Juan Capistrano, and enemies of the Gabrielenos or those of San
Gabriel.... The following are the names of the rancherias, or clans,
living in the vicinity of San Luis Rey Mission: Enekelkawa was the name
of one near the mission-site, Mokaskel, Cenyowpreskel, Itukemuk, Hatawa,
Hamechuwa, Itaywiy, Milkwanen, Ehutewa, Mootaeyuhew, and Hepowwoo, were
the names of others. At the Aquas Calientes was a very populous
rancheria, called Hakoopin.' _Id._, _May 11, 1860_.

In Los Angeles county, the following are the principal lodges or
rancherias, with their corresponding present local names: Yangna, Los
Angeles; Sibag-na, San Gabriel; Isanthcagna, Mision Vieja; Sisitcanogna,
Pear Orchard; Sonagna, Mr White's farm; Acuragua, The Presa; Asucsagna,
Azuza; Cucomogna, Cucamonga Farm; Pasinogna, Rancho del Chino; Awigna,
La Puente; Chokishgna, The Saboneria; Nacaugna, Carpenter's Farm;
Pineugna, Santa Catalina Island; Pimocagna, Rancho de los Ybarras;
Toybipet, San José; Hutucgna, Santa Ana (Yorbes); Aleupkigna, Santa
Anita; Maugna, Rancho de los Felis; Hahamogna, Rancho de los Verdugas;
Cabuegna, Caliuenga; Pasecgna, San Fernando; Houtgna, Ranchito de Lugo,
Suangna, Suanga; Pubugna, Alamitos; Tibahagna, Serritos; Chowig-na,
Palos Verdes; Kinkipar, San Clemente Island, Harasgna. _Reid_, in _Los
Angeles Star, Letter I._, in _Hayes Collection_.

The _San Luisieños_ inhabit the northern part of San Diego, from the
coast east, including the mountains. _Henley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1856, p. 240. 'The villages of the San Luiseños are in a section of
country adjacent to the Cahuillas, between 40 and 70 miles in the
mountainous interior from San Diego; they are known as Las Flores, Santa
Margarita, San Luis Rey Mission, Wahoma, Pala, Temecula, Ahuanga (two
villages), La Joya, Potrero, and Bruno's and Pedro's villages within
five or six miles of Aqua Caliente; they are all in San Diego County.'
_Hayes' MS._

The _Noches_ are settled along the rivers which flow between the
Colorado and the Pacific Ocean. _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 45.
Garces mentions the western Noches in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie ii., vol.
i., p. 299.

The _Tejon_ Indians were those who inhabited the southern part of Tulare
valley. _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, vol. i., p. 83.

The _Playanos_ were Indians who came to settle in the valley of San Juan
Capistrano. _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 249.


The SHOSHONES, whose territory spreads over south-eastern Oregon,
southern Idaho, and the whole of Utah and Nevada, extending into Arizona
and New Mexico, and the eastern border of California, I divide into two
great nations, the Snakes or Shoshones, proper, and the Utahs, with
their subdivisions. Wilson divides the Shoshones into the Shoshones and
Bannacks, and the Utahs; the latter he subdivides into seven bands,
which will be seen under Utahs. He adds: 'Among the Shoshonies there are
only two bands properly speaking. The principal or better portion are
called Shoshonies, or Snakes ... the others the Shoshocoes.... Their
claim of boundary is to the east, from the red Buttes on the North fork
of the Platte, to its head in the Park, Decayaque, or Buffalo Bull-pen,
in the Rocky Mountains; to the south across the mountains, over to the
Yanpapa, till it enters Green, or Colorado river, and then across to the
backbone or ridge of mountains called the Bear river mountains running
nearly due west towards the Salt Lake, so as to take in most of the Salt
Lake, and thence on to the sinks of Marry's or Humboldt's river; thence
north to the fisheries, on the Snake river, in Oregon; and thence south
(their northern boundary), to the Red Buttes, including the source of
Green River.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. vi., p. 697. 'Under various
names ... the great race of Shoshones, is found scattered over the
boundless wilderness, from Texas to the Columbia. Their territory is
bounded on the north and west by ... the Blackfeet and Crows.'
_Brownell's Ind. Races_, pp. 537-8.

  [Sidenote: THE SNAKES.]

The _Snakes_, or Shoshones proper, although they form a part only of the
great Shoshone family, are usually termed 'the Shoshones' by the
authorities. They are divided by Dr Hurt into 'Snakes, Bannacks,
Tosiwitches, Gosha Utes, and Cumumpahs, though he afterwards classes the
last two divisions as hybrid races between the Shoshones and the
Utahs.... The Shoshones claim the northeastern portion of the territory
for about four hundred miles west, and from one hundred to one hundred
and twenty-five miles south from the Oregon line.' _Simpson's Route to
Cal._, p. 46. 'The great Snake nation may be divided into three
divisions, namely, the Shirrydikas, or dog-eaters; the Wararereekas, or
fish-eaters; and the Banattees, or robbers. But, as a nation, they all
go by the general appellation of Shoshones, or Snakes.... The
Shirrydikas are the real Shoshones, and live in the plains hunting the
buffalo.' The country claimed by the Snake tribes 'is bounded on the
east by the Rocky Mountains, on the south by the Spanish waters; on the
Pacific, or west side, by an imaginary line, beginning at the west end,
or spur, of the Blue Mountains, behind Fort Nez Percés, and running
parallel with the ocean to the height of land beyond the Umpqua River,
in about north lat. 41° (this line never approaches within 150 miles of
the Pacific); and on the north by another line, running due east from
the said spur of the Blue Mountains, and crossing the great south
branch, or Lewis River, at the Dalles, till it strikes the Rocky
Mountains 200 miles north of the three pilot knobs, or the place
thereafter named the 'Valley of Troubles.'' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i.,
pp. 249, 251. 'They embrace all the territory of the Great South Pass,
between the Mississippi valley and the waters of the Columbia.... Under
the name of Yampatickara or Root-eaters and Bonacks they occupy with the
Utahs the vast elevated basin of the Great Salt Lake, extending south
and west to the borders of New Mexico and California.' _Brownell's Ind.
Races_, pp. 533-7, 540. 'The hunters report, that the proper country of
the Snakes is to the east of the Youta Lake, and north of the Snake or
Lewis river; but they are found in many detached places. The largest
band is located near Fort Boise, on the Snake river to the north of the
Bonacks.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 501. The
Shoshones 'occupy the centre and principal part of the great Basin.'
_Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 18, 1861_. 'Inhabit that part of the
Rocky Mountains which lies on the Grand and Green River branches of the
Colorado of the West, the valley of Great Bear River, the habitable
shores of the Great Salt Lake, a considerable portion of country on
Snake River above and below Fort Hall, and a tract extending two or
three hundred miles to the west of that post.' _Farnham's Trav._, p. 61.
The Shoshones inhabit about one third of the territory of Utah, living
north of Salt Lake 'and on the line of the Humboldt or Mary River, some
400 miles west and 100 to 125 south of the Oregon line. The Yuta claim
the rest of the territory between Kansas, the Sierra Nevada, New Mexico
and the Oregon frontier.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 575. 'Les
Soshonies, c'est-à-dire les déterreurs de racines, surnommés les
Serpents, ... habitent la partie méridionale du territoire de l'Orégon,
dans le voisinage de la haute Californie.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 24.
'Their country lies south-west of the south-east branch of the Columbia,
and is said to be the most barren of any part of the country in these
western regions.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 83. 'On the south part of
the Oregon Territory, adjoining upper California, are located the
Shoshones or Snake Indians.' _Ib._, p. 308. 'Serpents ou Saaptins,
Monquis, Bonacks et Youtas toutes les branches du Rio Colombia ou
Sud-Est et les environs du lac Salé an Timpanogos.' _Mofras_, _Explor._,
tom. ii., p. 335. 'The country of the Shoshonees proper is south of
Lewis or Snake River, and east of the Salt Lake. There is, however one
detached band, known as the Wihinasht, or Western Snakes, near Fort
Boirie, separated from the main body by the tribe of Bonnaks.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 219. 'The Shoshones are a
small tribe of the nation called Snake Indians, a vague denomination,
which embraces at once the inhabitants of the southern part of the Rocky
mountains, and of the plains on each side.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._,
p. 305. The Snakes or Shothoucs 'formerly occupied the whole of that
vast territory lying between the Rocky and the Blue Mountains, and
extending northward to the lower fork of the Columbia, and to the south
as far as the basin of the Great Salt Lake.' _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p.
275. 'They occupy southern and western Nevada.' _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 18. 'They inhabit the southern part of the Rocky
Mountains and the plains on each side.' _Bulfinch's Ogn._, p. 124. 'They
occupy all the country between the southern branches of Lewis's river,
extending from the Umatullum to the E. side of the Stony Mountains, on
the southern parts of Wallaumut river from about 40° to 47° N. Lat. A
branch of this tribe reside ... in spring and summer on the W. fork of
Lewis river, a branch of the Columbia, and in winter and fall on the
Missouri.' _Morse's Rept._, p. 369. 'The Shoshones dwell between the
Rocky and blue mountain ranges.' _Nicolay's Ogn. Ter._, p. 151. 'The
aboriginees of the Reese River country consist of the Shoshone nation,
divided into many subordinate tribes, each having a distinctive name,
and occupying a tract of country varying from 20 to 50 miles square.
Their country is bordered on the west by the Pi-Utes, the Edwards Creek
mountains some 20 miles west of Reese River, being the dividing line. On
the east it extends to Ruby Valley, where it joins on the territory of
the Goshoots, the Bannocks being their neighbors on the northeast.'
_Cal. Farmer_, _June 26, 1863_. 'The Snake tribe, inhabit the country
bordering on Lewis and Bear Rivers, and their various tributaries.'
_Palmer's Jour._, p. 43. 'The Snake Indians, who embrace many tribes,
inhabit a wide extent of country at the head of Snake River above and
below Fort Hall, and the vicinity of Great Bear River and Great Salt
Lake. They are a migratory race, and generally occupy the south-eastern
portion of Oregon.' _Dunn's Ogn._, p. 325. The Shoshones inhabit the
great plains to the southward of the Lewis River. _Cox's Adven._, vol.
ii., p. 143. The Shoshones occupy 'almost the whole eastern half of the
State (Nevada). The line separating them from the Pai-Utes on the east
and south is not very clearly defined.' _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1866, p. 114. 'The western bands of Shoshones ... range from the Idaho
boundary north, southward to the thirty-eighth parallel; their western
limit is the line passing through the Sunatoya Mountains; their eastern
limit Steptoe and Great Salt Lake Valleys.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p.
95. The Snakes inhabit 'the plains of the Columbia between the 43d and
44th degrees of latitude.' _Franchère's Nar._, p. 150. The Washakeeks or
Green River Snakes inhabit the country drained by Green River and its
tributaries. The Tookarikkahs, or mountain sheep-eaters, 'occupy the
Salmon river country and the upper part of Snake River Valley, and
Coiners' Prairie, near the Boise mines.' These two bands are the genuine
Snakes; other inferior bands are the Hokandikahs or Salt Lake Diggers
who 'inhabit the region about the great lake.' The Aggitikkahs or
Salmon-eaters who 'occupy the region round about Salmon falls, on Snake
river.' _Stuart's Montana_, p. 80.

  [Sidenote: BANNACKS AND UTAHS.]

'The _Bannacks_, who are generally classed with the Snakes, inhabit the
country south of here, (Powder River) in the vicinity of Harney lake....
The Winnas band of Snakes inhabit the country north of Snake river, and
are found principally on the Bayette, Boise, and Sickley rivers.'
_Kirkpatrick_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, pp. 267-8. The Bonacks
'inhabit the country between Fort Boise and Fort Hall.' _Wilkes' Nar._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 502. They 'inhabit the southern borders
of Oregon, along the old Humboldt River emigrant road.' _Simpson's Route
to Cal._, p. 47. The Bonaks seem 'to embrace Indian tribes inhabiting a
large extent of country west of the Rocky Mountains. As the name
imports, it was undoubtedly given to that portion of Indians who dig and
live on the roots of the earth.' _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iv., p. 221. The Bonaks inhabit 'the banks of that part of Saptin
or Snake River which lies between the mouth of Boisais or Reeds River
and the Blue Mountains.' _Farnham's Trav._, p. 76. The Bonax inhabit the
country west of the Lewis fork of the Columbia between the forty-second
and forty-fourth parallels. _Parker's Map._ The Bannacks range through
northern Nevada, and into Oregon and Idaho. _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 18. They 'claim the southwestern portions of Montana as
their land.' _Sully_, in _Id._, p. 289. 'This tribe occupies most of
that portion of Nevada north of the forty-first degree of north
latitude, with the southeastern corner of Oregon and the southwestern
corner of Idaho.' _Parker_, in _Id._, 1866, p. 114. The Bannocks drift
'from Boise City to the game country northeast of Bozeman, Montana, and
south as far as Fort Bridger, Wyoming Territory ... traveling from
Oregon to East of the Rocky Mountains.' _High_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1872, pp. 272-3.

  [Sidenote: UTAHS.]

The _Utah_ nation occupies all that portion of the territory assigned to
the Shoshone family lying south of the Snakes, between the country of
the Californians proper, and the Rocky Mountains. It is divided into
several tribes, the number varying with different authorities. Wilson
divides the Utah nation into seven tribes; viz., the 'Taos, Yampapas,
Ewinte, Tenpenny Utahs, Parant Utahs, Sampiches, Pahmetes.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. vi., p. 697. 'Besides the Parawat Yutas, the
Yampas, 200-300 miles south, on the White River; the Tebechya, or
sun-hunters, about Tête de Biche, near Spanish lands; and the Tash Yuta,
near the Navajos; there are scatters of the nation along the Californian
road from Beaver Valley, along the Santa Clara, Virgen, Las Vegas, and
Muddy Rivers, to New Mexico.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 578.
'The tribes of Utah Territory are: Utahs at large, Pi Utahs, roving,
Uwinty Utahs, Utahs of Sampitch Valley, Utahs of Carson Valley, Utahs of
Lake Sevier and Walker River, Navahoes and Utahs of Grand River,
Shoshonees, or Snakes proper, Diggers on Humboldt River, Eutahs of New
Mexico.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 498. The Utahs are composed
of several bands, the most important of which are the Timpanogs who
'range through Utah valley and the mountains adjoining the valley on the
east.... The Uintahs, the principal band of the Utahs, ... range through
Uintah valley and the Green River country.... The Pah Vants ... range
through Pah Vant and Sevier valleys and west to the White mountains.'
_Irish_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 145. 'The Yutah nation is very
numerous, and is also made up of many bands, which are to be
distinguished only by their names.... Four of these bands called
Noaches, Payuches, Tabiachis and Sogup, are accustomed to occupy lands
within the province of New Mexico, or very near it, to the north and
northeast.' _Whipple, Ewbank, & Turner's Rept._, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii. 'The Utahs are divided into three bands--Mohuaches, Capotes,
and Nomenuches or Poruches.' _Delgado_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p.
163; see also pp. 17, 18. 'The Ute tribe Dr. Hurt divides into the Pah
Utahs, Tamp Pah-Utes, Cheveriches, Pah Vants, San Pitches, and Pyedes.
The Utahs proper inhabit the waters of Green River, south of Green River
Mountains, the Grand River and its tributaries and as far south as the
Navajo country. They also claim the country bordering on Utah Lake and
as far south as the Sevier Lake.' _Simpson's Route to Cal._, p. 44. 'The
Utahs are a separate and distinct tribe of Indians, divided into six
bands, each with a head chief, as follows: The Menaches ... the Capotes
... the Tabe-naches ... the Cibariches ... the Tempanahgoes ... the
Piuchas.' _Graves_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 178. 'The Yutahs are
subdivided into four great bands: the Noaches, the Payuches (whom we
believe to be identical with the Paï Utahs), the Tabiachis, and the
Sogups, who live in perfect harmony on the north eastern confines of New
Mexico, and at a distance of 500 miles to the south of the great tribe
of the Zuguaganas.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 8. The Utes are
'those ... which inhabit the vicinity of the lakes and streams and live
chiefly on fish, being distinguished by the name of Pah Utahs or Pah
Utes, the word Pah, in their language signifying water.' _Stansbury's
Rept._, p. 148. 'The country of the Utaws is situated to the east and
southeast of the Soshonees, at the sources of the Rio Colorado.' _De
Smet's Letters_, p. 39. 'The Youtas live between the Snake and Green
Rivers.' _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 430. 'The Utahs of New
Mexico are a portion of the tribe of the same name inhabiting the
Territory of Utah.... They inhabit and claim all that region of country,
embracing the sources of the north-western tributaries of the Arkansas
river, above Bent's fort, up to the southern boundary of Utah Territory,
and all the northern tributaries of the Rio Grande, which lie within
New Mexico and north of the 37th parallel of latitude.' _Merriwether_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 169. The Utes 'occupy and claim that
section of country ranging from Abiquin, northward to Navajo River and
westward somewhat of this line.' _Davis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p.
255. The Eutaws 'reside on both sides of the Eutaw or Anahuac mountains,
they are continually migrating from one side to the other.' _Farnham's
Trav._, p. 48. 'The Youtas inhabit the country between the Snake and
Green rivers.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. iv., p. 502.
'The Utahs' claim of boundaries are all south of that of the Shoshonies,
embracing the waters of the Colorado, going most probably to the Gulf of
California.' _Wilson_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. vi., p. 698. The
country of the Utaws 'is situated to the east and southeast of the
Shoshones, about the Salt Lake, and on the head waters of the Colorado
river, which empties into the gulf of California.... Their country being
in latitude about 41°.' 'The Utaws are decent in appearance and their
country, which is towards Santa Fe, is said to be tolerably good.'
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 79, 309. The Yutas, Utaws, or Youtas,
'range between lat. 35° and 42° North and the Meridians 29° and 37° W.
Long. of Washington. The great Yutas tribe is divided into two families
which are contradistinguished by the names of their respective
head-quarters; the Tao Yutas, so called because their principal camp is
pitched in Tao mountains, seventy miles north of Santa Fé; and the
Timpanigos Yutas, who hold their great camp near the Timpanigos lake.'
_Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 371. 'Um den Fluss Dolóres haben die Yutas,
Tabeguáchis, Payúches und Tularénos ihre Wohnsitze.' _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 538. The Utahs live 'on the border of
New Mexico.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 196. 'Le pays des Utaws est situé
à l'est et au sud-est de celui des Soshonies, aux sources du
Rio-Colorado.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 30. 'The Yutas or Eutaws are one of
the most extensive nations of the West, being scattered from the north
of New Mexico to the borders of Snake river and Rio Colorado.' _Gregg's
Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 300.

The _Pah Utes_ occupy the greater part of Nevada, and extend southward
into Arizona and south-eastern California. There is reason to believe
that the Pi Utes are a distinct tribe from the Pah Utes, but as the same
localities are frequently assigned to both tribes by different writers,
and as many have evidently thought them one and the same, thereby
causing great confusion, I have thought it best to merely give the names
as spelled by the authorities without attempting to decide which tribe
is being spoken of in either case. The Pah-Utes 'range principally in
the southwestern portion of Utah and the southeastern portion of
Nevada.' _Head_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 124. The Pah Utes 'are
spread over the vast tract of territory, between the Sierra Nevada and
the Colorado River, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, and
extending to the northward through California and Nevada into Southern
Oregon and Idaho.' _Colyer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 92. The
Pah-Utes inhabit the western part of Nevada. _Walker_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1872, p. 59. The Pah Utes and Pah Edes range over all that part
of Utah south of the city of Filmore in Millard County. _Head_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1868, p. 150. 'The term Pah Utes is applied to a very large
number of Indians who roam through that vast section of country lying
between the Sierra Nevada and the Colorado, going as far south as the
thirty-fifth parallel, and extending to the northward through
California, Nevada, into Southern Oregon and Idaho. The Indians of this
tribe in Arizona are located in the Big Bend of the Colorado, on both
sides of the river, and range as far east as Diamond River, west to the
Sierra Nevada, and northward into the State of Nevada.' _Jones_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 216. The Pah Utes 'properly belong in Nevada
and Arizona, but range over in southwestern Utah.' _Irish_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 146. The Pah-Utes 'range principally from the
borders of Oregon, on the north, to the southeast boundary of Nevada,
and from the Sierra Nevada eastward to the Humboldt River and Sink of
Carson; there are one or two small bands of them still further east,
near Austin, Nevada. They are much scattered within these limits.'
_Douglas_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, pp. 94-5. 'The Pah-utes roam
along the eastern <DW72>s of the Sierra Nevada, from the mouth of the
Virgin with the Colorado (in about lat. 36° long. 115°) to the
territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier Lake
country of Fremont's explorations.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. 'The
Pa-utahs, and Lake Utahs occupy the territory lying south of the Snakes,
and upon the waters of the Colorado of the west and south of the Great
Salt Lake.' _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 179. The Pá Yuta (Pey Utes)
'extend from forty miles west of Stony Point to the Californian line,
and N.W. to the Oregon line, and inhabit the valley of the Fenelon
River, which rising from Lake Bigler empties itself into Pyramid Lake.'
_Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 576. 'The Womenunche (also known as
the Pa Uches) occupy the country on the San Juan river.' _Collins_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, p. 238. 'The custom of designating the
different bands of Pah Utes is derived from the name of some article of
food not common in other localities; "Ocki," signifies "trout," "toy,"
"tule," &c. The Ocki Pah Utes ... are located on Walker River and Lake,
and the mountains adjacent thereto. The Cozaby Pah Utes ... range from
Mono Lake east to Smoky Valley.' _Campbell_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870,
pp. 112-13. The Pah Utes extend, 'over portions of Utah and Arizona
Territories, also the States of Nevada and California. _Fenton_, in
_Id._, p. 113.

The Chemehuevis are a band of Pah-Utahs. _Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept._, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 76. The
Chimehuevais live about forty miles below the Colorado River agency, on
the California side of the river, and are scattered over an area of
fifty square miles. _Tonner_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1872, p. 323. The
Chemehuewas are 'located mainly on the west bank of the Colorado, above
La Paz, and ranges along the river from about thirty miles south of Fort
Mohave, to a point fifty miles north of Fort Yuma, to the eastward, but
a short distance.' _Sherman_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 216. The
Chemehuevis live on the Colorado river, above the Bill Williams fork, a
small tribe and quite unknown. _Poston_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p.
387. The Chemehuevis are 'a band of Pahutahs, ... belonging to the great
Shoshonee family.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 35. 'The Chimchinves are
undoubtedly a branch of the Pah Ute tribe.' _Stanley_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1866, p. 102.

  [Sidenote: PI UTES AND GOSH UTES.]

The _Pi Utes_, or Pyutes, 'inhabit Western Utah, from Oregon to New
Mexico; their locations being generally in the vicinity of the principal
rivers and lakes of the Great Basin, viz., Humboldt, Carson, Walker,
Truckee, Owens's, Pyramid, and Mono.' _Simpson's Route to Cal._, p. 48.
'The tribe of Indians who inhabit this section (near Fort Churchill) of
which the post forms the centre comes under the one generic name of
Piute, and acknowledge as their great chief Winnemucca. They are split
up into small Captaincies and scattered throughout a vast extent of
territory.' _Farley_, in _San Francisco Medical Press_, vol. iii., p.
154. The Piutes or Paiuches inhabit 'the northern banks of the Colorado,
the region of Severe river, and those portions of the Timpanigos desert
where man can find a snail to eat.' _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 371.
The Piutes live 'along the eastern <DW72>s of the Sierra Nevada, from the
mouth of the Virgen with the Colorado (in about Lat. 36° Long. 115°) to
the territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier
Lake.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. 'Von 34° nordwärts
die Pai Utes.' _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, vol. i., p.
430. The territory occupied by the Piutes 'is about one hundred miles
broad, and is bounded on the north by the country of the Bannocks, on
the east by that of the Shoshones, on the south by the State line
between Nevada and California and on the west by the territory of the
Washoes.' _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 115. The Piutes
inhabit 'a country two hundred miles long by one hundred and twenty
broad, lying parallel and east of that of the Washoes.... South of
Walker lake are the Mono Pi Utes.... They are closely allied to the
Walker River or Ocki Pi Utes ... located in the vicinity of Walker river
and lake and Carson river and Upper lake.... At the lower Carson lake
are the Toy Pi Utes.' _Campbell_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 119.
'Upon the Colorado river, in the northern part of the Territory lives a
band, or some bands, of Pi Utes, occupying both sides of the river,
roaming to the limit of Arizona on the west, but on the east, for some
miles, how far cannot be determined.' _Whittier_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1868, p. 140. The Pi Ute 'range extends north to the Beaver, south to
Fort Mojave, east to the Little Colorado and San Francisco Mountains,
and on the west through the southern part of Nevada as far as the
California line ... the larger portion living in Nevada.' _Fenton_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 203. The Pi Utes inhabit the south-west
portion of Utah. _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 142.
'The Pi Ute Indians are scattered over a large extent of country in
Southeastern Nevada and Southwestern Utah.' _Powell_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1871, p. 562. The Pi Utes inhabit the south-eastern part of
Nevada. _Walker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1872, p. 59.

The _Gosh Utes_ inhabit the country west of Great Salt Lake, and extend
to the Pah Utes. They are said by most writers to be of mixed breed,
between the Snakes, or Shoshones proper, and the Utahs: 'The Goshautes
live about forty miles west' of Salt Lake City. _Forney_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1858, p. 212. The Goships, or Gosha Utes, range west of Salt
Lake. _Cooley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 17. The Goships 'range
between the Great Salt Lake and the land of the western Shoshones.'
_Head_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 123. The Goship Shoshones 'live
in the western part of Utah, between Great Salt Lake and the western
boundary of the Territory,' (Utah). _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 230. The Goshutes are located 'in the country in the
vicinity of Egan Cañon.... In the Shoshone range.' _Douglas_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 96. 'The Goship Shoshones inhabit that part of
Utah which lies between Great Salt Lake and the western boundary of the
Territory (Utah).' _Tourtellotte_, in _Id._, p. 141. The Goshoots 'Dr.
Hurt classes among the Shoshones; but according to Mr. G. W. Bean,
Capt. Simpson's Guide in the fall of 1858 ... they are the offspring of
a disaffected portion of the Ute tribe, that left their nation, about
two generations ago, under their leader or Chief Goship, whence their
name Goship Utes since contracted into Goshutes.... Reside principally
in the grassy valleys west of Great Salt Lake, along and in the vicinity
of Capt. Simpson's routes, as far as the Ungoweah Range.' _Simpson's
Route to Cal._, pp. 47-8. The Gosh Yutas, 'a body of sixty under a
peaceful leader were settled permanently on the Indian Farm at Deep
Creek, and the remainder wandered 40 to 200 miles west of Gt. S. L.
City.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 577.

The _Toquimas_ live about the head of Reese River Valley, and in the
country to the east of that point. _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 26,
1863_.

The _Temoksees_ live about thirty miles south of Jacobsville. _Cal.
Farmer_, _June 26, 1863._

The _Pah Vants_ 'occupy the Corn Creek, Paravan, and Beaver Valleys, and
the valley of Sevier.' _Simpson's Route to Cal._, p. 45. Half the
Pavants 'are settled on the Indian farm at Corn Creek; the other wing of
the tribe lives along Sevier Lake, and the surrounding country in the
north-east extremity of Filmore Valley, fifty miles from the City, where
they join the Gosh Yuta.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 577.
Although Mr Burton gives this as the fruit of his own observation, it is
evidently taken from _Forney's Rept._, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859, p.
364, which reads as follows: 'About half of them (the Pahvants) have
their home on the Corn Creek Indian farm. The other wing of the tribe
lives along Sevier lake and surrounding country, in the northeast
extremity of Fillmore valley, and about fifty miles from Fillmore city.'
The Pah Vants range 'through Pah-Vant and Sevier valleys, and west to
the White Mountains.' _Cooley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 17. 'The
Pahvents occupy the territory in the vicinity of Corn Creek reservation,
and south of the Goship Shoshones.' _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 230. 'The Pah Vant Indians inhabit the country south of
the Goship Shoshones.' _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p.
142.

The _Pi Edes_ 'are a band ranging through Beaver and Little Salt Lake
Valley, and on the Virgin and Santa Clara rivers, down to the Muddy,
embracing the whole southern portion of Utah Territory.' _Irish_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 145. 'The Py Edes live adjoining the
Pahvants, down to the Santa Clara.' _Simpson's Route to Cal._, p. 45.
'The Pi Ede Indians inhabit the country south of the Pah Vants.'
_Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 142. 'The Piede Indians
inhabit the extreme southern portion of the territory (Utah) on the
Santa Clara and Muddy rivers.' _Armstrong_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856,
p. 234. The Piede Indians live on Rio Virgin and Santa Clara river.
_Carvalho's Incid. of Trav._, p. 223.

  [Sidenote: WASHOES AND SAMPITCHES.]

The _Washoes_ 'inhabit the country along the base of the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, from Honey lake on the north to the west fork of Walker's
river the south.' _Dodge_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 374.
_Simpson's Route to Cal._, on p. 45, and _Burton's City of the Saints_,
p. 578, repeat this. The Washoes 'are stated to have boundaries as high
up as the Oregon line, along the eastern flanks of the Sierra Nevada, as
far to the east as two hundred miles and to the south to Walker's
river.' _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. The Washoes live in the extreme
western part of Nevada. _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 115.
'Commencing at the western boundary of the State, we have first the
Washoe tribe, ... occupying a tract of country one hundred miles long,
north and south, by twenty-five in width.' _Campbell_, in _Id._, p. 119.
The Washoes 'live along Lake Bigler and the headwaters of Carson,
Walker, and Truckee rivers, and in Long and Sierra Valleys.' _Wasson_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1861, p. 114. The _Washoes_ 'are scattered over a
large extent of country along the western border of the State' of
Nevada. _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 18. The Washoes
'frequent the settled portions of the State, principally the towns of
Virginia City, Carson City, Reno, Washoe City, and Genoa. In summer they
betake themselves to the mountains in the vicinity of Lake Tahoe and
Hope Valley.' _Douglas_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 96.

The _Sampitches_ 'range through the Sanpitch valley and creek on the
Sevier river.' _Irish_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 145. 'The
Sampiches are a tribe wandering on the desert to the south of Youta
Lake.' _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 430. Burton mentions
'Sampichyas' settled at San Pete. _City of the Saints_, p. 578. The San
Pitches 'live in the San Pitch valley and along the Sevier river.'
_Cooley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 18. 'The San Pitches occupy a
territory south and east of the Timpanagos.' _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1869. p. 230. 'The San Pitch Indians inhabit the country
about the San Pete reservation.' _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1870, p. 142. 'Les Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont les
plus proches voisins des Serpents.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 28.

The _Uinta Utes_ 'claim Uinta valley and the country along Green river.'
_Forney_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 364. The Uinta Yutas live 'in
the mountains south of Fort Bridger, and in the country along Green
River.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 577.

The _Yam Pah Utes_ 'inhabit the country south of the Uinta Valley
reservation.' _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 142; _Id._,
1869, p. 231.

The _Elk Mountain Utes_ live in the south-eastern portion of Utah.
_Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 142; _Burton's City of
the Saints_, p. 578. repeats.

The _Tosawees_ or White Knives, or as they are sometimes called
Shoshoteos or Foot-men, on the Humboldt and Goose Creek. _Stuart's
Montana_, p. 80. 'The Tosawitches, or White Knives, inhabit the region
along the Humboldt River.' _Simpson's Shortest Route_, p. 47. The
Indians about Stony Point are called Tosawwitches (white knives).
_Hurt_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856.

The _Weber Utes_ 'live in the valley of Salt Lake.' _Tourtellotte_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 230, also in _Id._, 1870, p. 141. The Weber
Utes live in the vicinity of Salt Lake City. _Walker_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1872, p. 56. The Weber River Yutas are principally seen in Great
Salt Lake City. Their chief settlement is forty miles to the north.
_Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 578.

The _Cum Umbahs_ 'are mixed-bloods of the Utes and Shoshonees, and range
in the region of Salt lake, Weber and Ogden valleys in northern Utah.'
_Irish_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 144.

The _Wimmenuches_ are 'a tribe of the Ute Indians, whose country is
principally from Tierra Amarilla northward to Ellos de los Animas and
thence also to the Rio Grande. They mix with the Pi Utes in Utah.'
_Davis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 255. The Wemenuche Utes 'roam
and hunt west of the San Juan River, and their lodges are to be found
along the banks of the Rio de las Animas, Rio de la Plata and Rio
Mancos.' _Hanson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 155. The Weminuche
Utes live near the San Juan river. _Armstrong_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1872, p. 307.

The _Capote Utes_ 'roam from within five to fifty miles of the agency,
but the greater part of the time live in the vicinity of Tierra
Amarilla, from five to ten miles distant, north and south along the Rio
Charmer.' _Hanson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 154; _Armstrong_, in
_Id._, 1870, p. 307.

'The _Sheberetches_ inhabit the country south of the Yam Pah Utes.'
_Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 142.

The _Fish Utes_ 'inhabit the country about Red Lake, south of the
Sheberetches.' _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 142.

The _Tash Utes_ live near the Navajos. _Burton's City of the Saints_, p.
578.

The _Tabechya_, or Sun-hunters, 'live about Tête de Biche, near Spanish
lands.' 'Timpenaguchya, or Timpana Yuta, corrupted into Tenpenny Utes,
... dwell about the kanyon of that name, and on the east of the
Sweetwater Lake.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, pp. 577-8. 'The
Timpanoge Indians formerly resided at and about Spanish Fort
reservation, but they are now scattered among other bands and do not now
exist as a separate tribe.' _Tourtellotte_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870,
p. 142; see also _Id._, 1869, p. 230. The Timpanogs inhabit 'Utah
valley, and the neighboring mountains.' _Cooley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1865, p. 17.


FOOTNOTES:

[423] 'Sometimes there is a tribal name for all who speak the same
language; sometimes none, and only names for separate villages;
sometimes a name for a whole tribe or family, to which is prefixed a
separate word for each dialect, which is generally co-extensive with
some valley. Of the first, an instance is found in the Cahrocs, on the
Klamath, who are a compact tribe, with no dialects; of the second, in
the large tribe on the lower Klamath, who have also no dialects, and yet
have no name, except for each village; of the third, in the great family
of the Pomos on Russian river, who have many dialects, and a name for
each,--as Ballo Ki Pomos, Cahto Pomos, etc.... Some remnants of tribes
have three or four names, all in use within a radius of that number of
miles; some, again, are merged, or dovetailed, into others; and some
never had a name taken from their own language, but have adopted that
given them by a neighbor tribe, altogether different in speech.'
_Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 328.

[424] The natives 'when asked to what tribe they belong, give the name
of their chief, which is misunderstood by the inquirer to be that of the
tribe itself.' _Bartlett's Nar._, vol. ii., p. 30.

[425] 'Every fifteen or twenty miles of country seems to have been
occupied by a number of small lodges or septs, speaking a different
language or very divergent dialect.' _Taylor_, in _Bancroft's Hand-book
Almanac_, 1864, p. 29. Beechey counted eleven different dialects in the
mission of San Carlos. _Voyage_, vol. ii., p. 73. 'Almost every 15 or 20
leagues, you find a distinct dialect; so different, that in no way does
one resemble the other.' _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p.
240. 'From the San Joaquin northward to the Klamath there are some
hundreds of small tribes.' _Henley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 304.

[426] Hale calls them the _Lutuami_, or _Tlamatl_, and adds, 'the first
of these names is the proper designation of the people in their own
language. The second is that by which they are known to the Chinooks,
and through them, to the whites.' _Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol.
vi., p. 218.

[427] 'There true name is _Moüdoc_--a word which originated with the
Shasteecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies.'
_Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, 1873, vol. x., p. 535. 'Also called
Moahtockna.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 22, 1860_. 'The word
Modoc is a Shasta Indian word, and means all distant, stranger, or
hostile Indians, and became applied to these Indians by white men in
early days, by hearing the Shastas speak of them.' _Steele_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1861, p. 121.

[428] Speaking of Indians at the junction of the Salmon and Klamath
rivers: 'They do not seem to have any generic appellation for
themselves, but apply the terms "Kahruk," up, and "Youruk," down, to all
who live above or below themselves, without discrimination, in the same
manner that the others (at the junction of the Trinity) do "Peh-tsik,"
and "Poh-lik."' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 151.

[429] 'The Bay (Humboldt) Indians call themselves, as we were informed,
Wish-osk; and those of the hills Te-ok-a-wilk; but the tribes to the
northward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel river, We-yot, or
Walla-walloo.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 133.

[430] They are also called Lototen or Tututamy, Totutime, Toutouni,
Tootooton, Tutoten, Tototin, Tototutna, etc.

[431] For further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter.

[432] Mr. Gibbs, speaking of the tribes seen on the Klamath and Trinity
rivers, says: 'In person these people are far superior to any we had met
below; the men being larger, more muscular, and with countenances
denoting greater force and energy of character, as well as intelligence.
Indeed, they approach rather to the races of the plains, than to the
wretched "diggers" of the greater part of California.' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 140. 'The Indians in the northern portion of
California and in Oregon, are vastly superior in stature and intellect
to those found in the southern part of California.' _Hubbard_, in
_Golden Era_, 1856. The Indians on the Trinity 'are of another tribe and
nature from those along the Sacramento.' _Kelly's Excursion_, vol. ii.,
p. 166. Speaking of the Wallies, they, 'in many respects differ from
their brethren in the middle and lower counties of the State. They are
lighter  and more intelligent.' _Johnson_, in _Overland Monthly_,
1869, vol. ii., p. 536.

[433] 'The males are tall, averaging in height about five feet eight
inches, are well proportioned, athletic, and possess the power of
endurance to a great degree.' _Hubbard_, in _Golden Era_, March, 1856.
'The people here (Rogue River) were larger and stronger than those in
South California, but not handsomer.' _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p.
317. Speaking of Indians on the Klamath River, 'their stature is a
trifle under the American; they have well-sized bodies, erect and
strong-knit.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 328. On
the upper Trinity they are 'large and powerful men, of a swarthier
complexion, fierce and intractable.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., p. 129. Near Mount Shasta, 'a fine-looking race, being much
better proportioned than those more to the northward, and their features
more regular.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 254. At
Klamath Lake, 'well-grown and muscular.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 277.
On the Trinity, 'majestic in person, chivalrous in bearing.' _Kelly's
Excursion_, vol. ii., p. 166.

[434] In the vicinity of Klamath lake 'the squaws are short in
comparison with the men, and, for Indians have tolerably regular
features.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 277. In the Rogue River region
'some of them are quite pretty, usually well-formed, handsomely
developed, small features, and very delicate and well-turned hands and
feet.... They are graceful in their movements and gestures, ... always
timid and modest.' _Hubbard_, in _Golden Era_, March, 1856. On the
Klamath River, 'with their smooth, hazel skins, oval faces, plump and
brilliant eyes, some of the young maidens,--barring the tattooed
chins,--have a piquant and splendid beauty.' _Powers_, in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 329. On the Klamath and Trinity Rivers, many of
the women 'were exceedingly pretty; having large almond-shaped eyes,
sometimes of a hazel color, and with the red showing through the cheeks.
Their figures were full, their chests ample; and the younger ones had
well-shaped busts, and rounded limbs.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 140. But as to the beauty of women tastes never
agree; Mr Kelly in his _Excursion to Cal._, vol. ii., p. 167, speaking
of a band of 'noble-looking Indians' which he met near Trinity River,
says that they were 'accompanied by a few squaws, who, strange to say,
in this latitude are ugly, ill-favoured, stunted in stature, lumpy in
figure, and awkward in gait,' and concerning the Rogue River Indians a
lady states that 'among the women ... there were some extremely clumsy
figures.' _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 317. The Pit-River Indian girls
'have the smallest and prettiest feet and hands I have ever seen.'
_Miller's Life amongst the Modocs_, p. 374.

[435] At Crescent City, Mr Powers saw some 'broad-faced squaws of an
almost African blackness;' the Patawats in the vicinity of Mad River and
Humboldt Bay are 'blackskinned, pudgy in stature; well cushioned with
adipose tissue;' at Redwood Creek 'like most of the coast tribes they
are very dark , squat in stature, rather fuller-faced than the
interior Indians.' _Pomo, MS._ At Trinidad Bay 'their persons were in
general indifferently, but stoutly made, of a lower stature than any
tribe of Indians we had before seen.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p.
246. At the mouth of Eel River the Weeyots 'are generally repulsive in
countenance as well as filthy in person.... Their heads are
disproportionately large; their figures, though short, strong and well
developed.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 127. Carl
Meyer names the Indians he saw at Trinidad Bay, _Allequas_, or
Wood-Indians (Holzindianer). I do not find the name anywhere else, and
judging by his description, they appear to differ considerably from the
natives seen in the same vicinity by Vancouver or Mr Powers; he, Meyer,
says; 'Sie sind von unserm Wuchse, starke und beleibte, kräftige
Gestalten. Ihre Haut ist wenig zimmet oder lohfarbig, eher weisslich,
wie die der antisischen Inkas gewesen sein soll; bei der Jugend und
besonders beim weiblichen Geschlechte schimmert oft ein sanftes Roth auf
den Wangen hervor. Ihr Kopf ist wenig gedrückt, die Stirn hoch, der
Gesichtswinkel gegen 80 Grad, die Nase römisch gekrümmt, das Auge gross
in wenig quadratisch erweiterten Augenhöhlen und intelligent, die Lippen
nicht aufgetrieben, das Kinn oval, und Hände und Füsse klein.' _Nach dem
Sacramento_, p. 215.

[436] At Pitt River they 'have no dress except a buckskin thrown around
them.' _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._ Near Mount Shasta 'they
can scarcely be said to wear any dress, except a mantle of deer or wolf
skin. A few of them had deer-skins belted around their waists, with a
highly ornamented girdle.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v.,
p. 255. Near Pitt River, the Indians were nearly naked. _Abbott_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. vi., p. 61. At Trinidad Bay 'their clothing was
chiefly made of the skins of land animals, with a few indifferent small
skins of the sea-otter.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 247. 'The men,
however, do not wear any covering, except the cold is intense, when
indeed they put upon their shoulders the skins of sea-wolves, otters,
deer, or other animals.' _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 16. 'They were clothed,
for the most part, in skins.' _Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, p. 118. On Smith
River they were 'in a complete state of nature, excepting only a kind of
apology for an apron, worn by the women, sometimes made of elk's skin,
and sometimes of grass.' _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 313. Among the
Weeyots at Eel River the men 'wore a deer-skin robe over the shoulder,
and the women a short petticoat of fringe.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 127. On Klamath River their only dress was the
fringed petticoat, or at most, a deerskin robe thrown back over the
shoulders, in addition. _Id._, p. 141. 'The primitive dress of the men
is simply a buckskin girdle about the loins; of the women, a chemise of
the same material, or of braided grass, reaching from the breast to the
knees.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 329. 'Were quite
naked excepting the maro.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v.,
p. 253. The Klamath Lake Indians 'wear little more than the
breech-cloth.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 277. 'They were all well
dressed in blankets and buckskin.' _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
vi., p. 70. Carl Meyer, speaking of a tribe he names Allequas, at
Trinidad Bay, says: 'der Mann geht im Sommer ganz nackt, im Winter trägt
er eine selbst gegerbte Hirsch- oder Rehdecke über die Schultern.' 'Die
Allequas-Weiber tragen im Sommer von Bast-Schnüren oder von
Rehfellstreifen, im Winter von Pelzwerk oder Gänseflaum verfertigte
Schürzen, die bis auf die Knie reichen.' _Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 217,
219. 'The Klamaths, during the summer go naked, in winter they use the
skins of rabbits and wild fowl for a covering.' _Thompson_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 283.

[437] 'An Indian will trap and slaughter seventy-five rabbits for one of
these robes, making it double, with fur inside and out.' _Powers' Pomo,
MS._

[438] _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p. 204; _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 107, 127; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., 282.

[439] _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 282; _Fremont's Explor. Ex._,
p. 204.

[440] _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 142.

[441] _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 17; _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iii., pp. 127, 142; _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 329;
_Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 317. 'Die Allequas (Trinidad Bay) haben
starkes, ziemlich geschmeidiges Haar, das der Männer und der Kinder wird
bis auf einen Zoll Länge regelmässig abgebrannt, so dass sie das
Aussehen von Titusköpfen erhalten. Zuweilen sieht man die Männer auch
mit einem ziemlich langen, durch eine harzige Flüssigkeit gesteiften,
aufgerichteten Zopf, der als Schmuck betrachtet, bei festlichen
Anlässen, oder im Kriege mit rothen oder weissen Federn geziert wird,
und alsdann dem Schopf eines Wiedehopfs gleicht.' _Meyer_, _Nach dem
Sacramento_, p. 215. 'Both men and women part their hair in the middle,
the men cut it square on the neck and wear it rather long, the women
wear theirs long, plaited in two braids, hanging down the back.' _The
Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._

[442] _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 127. 'Barthaare
haben sie, wie alle Indianer Nord-Amerikas, nur wenig; sie werden
ausgerupft, und nur in der Trauer stehen gelassen.' _Meyer_, _Nach dem
Sacramento_, pp. 215-16.

[443] The men tattoo so that they may 'be recognized if stolen by
Modocs.' 'With the women it is entirely for ornament.' _The Shastas and
their Neighbors_, _MS_. At Rogue River the women 'were tattooed on the
hands and arms as well as the chin.' _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 317.
At Trinidad Bay 'they ornamented their lower lip with three
perpendicular columns of punctuation, one from each corner of the mouth
and one in the middle, occupying three fifths of the chin.' _Vancouver's
Voy._, vol. ii., p. 247. Maurelle says the same, and adds that a space
is left between each line, 'which is much larger in the young than in
the older women, whose faces are generally covered with punctures.'
_Jour._, p. 17. At Mad River and Humboldt Bay, the same, 'and also lines
of small dots on the backs of their hands.' _Powers' Pomo_, _MS_. At
mouth of Eel River 'both sexes tattoo; the men on their arms and
breasts; the women from inside the under lip down to and beneath the
chin. The extent of this disfigurement indicates to a certain extent,
the age and condition of the person.' 'In the married women the lines
are extended up above the corners of the mouth.' _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 127, 142. 'I have never observed
any particular figures or designs upon their persons; but the tattooing
is generally on the chin, though sometimes on the wrist and arm.
Tattooing has mostly been on the persons of females, and seems to be
esteemed as an ornament, not apparently indicating rank or condition.'
_Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 223. The squaws among
the Cahrocs on the Klamath 'tattoo, in blue, three narrow fern-leaves,
perpendicularly on the chin.' 'For this purpose they are said to employ
soot, gathered from a stove, mingled with the juice of a certain plant.'
_Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 329. Among the Shastys
the women 'are tattooed in lines from the mouth to the chin.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 218. Among the Allequas at
Trinidad bay: 'Die Mädchen werden im fünften Jahre mit einem schwarzen
Streifen von beiden Mundwinkeln bis unter das Kinn tättowirt, welchem
Striche dann alle fünf Jahre ein parallellaufender beigefügt wird, so dass
man an diesen Zeichnungen leicht das Alter jeder Indianerin übersehen
kann.... Die Männer bemalen sich bei besondern Anlässen mit einem
Tannenfirniss, den sie selbst bereiten, das Gesicht, und zeichnen
allerlei geheimnissvolle Figuren und Verzierungen auf Wange, Nase und
Stirn, indem sie mit einem hölzernen Stäbchen den noch weichen Firniss
auf den einzelnen Stellen von der Haut wegheben.' _Meyer_, _Nach dem
Sacramento_, p. 216.

[444] 'I never saw two alike.' _The Shastas and their Neighbors_, _MS_.
At Klamath lake they are 'painted from their heads to their waists all
colours and patterns.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 277. The Modocs 'paint
themselves with various pigments formed from rotten wood, different
kinds of earth, &c.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 536.
Kane 'took a sketch of a Chastay (Shasta) female slave (among the
Chinooks) the lower part of whose face, from the corners of the mouth to
the ears and downwards, was tattooed of a bluish colour. The men of this
tribe do not tattoo, but paint their faces like other Indians.' _Wand._,
p. 182. Ida Pfeiffer, _Second Journ._, p. 315, saw Indians on Smith
river, who painted their faces 'in a most detestable manner. They first
smeared them with fish fat and then they rubbed in the paint, sometimes
passing a finger over it in certain lines, so as to produce a pattern.'
_Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs_, p. 361.

[445] 'No taste in bead work.' _The Shastas and their Neighbors_, _MS_.
'In den Ohren tragen die Allequas (at Trinidad bay) Schmucksachen,
welche sie theils von den Weissen erhalten, theils aus Holz nachahmen;
auch sind diese Gegenstände zuweilen durch Steinchen ersetzt, die
talismanische Kräfte besitzen sollen. Nur die in den fernen Bergen
wohnenden tragen hölzerne oder auch eiserne Ringe in den
Nasenwandungen.' _Meyer_, _Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 216; _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 142; _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p.
317; _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 537; _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., plate xiv.

[446] _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 18.

[447] _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 247.

[448] 'The lodges are dome-shaped; like beaver-houses, an arched roof
covers a deep pit sunk in the ground, the entrance to which is a round
hole.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 278. 'Large round huts, perhaps 20
feet in diameter, with rounded tops, on which was the door by which they
descended into the interior.' _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p. 204. 'The
Modoc excavates a circular space from two to four feet deep, then makes
over it a conical structure of puncheons, which is strongly braced up
with timbers, frequently hewn and a foot square.' _Powers_, in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. x., p. 536; _Id._, vol. ix., p. 156. 'The style was very
substantial, the large poles requiring five or six men to lift.'
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 175. 'Have only an
opening at the summit.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 261. On the
inside of the door they frequently place a sliding panel. 'The Kailtas
build wigwams in a conical shape--as all tribes on the Trinity do--but
they excavate no cellars.' _Powers' Pomo_, _MS_. See full description of
dwellings, by _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 223.
The entrance is a 'round hole just large enough to crawl into, which is
on a level with the surface of the ground, or is cut through the roof.'
_Johnson_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 536; _Miller's Life
Amongst the Modocs_, p. 377.

[449] 'Built of plank, rudely wrought.' The roofs are not 'horizontal
like those at Nootka, but rise with a small degree of elevation to a
ridge in the middle.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 241-2. Well
built, of boards; often twenty feet square; roof pitched over a
ridge-pole; ground usually excavated 3 or 4 feet; some cellars floored
and walled with stone. _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.
140. 'The dwellings of the Hoopas were built of large planks, about 1½
inches thick, from two to four feet wide, and from six to twelve feet in
length.' _Trinity Journal_, _April, 1857_. 'The floors of these huts are
perfectly smooth and clean, with a square hole two feet deep in the
centre, in which they make their fire.' _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 17. 'The
huts have never but one apartment. The fire is kindled in the centre,
the smoke escaping through the crevices in the roof.' _Hubbard_, in
_Golden Era_, _March, 1856_. The houses of the Eurocs and Cahrocs 'are
sometimes constructed on the level earth, but oftener they excavate a
round cellar, four or five feet deep, and twelve or fifteen feet in
diameter.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 530; _Meyer_,
_Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 220; _The Shastas and their neighbors, MS_.

[450] Kit Carson says of lodges seen near Klamath lake: 'They were made
of the broad leaves of the swamp flag, which were beautifully and
intricately woven together.' _Peters' Life of Carson_, p. 263. 'The wild
sage furnishes them shelter in the heat of summer, and, like the Cayote,
they burrow in the earth for protection from the inclemencies of
winter.' _Thompson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 283. 'Their lodges
are generally mere temporary structures, scarcely sheltering them from
the pelting storm.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 262.

[451] 'Slightly constructed, generally of poles.' _Emmons_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 218. 'The earth in the centre
scooped out, and thrown up in a low, circular embankment.' _Turner_, in
_Overland Monthly_, p. xi., p. 21.

[452] _Powers' Pomo, MS._

[453] 'The rocks supply edible shell-fish.' _Schumacher's Oregon
Antiquities, MS._ 'The deer and elk are mostly captured by driving them
into traps and pits.' 'Small game is killed with arrows, and sometimes
elk and deer are dispatched in the same way.' _Hubbard_, in _Golden
Era_, _April, 1856_. 'The elk they usually take in snares.' _Pfeiffer's
Second Journ._, p. 317. 'The mountain Indians subsisted largely on game,
which of every variety was very abundant, and was killed with their bows
and arrows, in the use of which they were very expert.' _Wiley_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1867, p. 497. 'Die Indianer am Pittflusse machen
Graben oder Löcher von circa 5 Kubikfuss, bedecken diese mit Zweigen und
Gras ganz leicht, sodass die Thiere, wenn sie darüber gejagt werden,
hinein fallen und nicht wieder herauskönnen. Wilde Gänse fangen sie mit
Netzen ... Nur selten mögen Indianer den grauen Bär jagen.' _Wimmel_,
_Californien_, p. 181; _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._

[454] Schumacher, _Oregon Antiquities, MS._, classifies their ancient
arrow and spear points thus: Long barbs with projections, short barbs
with projections, and long and short barbs without projections. 'The
point of the spear is composed of a small bone needle, which sits in a
socket, and pulls out as soon as the fish starts. A string connecting
the spear handle and the center of the bone serves, when pulled, to turn
the needle cross wise in the wound.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _March
8, 1861_; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 146.

[455] _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._; _Hubbard_, in _Golden
Era_, _April, 1856_; _Wiley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1867, p. 497. 'In
spawning-time the fish school up from Clear Lake in extraordinary
numbers, so that the Indians have only to put a slight obstruction in
the river, when they can literally shovel them out.' _Powers_, in
_Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 537; _Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities,
MS._

[456] 'The camas is a bulbus root, shaped much like an onion.' _Miller's
Life Amongst the Modocs_, p. 22.

[457] 'A root about an inch long, and as large as one's little finger,
of a bitter-sweetish and pungent taste, something like ginseng.'
_Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 537.

[458] 'An aquatic plant, with a floating leaf, very much like that of a
pond-lily, in the centre of which is a pod resembling a poppy-head, full
of farinaceous seeds.' _Ib._ See also _Meyer_, _Nach dem Sacramento_, p.
222. 'Their principal food is the kamas root, and the seed obtained from
a plant growing in the marshes of the lake, resembling, before hulled, a
broom-corn seed.' _Palmer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 263.

[459] The Klamaths 'subsist upon roots and almost every living thing
within their reach, not excepting reptiles, crickets, ants, etc.'
_Thompson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 283; _Heintzelman_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 391; _Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._

[460] _Turner_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. xi., p. 24.

[461] At Rogue River, 'the men go in the morning into the river, but,
like the Malays, bring all the dirt out on their skins that they took
in.' _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 317. At Pitt River they are
'disgusting in their habits.' _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. vi.,
p. 61; _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._ 'Of the many hundreds I
have seen, there was not one who still observed the aboriginal mode of
life, that had not a sweet breath. This is doubtless due to the fact
that, before they became civilized, they ate their food cold.' _Powers'
Pomo, MS._ 'They always rise at the first dawn of day, and plunge into
the river.' _Hubbard_, in _Golden Era_, _March, 1856_. 'Their persons
are unusually clean, as they use both the sweat-house and the cold-bath
constantly.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 142. 'Mit
Tagesanbruch begibt sich der Allequa (Trinidad Bay) in jeder Jahreszeit
zur nahen Quelle, wo er sich am ganzen Leibe wäscht und in den Strahlen
der aufsteigenden Sonne trocknen lässt.' _Meyer_, _Nach dem Sacramento_,
p. 221; _Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._

[462] Carl Meyer, after describing the bow, adds: 'Fernere Waffen der
Allequas sind; das Obsidian-Beil oder Tomahawk, die Keule, die Lanze und
der Wurfspiess.' _Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 218. This statement, I think,
may be taken with some allowance, as nowhere else do I find mention of a
tomahawk being used by the Californians.

[463] Schumacher, _Oregon Antiquities, MS._, speaking of an ancient
spear-point, says, 'the pointed teeth show it to have been a very
dangerous weapon.' _Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._ On the
Klamath River, 'among the skins used for quivers, I noticed the otter,
wild-cat, fisher, fawn, grey fox and others.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 141. Near Mt Shasta, 'bows and arrows are very
beautifully made: the former are of yew, and about three feet long ...
backed very neatly with sinew, and painted.... The arrows are upwards of
thirty inches long.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p.
255. At Port Trinidad, 'arrows are carried in quivers of wood or bone,
and hang from their wrist or neck.' _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 20. On Pigeon
River 'their arrows were in general tipped with copper or iron.'
_Greenhow's Hist. Ogn._, p. 110. The Pit River 'arrows are made in three
parts.' _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. vi., p. 61. The Allequas
at Trinidad Bay, described by Carl Meyer, carried their arrows either
'schussfertig in der Hand oder in einem über die Schultern geworfenen
Köcher aus Fuchs- oder Biberpelz. Der Bogen ist aus einer starken,
elastischen Rothtannenwurzel verfertigt, etwa 3½ Fuss lang und auf der
Rückseite mit einer Bärensehne überklebt.' _Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 217.
See _Mofras_, _Explor._, _Atlas_, plate xxv. Speaking of the quiver, Mr
Powers says: 'in the animal's head they stuff a quantity of grass or
moss, as a cushion for the arrow-heads to rest in, which prevents them
from being broken.' _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 532. 'Their
arrows can only be extracted from the flesh with the knife.' _Cutts'
Conquest of Cal._, p. 170. 'Am oberen Theile (California) ist der Bogen
von einer Lage von Hirsch-Sehnen verstärkt und elastisch gemacht. Die
Pfeile bestehen aus einem rohrartigen Gewächse von mässiger Länge, an
der Spitze mit Obsidian ... versehen, ihre Länge ist 2 Zoll, ihre Breite
1 Zoll und die Dicke 1/3 Zoll, scharfkantig und spitz zulaufend.'
_Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 180.

[464] _Powers' Pomo, MS._; _Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities, MS._; _The
Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._

[465] _Hist. Mag._, vol. iii., p. 214.

[466] _Johnson_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 536. At Trinidad
Bay 'zuweilen werden die Pfeile mit dem Safte des Sumachbaumes
vergiftet, und alsdann nur zum Erlegen wilder Raubthiere gebraucht.'
_Meyer_, _Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 218. 'Einige Stämme vergiften die
Spitzen ihrer Pfeile auf folgende Weise: Sie reizen nämlich eine
Klapperschlange mit einer vorgehaltenen Hirschleber, worin sie beisst,
und nachdem nun die Leber mit dem Gifte vollständig imprägnirt ist, wird
sie vergraben und muss verfaulen; hierin wird nun die Spitze eingetaucht
und dann getrocknet.' _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 180. The Pitt River
Indians 'use the poison of the rattle-snake, by grinding the head of
that reptile into an impalpable powder, which is then applied by means
of the putrid blood and flesh of the dog to the point of the weapon.'
_Gross' System of Surgery_, vol. i., p. 321. 'The Pitt River Indians
poisoned their arrows in a putrid deer's liver. This is a slow poison,
however, and sometimes will not poison at all.' _The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS._; _Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities, MS._

[467] Among other things seen by Meyer were, 'noch grössere Bogen, die
ihnen als bedeutende Ferngeschosse dienen. Ein solcher ist 6 Fuss lang,
und der Indianer legt sich auf die Erde, um denselben zu spannen, indem
er das rechte Knie in den Bogen einstemmt und mit beiden Armen
nachhilft.' The bow and arrow, knife, and war-club, constitute their
weapons. In one of their lodges I noticed an elk-skin shield, so
constructed as to be impervious to the sharpest arrows. _Palmer_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 262. Miller mentions a Modoc who was
'painted red, half-naked, and held a tomahawk in his hand.' _Life
Amongst the Modocs_, p. 20.

[468] _Salem Statesman_, _April, 1857_.

[469] Hence, if we may credit Miller, _Life Amongst the Modocs_, p. 373,
the name Pitt River.

[470] The Hoopas exacted tribute from all the surrounding tribes. At the
time the whites arrived the Chimalaquays were paying them tribute in
deer-skins at the rate of twenty-five cents per head. _Powers' Pomo_,
_MS_. The Hoopahs have a law requiring those situated on the Trinity,
above them to pay tribute. _Humboldt Times_, _Nov. 1857_; _S. F. Evening
Bulletin_, _Nov. 23, 1857_.

[471] The Sassics, Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Klamaths and Rogue River Indians,
take no scalps, but decapitate the slain, or cut off their hands and
feet. _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 317.

[472] The Veeards on Lower Humboldt Bay 'took elk-horns and rubbed them
on stones for days together, to sharpen them into axes and wedges.'
_Powers' Pomo, MS._ On the Klamath river they had 'spoons neatly made of
bone and horn.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 146.

[473] 'For basket making, they use the roots of pine-trees, the stem of
the spice-bush, and ornament with a kind of grass which looks like a
palm leaf, and will bleach white. They also stain it purple with elder
berries, and green with soapstone.' ... 'The Pitt River Indians excel all
others in basket-making, but are not particularly good at bead work.'
_The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._, _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p. 204;
_Johnson_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 536; _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 134; _Powers' Pomo, MS._

[474] _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 253; _Emmons_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 218.

[475] The boats formerly used by the Modocs were 'quite rude and
unshapely concerns, compared with those of the lower Klamath, but
substantial and sometimes large enough to carry 1800 pounds of
merchandise.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 532, vol.
x., p. 536. 'Blunt at both ends, with a small projection in the stern
for a seat.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 142.
'Those on Rogue river were roughly built--some of them scow fashion,
with flat bottom.' _Emmons_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.
218. The Pitt River Indians 'used boats made from pine; they burn them
out ... about twenty feet long, some very good ones.' _The Shastas and
their Neighbors, MS._

[476] _Chase_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 433. 'A kind of bead
made from a shell procured on the coast. These they string and wear
about the neck.... Another kind is a shell about an inch long, which
looks like a porcupine quill. They are more valuable than the other.
They also use them as nose-ornaments.' _The Shastas and their Neighbors,
MS._ 'The unit of currency is a string of the length of a man's arm, with
a certain number of the longer shells below the elbow, and a certain
number of the shorter ones above.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.
viii., p. 329. 'A rare shell, spiral in shape, varying from one to two
inches in length, and about the size of a crowquill, called by the
natives, _Siwash_, is used as money.' _Hubbard_, in _Golden Era_, March,
1856.

[477] 'The ownership of a (white) deer-skin, constitutes a claim to
chieftainship, readily acknowledged by all the dusky race on this
coast.' _Humboldt Times_, _Dec., 1860_.

[478] 'Property consists in women, ornaments made of rare feathers and
shells, also furs and skins.' _Hubbard_, in _Golden Era_, March, 1856.
Their wealth 'consisted chiefly of white deerskins, canoes, the scalp of
the red-headed woodpecker, and _aliquachiek_.' _Wiley_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept. Joint Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 497.

[479] 'Have no tribal organization, no such thing as public offence.'
_Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._ A Pitt River chief tried the
white man's code, but so unpopular was it, that he was obliged to
abandon it. _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._ Among the Klamath and
Trinity tribes the power of the chief 'is insufficient to control the
relations of the several villages, or keep down the turbulence of
individuals.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 139-140.
The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopas, and Kailtas, have a nominal chief for each
village, but his power is extremely limited and each individual does as
he likes. Among the Tolewas in Del Norte County, money makes the chief.
The Modocs and Patawats have an hereditary chieftainship. _Powers' Pomo,
MS._ At Trinidad Bay they were 'governed by a ruler, who directs where
they shall go both to hunt and fish.' _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 18. 'Der
Häuptling ist sehr geachtet; er hat über Handel und Wandel, Leben und
Tod seiner Unterthanen zu verfügen, und seine Macht vererbt sich auf
seinen Erstgebornen.' _Meyer_, _Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 223. The chief
'obtains his position from his wealth, and usually manages to transmit
his effects and with them his honors, to his posterity.' _Hubbard_, in
_Golden Era_, March, 1856. Formerly 'the different rancherias had
chiefs, or heads, known as Mow-wee-mas, their influence being
principally derived from their age, number of relatives, and wealth.'
_Wiley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Joint. Spec. Com._, p. 497.

[480] The Cahrocs compound for murder by payment of one string. Among
the Patawats the average fine for murdering a man is ten strings, for
killing a woman five strings, worth about $100 and $50 respectively. 'An
average Patawut's life is considered worth about six ordinary canoes,
each of which occupies two Indians probably three months in making, or,
in all, tantamount to the labor of one man for a period of three years.'
'The Hoopas and Kailtas also paid for murder, or their life was taken by
the relatives of the deceased.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ 'They seem to do as
they please, and to be only governed by private revenge. If one man
kills another the tribe or family of the latter kill the murderer,
unless he buy himself off.' _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._

[481] _Drew's Owyhee Reconnaissance_, p. 17.

[482] The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopahs, and Patawats, all acquire their
wives by purchase. _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._; _Powers'
Pomo, MS._ 'Wenn ein Allequa seine künftige Lebensgefährtin unter den
Schönen seines Stammes erwählt hat und sich verheirathen will, muss er
dem Mauhemi (chief) eine armslange Muschelschnur vorzeigen.' _Meyer_,
_Nach dem Sacramento_, p. 223. The mountain Indians seldom, if ever,
intermarry with those on the coast. _Wiley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Joint.
Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 497; _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii.,
p. 127. Buy wives with shell-money. _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._ Among the
Modocs 'the women are offered for sale to the highest buyer.' _Meacham's
Lecture_, in _S. F. Alta California_, Oct. 6, 1861; _Miller's Life
Amongst the Modocs_.

[483] Polygamy is common among the Modocs. _Meacham's Lecture_, in _S.
F. Alta California_, _Oct. 6, 1873_. On Pitt River a chief sometimes has
five wives. 'The most jealous people in the world.' _The Shastas and
their Neighbors, MS._; _Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._ 'Among
the tribes in the north of the State adultery is punished by the death
of the child.' _Taylor_, in _California Farmer_, _March 8, 1861_. 'The
males have as many wives as they are able to purchase;' adultery
committed by a woman is punished with death. _Hubbard_, in _Golden Era_,
_March, 1856_. Among the Cahrocs polygamy is not tolerated; among the
Modocs polygamy prevails, and the women have considerable privilege. The
Hoopa adulterer loses one eye, the adulteress is exempt from punishment.
_Powers' Pomo, MS._ The Weeyots at Eel river 'have as many wives as they
please.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 127. At
Trinidad Bay 'we found out that they had a plurality of wives.'
_Maurelle's Jour._, p. 19.

[484] All the young unmarried women are a common possession. _Powers_,
in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 330. The women bewail their
virginity for three nights before their marriage. _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 173. If we believe Powers, they
cannot usually have much to bewail.

[485] Boys are disgraced by work. _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._
Women work, while men gamble or sleep. _Wiley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept.
Joint Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 497; _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857,
p. 242; _Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._

[486] _Kane's Wand._, p. 182.

[487] For the god Chareya, see _Bancroft's Nat. Races_, vol. iii., pp.
90, 161.

[488] _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 318. The Pitt River Indians 'sing
as they gamble and play until they are so hoarse they cannot speak.'
_The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._

[489] _Chase_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 433.

[490] 'They used tobacco, which they smoaked in small wooden pipes, in
form of a trumpet, and procured from little gardens, where they had
planted it.' _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 21.

[491] The Pitt River Indians 'give no medicines.' _The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS._ 'The prevailing diseases are venereal, scrofula and
rheumatism.' Many die of consumption. _Force_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1871, p. 157. At the mouth of Eel river 'the principal diseases noticed,
were sore eyes and blindness, consumption, and a species of leprosy.'
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 128. They suffer from a
species of lung fever. _Geiger_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1858, p. 289. 'A
disease was observed among them (the Shastas) which had the appearance
of the leprosy.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 255.

[492] 'The only medicine I know of is a root used for poultices, and
another root or plant for an emetic.' _The Shastas and their Neighbors,
MS._ 'The root of a parasite fern, found growing on the tops of the fir
trees (collque nashul), is the principal remedy. The plant in small
doses is expectorant and diurtetic; hence it is used to relieve
difficulties of the lungs and kidneys; and, in large doses, it becomes
sedative and is an emmenagogue; hence, it relieves fevers, and is useful
in uterine diseases, and produces abortions. The squaws use the root
extensively for this last mentioned purpose.' _Hubbard_, in _Golden
Era_, _March, 1856_.

[493] A Pitt River doctor told his patient that for his fee 'he must
have his horse or he would not let him get well.' _The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS._; _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. viii., p. 428;
_Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 175.

[494] _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._; _Rector_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1862, p. 261; _Ostrander_, in _Id._, 1857, p. 369; _Miller_, in
_Id._, p. 361.

[495] _Temescal_ is an Aztec word defined by Molina, _Vocabulario_,
'Temazcalli, casilla como estufa, adonde se bañan y sudan.' The word was
brought to this region and applied to the native sweat-houses by the
Franciscan Fathers. _Turner_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 72,
gives 'sweat-house' in the Chemehuevi language, as _pahcaba_.

[496] _Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._; _The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS._; _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 317; _Powers' Pomo,
MS._; _Chase_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 432.

[497] _Meacham's Lecture on the Modocs_, in _S. F. Alta California_,
_Oct. 6, 1873_; _The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS._

[498] On Pitt River they burn their dead and heap stones over the ashes
for a monument. 'No funeral ceremonies.' _The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS._ On the ocean frontier of south Oregon and north
California 'the dead are buried with their faces looking to the west.'
_Hubbard_, in _Golden Era_, _March, 1856_. The Patawats and Chillulas
bury their dead. The Tolewahs are not allowed to name the dead. _Powers'
Pomo, MS._ 'It is one of the most strenuous Indian laws that whoever
mentions the name of a deceased person is liable to a heavy fine, the
money being paid to the relatives.' _Chase_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.
ii., p. 431. 'The bodies had been doubled up, and placed in a sitting
posture in holes. The earth, when replaced, formed conical mounds over
the heads.' _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. vi., p. 69. 'They bury
their dead under the noses of the living, and with them all their
worldly goods. If a man of importance, his house is burned and he is
buried on its site.' _Johnson_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ii., p. 536.
'The chick or ready money, is placed in the owner's grave, but the bow
and quiver become the property of the nearest male relative. Chiefs only
receive the honors of a fence, surmounted with feathers, round the
grave.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 175. 'Upon the
death of one of these Indians they raised a sort of funeral cry, and
afterward burned the body within the house of their ruler.' _Maurelle's
Jour._, p. 19.

[499] _Muck-a-muck_, food. In the Chinook Jargon 'to eat; to bite; food.
Muckamuck chuck, to drink water.' _Dict. Chinook Jargon, or Indian Trade
Language_, p. 12.

[500] In the vicinity of Nootka Sound and the Columbia River, the first
United States traders with the natives were from Boston; the first
English vessels appeared about the same time, which was during the reign
of George III. Hence in the Chinook Jargon we find '_Boston_, an
American; _Boston illahie_, the United States;' and '_King George_,
English--_King George man_, an Englishman.'

[501] 'They will often go three or four miles out of their way, to avoid
passing a place which they think to be haunted.' _The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS._

[502] The Pitt River Indians 'are very shrewd in the way of stealing,
and will beat a coyote. They are full of cunning.' _The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS._ They 'are very treacherous and bloody in their
dispositions.' _Abbott_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. vi., p. 61. 'The
Indians of the North of California stand at the very lowest point of
culture.' _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 316. 'Incapable of treachery,
but ready to fight to the death in avenging an insult or injury. They
are active and energetic in the extreme.' _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._,
vol. ii., p. 166. At Klamath Lake they are noted for treachery.
_Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p. 205. 'The Tolowas resemble the Hoopas in
character, being a bold and masterly race, formidable in battle,
aggressive and haughty.' The Patawats are 'extremely timid and
inoffensive.' The Chihulas, like most of the coast tribes 'are
characterized by hideous and incredible superstitions.' The Modocs 'are
rather a cloddish, indolent, ordinarily good-natured race, but
treacherous at bottom, sullen when angered, and notorious for keeping
punic faith. Their bravery nobody can dispute.' The Yukas are a
'tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and every way bad, but brave
race.' _Powers' Pomo, MS._ On Trinity River 'they have acquired the
vices of the whites without any of their virtues.' _Heintzelman_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 391. Above the forks of the main Trinity
they are 'fierce and intractable.' On the Klamath they 'have a
reputation for treachery, as well as revengefulness; are thievish, and
much disposed to sulk if their whims are not in every way indulged.'
They 'blubber like a schoolboy at the application of a switch.' _Gibbs_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 139, 141, 176. The Rogue River
Indians and Shastas 'are a warlike race, proud and haughty, but
treacherous and very degraded in their moral nature.' _Miller_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 361. At Rogue River they are 'brave, haughty,
indolent, and superstitious.' _Ostrander_, in _Id._, 1857, p. 363;
_Roseborough's letter to the author, MS._

[503] These are not to be confounded with the Yukas in Round Valley,
Tehama County.

[504] Spelled Walhalla on some maps.

[505] In the vicinity of Fort Ross, 'Die Indianer sind von mittlerem
Wuchse, doch trifft man auch hohe Gestalten unter ihnen an; sie sind
ziemlich wohl proportionirt, die Farbe der Haut ist bräunlich, doch ist
diese Farbe mehr eine Wirkung der Sonne als angeboren; die Augen und
Haare sind schwarz, die letzteren stehen straff.... Beide Geschlechter
sind von kräftigem Körperbau.' _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethn._, p. 81. 'Quoique surpris dans un très-grand négligé, ces hommes me
parurent beaux, de haute taille, robustes et parfaitement découplés ...
traits réguliers ... yeux noirs ... nez aquilin surmonté d'un front
élevé, les pommettes des joues arrondies, ... fortes lèvres ... dents
blanches et bien rangées ... peau jaune cuivré, un cou annonçant la
vigueur et soutenu par de larges épaules ... un air intelligent et fier
à la fois.... Je trouvai toutes les femmes horriblement laides.'
_Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., 145-6. At the head of the Eel River
'the average height of these men was not over five feet four or five
inches. They were lightly built, with no superfluous flesh, but with
very deep chests and sinewy legs.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iii., p. 119. 'The Clear Lake Indians are of a very degraded caste;
their foreheads naturally being often as low as the compressed skulls of
the Chinooks, and their forms commonly small and ungainly.' _Id._, p.
108. At Bodega Bay 'they are an ugly and brutish race, many with <DW64>
profiles.' _Id._, p. 103. 'They are physically an inferior race, and
have flat, unmeaning features, long, coarse, straight black hair, big
mouths, and very dark skins.' _Revere's Tour_, p. 120. 'Large and
strong, their colour being the same as that of the whole territory.'
_Maurelle's Jour._, p. 47. It is said of the natives of the Sacramento
valley, that 'their growth is short and stunted; they have short thick
necks, and clumsy heads; the forehead is low, the nose flat with broad
nostrils, the eyes very narrow and showing no intelligence, the
cheek-bones prominent, and the mouth large. The teeth are white, but
they do not stand in even rows: and their heads are covered by short,
thick, rough hair.... Their color is a dirty yellowish-brown.'
_Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 307. 'This race of Indians is probably
inferior to all others on the continent. Many of them are diminutive in
stature, but they do not lack muscular strength, and we saw some who
were tall and well-formed.... Their complexion is a dark mahogany, or
often nearly black, their faces round or square, with features
approximating nearer to the African than the Indian. Wide, enormous
mouth, noses nearly flat, and hair straight, black, and coarse....
Small, gleaming eyes.' _Johnson's Cal. and Ogn._, pp. 142-3. Of good
stature, strong and muscular. _Bryant's Cal._, p. 266. 'Rather below the
middle stature, but strong, well-knit fellows.... Good-looking, and well
limbed.' _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._, vol. ii., pp. 81, 111. 'They were
in general fine stout men.' A great diversity of physiognomy was
noticeable. _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., pp. 105,
107. On the Sacramento 'were fine robust men, of low stature, and badly
formed.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 198. 'The mouth
is very large, and the nose broad and depressed.' 'Chiefly distinguished
by their dark color ... broad faces, a low forehead.' _Hale's Ethnog._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 222. 'Their features are coarse, broad,
and of a dark chocolate color.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 2,
1860_. At Drake's Bay, just above San Francisco, the men are 'commonly
so strong of body, that that which two or three of our men could hardly
beare, one of them would take vpon his backe, and without grudging
carrie it easily away, vp hill and downe hill an English mile together.'
_Drake's World Encomp._, p. 131. 'Los Naturales de este sitio y Puerto
son algo trigueños, por lo quemados del Sol, aunque los venidos de la
otra banda del Puerto y del Estero ... son mas blancos y corpulentos.'
_Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 215. 'Ugly, stupid, and savage;
otherwise they are well formed, tolerably tall, and of a dark brown
complexion. The women are short, and very ugly; they have much of the
<DW64> in their countenance.... Very long, smooth, and coal-black hair.'
_Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., pp. 282-3. 'They all have a very savage
look, and are of a very dark color.' _Chamisso_, in _Kotzebue's Voy._,
vol. iii., p. 47. 'Ill made; their faces ugly, presenting a dull, heavy,
and stupid countenance.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 13. The
Tcholovoni tribe 'differe beaucoup de toutes les autres par les traits
du visage par sa physionomie, par un extèrieur assez agréable.'
_Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, part iii., p. 6., plate vi., vii., xii. 'The
Alchones are of good height, and the Tuluraios were thought to be,
generally, above the standard of Englishmen. Their complexion is much
darker than that of the South-sea Islanders, and their features far
inferior in beauty.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 76. At Santa Clara
they are 'of a blackish colour, they have flat faces, thick lips, and
black, coarse, straight hair.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 98.
'Their features are handsome, and well-proportioned; their countenances
are cheerful and interesting.' _Morrell's Voy._, p. 212. At Placerville
they are 'most repulsive-looking wretches.... They are nearly black, and
are exceedingly ugly.' _Borthwick's Three Years in Cal._, p. 128. In the
Yosemite Valley 'they are very dark ,' and 'the women are
perfectly hideous.' _Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite_, p. 52. The Monos
on the east side of the Sierra are 'a fine looking race, straight, and
of good height, and appear to be active.' _Von Schmidt_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1856, p. 2-3. At Monterey 'ils sont en général bien faits, mais
faibles d'esprit et de corps.' In the vicinity of San Miguel, they are
'généralement d'une couleur foncée, sales et mal faits ... à l'exception
tout fois des Indiens qui habitent sur les bords de la rivière des
tremblements de terre, et sur la côte voisine. Ceux-ci sont blancs,
d'une joli figure, et leurs cheveux tirent sur le roux.' _Fages_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., pp. 332, 163; also quoted
in _Marmier_, _Notice sur les Indiens_, p. 236. 'Sont généralement
petits, faibles ... leur couleur est très-approchante de celle des
nègres dont les cheveux ne sont point laineux: ceux de ces peuples sont
longs et très-forts.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 281. 'La
taille des hommes est plus haute (than that of the Chilians), et leurs
muscles mieux prononcés.' The figure of the women 'est plus élevée (than
that of the Chilian women), et la forme de leurs membres est plus
régulière; elles sont en général d'une stature mieux développée et d'une
physionomie moins repoussante.' _Rollin_, in _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom.
iv., p. 52. At San José 'the men are almost all rather above the
middling stature, and well built; very few indeed are what may be called
undersized. Their complexions are dark but not <DW64> like ... some
seemed to possess great muscular strength; they have very coarse black
hair.' Some of the women were more than five feet six inches in height.
And speaking of the Californian Indians, in general, 'they are of a
middling, or rather of a low stature, and of a dark brown colour,
approaching to black ... large projecting lips, and broad, flat,
<DW64>-like noses; ... bear a strong resemblance to the <DW64>s.... None
of the men we saw were above five feet high ... ill-proportioned ... we
had never seen a less pleasing specimen of the human race.'
_Langsdorff's Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 194-5, 164, see plate. And speaking
generally of the Californian Indians: 'Die Männer sind im Allgemeinen
gut gebaut und von starker Körperbildung,' height 'zwischen fünf Fuss
vier Zoll und fünf Fuss zehn oder eilf Zoll.' Complexion 'die um ein
klein wenig heller als bei den Mulatten, also weit dunkler ist, als bei
den übrigen Indianerstämmen.' _Osswald_, _Californien_, p. 62. The coast
Indians 'are about five feet and a half in height, and rather slender
and feeble,' in the interior they 'are taller and more robust.'
_Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 364. 'Cubische Schädelform, niedrige Stirn,
breites Gesicht, mit hervorragendem Jochbogen, breite Lippen und grosser
Mund, mehr platte Nase und am Innenwinkel herabgezogene Augen.'
_Wimmel_, _Californien_, pp. v, 177. 'Les Californiens sont presque
noirs; la disposition de leur yeux et l'ensemble de leur visage leur
donnent avec les européens une ressemblance assez marquée.' _Rossi_,
_Souvenirs_, pp. 279-80. 'They are small in stature; thin, squalid,
dirty, and degraded in appearance. In their habits little better than an
ourang-outang, they are certainly the worst type of savage I have ever
seen.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 249. 'More swarthy in complexion, and
of less stature than those east of the Rocky Mountains ... more of the
Asiatic cast of countenance than the eastern tribe.' _Delano's Life on
the Plains_, p. 304. 'Dépasse rarement la hauteur de cinq pieds deux ou
trois pouces; leur membres sont grêles et médiocrement musclés. Ils ont
de grosses lévres qui se projettent en avant, le nez large et aplati
comme les Ethiopiens; leurs cheveux sont noirs, rude et droits.'
_Auger_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 165. 'Generally of small stature, robust
appearance, and not well formed.' _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. ii.,
p. 91. 'Schön gewachsen und von schwärtzlich-brauner Farbe.'
_Mühlenpfordt Mejico_, tom. ii., part ii., p. 455. 'Low foreheads and
skins as black as Guinea <DW64>s.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 85.
'En naissant les enfants sont presque blancs ... mais ils noircissent en
grandissant.' 'Depuis le nord du Rio Sacramento jusqu'au cap San Lucas
... leurs caractères physique, leurs moeurs et leurs usages sont les
mêmes.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., pp. 263, 367. 'Skin of such a
deep reddish-brown that it seems almost black.' _Figuier's Human Race_,
p. 493; _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_, p. 528; _Forbes'
Cal._, pp. 180-3; _Harper's Monthly_, vol. xiii., p. 583. 'A fine set of
men, who, though belonging to different nationalities, had very much the
same outward appearance; so that when you have seen one you seem to have
seen them all.' _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, p. 15.

[506] On the Sacramento River 'the men universally had some show of a
beard, an inch or so in length, but very soft and fine.' _Pickering's
Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 105. 'They had beards and
whiskers an inch or two long, very soft and fine.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 198. On Russian River 'they have quite
heavy moustaches and beards on the chin, but not much on the cheeks, and
they almost all suffer it to grow.' The Clear Lake Indians 'have also
considerable beards, and hair on the person.' At the head of South Fork
of Eel River, 'they pluck their beards.' Gibbs, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 108-119. At Monterey 'plusieurs ont de la barbe;
d'autres, suivant les pères missionaires, n'en ont jamais eu, et c'est
un question qui n'est pas même décidée dans le pays.' _La Pérouse_,
_Voy._, vol. ii., p. 282. 'Les Californiens ont la barbe plus fournie
que les Chiliens, et les parties génitales mieux garnies: cependant j'ai
remarqué, parmi les hommes, un grand nombre d'individus totalement
dépourvus de barbe; les femmes ont aussi peu de poil au pénil et aux
aisselles.' _Rollin_, in _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, vol. iv., p. 53. 'They
have the habit common to all American Indians of extracting the beard
and the hair of other parts of their body.' _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p.
364. Beards 'short, thin, and stiff.' _Bartlett's Nar._, vol. ii., p.
34. 'In general very scanty, although occasionally a full flowing beard
is observed.' _Forbes' Cal._, pp. 181-2. 'Beards thin; many shave them
close with mussel-shells.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 164. 'Ihr
Bart ist schwach.' _Wimmel_, _Californien_, vol. v. At San Antonio, 'in
the olden times, before becoming christians, they pulled out their
beards.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April 27, 1860_. Choris in his
_Voy. Pitt._, plates vi., vii., xii., of part iii., draws the Indians
with a very slight and scattered beard. 'Pluck out their beard.'
_Auger_, _Voy. in Cal._, p. 165. 'Wear whiskers.' _Thornton's Ogn. and
Cal._, vol. ii., p. 91. 'Les Indiens qui habitent dans la direction du
cap de Nouvel-An (del Año Nuevo) ... ont des moustaches.' _Fages_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 335. Mühlenpfordt
mentions that at the death of a relation, 'die Männer raufen Haupthaar
und Bart sich aus.' _Mejico_, vol. ii., part ii., p. 456.

[507] At Fort Ross 'Die Männer gehen ganz nackt, die Frauen hingegen
bedecken nur den mittleren Theil des Körpers von vorne und von hinten
mit den Fellen wilder Ziegen; das Haar binden die Männer auf dem
Schopfe, die Frauen am Nacken in Büschel zusammen; bisweilen lassen sie
es frei herunter wallen; die Männer heften die Büschel mit ziemlich
künstlich, aus einer rothen Palme geschnitzten Hölzchen fest.'
_Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 82. At Clear Lake 'the
women generally wear a small round, bowl-shaped basket on their heads;
and this is frequently interwoven with the red feathers of the
woodpecker, and edged with the plume tufts of the blue quail.' _Gibbs_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 107. See also p. 68, plate xiv.,
for plate of ornaments. At Kelsey River, dress 'consists of a deer-skin
robe thrown over the shoulders.' _Id._, p. 122. In the Sacramento Valley
'they were perfectly naked.' _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._, vol. ii., p.
111. 'Both sexes have the ears pierced with large holes, through which
they pass a piece of wood as thick as a man's finger, decorated with
paintings or glass beads.' _Pfeiffer's Second Journ._, p. 307. 'The men
go entirely naked; but the women, with intuitive modesty, wear a small,
narrow, grass apron, which extends from the waist to the knees, leaving
their bodies and limbs partially exposed.' _Delano's Life on the
Plains_, pp. 305, 307. 'They wear fillets around their heads of leaves.'
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 192. 'The dress of the
women is a cincture, composed of narrow slips of fibrous bark, or of
strings of 'Californian flax,' or sometimes of rushes.' Men naked.
_Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 108. At Bodega
they 'most liberally presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of
bone, garments of feathers, as also garlands of the same materials,
which they wore round their head.' _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 47. 'The women
wore skins of animals about their shoulders and waists;' hair 'clubbed
behind.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 436. Around San Francisco Bay:
'in summer many go entirely naked. The women, however, wear a deer-skin,
or some other covering about their loins; but skin dresses are not
common.' To their ears the women 'attach long wooden cylinders,
variously carved, which serve the double purpose of ear-rings and
needle-cases.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 77. 'All go naked.'
_Chamisso_, in _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 48. 'The men either go
naked or wear a simple breech-cloth. The women wear a cloth or strips of
leather around their loins.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 33.
Three hundred years ago we are told that the men in the vicinity of San
Francisco Bay 'for the most part goe naked; the women take a kinde of
bulrushes, and kembing it after the manner of hemp, make themselues
thereof a loose garment, which being knitte about their middles, hanges
downe about their hippes, and so affordes to them a couering of that
which nature teaches should be hidden; about their shoulders they weare
also the skin of a deere, with the haire vpon it.' The king had upon his
shoulders 'a coate of the skins of conies, reaching to his wast; his
guard also had each coats of the same shape, but of other skin....
After these in their order, did follow the naked sort of common people,
whose haire being long, was gathered into a bunch behind, in which
stucke plumes of feathers; but in the forepart onely single feathers
like hornes, every one pleasing himselfe in his owne device.' _Drake's
World Encomp._, pp. 121, 126. 'Asi como Adamitas se presentan sin el
menor rubor ni vergüenza (esto es, los hombres) y para librarse del frio
que todo el año hace en esta Mision (San Francisco), principalmente las
mañanas, se embarran con lodo, diciendo que les preserva de él, y en
quanto empieza á calentar el Sol se lavan: las mugeres andan algo
honestas, hasta las muchachas chiquitas: usan para la honestidad de un
delantar que hacen de hilos de tule, ó juncia, que no pasa de la
rodilla, y otro atrás amarrados á la cintura que ambos forman como unas
enaguas, con que se presentan con alguna honestidad, y en las espaldas
se ponen otros semejantes para librarse en alguna manera del frio.'
_Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 217. At Monterey, and on the coast
between Monterey and Santa Barbara the dress 'du plus riche consiste en
un manteau da peau de loutre qui couvre ses reins et descend au dessous
des sines.... L'habillement des femmes est un manteau de peau de cerf
mal tannée.... Les jeunes filles au-dessous de neuf ans n'ont qu'une
simple ceinture et les enfans de l'autre sexe sont tout nus.' _La
Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., pp. 304-5. 'Ils se percent aussi les
oreilles, et y portent des ornemens d'un genre et d'un gout
trés-variés.' _Rollin_, in _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 53. 'Those
between Monterey and the extreme northern boundary of the Mexican
domain, shave their heads close.' _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in
Cal._, p. 239. On the coast between San Diego and San Francisco 'presque
tous ... vont entierement nus; ceux qui ont quelques vêtements, n'ont
autre chose qu'une casaque faite de courroies de peau de lapins, de
lièvres ou de loutres tressés ensemble, et qui ont conservé le poil. Les
femmes ont une espèce de tablier de roseaux tressés qui s'attache autour
de la taille par un cordon, et pend jusqu'aux genoux; une peau de cerf
mal tannée et mal préparée, jetée sur leurs épaules en guise de manteau,
compléte leur toilette.' _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844,
tom. ci., p. 155; see also _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en
Cal._, p. 227. 'Sont tres peu couverts, et en été, la plupart vont tout
nus. Les femmes font usage de peaux de daim pour se couvrir.... Ces
femmes portent encore comme vêtement des espèces de couvertures sans
envers, faites en plumes tissues ensemble ... il a l'avantage d'être
très-chaud.... Elles portent généralement, au lieu de boucles
d'oreilles, des morceaux d'os ou de bois en forme de cylindre et
sculptés de différentes manières. Ces ornements sont creux et servent
également d'étuis pour renfermer leurs aiguilles.' _Petit-Thouars_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., p. 135. Speaking generally of the Californian Indians,
'both sexes go nearly naked, excepting a sort of wrapper round the
waist, only in the coldest part of the winter they throw over their
bodies a covering of deer-skin, or the skin of the sea-otter. They also
make themselves garments of the feathers of many different kinds of
water fowl, particularly ducks and geese, bound together fast in a sort
of ropes, which ropes are then united quite close so as to make
something like a feather skin.' It is very warm. 'In the same manner
they cut the sea-otter skins into small strips, which they twist
together, and then join them as they do the feathers, so that both sides
have the fur alike.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 163-4. See also
_Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 364, and _Forbes' Cal._, p. 183. 'Im Winter
selbst tragen sie wenig Bekleidung, vielleicht nur eine Hirschhaut,
welche sie über die Schulter werfen; Männer, Frauen und Kinder gehen
selbst im Winter im Schnee barfuss.' _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 177;
_Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 249; _Patrick, Gilbert, Heald, and Von
Schmidt_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, pp. 240-4; _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._,
part iii., p. 4, and plate xii.; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, vol. ii.,
part ii., p. 455; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 239; _Shea's
Catholic Missions_, p. 98; _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iv., p. 223; _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 457; _Augur_, _Voy. en Cal._, p.
100. After having collated the above notes I was rather taken aback by
meeting the following: 'The general costume of nearly all the
Californian Indians gives them rather an interesting appearance; when
fully dressed, their hair, which has been loose, is tied up, either with
a coronet of silver, or the thongs of skin, ornamented with feathers of
the brightest colours; bracelets made in a similar manner are wore;
breeches and leggings of doe-skin, sewed, not unfrequently with human
hair; a kind of kilt of varied  cloth or silk (!), fastened by a
scarf, round their waist; ... The women wear a cloth petticoat, dyed
either blue or red, doe-skin shirt, and leggings, with feathered
bracelets round their waist.' _Coulter's Adventures_, vol. i., pp.
172-3. Surely Mr Coulter should know an Indian dress from one composed
of Mexican cloth and trinkets.

[508] At Bodega the women 'were as much tatooed or punctured as any of
the females of the Sandwich islands.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p.
436. In the Sacramento Valley 'most of the men had some slight marks of
tattooing on the breast, disposed like a necklace.' _Pickering's Races_,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 105. Dana, in a note to Hale, says:
'The faces of the men were  with black and red paint, fancifully
laid on in triangles and zigzag lines. The women were tattooed below the
mouth.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 222. 'Most of
them had some slight marks of tattooing on their breast; somewhat
similar to that of the Chinooks.... The face was usually painted, the
upper part of the cheek in the form of a triangle, with a blue-black
substance, mixed with some shiny particles that looked like pulverized
mica.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., pp. 198, 259. 'Their
faces daubed with a thick dark glossy substance like tar, in a line from
the outside corners of the eyes to the ends of the mouth, and back from
them to the hinge of the jawbone ... some also had their entire
foreheads coated over.' _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._, vol. ii., p. 111.
'The women are a little tattooed on the chin.' _Pfeiffer's Second
Journ._, p. 307. At Monterey and vicinity, 'se peignent le corps en
rouge, et en noir lorsqu'ils sont en deuil.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom.
ii., p. 305. 'Se peignent la peau pour se parer.' _Rollin_, in _La
Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. iv., p. 53. 'This one thing was obserued to bee
generall amongst them all, that euery one had his face painted, some
with white, some blacke, and some with other colours.' _Drake's World
Encomp._, p. 126. 'Tattooing is practised in these tribes by both sexes,
both to ornament the person and to distinguish one clan from another. It
is remarkable that the women mark their chins precisely in the same way
as the Esquimaux.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 77. 'Les indigènes
indepéndents de la Haute-Californie sont tatoués ... ces signes servent
d'ornement et de distinction, non seulement d'une tribu à une autre
tribu, mais encore, d'une famille à une autre famille.' _Petit-Thouars_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., pp. 134-5. 'Tattooing is also used, but principally
among the women. Some have only a double or triple line from each corner
of the mouth down to the chin; others have besides a cross stripe
extending from one of these stripes to the other; and most have simple
long and cross stripes from the chin over the neck down to the breast
and upon the shoulders.' _Langsdorff's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 167; see
plate, p. 169. When dancing, 'ils se peignent sur le corps des lignes
régulières, noires, rouges et blanches. Quelques-uns ont la moitié du
corps, depuis la tête jusqu'en bas, barbouillée de noir, et l'autre de
rouge; le tout croisé par des raies blanches, d'autres se poudrent les
cheveux avec du duvet d'oiseaux.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, part iii., p.
4; see also plate xii. 'I have never observed any particular figured
designs upon their persons, but the tattooing is generally on the chin,
though sometimes on the wrist and arm.' Mostly on the persons of the
females. _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 223. 'Les
femmes seules emploient le tatouage.' _Auger_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 165.

[509] 'Il est bien rare qu'un Indien passe la nuit dans sa maison. Vers
le soir chacun prend son arc et ses flèches et va se réunir aux autres
dans de grandes cavernes, parce-qu'ils craignent d'être attaqués a
l'improviste par leurs ennemis et d'être surpris sans défense au milieu
de leurs femmes et de leurs enfants.' _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., pp. 316-7.

[510] Two authors describe their dwellings as being much smaller than I
have stated them to be: 'leur maisons ont quatre pieds de diamètre.'
_Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 238. Their wigwams
have 'une élévation au-dessus du sol de cinq à huit pieds et une
circonférence de dix à douze.' _Holinski_, _La Californie_, p. 172. The
authorities I have followed, and who agree in essential particulars,
are: _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., pp. 103, 106;
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 198; _Pfeiffer's Second
Journ._, pp. 307-8; _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.
106; _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p. 242; _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._, vol.
ii., pp. 34, 282; _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, part iii., p. 2; _Drake's
World Encomp._, p. 121; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 30, with
cut; _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 13, 15; _Palou_, _Noticias_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., vol. vi., pp. 367, 390; _Sutil y Mexicana_,
_Viage_, p. 165; _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 295; _Delano's Life
on the Plains_, p. 306; _Gerstäcker's Journ._, p. 218; _Gilbert_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 242; _Patrick_, in _Id._, p. 240; _Jewett_,
in _Id._, p. 244; _Bailey_, in _Id._, 1858, p. 299; _Lord's Nat._, vol.
i., p. 248; _Langsdorff's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 163; _Wimmel_,
_Californien_, pp. 177, 179; _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 365;
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 5; _Baer_, _Stat. und Ethno._, p. 72;
_Kostromitonow_, in _Id._, p. 83; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 239;
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., p. 456; _Johnston_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 223; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._,
vol. ii., p. 91; _Roquefeuil's Voy. Round the World_, p. 29; _Fages_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., pp. 316, 343.

[511] Wilkes, and the majority of writers, assert that the acorns are
sweet and palatable in their natural state; Kostromitonow, however,
says: 'Nachdem die Eicheln vom Baume gepflückt sind, werden sie in der
Sonne gedörrt, darauf gereinigt und in Körben mittelst besonders dazu
behauener Steine gestossen, dann wird im Sande oder sonst wo in lockerer
Erde eine Grube gegraben, die Eicheln werden hineingeschüttet und mit
Wasser übergossen, welches beständig von der Erde eingezogen wird.
Dieses Ausspülen wiederholt man so lange bis die Eicheln alle ihre
eigenthümliche Bitterkeit verloren haben.' _Baer_, _Stat. und Ethno._,
p. 84. The acorn bread 'looks and tastes like coarse black clay,
strongly resembling the soundings in Hampton roads, and being about as
savory and digestible.' _Revere's Tour_, p. 121. Never having eaten
'coarse black clay,' I cannot say how it tastes, but according to all
other authorities, this bread, were it not for the extreme filthiness of
those who prepare it, would be by no means disagreeable food.

[512] Pinole is an Aztec word, and is applied to any kind of grain or
seeds, parched and ground, before being made into dough. '_Pinolli_, la
harina de mayz y chia, antes que la deslian.' _Molina_, _Vocabulario_.
The Aztecs made pinole chiefly of maize or Indian corn.

[513] 'Nos trageron su regalo de tamales grandes de mas de á tercia con
su correspondiente grueso, amasados de semillas silvestres muy prietas
que parecen brea; los probé y no tienen mal gusto y son muy mantecosos.'
_Palou_, _Noticias_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. 68.
Among the presents given to Drake by the Indians was 'a roote which they
call Petáh, whereof they make a kind of meale, and either bake it into
bread or eate it raw; broyled fishes, like a pilchard; the seede and
downe aforenamed, with such like.' _Drake's World Encomp._, p. 126.
Catch salmon in baskets. 'They neither sow nor reap, but burn their
meadows from time to time to increase their fertility.' _Chamisso_, in
_Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 48. 'Les rats, les insectes, les
serpentes, tout sans exception leur sert de nourriture.... Ils sont trop
maladroits et trop paresseux pour chasser.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, part
iii., p. 2. 'Entre ellas tienen una especie de semilla negra, y de su
harina hacen unos tamales, á modo de bolas, de tamaño de una naranja,
que son muy sabrosos, que parecen de almendra tostada muy mantecosa.'
_Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 216; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_,
p. 164; _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 116. 'Their fastidiousness
does not prompt them to take the entrails out' of fishes and birds.
_Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 305. 'Live upon various plants in
their several seasons, besides grapes, and even use the Artemesia.'
_Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., pp. 202, 259. 'Ils trouvent
aussi autour d'eux une quantité d'aloès dont ils font un fréquent
usage.... Ils utilisent éncore la racine d'une espèce de roseau.... Ils
mangent aussi une fleur sucrée qui ressemble à celle de l'églantier
d'Espagne, et qui croît dans les endroits marécageux.' _Marmier_,
_Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, pp. 232-3, 237. Were cannibals and
their sorcerers still eat human flesh. _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii.,
pp. 362, 366-9. The Meewocs 'eat all creatures that swim in the waters,
all that fly through the air, and all that creep, crawl, or walk upon
the earth, with, perhaps a dozen exceptions.' _Powers_, in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. x., p. 324. 'Ils se nourrissent également d'une espèce de
gâteaux fabriqués avec du gland, et qu'ils roulent dans le sable avant
de le livrer à la cuisson; de là vient qu'ils sont, jeunes encore, les
dents usées jusqu'à la racine, et ce n'est pas, comme le dit Malte-Brun,
parce qu'ils ont l'habitude de les limer.' _Auger_, _Voy. en Cal._, p.
163. 'While I was standing there a couple of pretty young girls came
from the woods, with flat baskets full of flower-seed, emitting a
peculiar fragrance, which they also prepared for eating. They put some
live coals among the seed, and swinging it and throwing it together, to
shake the coals and the seed well, and bring them in continual and close
contact without burning the latter, they roasted it completely, and the
mixture smelled so beautiful and refreshing that I tasted a good handful
of it, and found it most excellent.' _Gerstaecker's Journ._, p. 211. See
farther: _Humboldt_, _Pol._, tom. i., pp. 324-5; _Holinski_, _La
Californie_, p. 174; _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp.
106-7, 113; _Wimmel_, _Californien_, pp. 179, 181; _Kelly's Excursion to
Cal._, vol. ii., p. 113; _Taylor's El Dorado_, vol. i., p. 241; _King's
Rept._, in _Taylor's El Dorado_, vol. ii., p. 210; _Langsdorff's Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 163; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 248; _Vancouver's Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 36; _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p.
103; _Petit-Thouars_, _Voy._, tom. ii., pp. 136-7; _Fremont's Explor.
Ex._, pp. 242, 244; _Johnson's Cal. and Ogn._, p. 142; _Hale's Ethnog._,
in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 222; _Placerville Index_, _Aug., 1859_;
_Henley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 303; _Patrick, McDermott,
Gilbert, Benitz, Jannson, Von Schmidt, McAdam, Bowlby, and Jewett_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, pp. 18, 41-4; _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii.,
p. 282; _Helper's Land of Gold_, pp. 269-70; _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._,
vol. iii., pp. 441-2; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp. 450-1; _Thornton's Ogn.
and Cal._, pp. 91-2, 152, 316; _Yate's Sketch of the Sacramento Valley
in 1842, MS._; _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 457; _McDaniels' Early Days of
Cal. MS._; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., pp. 339, 346; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. 455-6; _Knight's Pioneer Life, MS._

[514] When the Indian finds a tree stocked by the carpenter bird he
'kindles a fire at its base and keeps it up till the tree falls, when he
helps himself to the acorns.' _Helper's Land of Gold_, p. 269.

[515] _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 75.

[516] 'When a sturgeon is caught, the spinal marrow, which is considered
a delicacy, is drawn out whole, through a cut made in the back, and
devoured raw.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., pp. 32-3.

[517] _Browne_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xxiii., p. 315.

[518] 'They cook the flesh of this animal in holes dug in the ground and
curbed up with stone like wells. Over this they build large fires, heat
them thoroughly, clean out the coals and ashes, fill them with whale
flesh, cover the opening with sticks, leaves, grass and earth, and thus
bake their repast.' _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 366-7. 'Ils font rôtir
cette chair dans des trous creusés en terre.' _Marmier_, _Notice_, in
_Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 237.

[519] _Johnson's Cal. and Ogn._, p. 132; _Powers' Account of John A.
Sutter, MS._; and _Id._, _Letter to the author, MS._

[520] 'Reinlichkeit kennen sie nicht, und in ihren Hütten sind die
diversesten Parasiten vertreten.' _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 177. 'I
have seen them eating the vermin which they picked from each other's
heads, and from their blankets. Although they bathe frequently, they lay
for hours in the dirt, basking in the sun, covered with dust.' _Delano's
Life on the Plains_, p. 305. 'In their persons they are extremely
dirty.' Eat lice like the Tartars. _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 76-7.
'Very filthy, and showed less sense of decency in every respect than any
we had ever met with.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.
106.

[521] 'Ein Bogen mit Pfeilen und ein Spiess sind ihre Waffen; alles
dieses wird meistens aus jungem Tannenholz verfertigt. Die Spitzen der
Pfeile und Spiesse bestehen aus scharfen, künstlich behauenen Steinen,
zur Bogensehne nehmen sie die Sehnen wilder Ziegen; ausserdem führen sie
in Kriegszeiten eine Art von Schleuder, mit welcher sie Steine auf eine
grosse Entfernung werfen.' _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethno._, p. 89. Bow 'from three to four and a half feet long.'
_Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 368. 'Their arms are clubs, spears of hard
wood, and the bow and arrow.... Arrows are mostly made of reeds.'
_Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Feb. 22, 1860_. 'Die einzige Waffe zur
Erlegung des Wildes ist ihnen der Bogen und Pfeil.' _Wimmel_,
_Californien_, p. 180. 'Their only arms were bows and arrows.' _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 222. Bows 'about thirty
inches long ... arrows are a species of reed ... spears are pointed with
bone.' _Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 306. 'The quiver of dressed
deer-skin, holds both bow and arrows.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 123. 'The point (of the arrow) itself is a piece
of flint chipped down into a flat diamond shape, about the size of a
diamond on a playing-card; the edges are very sharp, and are notched to
receive the tendons with which it is firmly secured to the arrow.'
_Borthwick's Three Years in Cal._, p. 131. 'Arrows are pointed with
flint, as are also their spears, which are very short. They do not use
the tomahawk or scalping knife.' _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. ii.,
p. 91. 'Leurs armes sont l'arc et les flèches armées d'un silex
très-artistement travaillé.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 305.
'Ces arcs sont encore garnis, au milieu, d'une petite lanière de cuir,
qui a pour object d'empêcher la flèche de dévier de la position qu'on
lui donne en la posant sur l'arc.... Ils prétendent que cette précaution
rend leurs coups encore plus sûrs. Les flèches sont moins longues que
l'arc, elles ont ordinairement de 80 à 85 centimètres de long, elles
sont faites d'un bois très-léger et sont égales en grosseur à chaque
extrémité ... l'autre extrémité de la flèche est garnie, sur quatre
faces, de barbes en plumes qui ont 10 centimètres de longueur sur 0,015
millimètres de hauteur.' _Petit-Thouars_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 138. They
'maintain armories to make their bows, and arrows, and lances.' Arrows
'are tipped with barbed obsidian heads ... the shaft is ornamented with
rings of the distinguishing paint of the owner's rancheria. Their knives
and spear-points are made of obsidian and flint.' Arrows are of two
kinds, 'one short and light for killing game, and the other a war-shaft
measuring a cloth-yard in length.' _Revere's Tour_, pp. 121-2. 'Ces
flèches offrent peu de danger à une certaine distance, à cause de la
parabole qu'elles sont forcées de décrire, et qui donne à celui que les
voit venir la temps de les éviter.' _Auger_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 163. 'La
corde, faite avec du chanvre sylvestre, est garnie d'un petit morceau de
peau qui en étouffe le sifflement.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.
378; see _Atlas_, plate 25. 'Ihre Waffen bestehen nur in Bogen und
Pfeil.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., part ii., p. 455. 'They have
no offensive arms at all, except bows and arrows, and these are small
and powerless.... Arrows are about two feet long.' _Gerstaecker's
Journ._, p. 212. 'Sometimes the bow is merely of wood and rudely made.'
_Chamisso_, in _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 48. 'Their weapons
consist only of bows and arrows; neither the tomahawk nor the spear is
ever seen in their hands.' _Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 77. 'A portion
of the string is covered with downy fur' to deaden the sound. Arrows are
invariably pointed with flint. They have 'sometimes wooden barbs.'
Javelins pointed with flint, or sometimes simply sharpened at the end.
_Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 109. Arrows were
about three feet long, and pointed with flint. Short spears also pointed
with flint. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 198. 'Traian
unas lanzas cortas con su lengüeta de pedernal tan bien labradas como si
fuesen de hierro ó acero, con solo la diferencia de no estar lisas.'
_Palou_, _Noticias_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. 68.
'Los mas de ellos traian varas largas en las manos á modo de lanzas.'
_Id._, p. 61; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 249; _Langsdorff's Voy._, vol.
ii., p. 165; _Life of Gov. L. W. Boggs, by his Son, MS._

[522] _Petit-Thouars_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 139.

[523] _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 164;
_Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 228. It is
impossible to locate with certainty the San Miguel of Fages. There are
now several places of the name in California, of which the San Miguel in
San Luis Obispo County comes nearest the region in which, to agree with
his own narrative, Fages must have been at the time. The cimeter
mentioned by him, must have strongly resembled the _maquahuitl_ of the
ancient Mexicans, and it was possibly much farther south that he saw it.

[524] _Powers' Pomo, MS._; _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 169.

[525] _Butte Record_, _Aug., 1866._

[526] 'Suelen entrar en ella entonando cánticos militares mezclados de
extraños alaridos; y acostumbran formarse los campeones en dos lineas
muy próximas para empezar disparándose flechazos. Como uno de sus
principales ardides consiste en intimidar al enemigo, para conseguirlo
procura cada partido que oiga el contrario los preparativos de la
batalla.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 170. 'On coming in sight of
the enemy they form in an extended line, something like light infantry,
and shouting, like bacchanals dance from side to side to prevent the foe
from taking deliberate aim.' _Revere's Tour_, p. 122.

[527] In the vicinity of Fort Ross: 'In ihren Kriegen wird
Unerschrockenheit geachtet; gefangene Feinde tödtet man nicht, sondern
wechselt sie nach beendigtem Kampfe aus; nie verurtheilt man sie zu
Sklaven.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 77. Near Feather River 'they
carry off their dead to prevent their being scalped, which next after
death they are most fearful of.' _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._, vol. ii.,
p. 83. In the Sacramento Valley 'the Californians differ from the other
North American tribes in the absence of the tomahawk and of the practice
of scalping.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 108.
At Clear Lake, 'they do not scalp the slain.' _Revere's Tour_, p. 122.
In the vicinity of San Francisco 'occasionally, they appear to have
eaten pieces of the bodies of their more distinguished adversaries
killed in battle.' _Soulé's Annals of San Francisco_, p. 52. At Monterey,
'lorsqu'ils avaient vaincu et mis à mort sur le champ de bataille des
chefs ou des hommes très-courageux, ils en mangeaient quelques morceaux,
moins en signe de haine et de vengeance, que comme un hommage qu'ils
rendaient à leur valeur, et dans la persuasion qua cette nourriture était
propre à augmenter leur courage.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p.
306. 'Muchos indios armados de arco y flechas y llamándolos vinieron
luego y me regularon muchos de ellos flechas, que es entre ellos la
mayor demostracion de paz.' _Palou_, _Noticias_, in _Doc. Mex. Hist._,
serie iv., tom. vii., p. 53. At Santa Cruz they eat slices of the flesh
of a brave fallen enemy, thinking to gain some of his valour. They 'take
the scalps of their enemies ... they pluck out the eyes of their
enemies.' _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 370. 'Gefangene werden nicht
lange gehalten, sondern gleich getödtet.' _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p.
178. In order to intimidate their enemies 'cometen con el propio fin en
las primeras víctimas las crueldades mas horrorosas.' _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_ p. 170.

[528] _Drake's World Encomp._, p. 126.

[529] 'Make baskets of the bark of trees.' _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p.
368. 'Make a very ingenious straw box for keeping their worm bait alive;
burying it in the earth, yet not allowing the worms to escape.'
_Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite_, p. 52. 'Die gewöhnlichste Form für den
Korb ist halbconisch, 3 Fuss lang und 18 Zoll breit.' _Wimmel_,
_Californien_, p. 182. 'Their baskets, made of willows, are perfectly
water-tight.' _Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 305. 'They sometimes
ornament the smaller ones with beads, pearl-shell, feathers, &c.'
_Revere's Tour_, p. 122 'Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres
utensiles sont artistiquement incrustés de morceaux de nacre de perle
... garnissent leur calebasses et leur cruches d'ouvrages de vannerie
brodés avec des fils-déliés qu'elles tirent de diverses racines.'
_Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 233; _Langsdorff's
Voy._, vol. ii., p. 165; _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p. 243; _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 107; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom.
ii., p. 367; _Chamisso_, in _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 48;
_Borthwick's Three Years in Cal._, p. 131; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._,
tom. i., p. 324.

[530] _Maurelle's Jour._, p. 47. At Clear Lake 'their canoes or rather
rafts are made of bundles of the tulé plant.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iii., p. 107. At San Francisco Bay and vicinity 'the only
canoes of the Indians are made of plaited reeds.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 90. 'They do not possess horses or canoes of any kind; they
only know how to fasten together bundles of rushes, which carry them
over the water by their comparative lightness.' _Chamisso_, in
_Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 48. 'Les Indiens font leur pirogues à
l'instant où ils veulent entreprendre un voyage par eau; elles sont en
roseaux. Lorsque l'on y entre elles s'emplissent à moitié d'eau; de
sorte qu'assis, l'on en a jusqu'au gras de la jambe; on les fait aller
avec des avirons extrêmement longs, et pointus aux deux extremités.'
_Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, part iii., p. 6. Had no boats, but it was
reported that they had previously used boats made of rushes.
_Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 103. 'The most
rude and sorry contrivances for embarcation I had ever beheld.... They
were constructed of rushes and dried grass of a long broad leaf, made up
into rolls the length of the canoe, the thickest in the middle and
regularly tapering to a point at each end ... appeared to be very ill
calculated to contend with wind and waves.... They conducted their canoe
or vessel by long double-bladed paddles, like those used by the
Esquimaux.' _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 5. 'The balsas are entirely
formed of the bulrush ... commonly the rowers sit on them soaked in
water, as they seldom rise above the surface.' _Forbes' Cal._, p. 191.
Build no canoes, but occasionally make use of rafts composed of one or
two logs, generally split. _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v.,
p. 192. 'The "Balsa" is the only thing of the boat kind known among
them. It is constructed entirely of bulrushes ... sit flat upon the
craft, soaked in water, plying their paddles ... most of them in all
kinds of weather, are either below, or on a level with the water.'
_Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 368. 'My opinion is that the Indians of
California, previous to the occupation by the Jesuit Fathers had no
other boats than those made from the tule, and even as late as 1840, I
never knew or heard of an Indian using any other.' _Phelps' Letter, MS._

[531] _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 103;
_Cronise's Nat. Wealth_, p. 23.

[532] _Roquefeuil's Voy._, pp. 25-6. Tule is an Aztec word, from
_tollin_, signifying rushes, flags, or reeds. _Molina_, _Vocabulario._
Mendoza says that when the ancient Mexicans arrived at the site of
Mexico, it was a complete swamp, covered 'con grandes matorrales de
enea, que llaman _tuli_.' _Esplicacion del Codice_, in _Kingsborough's
Mex. Antiq._, vol. v., p. 40. That the Spaniards themselves had not
boats at this time is also asserted by Kotzebue: 'That no one has yet
attempted to build even the simplest canoe in a country which produces a
superabundance of the finest wood for the purpose, is a striking proof
of the indolence of the Spaniards, and the stupidity of the Indians.'
_New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 90.

[533] _Phelps' Letter, MS._

[534] _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 415. 'Sending off a man with
great expedition, to vs in a canow.' _Drake's World Encomp._, p. 119.

[535] The shells 'they broke and rubbed down to a circular shape, to the
size of a dime, and strung them on a thread of sinews.' _Taylor_, in
_Cal. Farmer_, _March 2, 1860_. 'Three kinds of money were employed ...
white shell-beads, or rather buttons, pierced in the centre and strung
together, were rated at $5 a yard; periwinkles, at $1 a yard; fancy
marine shells, at various prices, from $3 to $10, or $15, according to
their beauty.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 325.

[536] The office of chief is hereditary in the male line only. The
widows and daughters of the chiefs are, however, treated with
distinction, and are not required to work, as other women. _Beechey's
Voy._, vol. ii., p. 73. In one case near Clear Lake, when 'the males of
a family had become extinct and a female only remained, she appointed a
chief.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 112. At the
Port of Sardinas 'durmió dos noches en la capitana una india anciana,
que era señora de estos pueblos, acompañada de muchos Indios.' _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. xxxii.

[537] The Kainameahs had three hereditary chiefs. _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 103.

[538] In Russian River Valley and the vicinity: 'Die Achtung die man für
den Vater hegte, geht häufig auf den Sohn über; aber die Gewalt des
Oberhauptes ist im Allgemeinen sehr nichtig; denn es steht einem jeden
frei, seinen Geburtsort zu verlassen und einen anderen Aufenthalt zu
wählen.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, pp. 77-8. 'Derjenige, der am meisten
Anverwandte besitzt, wird als Häuptling oder Tojon anerkannt; in
grösseren Wohnsitzen giebt es mehrere solcher Tojone, aber ihre
Autorität ist nichts sagend. Sie haben weder das Recht zu befehlen, noch
den Ungehorsam zu züchtigen.' _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. u.
Ethno._, p. 86. At Clear Lake chiefdom was hereditary. _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 112. See also pp. 103, 110. Among
the Gualalas and Gallinomeros, chieftainship was hereditary. The Sanéls
live in large huts, each containing 20 or 30 persons related to each
other, each of these families has its own government. The Comachos paid
voluntary tribute for support of chief. _Powers' Pomo, MS._ In the
Sacramento Valley a chief has more authority than that arising merely
from his personal character. _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._,
vol. vi., p. 108. On the coast between San Diego and San Francisco, in
the vicinity of San Miguel 'chaque village est gouverné despotiquement
par un chef qui est seul arbitre de la paix et de la guerre.' _Fages_,
in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 163. See also
_Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 227; _Jewett_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 244; _Gerstaecker's Journ._, p. 213;
_Histoire Chrétienne de la Cal._, p. 52; _Wimmel_, _Californien_, pp.
177-8.

[539] 'El robo era un delito casi desconocido en ambas naciones. Entre
los Runsienes se miraba quasi con indiferencia el homicidio; pero no así
entre los Eslenes, los quales castigaban al delinquente con pena de
muerte.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 171. 'Im Fall ein Indianer ein
Verbrechen in irgend einem Stamme verübt hat, und die Häuptlinge sich
bestimmt haben ihn zu tödten, so geschieht dies durch Bogen und Pfeil.'
_Wimmel_, _Californien_, pp. 177-8; _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.
xii., p. 24.

[540] _Drake's World Encomp._, pp. 124-6.

[541] _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 178.

[542] Near San Francisco, 'teniendo muchas mugeres, sin que entre ellas
se experimente la menor emulacion.' _Palou_, _Vida de Junipero Serra_,
p. 217. At Monterey 'la polygamie leur était permise.' _La Pérouse_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., p. 303. In Tuolumne County 'polygamy is practiced.'
_Healey_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 244. At Clear Lake 'polygamy is
practiced only by the chiefs.' _Revere's Tour_, p. 125. 'Bei manchen
Stämmen wird Vielweiberei gestattet.' _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 178.
'A man often marries a whole family, the mother and her daughters.... No
jealousies ever appear among these families of wives.' _Farnham's Life
in Cal._, p. 367. 'An Indian man may have as many wives as he can keep;
but a woman cannot have a plurality of husbands, or men to whom she owes
obedience.' _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 224. In
the Sacramento Valley 'the men in general have but one wife.'
_Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 108. 'Of these
Indians it is reported that no one has more than one wife.' _Wilkes'
Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 201. 'Entre los Runsienes y
Eslenes no era permitido á cada hombre tener mas de una muger.' _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 170. At Clear Lake and down the coast to San
Francisco Bay 'they have but one wife at a time.' _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 112. In the vicinity of Fort Ross
'es ist nicht erlaubt mehr als eine Frau zu haben.' _Kostromitonow_, in
_Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 88. In the country round San Miguel
'non-seulement ce capitaine a le droit d'avoir deux femmes, tandis que
les autres Indiens n'en ont qu'une, mais il peut les renvoyer quand cela
lui plaît, pour en prendre d'autres dans le village.' _Fages_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 163. See also
_Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 227.

[543] At Monterey, 'ils étaient même dans l'usage d'épouser toutes les
soeurs d'une famille.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 303. Near
Fort Ross, 'die Blutsverwandtschaft wird streng beachtet und es ist
nicht gestattet aus dem ersten oder zweiten Grade der Verwandtschaft zu
heirathen; selbst im Falle einer Scheidung darf der nächste Anverwandte
die Frau nicht ehelichen, doch giebt es auch Ausnahmen.' _Kostromitonow_,
in _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 88. At San Francisco 'no conocen para
sus casamientos el parentezco de afinidad; antes bien este los incita á
recibir por sus propias mugeres á sus cuñadas, y aun á las suegras, y la
costumbre que observan es, que el que logra una muger, tiene por suyas á
todas sus hermanas.' _Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 217.
'Parentage and other relations of consanguinity are no obstacles to
matrimony.' _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 367. 'Souvent une femme presse
son mari d'épouser ses soeurs, et même sa mère, et cette proposition est
fréquemment acceptée.' _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._,
p. 235. 'Este método de comprar las mugeres era comun á entrambas
naciones (Runsienes y Eslenes), bien que entre los Runsienes hacia mucho
mas solemne el contrato la intervencion de los parientes de los novios,
contribuyendo los del varon con su quota, la qual se dividia entre los
de la novia al tiempo de entregar á esta.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage._
p. 171.

[544] _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 223.

[545] _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. xii., p. 23.

[546] _Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 306. At Santa Cruz, 'the Gentile
Indian, when he wishes to marry, goes to the hut of her he desires for a
wife, and sitting himself close by her, sighs without speaking a word,
and casting at her feet some beads on a string, goes out, and without
further ceremony he is married.' _Comellas' Letter_, in _Cal. Farmer_,
_April 5, 1860_. At Clear Lake 'rape exists among them in an authorized
form, and it is the custom for a party of young men to surprise and
ravish a young girl, who becomes the wife of one of them.' _Revere's
Tour_, pp. 125-6.

[547] _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 234. At Clear
Lake 'if the parties separate the children go with the wife.' _Gibbs_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 112.

[548] _Powers' Pomo, MS._

[549] 'The Yukas are often brutal and cruel to their women and children,
especially to the women.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol. ix., p.
308. In the vicinity of Fort Ross, 'sie lieben ihre Kinder mit grosser
Zärtlichkeit.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 77.

[550] _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 178. 'The practice of abortion, so
common among the Chinooks and some other tribes in Oregon, is unknown
here.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 112-13.

[551] Mr Powers, in his _Pomo, MS._, makes this assertion upon what he
states to be reliable authority.

[552] For a full account of this custom of the couvade, as it existed in
various parts of the world, see _Tylor's Researches_, pp. 293-302, and
_Max Müller's Chips_, vol. ii., pp. 271-9. For its observance in
California, see _Venagas_, _Noticias de Cal._, tom. i., p. 94, and
_Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 367.

[553] 'It was not a thing at all uncommon, in the days of the Indians'
ancient prosperity, to see a woman become a mother at twelve or
fourteen. An instance was related to me where a girl had borne her
first-born at ten, as nearly as her years could be ascertained, her
husband, a White Man, being then sixty-odd.' _Powers_, in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. ix., p. 500.

[554] For further authorities on family and domestic affairs, see:
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 456; _Delano's Life on
the Plains_, pp. 306; _Forbes' Cal._, p. 190; _Fages_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., pp. 317-26. Also quoted in _Marmier_,
_Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, pp. 232-35; _Wimmel_,
_Californien_, p. 178; _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv.,
pp. 223-4; _Comellas' Letter_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April 5, 1860_;
_Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 217; _Powers_, in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. ix., pp. 308, 500-6, vol. x., p. 325; _Pickering's
Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., pp. 106-8; _Sutil y Mexicana_,
_Viage_, pp. 170-1; _Borthwick's Three Years in Cal._, p. 129; _La
Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 303; _Rollin_, in _Id._, tom. iv., pp.
57-8; _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., p. 145; _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 112-13; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. v., pp. 201, 259; _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 457; _Gilbert,
McAdam, and Jewett_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, pp. 242-4; _Revere's
Tour_, p. 126; _Reid_, in _Los Angeles Star_, 1852; _Farnham's Life in
Cal._, pp. 367-70; _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 77; _Kostromitonow_, in
_Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, pp. 83-8.

[555] Every traveler who has seen them dance enters into details of
dress, etc.; but no two of these accounts are alike, and the reason of
this is that they have no regular figures or costumes peculiar to their
dances, but that every man, when his dress is not paint only, wears all
the finery he possesses with an utter disregard for uniformity. 'At some
of their dances we were told that they avoid particular articles of
food, even fowls and eggs.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iii., p. 113. Dancing is executed at Santa Cruz, by forming a circle,
assuming a stooping posture, raising a loud, discordant chant, and,
without moving from their places, lifting and lowering a foot, and
twisting the body into various contortions. _Archives of Santa Cruz
Mission._ 'In their dances they sometimes wear white masks.' _Wilkes'
Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 192. 'Se poudrent les cheveux
avec du duvet d'oiseaux.' _Choris_, _Voy. Pitt._, part iii., p. 4. When
a Wallie chief 'decides to hold a dance in his village, he dispatches
messengers to the neighboring rancherias, each bearing a string whereon
is tied a certain number of knots. Every morning thereafter the invited
chief unties one of the knots, and when the last but one is reached,
they joyfully set forth for the dance.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_,
vol. x., p. 325. For descriptions of dances of Neeshenams, see _Powers_,
in _Overland Monthly_, vol. xii., pp. 26-7.

[556] 'Each one had two and sometimes three whistles, made of reeds, in
his mouth.' _San Francisco Bulletin_, _Oct. 21, 1858._ 'Some had
whistles or double flageolets of reed which were stuck into their
noses.' _Revere's Tour_, p. 133. 'The Gentiles do not possess any
instrument whatever.' _Comellas' Letter_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April 5,
1860_. 'Their own original instrument consists of a very primitive
whistle, some double, some single, and held in the mouth by one end,
without the aid of the fingers; they are about the size and length of a
common fife, and only about two notes can be sounded on them.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _Oct. 26, 1860_.

[557] 'They use a species of native tobacco of nauseous and sickening
odour.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 107. 'They
burned the aulone shell for the lime to mix with their tobacco, which
they swallowed to make them drunk.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April
27, 1860_. 'A species of tobacco is found on the sandy beaches which the
Indians prepare and smoke.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v.,
p. 202. 'Se pusieron á chupar y reparé en ellos la misma ceremonia de
esparcir el humo hácia arriba diciendo en cada bocanada unas palabras;
solo entendí una que fué _esmen_ que quiere decir sol; observé la misma
costumbre de chupar primero el mas principal, luego da la pipa á otro, y
da vuelta á otros.' _Palou_, _Noticias_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iv., tom. vii., p. 69; see also p. 77.

[558] On the subject of amusements, see _Kotzebue's Voy._, vol. i., p.
282. _Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 307; _Helper's Land of Gold_, pp.
271-2; _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, pp. 72, 76-7; _Kostromitonow_, in
_Id._, pp. 85-92; _Holinski_, _La Californie_, p. 173; _Comellas'
Letter_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 5, 1860_; _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p.
178; _Drake's World Encomp._, p. 128; _Revere's Tour_, pp. 120-133; _San
Francisco Bulletin_, _Oct. 21, 1858_, _Nov. 29, 1871_; _Powers_, in
_Overland Monthly_, vol. ix., pp. 307-8, 501-5, vol. x., pp. 325-7;
_Power's Pomo, MS._; _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., p. 150;
_Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p. 127; _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol.
iii., pp. 442-6; _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 367; _Hist. Chrétienne_,
pp. 53-4; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pp. ii., p. 456; _Choris_,
_Voy. Pitt._, pt. iii., pp. 4-5; _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, vol. ii., pp.
306-7.

[559] The Meewocs 'believe that their male physicians, who are more
properly sorcerers, can sit on a mountain top fifty miles distant from a
man they wish to destroy, and compass his death by filliping poison
towards him from their finger-ends.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_,
vol. x., p. 327.

[560] 'I incautiously entered one of these caverns during the operation
above described, and was in a few moments so nearly suffocated with the
heat, smoke, and impure air, that I found it difficult to make my way
out.' _Bryant's Cal._, p. 272.

[561] 'Zur Heilung bedienen sich die Schamane der Kräuter und Wurzeln,
grösstentheils aber saugen sie mit dem Munde das Blut aus der kranken
Stelle aus, wobei sie Steinchen oder kleine Schlangen in den Mund nehmen
und darauf versichern, sie hätten dieselben aus der Wunde
herausgezogen.' _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 95;
see also pp. 83, 91, 94-5. 'Until now it has not been ascertained that
the Indians had any remedy for curing the sick or allaying their
sufferings. If they meet with an accident they invariably die.'
_Comellas' Letter_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April 5, 1860_. 'Ring-worm is
cured by placing the milk of the poison oak in a circle round the
affected part.' _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. iii., p. 440. 'Among the
Meewocs stomachic affections and severe travail are treated with a
plaster of hot ashes and moist earth spread on the stomach.' _Powers_,
in _Overland Monthly_, vol. x., p. 327. See further: _Petit-Thouars_,
_Voy._, tom. ii., p. 140; _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 370; _Holinski_,
_La Californie_, p. 173; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 324;
_Beechey's Voy._, vol. ii., pp. 35, 78; _San Joaquin Republican_,
_Sept., 1858_; _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. iv., p. 63; _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., pp. 103, 107; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U.
S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 193; _Pickering's Races_, in _Id._, vol. ix.,
p. 109; _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p.
333; also quoted in _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p.
237; _Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite_, p. 52; _Kelly's Excursion to
Cal._, vol. ii., p. 284; _Powers' Pomo, MS._; _Sutil y Mexicana_,
_Viage_, p. 166; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. ii., p. 94; _Delano's
Life on the Plains_, p. 295; _Laplace_, _Circumnav._, tom. vi., p. 152.

[562] 'From north to south, in the present California, up to the
Columbia river they burnt the dead in some tribes, and in others buried
them. These modes of sepulture differed every few leagues.' _Taylor's
Indianology_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 8, 1860_. A dead Oleepa was buried
by one woman in 'a pit about four feet deep, and ten feet in front of
the father's door.' _Delano's Life on the Plains_, p. 301. At Santa Cruz
'the Gentiles burn the bodies of their warriors and allies who fall in
war; those who die of natural death they inter at sundown.' _Comellas'
Letter_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April 5, 1860_. The Indians of the Bay of
San Francisco burned their dead with everything belonging to them, 'but
those of the more southern regions buried theirs.' _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., p. 363. In the vicinity of Clear Lake all the tribes with the
exception of the Yubas bury their dead. _Geiger_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1858, p. 289.

[563] 'Los Runsienes dividian últimamente entre los parientes las pocas
cosas que componian la propiedad del difunto. Los Eslenes, al contrario,
no solo no repartian cosa alguna, sino que todos sus amigos y súbditos
debian contribuir con algunos abalorios que enterraban con el cadáver
del fallecido.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 172. 'If a woman dies in
becoming a mother, the child, whether living or dead, is buried with its
mother.' _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. iii., p. 437.

[564] 'Die nächsten Anverwandten schneiden sich das Haar ab und werfen
es ins Feuer, wobei sie sich mit Steinen an die Brust schlagen, auf den
Boden stürzen, ja bisweilen aus besonderer Anhänglichkeit zu dem
Verstorbenen sich blutrünstig oder gar zu Tode stossen; doch sind solche
Fälle selten.' _Kostromitonow_, in _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, p. 88.
'The body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a hole, into which the
ashes are thrown and covered.' _Gibbs_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iii., p. 112. See also: _Tehama Gazette_, _May, 1859_; _Sutil y
Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. 171-2; _Powers' Pomo, MS._; also in _Overland
Monthly_, vol. ix., p. 502, vol. x., p. 328, vol. xii., p. 28; _San
Francisco Evening Bulletin_, _April 4, 1861_; _Macfie's Vanc. Isl._, pp.
448-50; _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. ii., p. 306; _Placerville Index_,
1857; _Marmier_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, pp. 230, 236; _Hutchings'
Cal. Mag._, vol. iii., p. 437; _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 178;
_Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 369; _Folsom Dispatch_, in _Cal. Farmer_,
_Nov. 9, 1860_; _Johnston_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 225;
_D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 458; _Henley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p.
242; _Forbes' Cal._, p. 195.

[565] In the Russian River Valley the Indians 'sind weichherzig, und von
Natur nicht rachsüchtig ... sie erlernen mit Leichtigkeit mancherlei
Handarbeiten und Gewerbe.' _Baer_, _Stat. u. Ethno._, pp. 77-8. Near
Fort Ross 'sind sie sanft und friedfertig, und sehr fähig, besonders in
der Auffassung sinnlicher Gegenstände. Nur in Folge ihrer unmässigen
Trägheit und Sorglosigkeit scheinen sie sehr dumm zu seyn.'
_Kostromitonow_, in _Id._, pp. 81-2. 'They appear ... by no means so
stupid' as those at the missions. _Kotzebue's New Voy._, vol. ii., p.
26. At Bodega Bay 'their disposition is most liberal.' _Maurelle's
Jour._, p. 47. At Clear Lake 'they are docile, mild, easily managed ...
roguish, ungrateful, and incorrigibly lazy ... cowardly and cringing
towards the whites ... thorough sensualists and most abandoned gamblers
... wretchedly improvident.' _Revere's Tour_, pp. 120-1. In the
Sacramento Valley they are 'excessively jealous of their squaws ...
stingy and inhospitable.' _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._, vol. ii., p. 114.
'A mirthful race, always disposed to jest and laugh.' _Dana_, in _Hale's
Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 222. 'Possessed of mean,
treacherous, and cowardly traits of character, and the most thievish
propensities.' _Johnson's Cal. and Ogn._, p. 143. In the vicinity of San
Francisco Bay 'they are certainly a race of the most miserable beings I
ever saw, possessing the faculty of human reason.' _Vancouver's Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 13. 'For the most part an idle, intemperate race.'
_Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. ii., p. 78. 'They are a people of a
tractable, free, and louing nature, without guile or treachery.'
_Drake's World Encomp._, p. 131. 'Bastantes rancherias de gentiles muy
mansos y apacibles.' _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom.
vi., p. 497. 'Son muy mansos, afables, de buenas caras y los mas de
ellos barbados.' _Palou_, _Noticias_, in _Id._, tom. vii., p. 59. At
Monterey they 'étaient lourds et peu intelligents.' Those living farther
from the missions were not without 'une certaine finesse, commune à tous
les hommes élevés dans l'état de nature.' _Petit-Thouars_, _Voy._, tom.
ii., p. 134. 'Ces peuples sont si peu courageux, qu'ils n'opposent
jamais aucune résistance aux trois ou quatre soldats qui violent si
évidement à leur égard le droit des gens.' _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom.
ii., p. 297. 'The Yukas are a tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and
every way bad, but brave race.' _Powers_, in _Overland Monthly_, vol.
ix., p. 306. The Tahtoos were very cowardly and peace-loving. _Powers'
Pomo, MS._ Than the Oleepas 'a more jolly, laughter-loving, careless,
and good-natured people do not exist.... For intelligence they are far
behind the Indians east of the Rocky Mountains.' _Delano's Life on the
Plains_, p. 297. The Kannimares 'were considered a brave and warlike
Indian race.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _March 30, 1860_. The
condition of the Wallas 'is the most miserable that it is possible to
conceive; their mode of living, the most abject and destitute known to
man.' _Henley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 241. The Fresno River
Indians 'are peaceable, quiet and industrious.' _Henley_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 304. A rational, calculating people, generally
industrious. _Lewis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1858, p. 291. On the coast
range north and east of Mendocino 'they are a timid and generally
inoffensive race.' _Bailey_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1858, p. 304. In
Placer County they are industrious, honest, and temperate; the females
strictly virtuous. _Brown_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 243. Lazy,
trifling, drunken. _Applegate_, _Ib._ In Tuolumne: friendly, generally
honest, truthful; men lazy, women industrious. _Jewett_, _Id._, p. 244.
In the Yosemite Valley, 'though low in the scale of man, they are not
the abject creatures generally represented; they are mild, harmless, and
singularly honest.' _Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite_, p. 52. At Santa
Clara they have no ambition, are entirely regardless of reputation and
renown. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. ii., p. 21. In stupid apathy 'they
exceed every race of men I have ever known, not excepting the degraded
races of Terra del Fuego or Van Dieman's Land.' _Kotzebue's New Voy._,
vol. ii., p. 97. At Santa Cruz 'they are so inclined to lying that they
almost always will confess offences they have not committed;' very
lustful and inhospitable. _Comellas' Letter_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _April
5, 1860_. At Kelsey River they are 'amiable and thievish.' _Gibbs_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 124. 'In general terms, the
California Indians are more timid, peaceable, and joyous than any of
their neighbors.' _Stephens_, in _Powers' Pomo, MS._ 'Their stupidity,
insensibility, ignorance, inconstancy, slavery to appetite, excessive
sloth and laziness, being absorbed for the time in the stir and din of
night-watching and battle, give them a new existence.' _Farnham's Life
in Cal._, p. 366. 'Faul und jeder Anstrengung abgeneigt.' _Osswald_,
_Californien_, p. 63. 'Stupidity seemed to be their distinctive
character.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 239. 'Loose, lazy,
careless, capricious, childish and fickle.' _Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_,
_March 2, 1860_. 'They are really the most harmless tribes on the
American continent.' _Gerstaecker's Nar._, p. 212. Revengeful, timid,
treacherous and ungrateful. _Kelly's Excursion to Cal._, vol. ii., p.
284. 'Cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent.' _Johnston_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 223. 'Dull, indolent, phlegmatic,
timid and of a gentle, submissive temper.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S.
Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 199. 'In stature no less than in mind are
certainly of a very inferior race of human beings.' _Langsdorff's Voy._,
pt. ii., p. 168. 'Pusillanimous.' _Forbes' Cal._, p. 183. 'Ils sont
également extrêmes dans l'expression de la joie et de la colère.'
_Rollin_, in _La Pérouse_, _Voy._, tom. iv., p. 58. 'Seemed to be almost
of the lowest grade of human beings.' _King's Rept._, in _Bayard
Taylor's El Dorado, Appendix_, vol. ii., p. 210. 'Die Indianer von
Californien sind physisch und moralisch den andern Indianern
untergeordnet.' _Wimmel_, _Californien_, p. 177. 'Su estupidez mas
parece un entorpecimiento de las potencias por falta de accion y por
pereza característica, que limitacion absoluta de sus facultades
intelectuales; y así quando se las pone en movimiento, y se les dan
ideas, no dexan de discernir y de aprender lo que se les enseña.' _Sutil
y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 164. 'I noticed that all the Indians from
Southern to Northern California were low, shiftless, indolent, and
cowardly.' _Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs_, p. 16. Cowardly and
treacherous in the extreme. _Life of Gov. L. W. Boggs, by his Son, MS._

[566] At Santa Catalina 'las mujeres son muy hermosas y honestas, los
niños son blancos y rubios y muy risueños.' _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, p.
18, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv. See also _Farnham's Life
in Cal._, p. 140; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 712. At
Santa Barbara, 'son mas altos, dispuestos, y membrados, que otros, que
antes se avian visto.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 714. On
the coast from San Diego to San Francisco they are 'd'une couleur
foncée, de petite taille, et assez mal faits.' _Fages_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 153; see also _Marmier_, _Notice_,
in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 226. At San Luis Rey, 'sont bien faits
et d'une taille moyenne.' _Id._, p. 171; quoted in _Marmier_, p. 229. An
Indian seen at Santa Inez Mission 'was about twenty-seven years old,
with a black thick beard, iris of the eyes light chocolate-brown, nose
small and round, lips not thick, face long and angular.' _Cal. Farmer_,
_May 4, 1860_. The Noches 'aunque de buena disposicion son delgados y
bastante delicados para andar á pié.' _Garces_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie ii., tom. i., p. 295. 'Well proportioned in figure, and of noble
appearance.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 45. 'The women (of the
Diegeños) are beautifully developed, and superbly formed, their bodies
as straight as an arrow.' _Michler_, in _Emory's U. S. and Mex., Bound.
Survey_, vol. i., p. 107. The Cahuillas 'are a filthy and
miserable-looking set, and great beggars, presenting an unfavorable
contrast to the Indian upon the Colorado.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii., p. 134.

[567] The ordinary cloak descends to the waist: 'le chef seul en a une
qui lui tombe jusqu'au jarret, et c'est là la seule marque de
distinction.' _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci.,
p. 172; see also _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p.
229.

[568] These capes Father Crespi describes as being 'unos capotillos
hechos de pieles de liebres y conejos de que hacen tiras y tercidas como
mecate; cosen uno con otro y las defienden del frio cubriéndolas por la
honestidad.' _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., pp.
291-2; see also _Id._, p. 312.

[569] The lobo marino of the Spanish is the common seal and sea calf of
the English; le veau marin and phoque commun of the French; vecchio
marino of the Italians; Meerwolf and Meerhund of the Germans; Zee-Hund
of the Dutch; Sael-hund of the Danes; Sial of the Swedes; and moelrhon
of the Welsh. _Knight's Eng. Encyc. Nat. Hist._, vol. iv., p. 299.

[570] _Reid_, in _Los Angeles Star_.

[571] _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom.
iv., p. 18.

[572] This hair turban or coil 'sirve de bolsa para guardar en la cabeza
los abalorios y demas chucherias que se les dá.' _Palou_, _Vida de
Junípero Serra_, p. 215. The same custom seems to prevail among the
Cibolos of New Mexico, as Marmier, in his additional chapter in the
French edition of _Bryant's Cal._, p. 258, says: 'les hommes du peuple
tressent leurs cheveux avec des cordons, et y placent le peu d'objets
qu'ils possèdent, notamment la corne qui renferme leur tabac à fumer.'

[573] On the subject of dress see also _Navarrete_, _Introd._, in _Sutil
y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. lxiv.; _Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p.
79; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 45; _Boscana_, in _Robinson's
Life in Cal._, p. 240; _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 138; _Garces_, in
_Doc. Mex. Hist._, serie ii., tom. i., p. 294; _Marmier_, _Notice_, in
_Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 229.

[574] On the Los Angeles Coast: 'La ranchería se compone de veinte casas
hechas de zacate de forma esférica á modo de uno media naranja con su
respiradero en lo alto por donde les entra la luz y tiene salida el
humo.' _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. 314;
_Hoffmann_, in _San Francisco Medical Press_, vol. v., p. 149.

[575] 'Partiéron de allí el 9, entráron en una ensenada espaciosa, y
siguiendo la costa viéron en ella un pueblo de Indios junto á la mar con
casas grandes á manera de las de Nueva-España.' _Navarrete_, _Introd._,
in _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, pp. xxix., xxxi., xxxvi. The accounts of
Cabrillo's voyage are so confused that it is impossible to know the
exact locality in which he saw the people he describes. On this point
compare _Cabrillo_, _Relacion_, in _Col. Doc. Hist. Florida_, tom. i.,
p. 173; _Browne's Lower Cal._, pp. 18, 19; _Burney's Chron. Hist.
Discov._, vol. i., pp. 221-5; _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i.,
pp. 154-5; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 329; _Montanus_,
_Nieuwe Weereld_, pp. 210-11; _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 18; _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 306.
'Nur um die Meerenge von Santa Barbara fand man, 1769, die Bewohner ein
wenig gesittigter. Sie bauten grosse Häuser von pyramidaler Form, in
Dörfer vereint.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. 454-5.

[576] _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 259; _Bancroft's Nat.
Races_, vol. iii., pp. 163-9.

[577] 'One of their most remarkable superstitions is found in the fact of
their not eating the flesh of large game. This arises from their belief
that in the bodies of all large animals the souls of certain
generations, long since past, have entered.... A term of reproach from a
wild tribe to those more tamed is, "they eat venison."' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., pp. 215-6; see also _Reid_, in _Los Angeles Star_.

[578] 'All their food was either cold or nearly so.... Salt was used
very sparingly in their food, from an idea that it had a tendency to
turn their hair gray.' _Reid_, in _Los Angeles Star_. 'I have seen many
instances of their taking a rabbit, and sucking its blood with
eagerness, previous to consuming the flesh in a crude state.' _Boscana_,
in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 239. 'Viven muy regalados con varias
semillas, y con la pesca que hacen en sus balsas de tule ... y
queriendoles dar cosa de comida, solian decir, que de aquello no, que lo
que querian era ropa; y solo con cosa de este género, eran los
cambalaches que hacian de su pescado con los Soldados y Arrieros.'
_Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 79. See also _Torquemada_,
_Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 712; _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 139;
_Stanley_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 102; _Id._, 1869, pp. 194-5;
_Walker_, in _Id._, 1872, p. 67; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p.
125; _Hoffmann_, in _San Francisco Medical Press_, vol. v., p. 149;
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, vol. i., pp. 82-3.

[579] _Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, pp. 83-4.

[580] _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, pp. 306-9.

[581] The baskets, though water-proof, 'were used only for dry purposes.
The vessels in use for liquids were roughly made of rushes and plastered
outside and in with bitumen or pitch, called by them _sanot_.' _Reid_,
in _Los Angeles Star_; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp.
454-5; and _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, vol. i., p. 82.

[582] 'Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres ustensiles sont
incrustés avec beaucoup d'art de morceaux de nacre de perle.' _Fages_,
in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 319. 'Mortars and
pestles were made of granite, about sixteen inches wide at the top, ten
at the bottom, ten inches high and two thick.' Soapstone pots were
'about an inch in thickness, and procured from the Indians of Santa
Catalina; the cover used was of the same material.' _Reid_, in _Los
Angeles Star_. On the eastern <DW72>s of the San Bernardino Mountains,
blankets are made which will easily hold water. _Taylor_, in _San
Francisco Bulletin_, 1862, also quoted in _Shuck's Cal. Scrap Book_, p.
405. 'Todas sus obras son primorosas y bien acabadas.' _Crespi_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. 315.

[583] _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., pp.
319-20.

[584] 'The planks were bent and joined by the heat of fire, and then
paved with asphaltum, called by them chapapote.' _Taylor_, in _Cal.
Farmer_, _June 1, 1860_.

[585] At Santa Catalina Vizcaino saw 'vnas Canoguelas, que ellos vsan,
de Tablas bien hechas, como Barquillos, con las Popas, y Proas
levantadas, y mas altas, que el Cuerpo de la Barca, ò Canoa.'
_Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 712; see also _Salmeron_,
_Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 18. On the
coast of Los Angeles Father Crespi saw 'canoas hechas de buenas tablas
de pino, bien ligadas y de una forma graciosa con dos proas.... Usan
remos largos de dos palas y vogan con indecible lijeriza y velocidad.'
_Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. 315. At San
Diego Palou describes 'balsas de tule, en forma de Canoas, con lo que
entran muy adentro del mar.' _Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 79;
_Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 240; _Marmier_, _Notice_, in
_Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 228. Description of balsas, which differ in
no respect from those used north.

[586] 'The worth of a rial was put on a string which passed twice and
a-half round the hand, i. e., from end of middle finger to wrist. Eight
of these strings passed for the value of a silver dollar.' _Cal.
Farmer_, _June 1, 1860_. 'Eight yards of these beads made about one
dollar of our currency.' _Id._, _Jan. 18, 1861_.

[587] 'If a quarrel occurred between parties of distinct lodges
(villages), each chief heard the witnesses produced by his own people;
and then, associated with the chief of the opposite side, they passed
sentence. In case they could not agree, an impartial chief was called
in, who heard the statements made by both, and he alone decided. There
was no appeal from his decision.' _Reid_, in _Los Angeles Star_.

[588] 'Pour tout ce qui concerne les affaires intérieures, l'influence
des devins est bien supérieure à la leur.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom.
ii., p. 373. At San Diego 'Chaque village est soumis aux ordres absolus
d'un chef.' _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p.
153; or see _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, p. 226. 'I
have found that the captains have very little authority.' _Stanley_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 194.

[589] _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, pp. 262-9.

[590] Dr. Hoffman states that in the vicinity of San Diego 'their laws
allow them to keep as many wives as they can support.' _San Francisco
Medical Press_, vol. vi., p. 150. Fages, speaking of the Indians on the
coast from San Diego to San Francisco, says: 'Ces Indiens n'ont qu'une
seule femme à la fois, mais ils en changent aussi souvent que cela leur
convient.' _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 153. Of
those in the vicinity of San Luis Rey the same author says: 'Les chefs
de ce district ont le privilége de prendre deux on trois femmes, de les
répudier ou de les changer aussi souvent qu'ils le veulent; mais les
autres habitants n'en ont qu'une seule et ne peuvent les répudier qu'en
cas d'adultère.' _Id._, p. 173.

[591] 'Les veufs des deux sexes, qui veulent se remarier, ne peuvent le
faire qu'avec d'autres veufs.' _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._,
1844, tom. ci., p. 173; see also _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_, _Voy.
en Cal._, p. 230.

[592] 'The perverse child, invariably, was destroyed, and the parents of
such remained dishonored.' _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p.
270. 'Ils ne pensent pas à donner d'autre éducation à leurs enfants qu'à
enseigner aux fils exactement ce que faisait leur père; quant aux
filles, elles ont le droit de choisir l'occupation qui leur convient le
mieux.' _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1814, tom. ci., p.
153.

[593] The intoxicating liquor was 'made from a plant called _Pibat_,
which was reduced to a powder, and mixed with other intoxicating
ingredients.' _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 271.

[594] _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 215. For other descriptions of
ceremony observed at age of puberty, see: _Hoffman_, in _San Francisco
Medical Press_, vol. vi., pp. 150-1; _McKinstry_, in _San Francisco
Herald_, _June, 1853_.

[595] 'Pero en la Mision de S. Antonio se pudo algo averiguar, pues
avisando á los Padres, que en una de las casas de los Neófitos se habian
metido dos Gentiles, el uno con el traje natural de ellos, y el otro con
el trage de muger, expresándolo con el nombre de Joya (que dicen
llamarlos asi en su lengua nativa) fué luego el P. Misionero con el Cabo
y un Soldado á la casa á ver lo que buscaban, y los hallaron en el acto
de pecado nefando. Castigáronlos, aunque no con la pena merecida, y
afearonles el hecho tan enorme; y respondió el Gentil, que aquella Joya
era su muger.... Solo en el tramo de la Canal de Santa Bárbara, se
hallan muchos Joyas, pues raro es el Pueblo donde no se vean dos ó
tres.' _Palou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 222. 'Así en esta ranchería
como en otros de la canal, hemos visto algunos gentiles con traje de
muger con sus nagüitas de gamusa, y muy engruesadas y limpias; no hemos
podido entender lo que significa, ni á qué fin.' _Crespi_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. 325. See also _Boscana_, in
_Robinson's Life in Cal._, pp. 283-4; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p.
371; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., pp. 427; _Fages_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 173.

[596] 'In some tribes the men and the women unite in the dance; in
others the men alone trip to the music of the women, whose songs are by
no means unpleasant to the ear.' _McKinstry_, in _S. Francisco Herald_,
_June 1853_. 'In their religious ceremonial dances they differ much.
While, in some tribes, all unite to celebrate them, in others, men alone
are allowed to dance, while the women assist in singing.' _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., p. 214-15.

[597] 'La danse est exécutée par deux couples au son d'une espèce de
flûte, les autres restent simples spectateurs et se contentent
d'augmenter le bruit en frappant des roseaux secs.' _Fages_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., p. 176; _Boscana_, in
_Robinson's Life in Cal._, pp. 289-95; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
pp. 214-15; _McKinstry_, in _S. Francisco Herald_, _June 1853_; _Reid_,
in _Los Angeles Star_; _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom.
vi., p. 322.

[598] _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 380. 'When the new year begun,
no thought was given to the past; and on this account, even amongst the
most intelligent, they could not tell the number of years which had
transpired, when desirous of giving an idea of any remote event.'
_Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 303.

[599] 'For Gonorrhoea they used a strong decoction of an herb that
grows very plentifully here, and is called by the Spanish "chancel
agua," and wild pigeon manure, rolled up into pills. The decoction is a
very bitter astringent, and may cure some sores, but that it fails in
many, I have undeniable proof. In syphilis they use the actual cautery,
a living coal of fire applied to the chancer, and a decoction of an
herb, said to be something like sarsaparilla, called rosia.' _Hoffman_,
in _San Francisco Medical Press_, vol. v., p. 152-3.

[600] I am indebted for the only information of value relating to the
medical usages of the southern California tribes, to _Boscana's MS._,
literally translated by Robinson in his _Life in Cal._, pp. 310-14, and
also given in substance in _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., pp. 378-9, and
to Reid's papers on the Indians of Los Angeles County, in the _Los
Angeles Star_, also quoted in _Cal. Farmer_, _Jan. 11, 1861._

[601] See _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., pp. 377-8, and plate, p. 248,
and Hoffmann, in _San Francisco Medical Press_, vol. v., p. 152.

[602] 'The same custom is now in use, but not only applied to deaths,
but to their disappointments and adversities in life, thus making public
demonstration of their sorrow.' _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._,
pp. 314-15.

[603] _California Farmer_, _May 22, 1863_.

[604] _Reid_, in _Los Angeles Star_.

[605] The latitude of which he fixes at 34° 33´.

[606] _Fages_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1844, tom. ci., pp.
173-4. Quoted almost literally by _Marmier_, _Notice_, in _Bryant_,
_Voy. en Cal._, p. 230.

[607] _Boscana_, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, p. 317.

[608] In spelling the word Shoshone, I have followed the most common
orthography. Many, however, write it Shoshonee, others, Shoshonie,
either of which would perhaps give a better idea of the pronunciation of
the word, as the accent falls on the final _e_. The word means 'Snake
Indian,' according to Stuart, _Montana_, p. 80; and 'inland,' according
to Ross, _Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 249. I apply the name Shoshones to
the whole of this family; the Shoshones proper, including the Bannacks,
I call the Snakes; the remaining tribes I name collectively Utahs.

[609] See _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 249; _Parker's Explor. Tour_,
pp. 228-9; _Remy and Brenchley's Journey_, vol. i., p. 124; _Chandless'
Visit_, p. 118; _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 377; _Carvalho's Incid. of
Trav._, p. 200; _Graves_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 178;
_Beckwith_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. ii., p. 42; _Farley's Sanitary
Rept._, in _San Francisco Medical Press_, vol. iii., p. 154; _Lord's
Nat._, vol. i., p. 298; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 88; _Hesperian
Magazine_, vol. x., p. 255; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 197;
_Prince_, quoted in _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 18, 1861_; _Townsend's Nar._,
pp. 125, 133; _Bryant_, _Voy. en Cal._, pp. 152, 194; _Coke's Rocky
Mountains_, p. 276; _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, pp. 148, 267; _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, p. 312; _Figuier's Human Race_, p. 484; _Burton's City
of the Saints_, p. 585. Mention is made by Salmeron of a people living
south of Utah Lake, who were 'blancas, y rosadas las mejillas como los
franceses.' _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 101. Escalante,
speaking of Indians seen in the same region, lat. 39° 34´ 37´´, says:
'Eran estos de los barbones, y narices agujeradas, y en su idioma se
nombran Tirangapui, Tian los cinco, que con su capitan venieron primero,
tan crecida la barba, que parecian padres capuchinos ó belemitas.' _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. 476. Wilkes writes, 'Southwest of
the Youta Lake live a tribe who are known by the name of the Monkey
Indians; a term which is not a mark of contempt, but is supposed to be a
corruption of their name.... They are reported to live in fastnesses
among high mountains; to have good clothing and houses; to manufacture
blankets, shoes, and various other articles, which they sell to the
neighboring tribes. Their colour is as light as that of the Spaniards;
and the women in particular are very beautiful, with delicate features,
and long flowing hair.... Some have attempted to connect these with an
account of an ancient Welsh colony, which others had thought they
discovered among the Mandans of the Missouri; while others were disposed
to believe they might still exist in the Monkeys of the Western
Mountains. There is another account which speaks of the Monquoi Indians,
who formerly inhabited Lower California, and were partially civilized by
the Spanish missionaries, but who have left that country, and of whom
all traces have long since been lost.' _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex.
Ex._, vol. iv., pp. 502-3. 'On the southern boundary of Utah exists a
peculiar race, of whom little is known. They are said to be
fair-skinned, and are called the "White Indians;" have blue eyes and
straight hair, and speak a kind of Spanish language differing from other
tribes.' _San Francisco Evening Bulletin_, _May 15, 1863_. Taylor has a
note on the subject, in which he says that these fair Indians were
doubtless the Moquis of Western New Mexico. _Cal. Farmer_, _June 26,
1863_. Although it is evident that this mysterious and probably mythic
people belong in no way to the Shoshone family, yet as they are
mentioned by several writers as dwelling in a region which is surrounded
on all sides by Shoshones, I have given this note, wherefrom the reader
can draw his own conclusions.

[610] _Beckwith_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. ii., p. 42; _Heap's Cent.
Route_, p. 102.

[611] Speaking of women: 'their breasts and stomachs were covered with
red mastic, made from an earth peculiar to these rocks, which rendered
them hideous. Their only covering was a pair of drawers of hare-skin,
badly sewn together, and in holes.' _Remy and Brenchley's Journ._, vol.
ii., p. 386; see also vol. i., p. 127, and vol. ii., pp. 389, 404, 407.
'The women often dress in skirts made of entrails, dressed and sewed
together in a substantial way.' _Prince_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 18,
1861_. Hareskins 'they cut into cords with the fur adhering; and braid
them together so as to form a sort of cloak with a hole in the middle,
through which they thrust their heads.' _Farnham's Life and Adven._, p.
376. The remaining authorities describe them as naked, or slightly and
miserably dressed; see _Stansbury's Rept._, pp. 82, 202-3; _Chandless'
Visit_, p. 291; _Heap's Cent. Route_, p. 100; _Irving's Bonneville's
Adven._, p. 255; _Bryant's Cal._, p. 194; _Forney_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1859, p. 365; _Dodge_, _Ib._, pp. 374-5; _Fenton_, in _Id._,
1869, p. 203; _Graves_, in _Id._, 1854, p. 178; _Burton's City of the
Saints_, pp. 217-18, 272-3, 581, 585; _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, pp. 148,
168-9, 212, 218, 225, 227, 267; _Bulfinch's Oregon_, p. 129; _Saxon's
Golden Gate_, p. 251; _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 197; _Brownell's
Ind. Races_, p. 539; _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 331.

[612] _Townsend's Nar._, pp. 125, 133; _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 25; _Dunn's
Oregon_, p. 325; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 228-30, 308-9; _Ross' Fur
Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 249-50, 257-8, vol. ii., pp. 22-3; _Chandless'
Visit_, p. 118; _Carvalho's Incid. of Trav._, p. 200; _White's Ogn._, p.
377; _Lord's Nat._, vol. i., p. 298; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp.
244, 281.

[613] 'The ermine is the fur known to the north-west traders by the name
of the white weasel, but is the genuine ermine.' _Lewis and Clarke's
Trav._, p. 313.

[614] _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 312-15.

[615] 'On y rencontre aussi des terres métalliques de différentes
couleurs, telles que vertes, bleues, jaunes, noires, blanches, et deux
sortes d'ocres, l'une pâle, l'autre d'un rouge brillant comme du
vermillion. Les Indiens en font très-grand cas; ils s'en servent pour se
peindre le corps et le visage.' _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1821, tom. xii., p. 83.

[616] 'They remain in a semi-dormant, inactive state the entire winter,
leaving their lowly retreats only now and then, at the urgent calls of
nature, or to warm their burrows.... In the spring they creep from their
holes ... poor and emaciated, with barely flesh enough to hide their
bones, and so enervated from hard fare and frequent abstinence, that
they can scarcely move.' _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 179. Stansbury
mentions lodges in Utah, east of Salt Lake, which were constructed of
'cedar poles and logs of a considerable size, thatched with bark and
branches, and were quite warm and comfortable.' _Stansbury's Rept._, p.
111; _Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 334; _Irving's
Bonneville's Adven._, p. 255; _Remy and Brenchley's Journ._, vol. i.,
pp. 80-1, 129, vol. ii., pp. 362, 373; _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 101; _Farley_, in _San
Francisco Medical Press_, vol. iii., p. 154; _Farnham's Life in Cal._,
p. 378; _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 538; _Heap's Cent. Route_, pp. 98-9;
_De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 28; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 247, vol.
ii., pp. 256-7; _Coke's Rocky Mountains_, p. 257; _Ross' Fur Hunters_,
vol. ii., p. 117; _White's Ogn._, p. 376; _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 257,
290; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 305; _Fremont's Explor. Ex._,
1842-3, pp. 142, 212, 218; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 136; _Dunn's Oregon_,
pp. 325, 331-2, 337-8; _Bulfinch's Oregon_, p. 179; _Farnham's Trav._,
pp. 58, 61-2; _Simpson's Route to Cal._, p. 51; _Burton's City of the
Saints_, p. 573; _Knight's Pioneer Life, MS._

[617] _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 275; _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 29; _Dennison_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 375; _Saint-Amant_, _Voyages_, p. 325.

[618] 'They eat the seed of two species of Conifers, one about the size
of a hazel-nut, the other much smaller. They also eat a small
stone-fruit, somewhat red, or black in colour, and rather insipid;
different berries, among others, those of _Vaccinium_. They collect the
seed of the _Atriplex_ and _Chenopodium_, and occasionally some grasses.
Among roots, they highly value that of a bushy, yellowish and tolerably
large broomrape, which they cook or dry with the base, or root-stock,
which is enlarged, and constitutes the most nutritious part. They also
gather the napiform root of a _Cirsium acaule_, which they eat raw or
cooked; when cooked, it becomes quite black, resinous as pitch and
rather succulent; when raw, it is whitish, soft, and of a pleasant
flavour.' _Remy and Brenchley's Journey_, vol. i., p. 129. The Shoshones
of Utah and Nevada 'eat certain roots, which in their native state are
rank poison, called Tobacco root, but when put in a hole in the ground,
and a large fire burned over them, become wholesome diet.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. vi., p. 697. 'Of the roots used ... the
pap-pa, or wild potatoe, is abundant.' _Id._, vol. iv., p. 222; see also,
_Id._, vol. v., pp. 199-200. At Bear River, 'every living animal, thing,
insect, or worm they eat.' _Fremont's Explor. Exp._, p. 142, see also
pp. 148, 160, 173-4, 212, 218-19, 267, 273. Inland savages are
passionately fond of salt; those living near the sea detest it.
_Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821, tom. xii., p. 85. The
Utahs eat 'the cactus leaf, piñon-nut, and various barks; the seed of
the bunch-grass, and of the wheat, or yellow grass, somewhat resembling
rye, the rabbit-bush twigs, which are chewed, and various roots and
tubers; the soft sego bulb, the rootlet of the cat-tail flag, and of the
tule, which when sun-dried and powdered to flour, keeps through the
winter and is palatable even to white men.' _Burton's City of the
Saints_, p. 581, see also pp. 573, 577. The Pi-Edes 'live principally on
lizards, swifts, and horned toads.' _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865. p. 145; see
also _Id._, 1854, p. 229; 1856, p. 234; 1861, p. 112; 1859, p. 365;
1866, pp. 114; 1869, pp. 203, 216; 1870, pp. 95, 114; 1872, p. 59. The
Snakes eat a white-fleshed kind of beaver, which lives on poisonous
roots, whose flesh affects white people badly, though the Indians roast
and eat it with impunity. _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. ii., p. 117, see
also vol. i., p. 269-72; _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 539; _Farnham's
Life and Adven._, pp. 371, 376-8; _Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, pp.
255, 257, 401-2; _Wilkes' Nar._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. v., p. 501;
_Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 219; _Bryant's Cal._,
p. 202; _Stansbury's Rept._, pp. 77, 148, 233; _Kelly's Excursion_, vol.
i., p. 238; _Saxon's Golden Gate_, p. 251; _Smith_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1828, tom. xxxvii., p. 209; _Scenes in the Rocky
Mts._, p. 178-9; _Townsend's Nar._, p. 144; _White's Ogn._, p. 376;
_Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 228-31, 309; _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 277;
_Irving's Astoria_, pp. 258, 295; _De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 28-30, 127;
_Stevens_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., p. 334; _Farnham's Trav._,
pp. 58, 61; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., pp. 242, 270, vol. ii., pp.
19, 60, 61, 64, 244, 311; _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. ii., p. 534;
_Simpson's Route to Pac._, pp. 51-2; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp.
270, 288-9, 298-9; _Bigler's Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS._

[619] The Wararereeks are 'dirty in their camps, in their dress, and in
their persons.' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 250. The persons of the
Piutes are 'more disgusting than those of the Hottentots. Their heads
are white with the germs of crawling filth.' _Farnham's Trav._, p. 58.
'A filthy tribe--the prey of idleness and vermin.' _Farnham's Life and
Adven._, p. 325. Bryant says, of the Utahs between Salt Lake and Ogden's
Hole, 'I noticed the females hunting for the vermin in the heads and on
the bodies of their children; finding which they ate the animals with an
apparent relish.' _Bryant's Cal._, p. 154. The Snakes 'are filthy beyond
description.' _Townsend's Nar._, p. 137. 'J'ai vu les Sheyennes, les
Serpents, les Youts, etc., manger la vermine les uns des autres à pleins
peignes.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 47. 'The Snakes are rather cleanly in
their persons.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 61.

[620] 'A weapon called by the Chippeways, by whom it was formerly used,
the poggamoggon.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 309. Bulfinch,
_Oregon_, p. 126, says the stone weighs about two pounds. Salmeron also
mentions a similar weapon used by the people living south of Utah Lake;
concerning whom see note 187, p. 423.

[621] The Utahs 'no usan mas armas que las flechas y algunas lanzas de
perdernal, ni tienen otro peto, morrion ni espaldar que el que sacaron
del vientre de sus madres.' _Escalante_, quoted in _Salmeron_,
_Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, ser. iii., part iv., p. 126. 'Bows
made of the horns of the bighorn ... are formed by cementing with glue
flat pieces of the horn together, covering the back with sinewes and
glue, and loading the whole with an unusual quantity of ornaments.'
_Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 309. At Ogden River, in Utah, they work
obsidian splinters 'into the most beautiful and deadly points, with
which they arm the end of their arrows.' _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._,
vol. i., p. 343. 'Pour toute arme, un arc, des flèches et un bâton
pointu.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 28. 'Bows and arrows are their
(Banattees) only weapons of defence.' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p.
251. The arrows of the Pa-Utes 'are barbed with a very clear translucent
stone, a species of opal, nearly as hard as the diamond; and, shot from
their long bow, are almost as effective as a gunshot.' _Fremont's Expl.
Ex._, p. 267. The Pi-Utes and Pitches 'have no weapon of defence except
the club, and in the use of that they are very unskilful.' _Farnham's
Trav._, p. 58. Southwest of Great Salt Lake, 'their arms are clubs, with
small bows and arrows made of reeds.' _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p.
180. The Pi-Utes 'make some weapons of defence, as bows and arrows. The
bows are about six feet long; made of the savine (Juniperus sabina).'
_Farnham's Life and Adven._, p. 378; see farther, _Remy and Brenchley's
Journ._, vol. ii., pp. 291, 261; _Stansbury's Rept._, p. 232;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 198; _Heap's Cent. Route_, pp. 56,
72, 77, 84, 99; _Palmer's Jour._, p. 134; _Bulfinch's Oregon_, p. 129;
_Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, pp. 146, 255, 400; _Hale's Ethnog._, in
_U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 219; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 228-9,
233; _Irving's Astoria_, p. 279; _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1822, tom. xiii., p. 50; _Bigler's Early Days in Utah and Nevada,
MS._; _Knight's Pioneer Life, MS._

[622] _Remy and Brenchley's Jour._, vol. ii., p. 407; _Heap's Cent.
Route_, p. 99; _Thornton's Ogn. and Cal._, vol. i., p. 171.

[623] 'Taking an enemy's scalp is an honour quite independent of the act
of vanquishing him. To kill your adversary is of no importance unless
the scalp is brought from the field of battle, and were a warrior to
slay any number of his enemies in action, and others were to obtain the
scalps or first touch the dead, they would have all the honours, since
they have borne off the trophy.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 309; see
also p. 265. The Utahs 'will devour the heart of a brave man to increase
their courage, or chop it up, boil it in soup, engorge a ladleful, and
boast they have drunk the enemy's blood.' _Burton's City of the Saints_,
p. 581; see also p. 140. The Utahs never carry arrows when they intend
to fight on horseback. _Heap's Cent. Route_, p. 77; see also p. 100;
_Remy and Brenchley's Journ._, pp. 97, 99; _Stansbury's Rept._, p. 81;
_De Smet_, _Voy._, pp. 28-9; _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 275, vol.
ii., pp. 93-6; _Bulfinch's Oregon_, p. 129; _Farnham's Trav._, p. 36.

[624] The pipe of the chief 'was made of a dense transparent green
stone, very highly polished, about two and a half inches long, and of an
oval figure, the bowl being in the same situation with the stem. A small
piece of burnt clay is placed in the bottom of the bowl to separate the
tobacco from the end of the stem.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 267.
Pots made of 'a stone found in the hills ... which, though soft and
white in its natural state, becomes very hard and black after exposure
to the fire.' _Id._, p. 312. 'These vessels, although rude and without
gloss, are nevertheless strong, and reflect much credit on Indian
ingenuity.' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 274. Pipe-stems 'resemble a
walking-stick more than anything else, and they are generally of ash,
and from two-and-a-half to three feet long.' _Id._, vol. ii., p. 109.
'Cooking vessels very much resembling reversed bee-hives, made of basket
work covered with buffalo skins.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p.
244. Stansbury discovered pieces of broken Indian pottery and obsidian
about Salt Lake. _Stansbury's Rept._, p. 182. The material of baskets
'was mostly willow twig, with a layer of gum, probably from the pine
tree.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 573. The Utahs 'manufacture
very beautiful and serviceable blankets.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
v., p. 200. 'Considering that they have nothing but stone hammers and
flint knives it is truly wonderful to see the exquisite finish and
neatness of their implements of war and hunting, as well as their
ear-rings and waist-bands, made of an amalgam of silver and lead.'
_Prince_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 18, 1861_. 'Les Indiens en font des
jarres, des pots, des plats de diverses formes. Ces vaisseaux
communiquent une odeur et une saveur très-agréables à tout ce qu'ils
renferment; ce qui provient sans doute de la dissolution de quelque
substance bitumineuse contenue dans l'argile.' _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1821, tom. xii., p. 83. 'The pipes of these Indians
are either made of wood or of red earth; sometimes these earthen pipes
are exceedingly valuable, and Indians have been known to give a horse in
exchange for one of them.' _Remy and Brenchley's Journ._, vol. i., p.
130; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 128-32, 228-9, 234.

[625] _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 274.

[626] Among the Snakes in Idaho garments of four to five beaver-skins
were sold for a knife or an awl, and other articles of fur in
proportion. Horses were purchased for an axe each. A ship of
seventy-four guns might have been loaded with provision, such as dried
buffalo, bought with buttons and rings. Articles of real value they thus
disposed of cheaply, while articles of comparatively no value, such as
Indian head-dress and other curiosities, were held high. A beaver-skin
could thus be had for a brass-ring, while a necklace of bears' claws
could not be purchased for a dozen of the same rings. Axes, knives,
ammunition, beads, buttons and rings, were most in demand. Clothing was
of no value; a knife sold for as much as a blanket; and an ounce of
vermilion was of more value than a yard of fine cloth. _Ross' Fur
Hunters_, vol. i., pp. 257-9. See further, _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._,
p. 316; _Townsend's Nar._, pp. 133, 138; _Prince_, in _Cal. Farmer_,
_Oct. 18, 1861_; _Farnham's Trav._, p. 61.

[627] 'They inflict no penalties for minor offences, except loss of
character and disfellowship.' _Prince_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 18,
1861_; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 306-7; _Remy and Brenchley's
Journ._, vol. i., p. 128.

[628] 'It is virtuous to seize and ravish the women of tribes with whom
they are at war, often among themselves, and to retain or sell them and
their children as slaves.' _Drews' Owyhee Recon._, p. 17. The Pi-Edes
'barter their children to the Utes proper for a few trinkets or bits of
clothing, by whom they are again sold to the Navajos for blankets.'
_Simpson's Route to Cal._, p. 45. 'Some of the minor tribes in the
southern part of the Territory (Utah), near New Mexico, can scarcely
show a single squaw, having traded them off for horses and arms.'
_Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 582. 'Viennent trouver les blancs, et
leur vendent leurs enfants pour des bagatelles.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p.
29; _Knight's Pioneer Life, MS._; _Utah, Acts, Resolutions, etc._, p.
87.

[629] 'A refusal in these lands is often a serious business; the warrior
collects his friends, carries off the recusant fair, and after
subjecting her to the insults of all his companions espouses her.'
_Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 582.

[630] 'The women are exceedingly virtuous ... they are a kind of
mercantile commodity in the hands of their masters. Polygamy prevails
among the chiefs, but the number of wives is not unlimited.' _Remy and
Brenchley's Journ._, vol. i., pp. 123-8. They are given to sensual
excesses, and other immoralities. _Farnham's Trav._, p. 62; see also p.
60. 'Prostitution and illegitimacy are unknown ... they are not
permitted to marry until eighteen or twenty years old ... it is a
capital offence to marry any of another nation without special sanction
from their council and head chief. They allow but one wife.' _Prince_,
in _Cal. Farmer_, _Oct. 18, 1861_. At the time of their confinement the
women 'sit apart; they never touch a cooking utensil, although it is not
held impure to address them, and they return only when the signs of
wrath have passed away.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 573.
'Infidelity of the wife, or prostitution of an unmarried female, is
punishable by death.' _Davies_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1861, p. 133. 'Our
Pi-Ute has a peculiar way of getting a foretaste of connubial bliss,
cohabiting experimentally with his intended for two or three days
previous to the nuptial ceremony, at the end of which time, either party
can stay further proceedings, to indulge other trials until a companion
more congenial is found.' _Farley_, in _San Francisco Medical Press_,
vol. iii., p. 155; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp. 307-8, 315; _De
Smet_, _Voy._, p. 27.

[631] The Snakes 'ont une sorte de tabac sauvage qui croît dans les
plaines contiguës aux montagnes du Spanish-River, il a les feuilles plus
étroites que le nôtre, il est plus agréable à fumer, ses effets étant
bien moins violens.' _Stuart_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1821,
tom. xii., pp. 82-3. The Kinik-kinik 'they obtain from three different
plants. One is a _Cornus_, resembling our _Cornus sanguinea_; after
having detached the epidermic cuticle, they scrape the bark and dry it,
when it is ready for use. Another is a Vaccinium with red berries; they
gather the leaves to smoke them when dry; the third is a small shrub,
the fruit and flower of which I have never seen, but resembles certain
species of Daphnads (particularly that of Kauai), the leaves of which
are in like manner smoked.' _Remy and Brenchley's Journ._, vol. i., p.
130; see also p. 132; _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 250; _Lewis and
Clarke's Trav._, p. 306; _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p. 174; _De Smet_,
_Voy._, pp. 25-6; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, pp. 228-9, 237, 242-3.

[632] 'En deux occasions diverses, je comptai cinq personnes ainsi
montées, dont deux, certes, paraissaient aussi capables, chacune à elle
seule, de porter la pauvre bête, que le cheval était à même de supporter
leurs poids.' _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 127; _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, pp.
266, 309-11, 316; _Graves_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 178.

[633] 'With strong constitutions generally, they either die at once or
readily recover.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 581. 'There is no
lack of pulmonary difficulties among them.' _Farley_, in _San Francisco
Medical Press_, vol. iii., p. 155. Syphilis usually kills them. _Lewis
and Clarke's Trav._, p. 316. 'The _convollaria stellata_ ... is the best
remedial plant known among those Indians.' _Fremont's Explor. Ex._, p.
273; _Davies_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1861, p. 132; _Prince_, in _Cal.
Farmer_, _Oct. 18, 1861_; _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p. 276; _Parker's Explor.
Tour_, pp. 228-9, 240-2.

[634] 'The Yutas make their graves high up the kanyons, usually in
clefts of rock.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 150. At the obsequies
of a chief of the Timpenaguchya tribe 'two squaws, two Pa Yuta children,
and fifteen of his best horses composed the "customs."' _Id._, p. 577.
'When a death takes place, they wrap the body in a skin or hide, and
drag it by the leg to a grave, which is heaped up with stones, as a
protection against wild beasts.' _Id._, p. 582; _Remy and Brenchley's
Journ._, vol. i., pp. 131, 345; _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 28; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 359, 363.

[635] The Shoshones of Carson Valley 'are very rigid in their morals.'
_Remy and Brenchley's Journ._, vol. i., p. 85. At Haw's Ranch, 'honest
and trustworthy, but lazy and dirty.' _Id._, p. 123. These Kusi-Utahs
'were very inoffensive and seemed perfectly guileless.' _Id._, vol. ii.,
p. 412. The Pai-uches are considered as mere dogs, the refuse of the
lowest order of humanity. _Farnham's Life and Adven._, p. 376. The
Timpanigos Yutas 'are a noble race ... brave and hospitable.' _Id._, p.
371. The Pi-utes are 'the most degraded and least intellectual Indians
known to the trappers.' _Farnham's Trav._, p. 58. 'The Snakes are a very
intelligent race.' _Id._, p. 62. The Bannacks are 'a treacherous and
dangerous race.' _Id._, p. 76. The Pi-Edes are 'timid and dejected;' the
Snakes are 'fierce and warlike;' the Tosawitches 'very treacherous;' the
Bannacks 'treacherous;' the Washoes 'peaceable, but indolent.'
_Simpson's Route to Cal._, p. 45-9. The Utahs 'are brave, impudent, and
warlike ... of a revengeful disposition.' _Graves_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 178. 'Industrious.' _Armstrong_, in _Id._, 1856, p.
233. 'A race of men whose cruelty is scarcely a stride removed from that
of cannibalism.' _Hurt_, in _Id._, p. 231. 'The Pah-utes are undoubtedly
the most interesting and docile Indians on the continent.' _Dodge_, in
_Id._, 1859, p. 374. The Utahs are 'fox-like, crafty, and cunning.'
_Archuleta_, in _Id._, 1865, p. 167. The Pi-Utes are 'teachable, kind,
and industrious ... scrupulously chaste in all their intercourse.'
_Parker_, in _Id._, 1866, p. 115. The Weber-Utes 'are the most worthless
and indolent of any in the Territory.' _Head_, in _Id._, p. 123. The
Bannocks 'seem to be imbued with a spirit of dash and bravery quite
unusual.' _Campbell_, in _Id._, p. 120. The Bannacks are 'energetic and
industrious.' _Danilson_, in _Id._, 1869, p. 288. The Washoes are docile
and tractable. _Douglas_, in _Id._, 1870, p. 96. The Pi-utes are 'not
warlike, rather cowardly, but pilfering and treacherous.' _Powell_, in
_Id._, 1871, p. 562. The Shoshokoes 'are extremely indolent, but a mild,
inoffensive race.' _Irving's Bonneville's Adven._, p. 257. The Snakes
'are a thoroughly savage and lazy tribe.' _Franchère's Nar._, p. 150.
The Shoshones are 'frank and communicative.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._,
p. 306. The Snakes are 'pacific, hospitable and honest.' _Dunn's
Oregon_, p. 325. 'The Snakes are a very intelligent race.' _White's
Ogn._, p. 379. The Pi-utes 'are as degraded a class of humanity as can
be found upon the earth. The male is proud, sullen, intensely
insolent.... They will not steal. The women are chaste, at least
toward their white brethren.' _Farley_, in _San Francisco Medical
Jour._, vol. iii., p. 154. The Snakes have been considered 'as rather
a dull and degraded people ... weak in intellect, and wanting in
courage. And this opinion is very probable to a casual observer at
first sight, or when seen in small numbers; for their apparent
timidity, grave, and reserved habits, give them an air of stupidity.
An intimate knowledge of the Snake character will, however, place them
on an equal footing with that of other kindred nations, either east or
west of the mountains, both in respect to their mental faculties and
moral attributes.' _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. ii., p. 151. 'Les
Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont ... un peuple plus
misérable, plus dégradé et plus pauvre. Les Français les appellent
communément les Dignes-de-pitié, et ce nom leur convient à merveille.'
_De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 28. The Utahs 'pariassent doux et affables,
très-polis et hospitaliers pour les étrangers, et charitables entre
eux.' _Id._, p. 30. 'The Indians of Utah are the most miserable, if
not the most degraded, beings of all the vast American wilderness.'
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 64. The Utahs 'possess a capacity
for improvement whenever circumstances favor them.' _Scenes in the
Rocky Mts._, p. 180. The Snakes are 'la plus mauvaise des races des
Peaux-Rouges que j'ai fréquentées. Ils sont aussi paresseux que peu
prévoyants.' _Saint-Amant_, _Voy._, p. 325. The Shoshones of Idaho are
'highly intelligent and lively ... the most virtuous and
unsophisticated of all the Indians of the United States.' _Taylor_, in
_Cal. Farmer_, _April 27, 1860_. The Washoes have 'superior
intelligence and aptitude for learning.' _Id._, _June 14, 1861_; see
also _Id._, _June 26, 1863_. The Nevada Shoshones 'are the most pure
and uncorrupted aborigines upon this continent ... they are
scrupulously clean in their persons, and chaste in their habits ...
though whole families live together, of all ages and both sexes, in
the same tent, immorality and crime are of rare occurrence.' _Prince_,
in _Id._, _Oct. 18, 1861_. The Bannacks 'are cowardly, treacherous,
filthy and indolent.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 223. 'The
Utahs are predatory, voracious and perfidious. Plunderers and
murderers by habit ... when their ferocity is not excited, their
suspicions are so great as to render what they say unreliable, if they
do not remain altogether uncommunicative.' _Id._, vol. v., pp. 197-8.
The Pa-Vants 'are as brave and improvable as their neighbours are mean
and vile.' _Burton's City of the Saints_, p. 577. 'The Yuta is less
servile, and consequently has a higher ethnic status than the African
<DW64>; he will not toil, and he turns at a kick or a blow.' _Id._, p.
581. The Shoshokoes 'are harmless and exceedingly timid and shy.'
_Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 538.




  [Illustration: NATIVE RACES of the PACIFIC STATES
   NEW MEXICAN GROUP]


CHAPTER V.

NEW MEXICANS.

      GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THIS GROUP, AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
      OF THE TERRITORY--FAMILY DIVISIONS: APACHES, PUEBLOS, LOWER
      CALIFORNIANS, AND NORTHERN MEXICANS--THE APACHE FAMILY:
      COMANCHES, APACHES PROPER, HUALAPAIS, YUMAS, COSNINOS,
      YAMPAIS, YALCHEDUNES, YAMAJABS, COCHEES, CRUZADOS, NIJORAS,
      NAVAJOS, MOJAVES, AND THEIR CUSTOMS--THE PUEBLO FAMILY:
      PUEBLOS, MOQUIS, PIMAS, MARICOPAS, PAPAGOS, AND THEIR
      NEIGHBOURS--THE COCHIMIS, WAICURIS, PERICUIS, AND OTHER
      LOWER CALIFORNIANS--THE SERIS, SINALOAS, TARAHUMARES,
      CONCHOS, TEPEHUANES, TOBOSOS, ACAXES, AND OTHERS IN
      NORTHERN MEXICO.


The NEW MEXICANS, under which name I group the nations of New Mexico,
Arizona, Lower California, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango,
Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, northern Zacatecas, and western Texas, present
some peculiarities not hitherto encountered in this work. As a groupal
designation, this name is neither more nor less appropriate than some
others; all I claim for it is that it appears as fit as any. The term
Mexican might with propriety be applied to this group, as the majority
of its people live within the Mexican boundary, but that word is
employed in the next division, which is yet more strictly of Mexico.

The territory of the New Mexicans, which lies for the most part between
the parallels 36° and 23° and the meridians 96° and 117°, presents a
great diversity of climate and aspect. On reaching the northern
extremity of the Gulf of California, the Sierra Nevada and coast ranges
of mountains join and break up into detached upheavals, or as they
are called 'lost mountains'; one part, with no great elevation,
continuing through the peninsula, another, under the name of Sierra
Madre, extending along the western side of Mexico. The Rocky Mountains,
which separate into two ranges at about the forty-fifth parallel,
continue southward, one branch, known in Utah as the Wahsatch, merging
into the Sierra Madre, while the other, the great Cordillera, stretches
along the eastern side of Mexico, uniting again with the Sierra Madre in
the Mexican table-land. Besides these are many detached and intersecting
ranges, between which lie arid deserts, lava beds, and a few fertile
valleys. From the sterile sandy deserts which cover vast areas of this
territory, rise many isolated groups of almost inaccessible peaks, some
of which are wooded, thus affording protection and food for man and
beast. Two great rivers, the Colorado and the Rio Grande del Norte flow
through this region, one on either side, but, except in certain spots,
they contribute little to the fertilization of the country. In the more
elevated parts the climate is temperate, sometimes in winter severely
cold; but on the deserts and plains, with the scorching sun above and
the burning sand beneath, the heat is almost insupportable. The scanty
herbage, by which the greater part of this region is covered, offers to
man but a transient food-supply; hence he must move from place to place
or starve. Thus nature, more than elsewhere on our coast, invites to a
roving life; and, as on the Arabian deserts, bands of American Bedouins
roam over immense tracts seeking what they may devour. Here it is that
many a luckless miner and ill-protected traveler pays the penalty of his
temerity with his life; here it is, more than elsewhere within the
temperate zones of the two Americas, that the natives bid defiance to
the encroachments of civilization. Sweeping down upon small settlements
and isolated parties, these American Arabs rob, murder, and destroy,
then fleeing to their strongholds bid defiance to pursuers. In the midst
of all this we find another phenomenon in the semi-civilized
towns-people of New Mexico and Arizona; a spontaneous awakening from
the ruder phases of savagism.

The families of this division may be enumerated as follows: The
_Apaches_, under which general name I include all the savage tribes
roaming through New Mexico, the north-western portion of Texas, a small
part of northern Mexico, and Arizona; the _Pueblos_, or partially
cultivated towns-people of New Mexico and Arizona, with whom I unite,
though not town-builders, the non-nomadic Pimas, Maricopas and Pápagos
of the lower Gila River; the _Lower Californians_, who occupy the
peninsula; and the _Northern Mexicans_, which term includes the various
nations scattered over the States of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua,
Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and northern Zacatecas.


  [Sidenote: THE APACHES.]

To the APACHES, using the term in the signification of a family of this
division, no accurate boundaries can be assigned. Owing to their roving
proclivities and incessant raids they are led first in one direction and
then in another. In general terms they may be said to range about as
follows: The _Comanches_, Jetans, or Nauni, consisting of three tribes,
the Comanches proper, the Yamparacks, and Tenawas, inhabiting northern
Texas, eastern Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and portions of
south-western New Mexico,[636] by language allied to the Shoshone
family;[637] the _Apaches_, who call themselves Shis Inday, or 'men of
the woods,'[638] and whose tribal divisions are the Chiricaguis,
Coyoteros, Faraones, Gileños, Lipanes, Llaneros, Mescaleros, Mimbreños,
Natages, Pelones, Pinaleños, Tejuas, Tontos and Vaqueros, roaming over
New Mexico, Arizona, north-western Texas, Chihuahua and Sonora,[639] and
who are allied by language to the great Tinneh family;[640] the
_Navajos_, or Tenuai, 'men,' as they designate themselves, having
linguistic affinities with the Apache nation, with which indeed they
are sometimes classed, living in and around the Sierra de los
Mimbres;[641] the _Mojaves_, occupying both banks of the Colorado in
Mojave Valley; the _Hualapais_, near the headwaters of Bill Williams
Fork; the _Yumas_, on the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction
with the Rio Gila;[642] the _Cosninos_, who like the Hualapais are
sometimes included in the Apache nation, ranging through the Mogollon
Mountains;[643] and the _Yampais_, between Bill Williams Fork and the
Rio Hassayampa.[644] Of the multitude of names mentioned by the early
Spanish authorities, I only give in addition to the above the
_Yalchedunes_, located on the west bank of the Colorado in about
latitude 33° 20´, the _Yamajabs_, on the east bank of the same river, in
about latitude 34°-35°; the _Cochees_, in the Chiricagui Mountains of
Arizona, the _Cruzados_[645] in New Mexico, and finally the
_Nijoras_,[646] somewhere about the lower Colorado.[647]

The Apache country is probably the most desert of all, alternating
between sterile plains and wooded mountains, interspersed with
comparatively few rich valleys. The rivers do little to fertilize the
soil except in spots; the little moisture that appears is quickly
absorbed by the cloudless air and arid plains which stretch out,
sometimes a hundred miles in length and breadth, like lakes of sand. In
both mountain and desert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from
childhood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat.
It is here, among our western nations, that we first encounter thieving
as a profession. No savage is fond of work; indeed, labor and savagism
are directly antagonistic, for if the savage continues to labor he can
but become civilized. Now the Apache is not as lazy as some of his
northern brothers, yet he will not work, or if he does, like the Pueblos
who are nothing but partially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches, he
forthwith elevates himself, and is no longer an Apache; but being
somewhat free from the vice of laziness, though subject in an eminent
degree to all other vices of which mankind have any knowledge, he
presents the anomaly of uniting activity with barbarism, and for this he
must thank his thievish propensities. Leaving others to do the work, he
cares not whom, the agriculturists of the river-bottoms or the
towns-people of the north, he turns Ishmaelite, pounces upon those near
and more remote, and if pursued retreats across the _jornadas del
muerte_, or 'journeys of death' as the Mexican calls them, and finds
refuge in the gorges, cañons, and other almost impregnable natural
fortresses of the mountains.

  [Sidenote: PHYSIQUE OF APACHES.]

  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES.]

The disparity in physical appearance between some of these nations,
which may be attributed for the most part to diet, is curious. While
those who subsist on mixed vegetable and animal food, present a tall,
healthy, and muscular development, hardly excelled by the Caucasian
race, those that live on animal food, excepting perhaps the Comanches,
are small in stature, wrinkled, shriveled, and hideously ugly.[648] All
the natives of this family, with the exception of the Apaches proper,
are tall, well-built, with muscles strongly developed, pleasing
features, although at times rather broad faces, high foreheads, large,
clear, dark- eyes, possessing generally extraordinary powers of
vision, black coarse hair and, for a wonder, beards. Taken as a whole,
they are the most perfect specimens of physical manhood that we have yet
encountered. While some, and particularly females, are of a light copper
color, others again approach near to the dark Californian. Women are
generally plumper, inclining more to obesity than the men. Some comely
girls are spoken of amongst them, but they grow old early.[649] In
contradistinction to all this the Apaches proper, or Apache nation, as
we may call them, are slim, ill developed, but very agile. Their height
is about five feet four to five inches; features described as ugly,
repulsive, emotionless, flat, and approaching the Mongol cast, while the
head is covered with an unkempt mass of coarse, shocky, rusty black
hair, not unlike bristles. The women are not at all behind the men in
ugliness, and a pleasing face is a rarity. A feature common to the
family is remarkably small feet; in connection with which may be
mentioned the peculiarity which obtains on the lower Colorado, of having
the large toe widely separated from the others, which arises probably
from wading in marshy bottoms. All the tribes whose principal
subsistence is meat, and more particularly those that eat horse and mule
flesh, are said to exhale a peculiar scent, something like the animals
themselves when heated.[650]

  [Sidenote: DRESS OF APACHES AND MOJAVES.]

All the natives of this region wear the hair much in the same manner,
cut square across the forehead, and flowing behind.[651] The Mojave men
usually twist or plait it, while with the women it is allowed to hang
loose. Tattooing is common, but not universal; many of the Mojave women
tattoo the chin in vertical lines like the Central Californians, except
that the lines are closer together.[652] Paint is freely used among the
Mojaves, black and red predominating, but the Apaches, Yumas, and others
use a greater variety of colors.[653] Breech-cloth and moccasins are the
ordinary dress of the men,[654] while the women have a short petticoat
of bark.[655] The dress of the Mojaves and Apaches is often more
pretentious, being a buckskin shirt, skull-cap or helmet, and moccasins
of the same material; the latter, broad at the toes, slightly turned up,
and reaching high up on the leg, serve as a protection against cacti and
thorns.[656] It is a common practice among these tribes to plaster the
head and body with mud, which acts as a preventive against vermin and a
protection from the sun's rays.[657] In their selection of ornaments
the Mojaves show a preference for white, intermixed with blue; necklaces
and bracelets made from beads and small shells, usually strung together,
but sometimes sewed on to leather bands are much in vogue. The Apache
nation adopt a more fantastic style in painting and in their head-dress;
for ornament they employ deer-hoofs, shells, fish-bones, beads, and
occasionally porcupine-quills, with which the women embroider their
short deer-skin petticoats.[658] The Navajoes, both men and women, wear
the hair long, tied or clubbed up behind; they do not tattoo or
disfigure themselves with paint.[659] The ordinary dress is a species of
hunting-shirt, or doublet, of deer-skin, or a blanket confined at the
waist by a belt; buckskin breeches, sometimes ornamented up the seams
with pieces of silver or porcupine-quills; long moccasins, reaching well
up the leg, and a round helmet-shaped cap, also of buckskin, surmounted
with a plume of eagle or wild turkey feathers, and fastened with a
chin-strap. The women wear a blanket and waist-belt, breeches and
moccasins. The belts, which are of buckskin, are frequently richly
ornamented with silver. They sometimes also use porcupine-quills, with
which they embroider their garments.[660]

  [Sidenote: COMANCHE DRESS AND ORNAMENT.]

The Comanches of both sexes tattoo the face, and body generally on the
breast.[661] The men do not cut the hair, but gather it into tufts or
plaits, to which they attach round pieces of silver graduated in size
from top to bottom; those who cannot obtain or afford silver use beads,
tin, or glass.[662] Much time is spent by them in painting and adorning
their person--red being a favorite color; feathers also form a necessary
adjunct to their toilet.[663] Some few wear a deer-skin shirt, but the
more common dress is the buffalo-robe, which forms the sole covering for
the upper part of the body; in addition, the breech-cloth, leggins, and
moccasins are worn. The women crop the hair short, and a long shirt made
of deer-skin, which extends from the neck to below the knees, with
leggins and moccasins, are their usual attire.[664]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS OF THE APACHES.]

Nomadic and roving in their habits, they pay little attention to the
construction of their dwellings. Seldom do they remain more than a week
in one locality;[665] hence their lodges are comfortless, and
diversified in style according to caprice and circumstances. The
frame-work everywhere is usually of poles, the Comanches placing them
erect, the Lipans bringing the tops together in cone-shape, while the
Apaches bend them over into a low oval;[666] one or other of the above
forms is usually adopted by all this family,[667] with unimportant
differences depending on locality and variations of climate. The
framework is covered with brushwood or skins, sometimes with grass or
flat stones. They are from twelve to eighteen feet in diameter at the
widest part, and vary from four to eight feet in height,[668] which is
sometimes increased by excavation.[669] A triangular opening serves as a
door, which is closed with a piece of cloth or skin attached to the
top.[670] When on or near rocky ground they live in caves, whence some
travelers have inferred that they build stone houses.[671] A few of the
Mojave dwellings are so superior to the others that they deserve special
notice. They may be described as a sort of shed having perpendicular
walls and sloping roof, the latter supported by a horizontal beam
running along the center, the roof projecting in front so as to form a
kind of portico. The timber used is cottonwood, and the interstices are
filled up with mud or straw.[672] None of their houses have windows, the
door and smoke-hole in the roof serving for this purpose; but, as many
of them have their fires outside, the door is often the only
opening.[673]

  [Sidenote: NEW MEXICAN DWELLINGS.]

Small huts about three feet in height constitute their medicine-lodges,
or bath-houses, and are generally in form and material like their other
structures.[674] The Mojaves also build granaries in a cylindrical form
with conical, skillfully made osier roofs.[675]

  [Sidenote: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE.]

The food of all is similar;[676] most of them make more or less
pretentions to agriculture, and are habituated to a vegetable diet, but
seldom do any of them raise a sufficient supply for the year's
consumption, and they are therefore forced to rely on the mesquit-bean,
the piñon-nut and the maguey-plant, _agave mexicana_, and other wild
fruits, which they collect in considerable quantities.[677] They are but
indifferent hunters, and secure only a precarious supply of small game,
such as rabbits and squirrels, with ultimate recourse to rats,
grasshoppers, lizards and other reptiles.[678] A few fish are taken by
those living in the neighborhood of rivers.[679] The Navajos, Mojaves,
and Yumas, have long been acquainted with the art of agriculture and
grow corn, beans, pumpkins, melons, and other vegetables, and also some
wheat; some attempt a system of irrigation, and others select for their
crops that portion of land which has been overflowed by the river. The
Navajos possess numerous flocks of sheep, which though used for food,
they kill only when requiring the wool for blankets. Although in later
years they have cows, they do not make butter or cheese, but only a curd
from sour milk, from which they express the whey and of which they are
very fond.[680]

Their method of planting is simple; with a short sharp-pointed stick
small holes are dug in the ground into which they drop the seeds, and no
further care is given to the crop except to keep it partially free from
weeds.[681]

Maize soaked in water is ground to a paste between two stones. From this
paste tortillas, or thin cakes, are made which are baked on a hot stone.
To cook the maguey, a hole is made in the ground, in which a fire is
kindled; after it has burned some time the maguey-bulb is buried in the
hot ashes and roasted. Some concoct a gypsy sort of dish or ollapodrida;
game, and such roots or herbs as they can collect, being put in an
earthen pot with water and boiled.[682]

As before mentioned, the roving Apaches obtain most of their food by
hunting and plunder; they eat more meat and less vegetable diet than the
other Arizona tribes. They have a great partiality for horse-flesh,
seldom eat fish, but kill deer and antelope.[683] When hunting they
frequently disguise themselves in a skin, and imitating closely the
habits and movements of the animal, they contrive to approach within
shooting-distance.[684] Whether it be horse or deer, every portion of
the carcass with the exception of the bones, is consumed, the entrails
being a special delicacy. Their meat they roast partially in the fire,
and eat it generally half raw. When food is plenty they eat ravenously
and consume an enormous quantity; when scarce, they fast long and
stoically. Most of them hate bear-meat and pork. So Jew-like is the
Navajo in this particular that he will not touch pork though
starving.[685]

  [Sidenote: BUFFALO HUNTING.]

The Comanches do not cultivate the soil, but subsist entirely by the
chase. Buffalo, which range in immense herds throughout their country,
are the chief food, the only addition to it being a few wild plants and
roots; hence they may be said to be almost wholly flesh-eaters.[686] In
pursuit of the buffalo they exhibit great activity, skill, and daring.
When approaching a herd, they advance in close column, gradually
increasing their speed, and as the distance is lessened, they separate
into two or more groups, and dashing into the herd at full gallop,
discharge their arrows right and left with great rapidity; others hunt
buffalo with spears, but the common and more fatal weapon is the bow and
arrow. The skinning and cutting up of the slain animals is usually the
task of the women.[687] The meat and also the entrails are eaten both
raw and roasted. A fire being made in a hole, sticks are ranged round
it, meeting at the top, on which the meat is placed. The liver is a
favorite morsel, and is eaten raw; they also drink the warm blood of the
animal.[688] No provision is made for a time of scarcity, but when many
buffalo are killed, they cut portions of them into long strips, which,
after being dried in the sun, are pounded fine. This pemican they carry
with them in their hunting expeditions, and when unsuccessful in the
chase, a small quantity boiled in water or cooked with grease, serves
for a meal. When unable to procure game, they sometimes kill their
horses and mules for food, but this only when compelled by
necessity.[689] In common with all primitive humanity they are
filthy--never bathing except in summer[690]--with little or no sense of
decency.[691]

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS.]

  [Sidenote: BOW AND LANCE.]

Throughout Arizona and New Mexico, the bow and arrow is the principal
weapon, both in war and in the chase; to which are added, by those
accustomed to move about on horseback, the shield and lance;[692] with
such also the Mexican riata may now occasionally be seen.[693] In
battle, the Colorado River tribes use a club made of hard heavy wood,
having a large mallet-shaped head, with a small handle, through which a
hole is bored, and in which a leather thong is introduced for the
purpose of securing it in the hand.[694] They seldom use the tomahawk.
Some carry slings with four cords attached.[695] The bows are made of
yew, bois d'arc, or willow, and strengthened by means of deer-sinews,
firmly fastened to the back with a strong adhesive mixture. The length
varies from four to five feet. The string is made from sinews of the
deer.[696] A leathern arm-guard is worn round the left wrist to defend
it from the blow of the string.[697] The arrows measure from twenty to
thirty inches, according to length of bow, and the shaft is composed of
two pieces; the notch end, which is the longer, consisting of a reed,
into which is fitted a shorter piece made of acacia, or some other hard
wood, and tipped with obsidian, agate, or iron. It is intended that when
an object is struck, and an attempt is made to draw out the arrow, the
pointed end shall remain in the wound. There is some difference in the
feathering; most nations employing three feathers, tied round the shaft
at equal distances with fine tendons. The Tontos have their arrows
winged with four feathers, while some of the Comanches use only two. All
have some distinguishing mark in their manner of winging, painting, or
carving on their arrows.[698] The quiver is usually made of the skin of
some animal, deer or sheep, sometimes of a fox or wild-cat skin entire
with the tail appended, or of reeds, and carried slung at the back or
fastened to a waist-belt.[699] The lance is from twelve to fifteen feet
long, the point being a long piece of iron, a knife or sword blade
socketed into the pole.[700] Previous to the introduction of iron,
their spears were pointed with obsidian or some other flinty substance
which was hammered and ground to a sharp edge. The frame of the shield
is made of light basket-work, covered with two or three thicknesses of
buffalo-hide; between the layers of hide it is usual with the Comanches
to place a stuffing of hair, thus rendering them almost bullet proof.
Shields are painted in various devices and decorated with feathers,
pieces of leather, and other finery, also with the scalps of enemies,
and are carried on the left arm by two straps.[701]

  [Sidenote: APACHE WARRIORS.]

Their fighting has more the character of assassination and murder than
warfare. They attack only when they consider success a foregone
conclusion, and rather than incur the risk of losing a warrior will for
days lie in ambush till a fair opportunity for surprising the foe
presents itself.[702] The ingenuity of the Apache in preparing an ambush
or a surprise is described by Colonel Cremony as follows: "He has as
perfect a knowledge of the assimilation of colors as the most
experienced Paris modiste. By means of his acumen in this respect, he
can conceal his swart body amidst the green grass, behind brown shrubs,
or gray rocks, with so much address and judgment that any but the
experienced would pass him by without detection at the distance of three
or four yards. Sometimes they will envelop themselves in a gray blanket,
and by an artistic sprinkling of earth, will so resemble a granite
boulder as to be passed within near range without suspicion. At others,
they will cover their persons with freshly gathered grass, and lying
prostrate, appear as a natural portion of the field. Again they will
plant themselves among the Yuccas, and so closely imitate the appearance
of that tree as to pass for one of its species."

Before undertaking a raid they secrete their families in the mountain
fastnesses, or elsewhere, then two by two, or in greater numbers, they
proceed by different routes, to a place of rendezvous, not far from
where the assault is to be made or where the ambuscade is to be
prepared. When, after careful observation, coupled with the report of
their scouts, they are led to presume that little, if any, resistance
will be offered them, a sudden assault is made, men, women and children
are taken captives, and animals and goods secured, after which their
retreat is conducted in an orderly and skillful manner, choosing
pathways over barren and rugged mountains which are known only to
themselves.[703] Held asunder from congregating in large bodies by a
meagerness of provisions, they have recourse to a system of signals
which facilitates intercourse with each other. During the day one or
more columns of smoke are the signals made for the scattered and
roaming bands to rendezvous, or they serve as a warning against
approaching danger. To the same end at night they used a fire beacon;
besides these, they have various other means of telegraphing which are
understood only by them, for example, the displacement and arrangement
of a few stones on the trail, or a bended twig, is to them a note of
warning as efficient, as is the bugle-call to disciplined troops.[704]

They treat their prisoners cruelly; scalping them, or burning them at
the stake; yet, ruled as they are by greediness, they are always ready
to exchange them for horses, blankets, beads, or other property. When
hotly pursued, they murder their male prisoners, preserving only the
females and children, and the captured cattle, though under desperate
circumstances they do not hesitate to slaughter the latter.[705] The
Apaches returning to their families from a successful expedition, are
received by the women with songs and feasts, but if unsuccessful they
are met with jeers and insults. On such occasions says Colonel Cremony,
"the women turn away from them with assured indifference and contempt.
They are upbraided as cowards, or for want of skill and tact, and are
told that such men should not have wives, because they do not know how
to provide for their wants. When so reproached, the warriors hang their
heads and offer no excuse for their failure. To do so would only subject
them to more ridicule and objurgation; but Indian-like, they bide their
time in the hope of finally making their peace by some successful raid."
If a Mojave is taken prisoner he is forever discarded in his own nation,
and should he return his mother even will not own him.[706]

  [Sidenote: COMANCHE WARRIORS.]

The Comanches, who are better warriors than the Apaches, highly honor
bravery on the battle-field. From early youth, they are taught the art
of war, and the skillful handling of their horses and weapons; and they
are not allowed a seat in the council, until their name is garnished by
some heroic deed.[707] Before going on the war-path they perform certain
ceremonies, prominent among which is the war-dance.[708] They invariably
fight on horseback with the bow and arrow, spear and shield, and in the
management of these weapons they have no superiors.

Their mode of attack is sudden and impetuous; they advance in column,
and when near the enemy form subdivisions charging on the foe
simultaneously from opposite sides, and while keeping their horses in
constant motion, they throw themselves over the side, leaving only a
small portion of the body exposed, and in this position discharge their
arrows over the back of the animal or under his neck with great rapidity
and precision.[709] A few scalps are taken, for the purpose of being
used at the war or scalp dance by which they celebrate a victory.
Prisoners belong to the captors and the males are usually killed, but
women are reserved and become the wives or servants of their owners,
while children of both sexes are adopted into the tribe.[710] Peace
ceremonies take place at a council of warriors, when the pipe is passed
round and smoked by each, previous to which an interchange of presents
is customary.[711]

  [Sidenote: IMPLEMENTS.]

Household utensils are made generally of wickerwork, or straw, which, to
render them watertight, are coated with some resinous substance. The
Mojaves and a few of the Apache tribes have also burnt-clay vessels,
such as water-jars and dishes.[712] For grinding maize, as before
stated, a kind of metate is used, which with them is nothing more than a
convex and a concave stone.[713] Of agricultural implements they know
nothing; a pointed stick, crooked at one end, which they call
_kishishai_, does service as a corn-planter in spring, and during the
later season answers also for plucking fruit from trees, and again, in
times of scarcity, to dig rats and prairie dogs from their subterranean
retreats. Their cradle is a flat board, padded, on which the infant is
fastened; on the upper part is a little hood to protect the head, and it
is carried by the mother on her back, suspended by a strap.[714] Their
saddles are simply two rolls of straw covered with deer or antelope
skin, which are connected by a strap; a piece of raw hide serves for
girths and stirrups. In later years the Mexican saddle, or one
approaching it in shape, has been adopted, and the Navajos have
succeeded in making a pretty fair imitation of it, of hard ash. Their
bridles, which consist of a rein attached to the lower jaw, are very
severe on the animal.[715] Although not essentially a fish-eating
people, the Mojaves and Axuas display considerable ingenuity in the
manufacture of fishing-nets, which are noted for their strength and
beauty. Plaited grass, or the fibry bark of the willow, are the
materials of which they are made.[716] Fire is obtained in the old
primitive fashion of rubbing together two pieces of wood, one soft and
the other hard. The hard piece is pointed and is twirled on the softer
piece, with a steady downward pressure until sparks appear.[717]

  [Sidenote: NAVAJO BLANKETS.]

The Navajos excel all other nations of this family in the manufacture of
blankets.[718] The art with them is perhaps of Mexican origin, and they
keep for this industry large flocks of sheep.[719] Some say in making
blankets cotton is mixed with the wool, but I find no notice of their
cultivating cotton. Their looms are of the most primitive kind. Two
beams, one suspended and the other fastened to the ground, serve to
stretch the warp perpendicularly, and two slats, inserted between the
double warp, cross and recross it and also open a passage for the
shuttle, which is simply a short stick with some thread wound around it.
The operator sits on the ground, and the blanket, as the weaving
progresses, is wound round the lower beam.[720] The wool, after being
carded, is spun with a spindle resembling a boy's top, the stem being
about sixteen inches long and the lower point made to revolve in an
earthen bowl by being twirled rapidly between the forefinger and thumb.
The thread after being twisted is wound on the spindle, and though not
very even, it answers the purpose very well.[721] The patterns are
mostly regular geometrical figures, among which diamonds and parallels
predominate.[722] Black and red are the principal variations in color,
but blue and yellow are at times seen. Their colors they obtain mostly
by dyeing with vegetable substances, but in later years they obtain also
 manufactured materials from the whites, which they again
unravel, employing the  threads obtained in this manner in their
own manufactures.[723] They also weave a coarse woolen cloth, of which
they at times make shirts and leggins.[724] Besides pottery of burnt
clay, wickerwork baskets, and saddles and bridles, no general industry
obtains in this family.[725] Featherwork, such as sewing various
patterns on skins with feathers, and other ornamental needlework, are
also practiced by the Navajos.[726]

Of the Comanches, the Abbé Domenech relates that they extracted silver
from some mines near San Saba, from which they manufactured ornaments
for themselves and their saddles and bridles.[727]

  [Sidenote: PROPERTY.]

They have no boats, but use rafts of wood, or bundles of rushes fastened
tightly together with osier or willow twigs, and propelled sometimes
with poles; but more frequently they place upon the craft their property
and wives, and, swimming alongside of it, with the greatest ease push it
before them.[728] For their maintenance, especially in latter days, they
are indebted in a great measure to their horses, and accordingly they
consider them as their most valuable property. The Navajos are larger
stock owners than any of the other nations, possessing numerous flocks
of sheep, and herds of cattle as well as horses and mules. These, with
their blankets, their dressed skins, and peaches which they cultivate,
constitute their chief wealth.[729] Certain bands of the Apache nation
exchange with the agriculturists pottery and skins for grain.[730] Among
the Navajos, husband and wife hold their property separate, and at their
death it becomes the inheritance of the nephew or niece. This law of
entail is often eluded by the parents, who before death give their goods
to their children.[731] Their exchanges are governed by caprice rather
than by established values. Sometimes they will give a valuable blanket
for a trifling ornament. The Mojaves have a species of currency which
they call _pook_, consisting of strings of shell beads, whose value is
determined by the length.[732] At the time of Coronado's expedition, in
1540, the Comanches possessed great numbers of dogs, which they employed
in transporting their buffalo-skin tents and scanty household
utensils.[733] When a buffalo is killed, the successful hunter claims
only the hide; the others are at liberty to help themselves to the meat
according to their necessities.[734] In their trading transactions they
display much shrewdness, and yet are free from the tricks usually
resorted to by other nations.[735]

  [Sidenote: ARTS AND CALENDAR.]

Their knowledge of decorative art is limited; paintings and sculptures
of men and animals, rudely executed on rocks or walls of caverns are
occasionally met with; whether intended as hieroglyphical
representations, or sketched during the idle moments of some budding
genius, it is difficult to determine, owing to the fact that the
statements of the various authors who have investigated the subject are
conflicting.[736] The Comanches display a certain taste in painting
their buffalo-robes, shields, and tents. The system of enumeration of
the Apaches exhibits a regularity and diffusiveness seldom met with
amongst wild tribes, and their language contains all the terms for
counting up to ten thousand.[737] In this respect the Comanches are very
deficient; what little knowledge of arithmetic they have is decimal, and
when counting, the aid of their fingers or presence of some actual
object is necessary, being, as they are, in total ignorance of the
simplest arithmetical calculation. The rising sun proclaims to them a
new day; beyond this they have no computation or division of time. They
know nothing of the motions of the earth or heavenly bodies, though they
recognise the fixedness of the polar star.[738]

Their social organization, like all their manners and customs, is
governed by their wild and migratory life. Government they have none.
Born and bred with the idea of perfect personal freedom, all restraint
is unendurable.[739] The nominal authority vested in the war chief, is
obtained by election, and is subordinate to the council of
warriors.[740] Every father holds undisputed sway over his children
until the age of puberty. His power, importance, and influence at the
council-fire is determined by the amount of his slaves and other
property.[741] Those specially distinguished by their cunning and
prowess in war, or success in the chase, are chosen as chiefs.

  [Sidenote: COMANCHE GOVERNMENT.]

A chief may at any time be deposed.[742] Sometimes it happens that one
family retains the chieftaincy in a tribe during several generations,
because of the bravery or wealth of the sons.[743] In time of peace but
little authority is vested in the chief; but on the war path, to ensure
success, his commands are implicitly obeyed. It also frequently happens
that chiefs are chosen to lead some particular war or marauding
expedition, their authority expiring immediately upon their return
home.[744]

Among the Comanches public councils are held at regular intervals during
the year, when matters pertaining to the common weal are discussed, laws
made, thefts, seditions, murders, and other crimes punished, and the
quarrels of warrior-chiefs settled. Smaller councils are also held, in
which, as well as in the larger ones, all are free to express their
opinion.[745] Questions laid before them are taken under consideration,
a long time frequently elapsing before a decision is made. Great care is
taken that the decrees of the meeting shall be in accordance with the
opinion and wishes of the majority. Laws are promulgated by a public
crier, who ranks next to the chief in dignity.[746]

Ancestral customs and traditions govern the decisions of the councils;
brute force, or right of the strongest, with the law of talion in its
widest acceptance, direct the mutual relations of tribes and
individuals.[747] Murder, adultery, theft, and sedition are punished
with death or public exposure, or settled by private agreement or the
interposition of elderly warriors. The doctor failing to cure his
patient must be punished by death. The court of justice is the council
of the tribe, presided over by the chiefs, the latter with the
assistance of sub-chiefs, rigidly executing judgment upon the
culprits.[748] All crimes may be pardoned but murder, which must pay
blood for blood if the avenger overtake his victim.[749]

All the natives of this family hold captives as slaves;[750] some treat
them kindly, employing the men as herders and marrying the women;
others half-starve and scourge them, and inflict on them the most
painful labors.[751] Nothing short of crucifixion, roasting by a slow
fire, or some other most excruciating form of death, can atone the crime
of attempted escape from bondage. They not only steal children from
other tribes and sell them, but carry on a most unnatural traffic in
their own offspring.[752]

  [Sidenote: TREATMENT OF WOMEN.]

  [Sidenote: MARRIAGE AND CHILD-BIRTH.]

Womankind as usual is not respected. The female child receives little
care from its mother, being only of collateral advantage to the tribe.
Later she becomes the beast of burden and slave of her husband. Some
celebrate the entry into womanhood with feasting and dancing.[753]
Courtship is simple and brief; the wooer pays for his bride and takes
her home.[754] Every man may have all the wives he can buy. There is
generally a favorite, or chief wife, who exercises authority over the
others. As polygamy causes a greater division of labor, the women do not
object to it.[755] Sometimes a feast of horse-flesh celebrates a
marriage.[756] All the labor of preparing food, tanning skins,
cultivating fields, making clothes, and building houses, falls to the
women, the men considering it beneath their dignity to do anything but
hunt and fight. The women feed and saddle the horses of their lords;
oftentimes they are cruelly beaten, mutilated, and even put to
death.[757] The marriage yoke sits lightly; the husband may repudiate
his wife at will and take back the property given for her; the wife may
abandon her husband, but by the latter act she covers him with such
disgrace that it may only be wiped out by killing somebody[758]--anybody
whom he may chance to meet. In the event of a separation the children
follow the mother. They are not a prolific race; indeed, it is but
seldom that a woman has more than three or four children. As usual
parturition is easy; but owing to unavoidable exposure many of their
infants soon die. The naming of the child is attended with superstitious
rites, and on reaching the age of puberty they never fail to change its
name.[759] Immediately after the birth of the child, it is fastened to a
small board, by bandages, and so carried for several months on the back
of the mother. Later the child rides on the mother's hip, or is carried
on her back in a basket or blanket, which in travelling on horseback is
fastened to the pommel of the saddle. Boys are early taught the use of
weapons, and early learn their superiority over girls, being seldom or
never punished.[760]

It is a singular fact that of all these people the thievish meat-eating
Apache is almost the only one who makes any pretentions to female
chastity. All authorities agree that the Apache women both before and
after marriage are remarkably pure.[761]

Yuma husbands for gain surrender not only their slaves, but their wives.
Hospitality carries with it the obligation of providing for the guest a
temporary wife. The usual punishment for infidelity is the mutilation of
the nose or ears, which disfigurement prevents the offender from
marrying, and commonly sends her forth as a public harlot in the
tribe.[762] The seducer can appease the anger of an injured husband by
presents, although before the law he forfeits his life. Even sodomy and
incestuous intercourse occur among them. Old age is dishonorable.[763]

  [Sidenote: AMUSEMENTS.]

  [Sidenote: SMOKING AND DANCING.]

They are immoderately fond of smoking, drinking, feasting, and
amusements which fill up the many hours of idleness. Dancing and
masquerading is the most favorite pastime. They have feasts with dances
to celebrate victories, feasts given at marriage, and when girls attain
the age of puberty; a ceremonial is observed at the burial of noted
warriors, and on other various occasions of private family life, in
which both men and women take part. The dance is performed by a single
actor or by a number of persons of both sexes to the accompaniment of
instruments or their own voices.[764] All festivities are incomplete
without impromptu songs, the music being anything but agreeable, and the
accompaniment corn-stalk or cane flutes, wooden drums, or calabashes
filled with stone and shaken to a constantly varying time.[765] They
also spend much time in gambling, often staking their whole property on
a throw, including everything upon their backs. One of these games is
played with a bullet, which is passed rapidly from one hand to the
other, during which they sing, assisting the music with the motion of
their arms. The game consists in guessing in which hand the bullet is
held. Another Comanche game is played with twelve sticks, each about six
inches in length. These are dropped on the ground and those falling
across each other are counted for game, one hundred being the
limit.[766] Horse-racing is likewise a passion with them;[767] as are
also all other athletic sports.[768] When smoking, the Comanches direct
the first two puffs, with much ceremony and muttering, to the sun, and
the third puff with a like demonstration is blown toward the earth. When
short of tobacco, they make use of the dried leaves of the sumach, of
willow-bark, or other plants.[769]

The Comanches are remarkable for their temperance, or rather abhorrence
for intoxicating drink; all the other nations of this family abandon
themselves to this subtle demoralization, and are rapidly sinking under
it. They make their own spirits out of corn and out of agave americana,
the pulque and mescal, both very strong and intoxicating liquors.[770]

Of all North American Indians the Comanches and Cheyennes are said to be
the most skillful riders, and it would be difficult to find their
superiors in any part of the world. Young children, almost infants, are
tied by their mothers to half-wild, bare-backed mustangs, which place
thenceforth becomes their home. They supply themselves with fresh horses
from wild droves wandering over the prairies, or from Mexican
rancherías. A favorite horse is loved and cherished above all things on
earth, not excepting wives or children. The women are scarcely behind
the men in this accomplishment. They sit astride, guide the horses with
the knee like the men, and catch and break wild colts. In fighting, the
Comanches throw the body on one side of the horse, hang on by the heel
and shoot with great precision and rapidity. It is beneath the dignity
of these horsemen to travel on foot, and in their sometimes long and
rapid marches, they defy pursuit.[771] Before horses were known they
used to transport their household effects on the backs of dogs, which
custom even now prevails among some nations.[772]

  [Sidenote: COMANCHE CUSTOMS.]

The Comanche observes laws of hospitality as strictly as the Arab, and
he exacts the observance of his rules of etiquette from strangers. When
a visitor enters his dwelling, the master of the house points to him a
seat, and how to reach it, and the host is greatly offended if his
directions are not strictly followed. Meeting on the prairie, friends as
well as enemies, if we may believe Colonel Marcy, put their horses at
full speed. "When a party is discovered approaching thus, and are near
enough to distinguish signals, all that is necessary to ascertain their
disposition is to raise the right hand with the palm in front, and
gradually push it forward and back several times. They all understand
this to be a command to halt, and if they are not hostile, it will at
once be obeyed. After they have stopped, the right hand is raised again
as before, and slowly moved to the right and left, which signifies, I do
not know you. Who are you? They will then answer the inquiry by giving
their signal." Then they inflict on strangers the hugging and
face-rubbing remarked among the Eskimos, demonstrating thereby the
magnitude of their joy at meeting.[773] The various tribes of the Yuma
and Mojave nations hold communication with one another by means of
couriers or runners, who quickly disseminate important news, and call
together the various bands for consultation, hunting, and war. Besides
this, there is used everywhere on the prairies, a system of telegraphy,
which perhaps is only excelled by the wires themselves. Smoke during the
day, and fires at night, perched on mountain-tops, flash intelligence
quickly and surely across the plains, giving the call for assistance or
the order to disperse when pursued. The advanced posts also inform the
main body of the approach of strangers, and all this is done with
astonishing regularity, by either increasing or diminishing the signal
column, or by displaying it only at certain intervals or by increasing
the number.[774] In cold weather many of the nations in the neighborhood
of the Colorado, carry firebrands in their hands, as they assert for the
purpose of warming themselves, which custom led the early visitors to
name the Colorado the Rio del Tizon.[775]

  [Sidenote: DISEASES AND MEDICINE.]

The Comanches stand in great dread of evil spirits, which they attempt
to conciliate by fasting and abstinence. When their demons withhold rain
or sunshine, according as they desire, they whip a slave, and if their
gods prove obdurate, their victim is almost flayed alive. The Navajos
venerate the bear, and as before stated, never kill him nor touch any of
his flesh.[776] Although early writers speak of cannibalism among these
people, there is no evidence that they do or ever did eat human
flesh.[777] In their intercourse they are dignified and reserved, and
never interrupt a person speaking. Unless compelled by necessity, they
never speak any language but their own, it being barbarous in their eyes
to make use of foreign tongues.[778]

  [Sidenote: BURIAL OF THE DEAD.]

Although endowed generally with robust and healthy constitutions,
bilious and malarial fever, pneumonia, rheumatism, dysentery,
ophthalmia, measles, small-pox, and various syphilitic diseases are
sometimes met among them; the latter occurring most frequently among the
Navajos, Mojaves, Yumas, and Comanches. Whole bands are sometimes
affected with the last-mentioned disease, and its effects are often
visible in their young. A cutaneous ailment, called _pintos_, also makes
its appearance at times.[779] For these ailments they have different
remedies, consisting of leaves, herbs, and roots, of which decoctions or
poultices are made; scarification and the hunger cure are resorted to as
well. Among the Mojaves the universal remedy is the sweat-house,
employed by them and the other nations not only as a remedy for
diseases, but for pleasure. There is no essential difference between
their sweat-houses and those of northern nations--an air-tight hut near
a stream, heated stones, upon which water is thrown to generate steam,
and a plunge into the water afterward. As a cure for the bite of a
rattlesnake they employ an herb called _euphorbia_. Broken or wounded
limbs are encased in wooden splints until healed. But frequently they
abandon their sick and maimed, or treat them with great harshness.[780]
Priests or medicine-men possess almost exclusively the secrets of the
art of healing. When herbs fail they resort to incantations, songs, and
wailings. They are firm believers in witchcraft, and wear as amulets and
charms, feathers, stones, antelope-toes, crane's bills, bits of charred
wood and the like. Their prophets claim the power of foretelling future
events, and are frequently consulted therefor.[781] Most of the nations
in the vicinity of the Colorado, burn their dead as soon as possible
after death, on which occasion the worldly effects of the deceased are
likewise spiritualized; utensils, property, sometimes wives, are sent
with their master to the spirit land.[782] Those that do not burn the
dead, bury them in caves or in shallow graves, with the robes, blankets,
weapons, utensils, and ornaments of the deceased. The Comanches
frequently build a heap of stones over the grave of a warrior, near
which they erect a pole from which a pair of moccasins is
suspended.[783] After burying the corpse, they have some mourning
ceremonies, such as dances and songs around a fire, and go into mourning
for a month. As a sign of grief they cut off the manes and tails of
their horses, and also crop their own hair and lacerate their bodies in
various ways; the women giving vent to their affliction by long
continued howlings. But this applies only to warriors; children, and old
men, are not worth so ostentatious a funeral.[784] The name of a
deceased person is rarely mentioned, and the Apaches are shy of
admitting strangers to a celebration of funeral ceremonies, which mostly
take place at night. In general they are averse to speaking upon the
subject of death at all. The Navajos, says Mr Davis, "have a
superstitious dread of approaching a dead body, and will never go near
one when they can avoid it."[785]

  [Sidenote: NEW MEXICAN CHARACTER.]

In the character of the several nations of this division there is a
marked contrast. The Apaches as I have said, though naturally lazy like
all savages, are in their industries extremely active,--their industries
being theft and murder, to which they are trained by their mothers, and
in which they display consummate cunning, treachery, and cruelty.[786]
The Navajos and Mojaves display a more docile nature; their industries,
although therein they do not claim to eschew all trickery, being of a
more peaceful, substantial character, such as stock-raising,
agriculture, and manufactures. Professional thieving is not
countenanced. Though treacherous, they are not naturally cruel; and
though deaf to the call of gratitude, they are hospitable and socially
inclined. They are ever ready to redeem their pledged word, and never
shrink from the faithful performance of a contract. They are brave and
intelligent, and possess much natural common sense.[787] The Tamajabs
have no inclination to share in marauding excursions. Though not wanting
in courage, they possess a mild disposition, and are kind to
strangers.[788] The Comanches are dignified in their deportment, vain in
respect to their personal appearance, ambitious of martial fame,
unrelenting in their feuds, always exacting blood for blood, yet not
sanguinary. They are true to their allies, prizing highly their freedom,
hospitable to strangers, sober yet gay, maintaining a grave stoicism in
presence of strangers, and a Spartan indifference under severe suffering
or misfortune. Formal, discreet, and Arab-like, they are always faithful
to the guest who throws himself upon their hospitality. To the valiant
and brave is awarded the highest place in their esteem. They are
extremely clannish in their social relations. Quarrels among relatives
and friends are unheard of among them.[789]


  [Sidenote: THE PUEBLOS.]

The non-nomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural peoples of New
Mexico and Arizona, the second division of this group, I call the
PUEBLOS, or Towns-people, from _pueblo_, town, population, people, a
name given by the Spaniards to such inhabitants of this region as were
found, when first discovered, permanently located in comparatively
well-built towns. Strictly speaking, the term Pueblos applies only to
the villagers settled along the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte and
its tributaries, between latitudes 34° 45´ and 36° 30´, and although the
name is employed as a general appellation for this division, it will be
used, for the most part, only in its narrower and popular sense. In this
division, besides the before-mentioned _Pueblos_ proper, are embraced
the _Moquis_, or villagers of eastern Arizona, and the non-nomadic
agricultural nations of the lower Gila River,--the _Pimas_, _Maricopas_,
_Pápagos_, and cognate tribes. The country of the Towns-people, if we
may credit Lieutenant Simpson, is one of "almost universal barrenness,"
yet interspersed with fertile spots; that of the agricultural nations,
though dry, is more generally productive. The fame of this so-called
civilization reached Mexico at an early day; first through Alvar Nuñez
Cabeza de Vaca and his companions, who belonged to the expedition under
the unfortunate Pámphilo de Narvaez, traversing the continent from
Florida to the shore of the gulf of California; they brought in
exaggerated rumors of great cities to the north, which prompted the
expeditions of Marco de Niza in 1539, of Coronado in 1540, and of Espejo
in 1586. These adventurers visited the north in quest of the fabulous
kingdoms of Quivira, Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great
riches were said to exist. The name of Quivira was afterwards applied
by them to one or more of the pueblo cities. The name Cíbola, from
_cíbolo_, Mexican bull, _bos bison_, or wild ox of New Mexico, where the
Spaniards first encountered buffalo, was given to seven of the towns
which were afterwards known as the seven cities of Cíbola. But most of
the villages known at the present day were mentioned in the reports of
the early expeditions by their present names. The statements in regard
to the number of their villages differed from the first. Castañeda
speaks of seven cities.[790] The following list, according to Lieutenant
Whipple's statement, appears to be the most complete. Commencing north,
and following the southward course of the Rio Grande del Norte; Shipap,
Acoti, Taos, Picuris, San Juan, Pojuaque, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso,
Nambe, Tesuque, Cochite, Pecos, Santo Domingo, Cuyamanque, Silla, Jemez,
San Felipe, Galisteo, Santa Ana, Zandia, Laguna, Acoma, Zuñi, Isleta,
and Chilili.[791] The Moquis who speak a distinct language, and who have
many customs peculiar to themselves, inhabit seven villages, named
Oraibe, Shumuthpa, Mushaiina, Ahlela, Gualpi, Siwinna, and Tegua.[792]

By the Spanish conquest of New Mexico the natives were probably
disturbed less than was usually the case with the vanquished race; the
Pueblos being well-domiciled and well-behaved, and having little to be
stolen, the invaders adopted the wise policy of permitting them to work
in peace, and to retain the customs and traditions of their forefathers
as they do, many of them, to this day. Attempts have been made to prove
a relationship with the civilized Aztecs of Mexico, but thus far without
success. No affinities in language appear to exist; that of the Moquis,
indeed, contains a few faint traces of and assimilations to Aztec words,
as I shall show in the third volume of this work, but they are not
strong enough to support any theory of common origin or
relationship.[793]

  [Sidenote: PIMAS AND PÁPAGOS.]

The Pimas inhabit the banks of the Gila River about two hundred miles
above its confluence with the Colorado. Their territory extends from
about the bend of the Gila up the river to a place called Maricopa
Coppermine; northward their boundary is the Salt River, and south the
Picacho. They are generally divided, and known as the upper and lower
Pimas, which branches show but slight dialectic differences. When first
seen their territory extended further southward into Sonora. The
Pápagos, their neighbors, are closely allied to them by language. In
nowise related to them, but very similar in their manners and customs,
are the Maricopas, who reside in their immediate vicinity, and who claim
to have migrated to that place some centuries ago, from a more westerly
territory.

All these people, although not dwelling in houses built, like those of
the Pueblos, of solid materials, have settled villages in which they
reside at all times, and are entirely distinct from the roving and
nomadic tribes described in the Apache family. When first found by the
Spaniards, they cultivated the soil, and knew how to weave cotton and
other fabrics; in fact it was easily observable that they had made a
step toward civilization. I therefore describe them together with the
Pueblos. The region occupied by them, although containing some good
soil, is scantily provided with water, and to enable them to raise
crops, they are obliged to irrigate, conducting the water of the Gila to
their fields in small canals. The water obtained by digging wells is
frequently brackish, and in many places they are forced to carry all the
water needed for household purposes quite a long distance. The climate
is claimed to be one of the hottest on the American continent.

The Pueblos, and Moqui villagers, are a race of small people, the men
averaging about five feet in height, with small hands and feet, well-cut
features, bright eyes, and a generally pleasing expression of
countenance.[794] Their hair is dark, soft, and of fine texture, and
their skin a clear shade of brown.[795] The woman seldom exceed four
feet in height, with figure rotund, but a graceful carriage, and face
full, with pretty, intelligent features and good teeth.[796] Albinos are
at times seen amongst them, who are described as having very fair
complexions, light hair, and blue or pink eyes.[797]

  [Sidenote: DRESS OF THE PUEBLOS.]

  [Sidenote: PIMA AND MARICOPA DWELLINGS.]

The Pimas and their neighbors are men of fine physique, tall and bony,
many of them exceeding six feet in height, broad-chested, erect, and
muscular, but frequently light-limbed with small hands, though the feet
of both sexes are large. They have large features, expressive of
frankness and good nature, with prominent cheek-bones and aquiline nose,
those of the women being somewhat retroussés.[798] The females are
symmetrically formed, with beautifully tapered limbs, full busts,
pleasing features, embellished with white and evenly set teeth.[799]
Their coarse hair grows to a great length and thickness, and their dark
complexion becomes yet darker toward the south.[800] The ordinary dress
of the Pueblos is the breech-cloth and blanket; some add a blouse of
cotton or deer-skin, a waist-belt, and buckskin leggins and moccasins.
The women wear a long, cotton, sleeveless tunic, confined round the
waist by a  girdle, a species of cape bordered in different
colors, fastened round the neck at the two corners, and reaching down to
the waist, while over the head a shawl is thrown. The feet are protected
by neat moccasins of deer-skin or woolen stuff, surmounted by leggins of
the same material. They have a habit of padding the leggins, which makes
them appear short-legged with small feet.[166] The men bind a
handkerchief or  band round the head. Young women dress the hair
in a peculiarly neat and becoming style. Parting it at the back, they
roll it round hoops, when it is fastened in two high bunches, one on
each side of the head, placing sometimes a single feather in the center;
married women gather it into two tight knots at the side or one at the
back of the head; the men cut it in front of the ears, and in a line
with the eye-brows, while at the back it is plaited or gathered into a
single bunch, and tied with a band.[801] On gala occasions they paint
and adorn themselves in many grotesque styles; arms, legs, and exposed
portions of the body are covered with stripes or rings, and
conical-shaped head-dresses; feathers, sheep-skin wigs, and masks, are
likewise employed.[802] The habiliments of the Pimas are a cotton serape
of their own manufacture, a breech-cloth, with sandals of raw-hide or
deer-skin. Women wear the same kind of serape, wound round the loins and
pinned, or more frequently tucked in at the waist, or fastened with a
belt in which different- wools are woven; some wear a short
petticoat of deer-skin or bark.[803] They wear no head-dress. Like the
Pueblos, the men cut the hair short across the forehead, and either
plait it in different coils behind, which are ornamented with bits of
bone, shells, or red cloth, or mix it with clay, or gather it into a
turban shape on top of the head, leaving a few ornamented and braided
locks to hang down over the ears.[804] Each paints in a manner to suit
the fancy; black, red, and yellow are the colors most in vogue, black
being alone used for war paint. Some tattoo their newly born children
round the eyelids, and girls, on arriving at the age of maturity, tattoo
from the corners of the mouth to the chin. Some tribes oblige their
women to cut the hair, others permit it to grow.[805] For ornament,
shell and bead necklaces are used; also ear-rings of a blue stone found
in the mountains.[806] The dwellings of the agricultural Pimas,
Maricopas, and Pápagos consist of dome-shaped huts, either round or oval
at the base. There are usually thirty or more to a village, and they are
grouped with some regard to regularity. Strong forked stakes are firmly
fixed in the ground at regular distances from each other, the number
varying according to the size of the hut, cross-poles are laid from one
to the other, around these are placed cotton-wood poles, which are bent
over and fastened to the transverse sticks, the structure is then
wattled with willows, reeds, or coarse straw, and the whole covered with
a coat of mud. The only openings are an entrance door about three feet
high, and a small aperture in the center of the roof that serves for
ventilation. Their height is from five to seven feet, and the diameter
from twenty to fifty. Outside stands a shed, open at all sides with a
roof of branches or corn-stalks, under which they prepare their food.
Their houses are occupied mainly during the rainy season; in summer they
build light sheds of twigs in their corn-fields, which not only are more
airy, but are also more convenient in watching their growing crops.
Besides the dwelling-place, each family has a granary, similar in shape
and of like materials but of stronger construction; by frequent
plastering with mud they are made impervious to rain.[807] The towns of
the Pueblos are essentially unique, and are the dominant feature of
these aboriginals. Some of them are situated in valleys, others on
mesas; sometimes they are planted on elevations almost inaccessible,
reached only by artificial grades or by steps cut in the solid rock.
Some of the towns are of an elliptical shape, while others are square, a
town being frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a Pueblo consists
of one or more squares, each enclosed by three or four buildings of from
three to four hundred feet in length, and about one hundred and fifty
feet in width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from eight
to nine feet each in height. The buildings forming the square do not
meet, but in some cases are connected by bridges or covered gangways,
and in some instances the houses project over the streets below, which
being narrow, are thus given an underground appearance. The stories are
built in a series of gradations or retreating surfaces, decreasing in
size as they rise, thus forming a succession of terraces.

  [Sidenote: PUEBLO HOUSES.]

In some of the towns these terraces are on both sides of the building;
in others they face only toward the outside; while again in others they
are on the inside. In front of the terraces is a parapet, which serves
as a shelter for the inhabitants when forced to defend themselves
against an attack from the outside. These terraces are about six feet
wide, and extend round the three or four sides of the square, forming a
walk for the occupants of the story resting upon it, and a roof for the
story beneath; so with the stories above. As there is no inner
communication with one another, the only means of mounting to them is by
ladders which stand at convenient distances along the several rows of
terraces, and they may be drawn up at pleasure, thus cutting off all
unwelcome intrusion. The outside walls of one or more of the lower
stories are entirely solid, having no openings of any kind, with the
exception of, in some towns, a few loopholes. All the doors and windows
are on the inside opening on the court. The several stories of these
huge structures are divided into multitudinous compartments of greater
or lesser size, which are apportioned to the several families of the
tribe. Access is had to the different stories by means of the ladders,
which at night and in times of danger are drawn up after the person
entering. To enter the rooms on the ground floor from the outside, one
must mount the ladder to the first balcony or terrace, then descend
through a trap door in the floor by another ladder on the inside. The
roofs or ceilings, which are nearly flat, are formed of transverse beams
which <DW72> slightly outward, the ends resting on the side walls; on
these, to make the floor and terrace of the story above, is laid brush
wood, then a layer of bark or thin slabs, and over all a thick covering
of mud sufficient to render them water-tight. The windows in the upper
stories are made of flakes of selenite instead of glass. The rooms are
large, the substantial partitions are made of wood, and neatly
whitewashed. The apartments on the ground floor are gloomy, and
generally used as store-rooms; those above are sometimes furnished with
a small fireplace, the chimney leading out some feet above the terrace.
Houses are common property, and both men and women assist in building
them; the men erect the wooden frames, and the women make the mortar and
build the walls. In place of lime for mortar, they mix ashes with earth
and charcoal. They make adobes or sun-dried bricks by mixing ashes and
earth with water, which is then moulded into large blocks and dried in
the sun. Some of the towns are built with stones laid in mud. Captain
Simpson describes several ruined cities, which he visited, which show
that the inhabitants formerly had a knowledge of architecture and design
superior to any that the Pueblos of the present day possess. Yet their
buildings are even now well constructed, for although several stories in
height, the walls are seldom more than three or four feet in thickness.
The apartments are well arranged and neatly kept; one room is used for
cooking, another for grinding corn and preserving winter supplies of
food, others for sleeping-rooms. On the balconies, round the doors
opening upon them, the villagers congregate to gossip and smoke, while
the streets below, when the ladders are drawn up, present a gloomy and
forsaken appearance. Sometimes villages are built in the form of an open
square with buildings on three sides, and again two or more large
terraced structures capable of accommodating one or two thousand people
are built contiguous to each other, or on opposite banks of a stream. In
some instances the outer wall presents one unbroken line, without
entrance or anything to indicate the busy life within; another form is
to join the straight walls, which encompass three sides of a square, by
a fourth circular wall; in all of which the chief object is defense. The
Pueblos take great pride in their picturesque and, to them, magnificent
structures, affirming that as fortresses they have ever proved
impregnable. To wall out black barbarism was what the Pueblos wanted,
and to be let alone; under these conditions time was giving them
civilization.[808]

  [Sidenote: PUEBLO ESTUFAS.]

The sweat-house, or as the Spaniards call it, the _estufa_, assumes with
the Pueblos the grandest proportions. Every village has from one to six
of these singular structures. A large, semi-subterranean room, it is at
once bath-house, town-house, council-chamber, club-room, and church. It
consists of a large excavation, the roof being about on a level with the
ground, sometimes a little above it, and is supported by heavy timbers
or pillars of masonry. Around the sides are benches, and in the center
of the floor a square stone box for fire, wherein aromatic plants are
kept constantly burning. Entrance is made by means of a ladder, through
a hole in the top placed directly over the fire-place so that it also
serves as a ventilator and affords a free passage to the smoke. Usually
they are circular in form and of both large and small dimensions; they
are placed either within the great building or underground in the court
without. In some of the ruins they are found built in the center of what
was once a pyramidal pile, and four stories in height. At Jemez the
estufa is of one story, twenty-five feet wide by thirty feet high. The
ruins of Chettro Kettle contain six estufas, each two or three stories
in height. At Bonito are estufas one hundred and seventy-five feet in
circumference, built in alternate layers of thick and thin stone slabs.
In these subterranean temples the old men met in secret council, or
assembled in worship of their gods. Here are held dances and
festivities, social intercourse, and mourning ceremonies. Certain of the
Pueblos have a custom similar to that practiced by some of the northern
tribes, the men sleeping in the sweat-house with their feet to the fire,
and permitting women to enter only to bring them food. The estufas of
Tiguex were situated in the heart of the village, built underground,
both round and square, and paved with large polished stones.[809]

  [Sidenote: HOW FOOD IS OBTAINED.]

From the earliest information we have of these nations they are known to
have been tillers of the soil; and though the implements used and their
methods of cultivation were both simple and primitive, cotton, corn,
wheat, beans, with many varieties of fruits, which constituted their
principal food, were raised in abundance. The Pueblos breed poultry to a
considerable extent; fish are eaten whenever obtainable, as also a few
wild animals, such as deer, hares, and rabbits, though they are
indifferent hunters.[810] The Pápagos, whose country does not present
such favorable conditions for agriculture are forced to rely for a
subsistence more upon wild fruits and animals than the nations north of
them. They collect large quantities of the fruit of the pitahaya
(_cereus giganteus_), and in seasons of scarcity resort to whatever is
life-sustaining, not disdaining even snakes, lizards, and toads.[811]
Most of these people irrigate their lands by means of conduits or
ditches, leading either from the river or from tanks in which rain-water
is collected and stored for the purpose. These ditches are kept in
repair by the community, but farming operations are carried on by each
family for its own separate benefit, which is a noticeable advance from
the usual savage communism.[812] Fishing nets are made of twisted thread
or of small sticks joined together at the ends. When the rivers are low,
fish are caught in baskets or shot with arrows to which a string is
attached.[813] The corn which is stored for winter use, is first
par-boiled in the shuck, and then suspended from strings to dry; peaches
are dried in large quantities, and melons are preserved by peeling and
removing the seeds, when they are placed in the sun, and afterward hung
up in trees. Meal is ground on the metate and used for making porridge,
tortillas, and a very thin cake called _guayave_, which latter forms a
staple article of food amongst the Pueblos. The process of making the
guayave, as seen by Lieutenant Simpson at Santo Domingo on the Rio
Grande, is thus described in his journal. "At the house of the governor
I noticed a woman, probably his wife, going through the process of
baking a very thin species of corn cake, called, according to Gregg,
guayave. She was hovering over a fire, upon which lay a flat stone. Near
her was a bowl of thin corn paste, into which she thrust her fingers;
allowing then the paste to drip sparingly upon the stone, with two or
three wipes from the palm of her hand she would spread it entirely and
uniformly over the stone; this was no sooner done than she peeled it off
as fit for use; and the process was again and again repeated, until a
sufficient quantity was obtained. When folded and rolled together, it
does not look unlike (particularly that made from the blue corn) a
hornet's nest--a name by which it is sometimes called." The Pimas do all
their cooking out of doors, under a shed erected for the purpose. They
collect the pulp from the fruit of the pitahaya, and boiling it in
water, make a thick syrup, which they store away for future use. They
also dry the fruit in the sun like figs.[814]

The Pueblos and Moquis are remarkable for their personal cleanliness and
the neatness of their dwellings.[815]

  [Sidenote: PUEBLO WEAPONS.]

Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and clubs. The Pueblos use a
crooked stick, which they throw somewhat in the manner of the boomerang;
they are exceedingly skillful in the use of the sling, with a stone from
which they are said to be able to hit with certainty a small mark or
kill a deer at the distance of a hundred yards. For defense, they use a
buckler or shield made of raw hide. Their arrows are carried in skin
quivers or stuck in the belt round the waist.[816] Bows are made of
willow, and are about six feet in length, strung with twisted
deer-sinews; arrows are made of reeds, into which a piece of hard wood
is fitted.[817] The Pimas wing their war arrows with three feathers and
point them with flint, while for hunting purposes they have only two
feathers and wooden points.[818] It has been stated that they poison
them, but there does not appear to be good foundation for this
assertion.[819] Clubs, which are used in hand-to-hand combats, are made
of a hard, heavy wood, measuring from twenty to twenty-four inches in
length. In former days they were sharpened by inserting flint or
obsidian along the edge.[820]

  [Sidenote: WAR CEREMONIES.]

The Pimas wage unceasing war against the Apaches, and the Pueblos are
ever at enmity with their neighbors, the Navajos. The Pueblos are
securely protected by the position and construction of their dwellings,
from the top of which they are able to watch the appearance and
movements of enemies, and should any be daring enough to approach their
walls, they are greeted by a shower of stones and darts. As an
additional protection to their towns, they dig pitfalls on the trails
leading to them, at the bottom of which sharp-pointed stakes are driven,
the top of the hole being carefully covered.[821] Expeditions are
sometimes organized against the Navajos for the recovery of stolen
property. On such occasions the Towns-people equip themselves with the
heads, horns, and tails of wild animals, paint the body and plume the
head.[822] Lieutenant Simpson mentions a curious custom observed by
them, just previous to going into action. "They halted on the way to
receive from their chiefs some medicine from the medicine bags which
each of them carried about his person. This they rubbed upon their
heart, as they said, to make it big and brave." The Pueblos fight on
horseback in skirmishing order, and keep up a running fight, throwing
the body into various attitudes, the better to avoid the enemies'
missiles, at the same time discharging their arrows with rapidity.[823]
The Pimas, who fight usually on foot, when they decide on going to war,
select their best warriors, who are sent to notify the surrounding
villages, and a place of meeting is named where a grand council is held.
A fire being lighted and a circle of warriors formed, the proceedings
are opened by war songs and speeches, their prophet is consulted, and in
accordance with his professional advice, their plan of operations is
arranged.[824] The attack is usually made about day-break, and conducted
with much pluck and vigor. They content themselves with proximate
success, and seldom pursue a flying foe.[825] During the heat of battle
they spare neither sex nor age, but if prisoners are taken, the males
are crucified or otherwise cruelly put to death, and the women and
children sold as soon as possible.[826] The successful war party on its
return is met by the inhabitants of the villages, scalps are fixed on a
pole, trophies displayed, and feasting and dancing indulged in for
several days and nights; if unsuccessful, mourning takes the place of
feasting, and the death-cries of the women resound through the
villages.[827]

  [Sidenote: PUEBLO TRADE.]

For farming implements they use plows, shovels, harrows, hatchets, and
sticks, all of wood.[828] Baskets of willow-twigs, so closely woven as
to be water-tight, and ornamented with figures; and round, baked, and
glazed earthen vessels, narrow at the top, and decorated with paintings
or enamel, are their household utensils.[829] For mashing hulled corn
they used the metate, a Mexican implement, made of two stones, one
concave and the other convex, hereafter more fully described. Among
their household utensils there must also be mentioned hair sieves, hide
ropes, water-gourds, painted fans, stone pipes, and frame panniers
connected with a netting to carry loads on their backs.[830] In their
manufacture of blankets, of cotton and woolen cloths, and stockings, the
Pueblos excel their neighbors, the Navajos, although employing
essentially the same method, and using similar looms and spinning
instruments, as have been described in the preceding pages. Although the
women perform most of this work, as well as tanning leather, it is said
that the men also are expert in knitting woolen stockings. According to
Mühlenpfordt the Pimas and Maricopas make a basket-boat which they call
_cora_, woven so tight as to be water-proof without the aid of pitch or
other application.[831] All these nations, particularly the Pueblos,
have great droves of horses, mules, donkeys, cattle, sheep, and goats
grazing on the extensive plains, and about their houses poultry,
turkeys, and dogs. The flocks they either leave entirely unprotected, or
else the owner herds them himself, or from each village one is
appointed by the war captain to do so. The Pápagos carry on an extensive
trade in salt, taken from the great inland salt lakes. Besides corn,
they manufacture and sell a syrup extracted from the pitahaya.[832] The
laws regulating inheritance of property are not well defined. Among some
there is nothing to inherit, as all is destroyed when the person dies;
among others the females claim the right of inheritance; at other times
the remaining property is divided among all the members of the tribe. In
general they care but little for gold, and all their trade, which at
times is considerable, is carried on by barter; a kind of blue stone,
often called turquoise, beads, skins, and blankets, serving the purpose
of currency.[833]

The Pueblos display much taste in painting the walls of their estufas,
where are represented different plants, birds, and animals symmetrically
done, but without any scenic effect. Hieroglyphic groupings, both
sculptured and painted, are frequently seen in the ancient Pueblo
towns, depicting, perhaps, their historical events and deeds. With
 earths their pottery is painted in bright colors.[834] Many
Spanish authors mention a great many gold and silver vessels in use
amongst them, and speak of the knowledge they had in reducing and
working these metals; but no traces of such art are found at
present.[835]

  [Sidenote: LAWS OF THE PUEBLOS.]

Among the Pueblos an organized system of government existed at the time
of Coronado's expedition through their country; Castañeda, speaking of
the province of Tiguex, says that the villages were governed by a
council of old men; and a somewhat similar system obtains with these
people at the present time. Each village selects its own governor,
frames its own laws, and in all respects they act independently of each
other. The governor and his council are elected annually by the people;
all affairs of importance and matters relating to the welfare of the
community are discussed at the estufa; questions in dispute are usually
decided by a vote of the majority. All messages and laws emanating from
the council-chamber are announced to the inhabitants by town criers. The
morals of young people are carefully watched and guarded by a kind of
secret police, whose duty it is to report to the governor all
irregularities which may occur; and especial attention is given that no
improper intercourse shall be allowed between the young men and women,
in the event of which the offending parties are brought before the
governor and council and, if guilty, ordered to marry, or if they refuse
they are restricted from holding intercourse with each other, and if
they persist they are whipped. Among their laws deserves to be
particularly mentioned one, according to which no one can sell or marry
out of the town until he obtains permission from the authorities.[836]
In the seven confederate pueblos of the Moquis, the office of chief
governor is hereditary; it is not, however, necessarily given to the
nearest heir, as the people have the power to elect any member of the
dominant family. The governor is assisted by a council of elders, and in
other respects the Moqui government is similar to that of the other
towns.[837] The Pimas and Maricopas have no organized system of
government, and are not controlled by any code of laws; each tribe or
village has a chief to whom a certain degree of respect is conceded, but
his power to restrain the people is very limited; his influence over
them is maintained chiefly by his oratorical powers or military skill.
In war the tribe is guided by the chief's advice, and his authority is
fully recognized, but in time of peace his rule is nominal; nor does he
attempt to control their freedom or punish them for offences. The
chief's office is hereditary, yet an unpopular ruler may be deposed and
another chosen to fill his place.[838]

  [Sidenote: WOMEN AMONG THE PUEBLOS.]

Among the Pueblos the usual order of courtship is reversed; when a girl
is disposed to marry she does not wait for a young man to propose to
her, but selects one to her own liking and consults her father, who
visits the parents of the youth and acquaints them with his daughter's
wishes. It seldom happens that any objections to the match are made, but
it is imperative on the father of the bridegroom to reimburse the
parents of the maiden for the loss of their daughter. This is done by an
offer of presents in accordance with his rank and wealth. The
inhabitants of one village seldom marry with those of another, and, as a
consequence, intermarriage is frequent among these families--a fertile
cause of their deterioration. The marriage is always celebrated by a
feast, the provisions for which are furnished by the bride, and the
assembled friends unite in dancing and music. Polygamy is never allowed,
but married couples can separate if they are dissatisfied with each
other; in such a contingency, if there are children, they are taken care
of by the grandparents, and both parties are free to marry again;
fortunately, divorces are not of frequent occurrence, as the wives are
always treated with respect by their husbands.[839] To the female falls
all indoor work, and also a large share of that to be done out of doors.
In the treatment of their children these people are careful to guide
them in the ways of honesty and industry, and to impress their minds
with chaste and virtuous ideas. Mothers bathe their infants with cold
water, and boys are not permitted to enter the estufas for the purpose
of warming themselves; if they are cold they are ordered to chop wood,
or warm themselves by running and exercise.[840] A girl's arrival at the
age of puberty among the Gila nations is a period of much rejoicing;
when the first symptoms appear, all her friends are duly informed of the
important fact, and preparations are made to celebrate the joyful event.
The girl is taken by her parents to the prophet, who performs certain
ceremonies, which are supposed to drive the evil out of her, and then a
singing and dancing festival is held. When a young man sees a girl whom
he desires for a wife, he first endeavors to gain the good will of the
parents; this accomplished, he proceeds to serenade his lady-love, and
will often sit for hours, day after day, near her house, playing on his
flute. Should the girl not appear it is a sign she rejects him; but if,
on the other hand, she comes out to meet him, he knows that his suit is
accepted, and he takes her to his house. No marriage ceremony is
performed. Among the Pápagos the parents select a husband for their
daughter to whom she is, so to say, sold. It not unfrequently happens
that they offer their daughter at auction, and she is knocked down to
the highest bidder. However, among all the nations of this family,
whether the bridegroom makes a love-match or not, he has to recompense
the parents with as much as his means will permit.[841] Although
polygamy is not permitted, they often separate and marry again at
pleasure. Women, at the time of their confinement as well as during
their monthly periods, must live apart; as they believe that if any male
were to touch them, he would become sick. The children are trained to
war, and but little attention given to teaching them useful pursuits.
All the household labor is performed by the women; they also assist
largely in the labors of the field; severe laws oblige them to observe
the strictest chastity, and yet, at their festivals, much debauchery and
prostitution take place.[842]

  [Sidenote: PUEBLO DANCES.]

With but few exceptions, they are temperate in drinking and smoking.
Intoxicating liquors they prepare out of the fruits of the pitahaya,
agave, aloe, corn, mezcal, prickly pear, wild and cultivated grapes.
Colonel Cremony says that the Pimas and Maricopas 'macerate the fruit of
the pitahaya (species of cactus) in water after being dried in the sun,
when the saccharine qualities cause the liquid to ferment, and after
such fermentation it becomes highly intoxicating. It is upon this liquor
that the Maricopas and Pimas get drunk once a year, the revelry
continuing for a week or two at a time; but it is also an universal
custom with them to take regular turns, so that only one third of the
party is supposed to indulge at one time, the remainder being required
to take care of their stimulated comrades, and protect them from
injuring each other or being injured by other tribes.'[843] All are fond
of dancing and singing; in their religious rites, as well as in other
public and family celebrations, these form the chief diversion.
Different dances are used on different occasions; for example, they have
the arrow, scalp, turtle, fortune, buffalo, green-corn, and Montezuma
dances. Their costumes also vary on each of these occasions, and not
only are grotesque masks, but also elk, bear, fox, and other skins used
as disguises. The dance is sometimes performed by only one person, but
more frequently whole tribes join in, forming figures, shuffling, or
hopping about to the time given by the music. Lieutenant Simpson, who
witnessed a green-corn dance at the Jemez pueblo, describes it as
follows:

'When the performers first appeared, all of whom were men, they came in
a line, slowly walking and bending and stooping as they approached. They
were dressed in a kirt of blanket, the upper portion of their bodies
being naked and painted red. Their legs and arms, which were also bare,
were variously striped with red, white and blue colors; and around their
arms, above the elbow, they wore a green band, decked with sprigs of
piñon. A necklace of the same description was worn around the neck.
Their heads were decorated with feathers. In one hand they carried a dry
gourd, containing some grains of corn; in the other, a string from which
were hung several tortillas. At the knee were fastened small shells of
the ground turtle and antelope's feet; and dangling from the back, at
the waist, depended a fox-skin. The party was accompanied by three
elders of the town, whose business it was to make a short speech in
front of the different houses, and, at particular times, join in the
singing of the rest of the party. Thus they went from house to house,
singing and dancing, the occupants of each awaiting their arrival in
front of their respective dwellings.'

A somewhat similar Moqui dance is described by Mr Ten Broeck. Some of
the Pueblo dances end with bacchanalia, in which not only general
intoxication, but promiscuous intercourse between the sexes is
permitted.[844] 'Once a year,' says Kendall, 'the Keres have a great
feast, prepared for three successive days, which time is spent in
eating, drinking and dancing. Near this scene of amusement is a dismal
gloomy cave, into which not a glimpse of light can penetrate, and where
places of repose are provided for the revellers. To this cave, after
dark, repair grown persons of every age and sex, who pass the night in
indulgences of the most gross and sensual description.'

Reed flutes and drums are their chief instruments of music; the former
they immerse in a shallow basin of water, and thereby imitate the
warbling of birds. The drum is made of a hollow log, about two and a
half feet long and fifteen inches in diameter. A dried hide, from which
previously the hair has been scraped, is stretched over either end, and
on this the player beats with a couple of drumsticks, similar to those
used on our kettle-drums. Gourds filled with pebbles and other rattles,
are also used as a musical accompaniment to their dances.[845]

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS OF PIMAS AND PÁPAGOS.]

The Cocomaricopas and Pimas are rather fond of athletic sports, such as
football, horse and foot racing, swimming, target-shooting, and of
gambling.[846] Many curious customs obtain among these people. Mr
Walker relates that a Pima never touches his skin with his nails, but
always uses a small stick for that purpose, which he renews every fourth
day, and wears in his hair. Among the same nation, when a man has killed
an Apache, he must needs undergo purification. Sixteen days he must
fast, and only after the fourth day is he allowed to drink a little
pinole. During the sixteen days he may not look on a blazing fire, nor
hold converse with mortal man; he must live in the woods companionless,
save only one person appointed to take care of him. On the seventeenth
day a large space is cleared off near the village, in the center of
which a fire is lighted. The men form a circle round this fire, outside
of which those who have been purified sit, each in a small excavation.
Certain of the old men then take the weapons of the purified and dance
with them in the circle; for which service they receive presents, and
thenceforth both slayer and weapon are considered clean, but not until
four days later is the man allowed to return to his family. They ascribe
the origin of this custom to a mythical personage, called Szeukha, who,
after killing a monster, is said to have fasted for sixteen days.

The Pápagos stand in great dread of the coyote, and the Pimas never
touch an ant, snake, scorpion, or spider, and are much afraid of
thunderstorms. Like the Mojaves and Yumas, the Maricopas in cold weather
carry a firebrand to warm themselves withal. In like manner the Pueblos
have their singularities and semi-religious ceremonies, many of which
are connected with a certain mythical personage called Montezuma. Among
these may be mentioned the perpetual watching of the eternal
estufa-fire, and also the daily waiting for the rising sun, with which,
as some writers affirm, they expectantly look for the promised return of
the much-loved Montezuma. The Moqui, before commencing to smoke,
reverently bows toward the four cardinal points.[847]

Their diseases are few; and among these the most frequent are chills and
fevers, and later, syphilis. The Pueblos and Moquis resort to the
sweat-house remedy, but the Pimas only bathe daily in cold running
water. Here, as elsewhere, the doctor is medicine-man, conjuror, and
prophet, and at times old women are consulted. If incantations fail,
emetics, purgatives, or blood-letting are prescribed.[848]

The Pimas bury their dead immediately after death. At the bottom of a
shaft, about six feet deep, they excavate a vault, in which the corpse
is placed, after having first been tied up in a blanket. House, horses,
and most personal effects are destroyed; but if children are left, a
little property is reserved for them. A widow or a daughter mourns for
three months, cutting the hair and abstaining from the bath during that
time. The Maricopas burn their dead. Pueblo and Moqui burials take place
with many ceremonies, the women being the chief mourners.[849]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER OF THE PUEBLOS.]

Industrious, honest, and peace-loving, the people of this division are
at the same time brave and determined, when necessity compels them to
repel the thieving Apache. Sobriety may be ranked among their virtues,
as drunkenness only forms a part of certain religious festivals, and in
their gambling they are the most moderate of barbarians.[850]


THE LOWER CALIFORNIANS present a sad picture. Occupying the peninsula
from the head of the gulf to Cape San Lucas, it is thought by some that
they were driven thither from Upper California by their enemies. When
first visited by the Missionary Fathers, they presented humanity in one
of its lowest phases, though evidences of a more enlightened people
having at some previous time occupied the peninsula were not lacking.
Clavigero describes large caves or vaults, which had been dug out of the
solid rock, the sides decorated with paintings of animals and figures of
men, showing dress and features different from any of the inhabitants.
Whom they represented or by whom they were depicted there is no
knowledge, as the present race have been unable to afford any
information on the subject.

  [Sidenote: LOWER CALIFORNIA.]

The peninsula extends from near 32° to 23° north latitude; in length it
is about seven hundred, varying in width from thirty-five to eighty
miles. Its general features are rugged; irregular mountains of granite
formation and volcanic upheavals traversing the whole length of the
country, with barren rocks and sandy plains, intersected by ravines and
hills. Some fertile spots and valleys with clear mountain streams are
there, and in such places the soil produces abundantly; then there are
plains of greater or less extent, with rich soil, but without water; so
that, under the circumstances, they are little more than deserts. These
plains rise in places into mesas, which are cut here and there by
cañons, where streams of water are found, which are again lost on
reaching the sandy plains. Altogether, Lower California is considered as
one of the most barren and unattractive regions in the temperate zone,
although its climate is delightful, and the mountain districts
especially are among the healthiest in the world, owing to their
southern situation between two seas. A curious meteorological phenomenon
is sometimes observed both in the gulf and on the land; it is that of
rain falling during a perfectly clear sky. Savants, who have
investigated the subject, do not appear to have discovered the cause of
this unusual occurrence.

The greater part of the peninsula, at the time of its discovery, was
occupied by the _Cochimís_, whose territory extended from the head of
the gulf to the neighborhood of Loreto, or a little south of the
twenty-sixth parallel; adjoining them were the _Guaicuris_, living
between latitude 26° and 23° 30´; while the _Pericúis_ were settled in
the southern part, from about 23° 30´ or 24° to Cape San Lucas, and on
the adjacent islands.[851]

The Lower Californians are well formed, robust and of good stature, with
limbs supple and muscular; they are not inclined to corpulence; their
features are somewhat heavy, the forehead low and narrow, the nose well
set on, but thick and fleshy; the inner corners of the eyes round
instead of pointed; teeth very white and regular, hair very black,
coarse, straight, and glossy, with but little on the face, and none upon
the body or limbs. The color of the skin varies from light to dark
brown, the former color being characteristic of the dwellers in the
interior, and the latter of those on the sea-coast.[852]

  [Sidenote: COCHIMÍ AND PERICÚI DRESS.]

Adam without the fig-leaves was not more naked than were the Cochimís
before the missionaries first taught them the rudiments of shame. They
ignored even the usual breech-cloth, the only semblance of clothing
being a head-dress of rushes or strips of skin interwoven with
mother-of-pearl shells, berries, and pieces of reed. The Guaicuris and
Pericúis indulge in a still more fantastic head-dress, white feathers
entering largely into its composition. The women display more modesty,
for, although scantily clad, they at least essay to cover their
nakedness. The Pericúi women are the best dressed of all, having a
petticoat reaching from the waist to the ankles, made from the fibre of
certain palm-leaves, and rendered soft and flexible by beating between
two stones. Over the shoulders they throw a mantle of similar material,
or of plaited rushes, or of skins. The Cochimí women make aprons of
short reeds, strung upon cords of aloe-plant fibres fastened to a
girdle. The apron is open at the sides, one part hanging in front, the
other behind. As they are not more than six or eight inches wide, but
little of the body is in truth covered. When traveling they wear sandals
of hide, which they fasten with strings passed between the toes.[853]
Both sexes are fond of ornaments; to gratify this passion, they string
together pearls, shells, fruit-stones and seeds in the forms of
necklaces and bracelets. In addition to the head-dress the Pericúis are
distinguished by a girdle highly ornamented with pearls and
mother-of-pearl shells. They perforate ears, lips, and nose, inserting
in the openings, shells, bones, or hard sticks. Paint in many colors and
devices is freely used on war and gala occasions; tattooing obtains, but
does not appear to be universal among them. Mothers, to protect them
against the weather, cover the entire bodies of their children with a
varnish of coal and urine. Cochimí women cut the hair short, but the men
allow a long tuft to grow on the crown of the head. Both sexes among the
Guaicuris and Pericúis wear the hair long and flowing loosely over the
shoulders.[854]

Equally Adamitic are their habitations. They appear to hold a
superstitious dread of suffocation if they live or sleep in covered
huts; hence in their rare and meagre attempts to protect themselves from
the inclemencies of the weather, they never put any roof over their
heads. Roving beast-like in the vicinity of springs during the heat of
the day, seeking shade in the ravines and overhanging rocks; at night,
should they desire shelter, they resort to caverns and holes in the
ground. During winter they raise a semi-circular pile of stones or
brushwood, about two feet in height, behind which, with the sky for a
roof and the bare ground for a bed, they camp at night. Over the sick
they sometimes throw a wretched hut, by sticking a few poles in the
ground, tying them at the top and covering the whole with grass and
reeds, and into this nest visitors crawl on hands and knees.[855]

  [Sidenote: LOWER CALIFORNIAN FOOD.]

Reed-roots, wild fruit, pine-nuts, cabbage-palms, small seeds roasted,
and also roasted aloe and mescal roots constitute their food. During
eight weeks of the year they live wholly on the redundant fat-producing
_pitahaya_, after which they wander about in search of other native
vegetable products, and when these fail they resort to hunting and
fishing. Of animal food they will eat anything--beasts, birds, and
fishes, or reptiles, worms, and insects; and all parts: flesh, hide, and
entrails. Men and monkeys, however, as articles of food are an
abomination; the latter because they so much resemble the former. The
gluttony and improvidence of these people exceed, if possible, those of
any other nation; alternate feasting and fasting is their custom. When
so fortunate as to have plenty they consume large quantities, preserving
none. An abominable habit is related of them, that they pick up the
undigested seeds of the pitahaya discharged from their bowels, and after
parching and grinding them, eat the meal with much relish. Clavigero,
Baegert, and other authors, mention another rather uncommon feature in
the domestic economy of the Cochimís; it is that of swallowing their
meat several times, thereby multiplying their gluttonous pleasures.
Tying to a string a piece of well-dried meat, one of their number
masticates it a little, and swallows it, leaving the end of the string
hanging out of the mouth; after retaining it for about two or three
minutes in his stomach, it is pulled out, and the operation repeated
several times, either by the same individual or by others, until the
meat becomes consumed. Here is Father Baegert's summary of their
edibles: "They live now-a-days on dogs and cats; horses, asses and
mules; item: on owls, mice and rats; lizards and snakes; bats,
grasshoppers and crickets; a kind of green caterpillar without hair,
about a finger long, and an abominable white worm of the length and
thickness of the thumb."[856]

Their weapon is the bow and arrow, but they use stratagem to procure the
game. The deer-hunter deceives his prey by placing a deer's head upon
his own; hares are trapped; the Cochimís throw a kind of boomerang or
flat curved stick, which skims the ground and breaks the animal's legs.
Fish are taken from pools left by the tide and from the sea, sometimes
several miles out, in nets and with the aid of long lances. It is said
that at San Roche Island they catch fish with birds. They also gather
oysters, which they eat roasted, but use no salt. They have no cooking
utensils, but roast their meat by throwing it into the fire and after a
time raking it out. Insects and caterpillars are parched over the hot
coals in shells. Fish is commonly eaten raw; they drink only
water.[857] It is said that they never wash, and it is useless to add
that in their filthiness they surpass the brutes.[858]

Besides bows and arrows they use javelins, clubs, and slings of cords,
from which they throw stones. Their bows are six feet long, very broad
and thick in the middle and tapering toward the ends, with strings made
from the intestines of animals. The arrows are reeds about thirty inches
in length, into the lower end of which a piece of hard wood is cemented
with resin obtained from trees, and pointed with flint sharpened to a
triangular shape and serrated at the edges. Javelins are sharpened by
first hardening in the fire and then grinding to a point; they are
sometimes indented like a saw. Clubs are of different forms, either
mallet-head or axe shape; they also crook and sharpen at the edge a
piece of wood in the form of a scimeter.[859]

Their wars, which spring from disputed boundaries, are frequent and
deadly, and generally occur about fruit and seed time. The battle is
commenced amidst yells and brandishing of weapons, though without any
preconcerted plan, and a tumultuous onslaught is made without regularity
or discipline, excepting that a certain number are held in reserve to
relieve those who have expended their arrows or become exhausted. While
yet at a distance they discharge their arrows, but soon rush forward and
fight at close quarters with their clubs and spears; nor do they cease
till many on both sides have fallen.[860]

  [Sidenote: IMPLEMENTS IN LOWER CALIFORNIA.]

Their implements and household utensils are both rude and few. Sharp
flints serve them instead of knives; a bone ground to a point answers
the purpose of a needle or an awl; and with a sharp-pointed stick roots
are dug. Fire is obtained in the usual way from two pieces of wood. When
traveling, water is carried in a large bladder. The shell of the turtle
is applied to various uses, such as a receptacle for food and a cradle
for infants.

The Lower Californians have little ingenuity, and their display of
mechanical skill is confined to the manufacture of the aforesaid
implements, weapons of war, and of the chase; they make some flat
baskets of wicker work, which are used in the collection of seeds and
fruits; also nets from the fibre of the aloe, one in which to carry
provisions, and another fastened to a forked stick and hung upon the
back, in which to carry children.[861]

For boats the inhabitants of the peninsula construct rafts of reeds made
into bundles and bound tightly together; they are propelled with short
paddles, and seldom are capable of carrying more than one person. In
those parts where trees grow a more serviceable canoe is made from bark,
and sometimes of three or more logs, not hollowed out, but laid together
side by side and made fast with withes or pita-fibre cords. These floats
are buoyant, the water washing over them as over a catamaran. On them
two or more men will proceed fearlessly to sea, to a distance of several
miles from the coast. To transport their chattels across rivers, they
use wicker-work baskets, which are so closely woven as to be quite
impermeable to water; these, when loaded, are pushed across by the
owner, who swims behind.[862]

Besides their household utensils and boats, and the feathers or
ornaments on their persons, I find no other property. They who dwell on
the sea-coast occasionally travel inland, carrying with them sea-shells
and feathers to barter with their neighbors for the productions of the
interior.[863]

They are unable to count more than five, and this number is expressed by
one hand; some few among them are able to understand that two hands
signify ten, but beyond this they know nothing of enumeration, and can
only say much or many, or show that the number is beyond computation, by
throwing sand into the air and such like antics. The year is divided
into six seasons; the first is called Mejibo, which is midsummer, and
the time of ripe pitahayas; the second season Amaddappi, a time of
further ripening of fruits and seeds; the third Amadaappigalla, the end
of autumn and beginning of winter; the fourth, which is the coldest
season, is called Majibel; the fifth, when spring commences, is Majiben;
the sixth, before any fruits or seeds have ripened, consequently the
time of greatest scarcity, is called Majiibenmaaji.[864]

Neither government nor law is found in this region; every man is his own
master, and administers justice in the form of vengeance as best he is
able. As Father Baegert remarks: 'The different tribes represented by
no means communities of rational beings, who submit to laws and
regulations and obey their superiors, but resembled far more herds of
wild swine, which run about according to their own liking, being
together to-day and scattered to-morrow, till they meet again by
accident at some future time. In one word, the Californians lived,
_salva venia_, as though they had been free-thinkers and materialists.'
In hunting and war they have one or more chiefs to lead them, who are
selected only for the occasion, and by reason of superior strength or
cunning.[865]

  [Sidenote: MARRIAGE.]

Furthermore, they have no marriage ceremony, nor any word in their
language to express marriage. Like birds or beasts they pair off
according to fancy. The Pericúi takes as many women as he pleases, makes
them work for him as slaves, and when tired of any one of them turns her
away, in which case she may not be taken by another. Some form of
courtship appears to have obtained among the Guaicuris; for example,
when a young man saw a girl who pleased him, he presented her with a
small bowl or basket made of the pita-fibre; if she accepted the gift,
it was an evidence that his suit was agreeable to her, and in return she
gave him an ornamented head-dress, the work of her own hand; then they
lived together without further ceremony. Although among the Guaicuris
and Cochimís some hold a plurality of wives, it is not so common as with
the Pericúis, for in the two first-mentioned tribes there are more men
than women. A breach of female chastity is sometimes followed by an
attempt of the holder of the woman to kill the offender; yet morality
never attained any great height, as it is a practice with them for
different tribes to meet occasionally for the purpose of holding
indiscriminate sexual intercourse. Childbirth is easy; the Pericúis and
Guaicuris wash the body of the newly born, then cover it with ashes; as
the child grows it is placed on a frame-work of sticks, and if a male,
on its chest they fix a bag of sand to prevent its breasts growing like
a woman's, which they consider a deformity. For a cradle the Cochimís
take a forked stick or bend one end of a long pole in the form of a
hoop, and fix thereto a net, in which the infant is placed and covered
with a second net. It can thus be carried over the shoulder, or when the
mother wishes to be relieved, the end of the pole is stuck in the
ground, and nourishment given the child through the meshes of the net.
When old enough the child is carried astride on its mother's shoulders.
As soon as children are able to get food for themselves, they are left
to their own devices, and it sometimes happens that when food is scarce
the child is abandoned, or killed by its parents.[866]

  [Sidenote: LOWER CALIFORNIAN FEAST.]

Nevertheless, these miserables delight in feasts, and in the gross
debauchery there openly perpetrated. Unacquainted with intoxicating
liquors, they yet find drunkenness in the fumes of a certain herb smoked
through a stone tube, and used chiefly during their festivals. Their
dances consist of a series of gesticulations and jumpings, accompanied
by inarticulate murmurings and yells. One of their great holidays is the
pitahaya season, when, with plenty to eat, they spend days and nights in
amusements; at such times feats of strength and trials of speed take
place. The most noted festival among the Cochimís occurs upon the
occasion of their annual distribution of skins. To the women especially
it was an important and enjoyable event. Upon an appointed day all the
people collected at a designated place. In an arbor constructed with
branches, the road to which was carpeted with the skins of wild animals
that had been killed during the year, their most skillful hunters
assembled; they alone were privileged to enter the arbor, and in their
honor was already prepared a banquet and pipes of wild tobacco. The
viands went round as also the pipe, and, in good time, the partakers
became partially intoxicated by the smoke; then one of the priests or
sorcerers, arrayed in his robe of ceremony, appeared at the entrance to
the arbor, and made a speech to the people, in which he recounted the
deeds of the hunters. Then the occupants of the arbor came out and made
a repartition of the skins among the women; this finished, dancing and
singing commenced and continued throughout the night. It sometimes
happened that their festivals ended in fighting and bloodshed, as they
were seldom conducted without debauchery, especially among the Guaicuris
and Pericúis.[867]

When they have eaten their fill they pass their time in silly or obscene
conversation, or in wrestling, in which sports the women often take a
part. They are very adroit in tracking wild beasts to their lairs and
taming them. At certain festivals their sorcerers, who were called by
some _quamas_, by others _cusiyaes_, wore long robes of skins,
ornamented with human hair; these sages filled the offices of priests
and medicine-men, and threatened their credulous brothers with
innumerable ills and death, unless they supplied them with provisions.
These favored of heaven professed to hold communication with oracles,
and would enter caverns and wooded ravines, sending thence doleful
sounds, to frighten the people, who were by such tricks easily imposed
upon and led to believe in their deceits and juggleries.[868]

As to ailments, Lower Californians are subject to consumption, burning
fevers, indigestion, and cutaneous diseases. Small pox, measles, and
syphilis, the last imported by troops, have destroyed numberless lives.
Wounds inflicted by the bites of venomous reptiles may be added to the
list of troubles. Loss of appetite is with them, generally, a symptom of
approaching death. They submit resignedly to the treatment prescribed by
their medicine-men, however severe or cruel it may be. They neglect
their aged invalids, refusing them attendance if their last sickness
proves too long, and recovery appears improbable. In several instances
they have put an end to the patient by suffocation or otherwise.[869]

Diseases are treated externally by the application of ointments,
plasters, and fomentations of medicinal herbs, particularly the wild
tobacco. Smoke is also a great panacea, and is administered through a
stone tube placed on the suffering part. The usual juggleries attend the
practice of medicine. In extreme cases they attempt to draw with their
fingers the disease from the patient's mouth. If the sick person has a
child or sister, they cut its or her little finger of the right hand,
and let the blood drop on the diseased part. Bleeding with a sharp stone
and whipping the affected part with nettles, or applying ants to it, are
among the remedies used. For the cure of tumors, the medicine-men burst
and suck them with their lips until blood is drawn. Internal diseases
are treated with cold-water baths. The means employed by the
medicine-man are repeated by the members of the patient's family and by
his friends. In danger even the imitation of death startles them. If an
invalid is pronounced beyond recovery, and he happens to slumber, they
immediately arouse him with blows on the head and body, for the purpose
of preserving life.[870]

  [Sidenote: DEATH AND BURIAL IN LOWER CALIFORNIA.]

Death is followed by a plaintive, mournful chant, attended with howling
by friends and relatives, who beat their heads with sharp stones until
blood flows freely. Without further ceremony they either inter or burn
the body immediately, according to the custom of the locality: in the
latter case they leave the head intact. Oftentimes they bury or burn the
body before life has actually left it, never taking pains to ascertain
the fact.[871]

Weapons and other personal effects are buried or burned with the owner;
and in some localities, where burying is customary, shoes are put to the
feet, so that the spiritualized body may be prepared for its journey. In
Colechá and Guajamina mourning ceremonies are practiced certain days
after death--juggleries--in which the priest pretends to hold converse
with the departed spirit through the scalp of the deceased, commending
the qualities of the departed, and concluding by asking on the spirit's
behalf that all shall cut off their hair as a sign of sorrow. After a
short dance, more howling, hair-pulling, and other ridiculous acts, the
priest demands provisions for the spirit's journey, which his hearers
readily contribute, and which the priest appropriates to his own use,
telling them it has already started. Occasionally they honor the memory
of their dead by placing a rough image of the departed on a high pole,
and a _quama_ or priest sings his praises.[872]

The early missionaries found the people of the peninsula kind-hearted
and tractable, although dull of comprehension and brutal in their
instincts, rude, narrow-minded, and inconstant. A marked difference of
character is observable between the Cochimís and the Pericúis. The
former are more courteous in their manners and better behaved; although
cunning and thievish, they exhibit attachment and gratitude to their
superiors; naturally indolent and addicted to childish pursuits and
amusements, they lived among themselves in amity, directing their savage
and revengeful nature against neighboring tribes with whom they were at
variance. The Pericúis, before they became extinct, were a fierce and
barbarous nation, unruly and brutal in their passions, cowardly,
treacherous, false, petulant, and boastful, with an intensely cruel and
heartless disposition, often shown in relentless persecutions and
murders. In their character and disposition the Guaicuris did not differ
essentially from the Pericúis. In the midst of so much darkness there
was still one bright spot visible, inasmuch as they were of a cheerful
and happy nature, lovers of kind and lovers of country. Isolated,
occupying an ill-favored country, it was circumstances, rather than any
inherent incapacity for improvement, that held these poor people in
their low state; for, as we shall see at some future time, in their
intercourse with civilized foreigners, they were not lacking in cunning,
diplomacy, selfishness, and other aids to intellectual progress.[873]


  [Sidenote: NORTHERN MEXICANS.]

The NORTHERN MEXICANS, the fourth and last division of this group,
spread over the territory lying between parallels 31° and 23° of north
latitude. Their lands have an average breadth of about five hundred
miles, with an area of some 250,000 square miles, comprising the states
of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, Nuevo Leon, and the northern
portions of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.

Nearly parallel with the Pacific seaboard, and dividing the states of
Sonora and Sinaloa from Chihuahua and Durango, runs the great central
Cordillera; further to the eastward, passing through Coahuila, Nuevo
Leon, and San Luis Potosí, and following the shore line of the Mexican
Gulf, the Sierra Madre continues in a southerly direction, until it
unites with the first-named range at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. All of
these mountains abound in mineral wealth. The table-land between them is
intersected by three ridges; one, the Sierra Mimbres, issuing from the
inner flank of the Western Cordillera north of Arispe, extending in a
northerly direction and following the line of the Rio Grande. The middle
mountainous divide crosses from Durango to Coahuila, while the third
rises in the state of Jalisco and taking an easterly and afterward
northerly direction, traverses the table-land and merges into the Sierra
Madre in the state of San Luis Potosí. On these broad table-lands are
numerous lakes fed by the streams which have their rise in the mountains
adjacent; in but few spots is the land available for tillage, but it is
admirably adapted to pastoral purposes. The climate can hardly be
surpassed in its tonic and exhilarating properties; the atmosphere is
ever clear, with sunshine by day, and a galaxy of brilliant stars by
night; the absence of rain, fogs, and dews, with a delicious and even
temperature, renders habitations almost unnecessary. All this vast
region is occupied by numerous tribes speaking different languages and
claiming distinct origins. Upon the northern seaboard of Sonora and
Tiburon Island are the _Ceris_, _Tiburones_, and _Tepocas_; south of
them the _Cahitas_, or _Sinaloas_, which are general names for the
_Yaquis_ and _Mayos_, tribes so called from the rivers on whose banks
they live. In the state of Sinaloa there are also the _Cochitas_,
_Tuvares_, _Sabaibos_, _Zuaques_, and _Ahomes_, besides many other small
tribes. Scattered through the states of the interior are the _Ópatas_,
_Eudeves_, _Jovas_, _Tarahumares_, _Tubares_, and _Tepehuanes_, who
inhabit the mountainous districts of Chihuahua and Durango. East of the
Tarahumares, in the northern part of the first-named state, dwell the
_Conchos_. In Durango, living in the hills round Topia, are the
_Acaxées_; south of whom dwell the _Xiximes_. On the table-lands of
Mapimi and on the shores of its numerous lakes, the _Irritilas_ and many
other tribes are settled; while south of these again, in Zacatecas and
San Luis Potosí, are the _Guachichiles_, _Huamares_, and _Cazcanes_, and
further to the east, and bordering on the gulf shores we find the
country occupied by scattered tribes, distinguished by a great variety
of names, prominent among which are the _Carrizas_ or _Garzas_,
_Xanambres_, and _Pintos_.[874]

  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES IN NORTH MEXICO.]

Most of these nations are composed of men of large stature; robust, and
well formed, with an erect carriage; the finest specimens are to be
found on the sea-coast, exceptions being the Ópatas and Chicoratas, the
former inclining to corpulency, the latter being short, although active
and swift runners. The women are well limbed and have good figures, but
soon become corpulent. The features of these people are quite regular,
the head round and well shaped, with black and straight hair; they have
high cheek-bones and handsome mouths, with a generally mild and pleasing
expression of countenance. They have piercing black eyes, and can
distinguish objects at great distances. The Ceris see best toward the
close of the day, owing to the strong reflection from the white sands of
the coast during the earlier part of the day. The Carrizas are
remarkable for their long upper lip. The men of this region have little
beard; their complexion varies from a light brown to a copper shade.
Many of them attain to a great age.[875]

For raiment the Cahitas and Ceris wear only a small rag in front of
their persons, secured to a cord tied round the waist; the Tarahumares,
Acaxées, and other nations of the interior use for the same purpose a
square piece of tanned deer-skin painted, except in cold weather, when
they wrap a large blue cotton mantle round the shoulders. The women have
petticoats reaching to their ankles, made of soft chamois or of cotton
or agave-fibre, and a _tilma_ or mantle during the winter. Some wear a
long sleeveless chemise, which reaches from the shoulders to the feet.
The Ceri women have petticoats made from the skins of the albatross or
pelican, the feathers inside. The Ópata men, soon after the conquest,
were found well clad in blouse and drawers of cotton, with wooden shoes,
while their neighbors wore sandals of raw hide, cut to the shape of the
foot.[876]

The Cahitas, Acaxées and most other tribes, pierce the ears and nose,
from which they hang small green stones, attached to a piece of blue
cord; on the head, neck, and wrists, a great variety of ornaments are
worn, made from mother-of-pearl and white snails' shells, also
fruit-stones, pearls, and copper and silver hoops; round the ankles some
wear circlets of deer's hoofs, others decorate their heads and necks
with necklaces of red beans and strings of paroquets and small birds;
pearls and feathers are much used to ornament the hair. The practice of
painting the face and body is common to all, the colors most in use
being red and black. A favorite style with the Ceris is to paint the
face in alternate perpendicular stripes of blue, red, and white. The
Pintos paint the face, breast, and arms; the Tarahumares tattoo the
forehead, lips, and cheeks in various patterns; the Yaquis the chin and
arms; while other tribes tattoo the face or body in styles peculiar to
themselves. Both sexes are proud of their hair, which they wear long
and take much care of; the women permit it to flow, in loose tresses,
while the men gather it into one or more tufts on the crown of the head,
and when hunting protect it by a chamois cap, to prevent its being
disarranged by trees or bushes.[877]

  [Sidenote: NORTHERN MEXICAN DWELLINGS.]

Their houses are of light construction, usually built of sticks and
reeds, and are covered with coarse reed matting. The Chinipas, Yaquis,
Ópatas and Conchos build somewhat more substantial dwellings of timber
and adobes, or of plaited twigs well plastered with mud; all are only
one story high and have flat roofs. Although none of these people are
without their houses or huts, they spend most of their time, especially
during summer, under the trees. The Tarahumares find shelter in the deep
caverns of rocky mountains, the Tepehuanes and Acaxées place their
habitations on the top of almost inaccessible crags, while the Humes and
Batucas build their villages in squares, with few and very small
entrances, the better to defend themselves against their
enemies--detached buildings for kitchen and store-room purposes being
placed contiguous.[878]

The Northern Mexicans live chiefly on wild fruits such as the pitahaya,
honey, grain, roots, fish, and larvæ; they capture game both large and
small, and some of them eat rats, mice, frogs, snakes, worms, and
vermin. The Ahomamas along the shores of Lake Parras, the Yaquis,
Batucas, Ceris, Tarahumares, and the Ópatas since the conquest have
become agriculturists and cattle-breeders, besides availing themselves
of fishing and hunting as means of subsistence. On the coast of Sonora,
there being no maize, the natives live on pulverized rush and straw,
with fish caught at sea or in artificial enclosures. The dwellers on the
coast of Sinaloa consume a large quantity of salt, which they gather on
the land during the dry season, and in the rainy reason from the bottom
of marshes and pools. It is said that the Salineros sometimes eat their
own excrement. According to the reports of the older historians, the
Tobosos, Bauzarigames, Cabezas, Contotores, and Acaxées, as well as
other tribes of Durango and Sinaloa, formerly fed on human
flesh,--hunted human beings for food as they hunted deer or other game.
The flesh of their brave foes they ate, thinking thereby to augment
their own bravery.[879]

  [Sidenote: METHODS OF HUNTING.]

The Ceris of Tiburon Island depend for food entirely on fish and game.
They catch turtle by approaching the animal and suddenly driving the
point of their spear into its back, a cord being attached to the weapon
by which they drag the prize on to the raft as soon as its strength has
become exhausted. According to Gomara, the natives of Sonora in 1537
were caught poisoning the deer-pools, probably for the skins, or it may
have been only a stupefying drink that the pools were made to supply.
The Sinaloans are great hunters; at times they pursue the game singly,
then again the whole town turns out and, surrounding the thickest part
of the forest, the people set fire to the underbrush and bring down the
game as it attempts to escape the flames. A feast of reptiles is
likewise thus secured. Iguanas are caught with the hands, their legs
broken, and thus they are kept until required for food. For procuring
wild honey, a bee is followed until it reaches its tree, the
sweet-containing part of which is cut off and carried away. The
Tarahumares hunt deer by driving them through narrow passes, where men
are stationed to shoot them. Others make use of a deer's head as a
decoy. For fishing they have various contrivances; some fish between the
rocks with a pointed stick; others, when fishing in a pool, throw into
the water a species of cabbage or leaves of certain trees, that stupefy
the fish, when they are easily taken with the hands; they also use
wicker baskets, and near the Pacific Ocean they inclose the rivers, and
catch enormous quantities of smelt and other fish, which have come up
from the sea to spawn. The Laguneros of Coahuila catch ducks by placing
a calabash on their heads, with holes through which to breathe and see;
thus equipped, they swim softly among the ducks, and draw them under
water without flutter or noise. Tatéma is the name of a dish cooked in
the ground by the Tarahumares. The Laguneros make tortillas of flour
obtained from an aquatic plant. The Zacatecs make the same kind of bread
from the pulp of the maguey, which is first boiled with lime, then
washed and boiled again in pure water, after which it is squeezed dry
and made into cakes. Most of the people use _pozole_, or _pinolatl_,
both being a kind of gruel made of pinole, of parched corn or seeds
ground, the one of greater thickness than the other; also _tamales_,
boiled beans, and pumpkins. The Ceris of Tiburon eat fish and meat
uncooked, or but slightly boiled. The Salineros frequently devour
uncooked hares and rabbits, having only removed their furs.[880]

  [Sidenote: HOW ARROWS WERE MADE AND POISONED.]

The weapons universally used by these nations were bows and arrows and
short clubs, in addition to which the chiefs and most important warriors
carried a short lance and a buckler. The arrows were carried in a quiver
made of lion or other skins. The Tarahumares and some others wore a
leathern guard round the left wrist, to protect it from the blow of the
bow-string. Flint knives were employed for cutting up their slain
enemies. The Ceris, Jovas, and other tribes smeared the points of their
arrows with a very deadly poison, but how it was applied to the point,
or whence obtained, it is difficult to determine; some travelers say
that this poison was taken from rattlesnakes and other venomous
reptiles, which, by teasing, were incited to strike their fangs into the
liver of a cow or deer which was presented to them, after which it was
left to putrefy, and the arrows being dipped into the poisonous mass,
were placed in the sun to dry; but other writers, again, assert that the
poison was produced from a vegetable preparation. The wound inflicted by
the point, however slight, is said to have caused certain death. The
arrows were pointed with flint, or some other stone, or with bone,
fastened to a piece of hard wood, which is tied by sinews to a reed or
cane, notched, and winged with three feathers; when not required for
immediate use, the tying was loosed, and the point reversed in the cane,
to protect it from being broken. The Ceris and Chicoratos cut a notch a
few inches above the point, so that in striking it should break off and
remain in the wound. Their clubs were made of a hard wood called
_guayacan_, with a knob at the end, and when not in use were carried
slung to the arm by a leather thong. Their lances were of Brazil wood,
bucklers of alligator-skin, and shields of bull's hide, sufficiently
large to protect the whole body, with a hole in the top to look through.
Another kind of shield was made of small lathes closely interwoven with
cords, in such a manner that, when not required for use, it could be
shut up like a fan, and was carried under the arm.[881]

Living in a state of constant war, arising out of family quarrels or
aggressions made into each other's territories, they were not unskilled
in military tactics. Previous to admission as a warrior, a young man
had to pass through certain ordeals; having first qualified himself by
some dangerous exploit, or having faithfully performed the duty of a
scout in an enemy's country. The preliminaries being settled, a day was
appointed for his initiation, when one of the braves, acting as his
godfather, introduced him to the chief, who, for the occasion, had first
placed himself in the midst of a large circle of warriors. The chief
then addressed him, instructing him in the several duties required of
him, and drawing from a pouch an eagle's talon, with it proceeded to
score his body on the shoulders, arms, breast, and thighs, till the
blood ran freely; the candidate was expected to suffer without showing
the slightest signs of pain. The chief then handed to him a bow and a
quiver of arrows; each of the braves also presented him with two arrows.
In the campaigns that followed, the novitiate must take the hardest
duty, be ever at the post of danger, and endure without a murmur or
complaint the severest privations, until a new candidate appeared to
take his place.[882]

  [Sidenote: WAR CUSTOMS IN NORTH MEXICO.]

When one tribe desires the assistance of another in war, they send reeds
filled with tobacco, which, if accepted, is a token that the alliance is
formed; a call for help is made by means of the smoke signal. When war
is decided upon, a leader is chosen, at whose house all the elders,
medicine-men, and principal warriors assemble; a fire is then lighted,
and tobacco handed round and smoked in silence. The chief, or the most
aged and distinguished warrior then arises, and in a loud tone and not
unpoetic language, harangues his hearers, recounting to them heroic
deeds hitherto performed, victories formerly gained, and present wrongs
to be avenged; after which tobacco is again passed round, and new
speakers in turn address the assembly. War councils are continued for
several nights, and a day is named on which the foe is to be attacked.
Sometimes the day fixed for the battle is announced to the enemy, and a
spot on which the fight is to take place selected. During the campaign
fasting is strictly observed. The Acaxées, before taking the war-path,
select a maiden of the tribe, who secludes herself during the whole
period of the campaign, speaking to no one, and eating nothing but a
little parched corn without salt. The Ceris and Ópatas approach their
enemy under cover of darkness, preserving a strict silence, and at break
of day, by a preconcerted signal, a sudden and simultaneous attack is
made. To fire an enemy's house, the Tepagues and others put lighted
corn-cobs on the points of their arrows. In the event of a retreat they
invariably carry off the dead, as it is considered a point of honor not
to leave any of their number on the field. Seldom is sex or age spared,
and when prisoners are taken, they are handed over to the women for
torture, who treat them most inhumanly, heaping upon them every insult
devisable, besides searing their flesh with burning brands, and finally
burning them at the stake, or sacrificing them in some equally cruel
manner. Many cook and eat the flesh of their captives, reserving the
bones as trophies. The slain are scalped, or a hand is cut off, and a
dance performed round the trophies on the field of battle. On the return
of an expedition, if successful, entry into the village is made in the
day-time. Due notice of their approach having been forwarded to the
inhabitants, the warriors are received with congratulations and praises
by the women, who, seizing the scalps, vent their spleen in frantic
gestures; tossing them from one to another, these female fiends dance
and sing round the bloody trophies, while the men look on in approving
silence. Should the expedition, however, prove unsuccessful, the village
is entered in silence and during the dead of night. All the booty taken
is divided amongst the aged men and women, as it is deemed unlucky by
the warriors to use their enemy's property.[883]

Their household utensils consist of pots of earthen ware and gourds, the
latter used both for cooking and drinking purposes; later, out of the
horns of oxen cups are made. The Tarahumares use in place of saddles two
rolls of straw fastened by a girdle to the animal's back, loose enough,
however, to allow the rider to put his feet under them. Emerging from
their barbarism, they employ, in their agricultural pursuits, plows with
shares of wood or stone, and wooden hoes. The Ceris have a kind of
double-pointed javelin, with which they catch fish, which, once between
the prongs, are prevented from slipping out by the jagged sides.[884]

The Ahomoas, Eudebes, Jovas, Yaquis, and Ópatas weave fabrics out of
cotton or agave-fibre, such as blankets or serapes, and cloth with
 threads in neat designs and figures; these nations also
manufacture matting from reeds and palm-leaves. Their loom consists of
four short sticks driven into the ground, to which a frame is attached
to hold the thread. The shuttle is an oblong piece of wood, on which the
cross-thread is wound. After passing through the web, the shuttle is
seized and pressed close by a ruler three inches in breadth, which is
placed between the web and supplies the place of a comb. When any
patterns are to be worked, several women assist to mark off with wooden
pegs the amount of thread required. The Yaquis and Ceris manufacture
common earthen ware, and the Tarahumares twist horse-hair into strong
cords; they also use undressed hides cut in strips, and coarse
aloe-fibres.[885]

  [Sidenote: PROPERTY OF CERIS, ÓPATAS, AND YAQUIS.]

No boats or canoes are employed by any of the natives of this region;
but the Ceris, the Tiburones, and the Tepocas make rafts of reeds or
bamboos, fastened together into bundles. These rafts are about eighteen
feet long and tapering toward both ends; some are large enough to carry
four or five men; they are propelled with a double-bladed paddle, held
in the middle and worked alternately on both sides.[886]

Subsequent to the conquest, the Ópatas and Yaquis accumulated large
flocks of sheep, cattle, and bands of horses; the latter are good
miners, and expert divers for pearls. Their old communistic ideas follow
them in their new life; thus, the landed property of the Tarahumares is
from time to time repartitioned; they have also a public asylum for the
sick, helpless, and for orphans, who are taken care of by male and
female officials called _tenanches_. Pearls, turquoises, emeralds,
coral, feathers, and gold were in former times part of their property,
and held the place of money; trade, for the most part, was carried on by
simple barter.[887]

The Northern Mexicans make no pretensions to art; nevertheless, Guzman
states that in the province of Culiacan the walls of the houses were
decorated with obscene paintings. They are all great observers of the
heavenly bodies and the changes in the atmosphere; the Yaquis count
their time by the moon. They are good musicians, imitating to perfection
on their own instruments almost any strain they happen to hear. Their
native melodies are low, sweet, and harmonious. In Petatlan they
embroidered dresses with pearls, and as they had no instrument for
piercing the jewel, they cut a small groove round it, and so strung
them. With pearls they formed on cloth figures of animals and
birds.[888]

I find nowhere in this region any system of laws or government. There
are the usual tribal chieftains, selected on account of superior skill
or bravery, but with little or no power except in war matters. Councils
of war, and all meetings of importance, are held at the chief's
house.[889]

  [Sidenote: MARRIAGE AND POLYGAMY.]

The Ceris and Tepocas celebrate the advent of womanhood with a feast,
which lasts for several days. The Ahome maiden wears on her neck a small
carved shell, as a sign of her virginity, to lose which before marriage
is a lasting disgrace. On the day of marriage the bridegroom removes
this ornament from his bride's neck. It is customary among most of the
tribes to give presents to the girl's parents. The Tahus, says
Castañeda, are obliged to purchase a maiden from her parents, and
deliver her to the _cacique_,[890] chief, or possibly high priest, to
whom was accorded the _droit de seigneur_. If the bride proves to be no
virgin, all the presents are returned by her parents, and it is optional
with the bridegroom to keep her or condemn her to the life of a public
prostitute. The Bauzarigames, Cabezas, Contotores, and Tehuecos practice
polygamy and inter-family marriages, but these are forbidden by the
Ceris, Chinipas, Tiburones, and Tepocas. Different ceremonies take place
upon the birth of the first child. Among some, the father is
intoxicated, and in that state surrounded by a dancing multitude, who
score his body till the blood flows freely. Among others, several days
after the birth of a male child, the men visit the house, feel each limb
of the newly born, exhort him to be brave, and finally give him a name;
women perform similar ceremonies with female children. The couvade
obtains in certain parts; as for instance, the Lagunero and Ahomama
husbands, after the birth of a child, remain in bed for six or seven
days, during which time they eat neither fish nor meat. The Sisibotaris,
Ahomes, and Tepehuanes hold chastity in high esteem, and both their
maidens and matrons are remarkably chaste. The standard of morality
elsewhere in this vicinity is in general low, especially with the
Acaxées and Tahus, whose incestuous connections and system of public
brothels are notorious. According to Arlegui, Ribas, and other authors,
among some of these nations male concubinage prevails to a great extent;
these loathsome semblances of humanity, whom to call beastly were a
slander upon beasts, dress themselves in the clothes and perform the
functions of women, the use of weapons even being denied them.[891]

Drunkenness prevails to a great extent among most of the tribes; their
liquors are prepared from the fruit of the pitahaya, mezquite-beans,
agave, honey, and wheat. In common with all savages, they are
immoderately fond of dancing, and have numerous feasts, where, with
obscene carousals and unseemly masks, the revels continue, until the
dancers, from sheer exhaustion or intoxication, are forced to rest. The
Ópatas hold a festival called _torom raqui_, to insure rain and good
crops. Clearing a square piece of ground, they strew it with seeds,
bones, boughs, horns, and shells; the actors then issue forth from huts
built on the four corners of the square, and there dance from sunrise to
sunset. On the first day of the year they plant in the ground a tall
pole, to which are tied long ribbons of many colors. A number of young
maidens, fancifully attired, dance round the pole, holding the ends of
the ribbons, twisting themselves nearer or away from the center in
beautiful figures. Upon other occasions they commemorate, in modern
times, what is claimed to be the journey of the Aztecs, and the
appearance of Montezuma among them. Hunting and war expeditions are
inaugurated by dances. Their musical instruments are flutes and hollow
trunks beaten with sticks or bones, and accompanied with song and
impromptu words, relating the exploits of their gods, warriors, and
hunters. They are passionately fond of athletic sports, such as archery,
wrestling, and racing; but the favorite pastime is a kind of foot-ball.
The game is played between two parties, with a large elastic ball, on a
square piece of ground prepared expressly for the purpose. The players
must strike the ball with the shoulders, knees, or hips, but never with
the hand. Frequently one village challenges another as upon the occasion
of a national festival, which lasts several days, and is accompanied
with dancing and feasting. They have also games with wooden balls, in
which sticks are used when playing. The players are always naked, and
the game often lasts from sunrise to sunset, and sometimes, when the
victory is undecided, the play will be continued for several successive
days. Bets are freely made, and horses and other property staked with
the greatest recklessness.[892]

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

Loads are carried on the head, or in baskets at the back, hanging from a
strap that passes across the forehead. Another mode of carrying burdens
is to distribute equally the weight at both ends of a pole which is
slung across the shoulder, _à la Chinoise_. Their conceptions of the
supernatural are extremely crude; thus, the Ópatas, by yells and
gesticulations, endeavor to dispel eclipses of the heavenly bodies;
before the howling of the wind they cower as before the voice of the
Great Spirit. The Ceris superstitiously celebrate the new moon, and bow
reverentially to the rising and setting sun. Nuño de Guzman states that
in the province of Culiacan tamed serpents were found in the dwellings
of the natives, which they feared and venerated. Others have a great
veneration for the hidden virtues of poisonous plants, and believe that
if they crush or destroy one, some harm will happen to them. It is a
common custom to hang a small bag containing poisonous herbs round the
neck of a child, as a talisman against diseases or attacks from wild
beasts, which they also believe will render them invulnerable in battle.
They will not touch a person struck by lightning, and will leave him to
die, or, if dead, to lie unburied.[893]

  [Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

Intermittent and other fevers prevail among the people of Northern
Mexico. Small-pox, introduced by Europeans, has destroyed many lives;
syphilis was introduced among the Carrizos by the Spanish troops. The
Tarahumares suffer from pains in the side about the end of the spring.
The Ópatas of Oposura are disfigured by goitres, but this disease seems
to be confined within three leagues of the town. Wounds inflicted by
arrows, many of them poisoned, and bites of rattlesnakes are common.
Friends, and even parents and brothers leave to their fate such as are
suffering from contagious diseases; they, however, place water and wild
fruits within the sufferer's reach. To relieve their wearied legs and
feet after long marches, they scarify the former with sharp flints. In
extreme cases they rub themselves with the maguey's prickly leaf well
pounded, which, acting as an emollient on their hardened bodies, affords
them prompt relief. The Carrizos cure syphilis with certain plants, the
medicinal properties of which are known to them. As a purgative they use
the grains of the _maguacate_, and as a febrifuge the _cenicilla_
(_teraina frutescens_). With the leaves of the latter they make a
decoction which, mixed with hydromel, is an antidote for intermittent
fevers. They also use the leaves of the willow in decoction, as a
remedy for the same complaint. In Sinaloa, the leaf and roots of the
_guaco_ are used by the natives as the most efficacious medicine for the
bites of poisonous reptiles. The Ópatas employ excellent remedies for
the diseases to which they are subject. They have a singular method of
curing rattlesnake bites, a sort of retaliative cure; seizing the
reptile's head between two sticks, they stretch out the tail and bite it
along the body, and if we may believe Alegre, the bitten man does not
swell up, but the reptile does, until it bursts. In some parts, if a
venomous snake bites a person, he seizes it at both ends, and breaks all
its bones with his teeth until it is dead, imagining this to be an
efficacious means of saving himself from the effect of the wounds. Arrow
wounds are first sucked, and then _peyote_ powder is put into them;
after two days the wound is cleaned, and more of the same powder
applied; this operation is continued upon every second day, and finally
powdered lechugilla-root is used; by this process the wound, after
thoroughly suppurating, becomes healed. Out of the leaves of the maguey,
lechugilla, and date-palm, as well as from the rosemary, they make
excellent balsams for curing wounds. They have various vegetable
substances for appeasing the thirst of wounded persons, as water is
considered injurious. The Acaxées employ the sucking processes, and
blowing through a hollow tube, for the cure of diseases. The Yaquis put
a stick into the patient's mouth, and with it draw from the stomach the
disease; the Ceris of Tiburon Island also employ charms in their medical
practice.[894]

I find nothing of cremation in these parts. The dead body is brought
head and knees together, and placed in a cave or under a rock. Several
kinds of edibles, with the utensils and implements with which the
deceased earned a support while living, are deposited in the grave, also
a small idol, to serve as a guide and fellow traveler to the departed on
the long journey. On the lips of dead infants is dropped milk from the
mother's breast, that these innocents may have sustenance to reach their
place of rest. Among the Acaxées, if a woman dies in childbirth, the
infant surviving is slain, as the cause of its mother's death. Cutting
the hair is the only sign of mourning among them.[895]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER.]

The character of the Northern Mexicans, as portrayed by Arlegui, is
gross and low; but some of these tribes do not deserve such sweeping
condemnation. The Mayos, Yaquis, Acaxées, and Ópatas are generally
intelligent, honest, social, amiable, and intrepid in war; their young
women modest, with a combination of sweetness and pride noticed by some
writers. The Ópatas especially are a hard-working people, good-humored,
free from intemperance and thievishness; they are also very tenacious of
purpose, when their minds are made up--danger often strengthening their
stubbornness the more. The Sisibotaris, Ahomamas, Onavas, and
Tarahumares are quiet and docile, but brave when occasion requires; the
last-mentioned are remarkably honest. The Tepocas and Tiburones are
fierce, cruel, and treacherous, more warlike and courageous than the
Ceris of the main land, who are singularly devoid of good qualities,
being sullenly stupid, lazy, inconstant, revengeful, depredating, and
much given to intemperance. Their country even has become a refuge for
evil-doers. In former times they were warlike and brave: but even this
quality they have lost, and have become as cowardly as they are cruel.
The Tepehuanes and other mountaineers are savage and warlike, and their
animosity to the whites perpetual. The Laguneros and other tribes of
Coahuila are intelligent, domestic, and hospitable; the former
especially are very brave. In Chihuahua they are generally fierce and
uncommunicative. At El Paso, the women are more jovial and pleasant than
the men; the latter speak but little, never laugh, and seldom smile;
their whole aspect seems to be wrapped in melancholy--everything about
it has a semblance of sadness and suffering.[896]


TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

To the New Mexican group belong the nations inhabiting the territory
lying between the parallels 36° and 23° of north latitude, and the
meridians 96° and 117° of west longitude; that is to say, the occupants
of the states of New Mexico, Arizona, Lower California, Sonora, Sinaloa,
Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Northern Zacatecas, and
Western Texas.


In the APACHE FAMILY, I include all the savage tribes roaming through
New Mexico, the north-western portion of Texas, a small part of Northern
Mexico, and Arizona; being the Comanches, Apaches proper, Navajos,
Mojaves, Hualapais, Yumas, Cosninos, Yampais, Yalchedunes, Yamajabs,
Cochees, Cruzados, Nijoras, Cocopas, and others.

The _Comanches_ inhabit Western Texas, Eastern New Mexico, and Eastern
Mexico, and from the Arkansas River north to near the Gulf of Mexico
south. Range 'over the plains of the Arkansas from the vicinity of
Bent's fort, at the parallel of 38°, to the Gulf of Mexico ... from the
eastern base of the Llano Estacado to about the meridian of longitude
98th.' _Pope_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. ii., p. 16. From the western
border of the Choctaw country 'uninterruptedly along the Canadian to
Tucumcari creek and thence, occasionally, to Rio Pecos. From this line
they pursue the buffalo northward as far as the Sioux country, and on
the south are scarcely limited by the frontier settlements of Mexico.'
_Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 8, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii. 'During summer ... as far north as the Arkansas river, their
winters they usually pass about the head branches of the Brazos and
Colorado rivers of Texas.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii., p. 307.
'Between 102° and 104° longitude and 33° and 37° north latitude.'
_Norton_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 146. 'About thirteen thousand
square miles of the southern portion of Colorado, and probably a much
larger extent of the neighboring States of Kansas and Texas, and
Territory of New Mexico and the "Indian country," are occupied by the
Kioways and Comanches.' _Dole_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, p. 34;
_Evans and Collins_, in _Id._, pp. 230, 242; _Martinez_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 487. 'En Invierno se acercan á Téjas, y en
Estío á la sierra de Santa Fe.' _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 251.
'Comanches ou Hietans (Eubaous, Yetas), dans le nord-ouest du Texas.'
_Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1852, tom. cxxxiii., p.
225. 'Originaire du Nouveau-Mexique; mais ... ils descendent souvent
dans les plaines de la Basse-Californie et de la Sonora.' _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 192. 'Range east of the mountains of
New Mexico.' _Bent_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 244. 'In dem
uncultivirten Theile des Bolson de Mapimi' (Chihuahua). _Wappäus_,
_Geog. u. Stat._, p. 214; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., pp. 221-2.
'Entre la rivière Rouge et le Missouri, et traversent el
Rio-Bravo-del-Norte.' _Dufey_, _Resumé de l'Hist._, tom. i., p. 4. 'Upon
the south and west side' of the Rio Brazos. _Marcy's Rept._, p. 217;
_Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 43-6. 'Im Westen des Mississippi und des
Arcansas ... und bis an das linke Ufer des Rio Grande.' _Ludecus_,
_Reise_, p. 104. 'Range from the sources of the Brazos and Colorado,
rivers of Texas, over the great Prairies, to the waters of the Arkansas
and the mountains of Rio Grande.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 51.
Concurrent statements in _Wilson's Amer. Hist._, p. 625; _Prichard's
Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 549; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. ii., p. 557;
_Moore's Texas_, p. 30; _Dewees' Texas_, p. 233; _Holley's Texas_, p.
152; _Dragoon Camp._, p. 153. 'La nacion comanche, que está situada
entre el Estado de Texas y el de Nuevo México ... se compone de las
siguientes tribus ó pueblos, á saber: Yaparehca, Cuhtzuteca, Penandé,
Pacarabó, Caiguarás, Noconi ó Yiuhta, Napuat ó Quetahtore, Yapainé,
Muvinábore. Sianábone, Caigua, Sarritehca y Quitzaené.' _García Rejon_,
in _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 347. 'Extends from the Witchita
Mountains as far as New Mexico, and is divided into four bands, called
respectively the Cuchanticas, the Tupes, the Yampaxicas, and the Eastern
Comanches.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 21. See also: _Kennedy's
Texas_, vol. i., p. 344, 348-9; _Foote's Texas_, vol. i., p. 298;
_Frost's Ind. Wars_, p. 293.

  [Sidenote: APACHE TRIBES.]

The _Apaches_ may be said to 'extend from the country of the Utahs, in
latitude 38° north to about the 30th parallel.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._,
vol. i., p. 325. 'Along both sides of the Rio Grande, from the southern
limits of the Navajo country at the parallel of 34°, to the extreme
southern line of the Territory, and from thence over the States of
Chihuahua, Sonora, and Durango, of Mexico. Their range eastward is as
far as the valley of the Pecos, and they are found as far to the west as
the Pimos villages on the Gila.' _Pope_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
ii., p. 13. Scattered 'throughout the whole of Arizona, a large part of
New Mexico, and all the northern portion of Chihuahua and Sonora, and in
some parts of Durango.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 141. Range 'over some
portions of California, most of Sonora, the frontiers of Durango, and
... Chihuahua.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 291. Apatschee, a
nation 'welche um ganz Neu-Biscaya, und auch an Tarahumara gränzet.'
_Steffel_, in _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 302. 'Reicht das Gebiet der
Apache-Indianer vom 103. bis zum 114. Grad westlicher Länge von
Greenwich, und von den Grenzen des Utah-Gebietes, dem 38. Grad, bis
hinunter zum 30. Grad nördlicher Breite.' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p.
229. Inhabit 'all the country north and south of the Gila, and both
sides of the Del Norte, about the parallel of the Jornada and Dead Man's
lakes.' _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 132. 'Tota hæc regio, quam Novam
Mexicanam vocant, ab omnibus pene lateribus ambitur ab Apachibus.' _De
Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 316. 'Recorren las provincias del Norte de
México, llegando algunas veces hasta cerca de Zacatecas.' _Pimentel_,
_Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 251. 'Derramadas desde la Intendencia de San Luis
Potosí hasta la extremidad setentrional del golfo de California.'
_Balbi_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 385. 'Se extienden en el
vasto espacio ... que comprenden los grados 30 á 38 de latitud norte, y
264 á 277 de longitude de Tenerife.' _Cordero_, in _Id._, p. 369; see
also _Id._, p. 40. 'From the entrance of the Rio Grande to the Gulf of
California.' _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 337. 'The southern and
south-western portions of New Mexico, and mainly the valley of the
Gila.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 203; _Bent_, in _Id._, vol.
i., p. 243. 'Scarcely extends farther north than Albuquerque ... nor
more than two hundred miles south of El Paso del Norte; east, the
vicinity of the White Mountains; west, generally no further than the
borders of Sonora.' _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 207.
'Ils ont principalement habité le triangle formé par le Rio del Norte,
le Gila et le Colorado de l'ouest.' _Turner_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1852, tom. cxxxv., pp. 307, 313. Concurrent authorities:
_Gallatin_, in _Id._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., pp. 298, 301; _Malte-Brun_,
_Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 453; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, pp. 8,
186; _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 345; _Stanley's Portraits_, p. 57;
_Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 297; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p.
549; _Western Scenes_, p. 233; _Mill's Hist. Mex._, p. 170; _Delaporte_,
_Reisen_, tom. x., p. 456; _Conder's Mex. Guat._, vol. ii., p. 74-5;
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 4-6; _Graves_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1854, p. 180; _Poston_, in _Id._, 1864, p. 155; _Clark_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 336.

The Apache nation is divided into the following tribes; Chiricagüis,
Coyoteros, Faraones, Gileños, Copper Mine Apaches, Lipanes, Llaneros,
Mescaleros, Mimbreños, Natages, Pelones, Pinaleños, Tontos, Vaqueros,
and Xicarillas.

The Lipanes roam through western Texas, Coahuila, and the eastern
portion of Chihuahua. Their territory is bounded on the west by the
'lands of the Llaneros; on the north, the Comanche country; on the east,
the province of Cohaguila; and on the south, the left bank of the Rio
Grande del Norte.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 119;
_Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 8, in _Id._; _Pope_, in _Id._,
vol. ii., p. 14. The Lee Panis 'rove from the Rio Grande to some
distance into the province of Texas. Their former residence was on the
Rio Grande, near the sea shore.' _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 363. Su
'principal asiento es en Coahuila, Nuevo Leon y Tamaulipas.' _Pimentel_,
_Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 251. '<DW37>ídese en dos clases ... la primera ha
estado enlazada con los mescaleros y llaneros, y ocupa los terrenos
contiguos á aquellas tribus: la segunda vive generalmente en la frontera
de la provincia de Tejas y orillas del mar.... Por el Poniente son sus
limites los llaneros; por el Norte los comanches; por el Oriente los
carancaguaces y borrados, provincia de Tejas, y por el Sur nuestra
frontera (Mexico).' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 382.
'From time immemorial has roved and is yet roving over the Bolson de
Mapimi.' _Wislizenus' Tour_, p. 70. 'Frequented the bays of Aransas and
Corpus Christi, and the country lying between them and the Rio Grande.'
_Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 349; _Foote's Texas_, p. 298. See also:
_Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 289; _Hassel_, _Mex.
Guat._, p. 210; _Moore's Texas_, p. 31; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii.,
p. 6.

The Mescaleros inhabit 'the mountains on both banks of the river Pecos,
as far as the mountains that form the head of the Bolson de Mapimi, and
there terminate on the right bank of the Rio Grande. Its limit on the
west is the tribe of the Taracones; on the north, the extensive
territories of the Comanche people; on the east, the coast of the
Llanero Indians; and on the south, the desert Bolson de Mapimi.'
_Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 119. 'Im Bolsón de
Mapimí und in den östlichen Gränzgebirgen del Chanáte, del Diablo puerco
und de los Pílares.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p.
521. 'Occupent le Bolson de Mapimi, les montagnes de Chanate, et celles
de los Organos, sur la rive gauche du Rio Grande del Norte.' _Humboldt_,
_Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 289. Live 'east of the Rio del Norte.'
_Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 290; _Carleton_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1854, p. 315; _Western Scenes_, p. 233; _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., p. 6; _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 343. 'On the east side of
the Rio Grande, and on both sides of the Pecos, extending up the latter
river ... to about the thirty-fourth parallel.' _Merriwether_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 170-1. See also: _Steck_, in _Id._, 1858, pp.
195-8, 1863, p. 108; _Collins_, in _Id._, 1862, p. 240; _Cooley_, in
_Id._, 1865, p. 20; _Norton_, in _Id._, 1866, p. 145.

'The Copper Mine Apaches occupy the country on both sides of the Rio
Grande, and extend west to the country of the Coyoteros and Pinalinos,
near the eastern San Francisco River.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i.,
p. 323.

The Faraones, Pharaones or Taracones, 'inhabit the mountains between the
river Grande del Norte and the Pecos.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii., p. 119. The following concur; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom.
i., p. 213, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 521; _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_,
_Theatro_, tom. ii., p. 416; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 289.

The 'Xicarillas anciently inhabited the forests of that name in the far
territories to the north of New Mexico, until they were driven out by
the Comanches, and now live on the limits of the province, some of them
having gone into the chasms (cañadas) and mountains between Pecuries and
Taos, which are the last towns of the province.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R.
R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 119. 'Inhabiting the mountains north of Taos.'
_Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 285. 'Les Jicorillas, à
l'extrémité nord du Nouveau-Mexique.' _Turner_, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1852, tom. cxxxv., p. 310. 'From the Rio Grande eastward
beyond the Red river, between the thirty-fourth and thirty-seventh
parallels.' _Merriwether_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 170. 'In the
mountains which lie between Santa Fé, Taos, and Abiquin.' _Collins_, in
_Id._, 1860, pp. 159-60. 'At the Cimarron.' _Graves_, in _Id._, 1866, p.
133. 'Upon Rio Ose, west of the Rio Grande.' _Davis_, in _Id._, 1868, p.
160; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 8.

The Llaneros occupy 'the great plains and sands that lie between the
Pecos and the left bank of the river Grande del Norte.' _Cortez_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 119. Inhabit the 'cajones de la
Cabellera y Pitaycachi, Sierra de Mimbres, Laguna de Guzman.'
_Barrangan_, in _El Orden, Mex._, _Decemb. 27, 1853_. 'Ocupan ... los
llanos y arenales situados entre el rio de Pecos, nombrado por ellos
Tjunchi, y el Colorado que llaman Tjulchide.' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 381; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6.

The Mimbreños have their hunting grounds upon the Mimbres Mountains and
River, and range between the sierras San Mateo and J'lorida on the north
and south, and between the Burros and Mogoyen on the west and east.
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 207. 'Südlich von den Apáches
Gileños, an den Gränzen von Chihuáhua und Neu-Mejico jagen in den
Gebirgen im Osten die Apáches Mimbreños.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom.
i., p. 211. 'La provincia de Nuevo México es su confin por el Norte; por
el Poniente la parcialidad mimbreña; por el Oriente la faraona, y por el
Sur nuestra frontera.' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p.
380. See also: _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 119;
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 6. 'In the wild ravines of the Sierra
de Acha.' _Mill's Hist. Mex._, p. 185.

The Chiricaguis adjoin on the north 'the Tontos and Moquinos; on the
east the Gileños; and on the south and west the province of Sonora.'
_Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 119. 'Live in the
mountains of that name, the Sierra Largua and Dos Cabaces.' _Steck_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859, pp. 345-6.

The Tontos 'inhabit the northern side of the Gila from Antelope Peak to
the Pimo villages.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 130. 'Between Rio Verde and
the Aztec range of mountains,' and 'from Pueblo creek to the junction of
Rio Verde with the Salinas.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p.
14-15; in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Cortez_, in _Id._, p. 118.
'Südlich von den Wohnsitzen der Cocomaricópas und dem Rio Gila.'
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 211. On the 'rio Puerco.'
_Barrangan_, in _El Orden, Mex._, _Decemb. 27, 1853_. 'In the cañons to
the north and east of the Mazatsal peaks.' _Smart_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1867, p. 417. See _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p.
460; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 185, vol. ii., p. 7. 'Inhabit the
Tonto basin from the Mogollon Mountains on the north to Salt River on
the south, and between the Sierra Ancha on the east to the Mazatsal
Mountains.' _Colyer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 94. 'On both sides
of the Verde from its source to the East Fork, and ... around the
headwaters of the Chiquito Colorado, on the northern <DW72> of the Black
Mesa or Mogollon Mountains ... on the north, to Salt River on the south,
and between the Sierra Ancha on the east and the Mazatsal Mountains on
the west.' _Jones_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 221.

The Pinaleños, Piñols or Piñals range 'over an extensive circuit between
the Sierra Piñal and the Sierra Blanca.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol.
i., p. 308. 'Between the Colorado Chiquito and Rio Gila.' _Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 14, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.
See also: _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 147; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p.
150. In 'the country watered by the Salinas and other tributaries of the
Gila.' _Steck_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 346; also _Whittier_, in
_Id._, 1868, p. 141; _Colyer_, in _Id._, 1869, p. 94; _Jones_, in _Id._,
p. 222.

The Coyoteros 'live in the country north of the Gila and east of the San
Carlos.' _Colyer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 223. 'Upon the Rio San
Francisco, and head waters of the Salinas.' _Steck_, in _Id._, 1859, p.
346; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 185; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 430.

'The Gileños inhabit the mountains immediately on the river Gila ...
bounded on the west by the Chiricagüìs; on the north by the province of
New Mexico; on the east by the Mimbreño tribe.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii., p. 119. 'Oestlich von diesem Flusse (Gila), zwischen
ihm und dem südlichen Fusse der Sierra de los Mimbres, eines Theiles der
Sierra Madre.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 421;
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 380; _Maxwell_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1873, p. 116.

The Apache Mojaves are 'a mongrel race of Indians living between the
Verde or San Francisco and the Colorado.' _Poston_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1864, p. 156.

The _Navajos_ occupy 'a district in the Territory of New Mexico, lying
between the San Juan river on the north and northeast, the Pueblo of
Zuñi on the south, the Moqui villages on the west, and the ridge of land
dividing the waters which flow into the Atlantic ocean from those which
flow into the Pacific on the east.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._,
1855, p. 283. 'Extending from near the 107th to 111th meridian, and from
the 34th to the 37th parallel of latitude.' _Clark_, in _Hist. Mag._,
vol. viii., p. 280. Northward from the 35th parallel 'to Rio San Juan,
valley of Tuñe Cha, and Cañon de Chelle.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's
Rept._, p. 13, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii. 'Between the Del Norte
and Colorado of the West,' in the northwestern portion of New Mexico.
_Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 216. 'In the main range
of Cordilleras, 150 to 200 miles west of Santa Fé, on the waters of Rio
Colorado of California.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 285-6.
'Between the del Norte and the Sierra Anahuac, situated upon the Rio
Chama and Puerco,--from thence extending along the Sierra de los
Mimbros, into the province of Sonora.' _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p.
180. 'La Provincia de Navajoos, que está situada à la parte de el Norte
del Moqui, y à la del Noruest de la Villa de Santa Fee.' _Villa-Señor y
Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., p. 426. 'Esta nacion dista de las
fronteras de Nuevo-México como veinticinco leguas, entre los pueblos de
Moqui, Zuñi y la capital (Santa Fé).' _Barreiro_, _Ojeada sobre N.
Mex._, app., p. 10. 'Habita la sierra y mesas de Navajó.' _Cordero_, in
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 382. See also: _Alcedo_,
_Diccionario_, tom. iii., p. 295. 'Along the 34th parallel, north
latitude.' _Mowry's Arizona_, p. 16. 'On the tributaries of the river
San Juan, west of the Rio Grande, and east of the Colorado, and between
the thirty-fifth and thirty-seventh parallels of north latitude.'
_Merriwether_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 172. 'From Cañon de Chelly
to Rio San Juan.' _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 460.
'From the Rio San Juan to the Gila.' _Graves_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1854, p. 179. 'Directly west from Santa Fé, extending from near the Rio
Grande on the east, to the Colorado on the west; and from the land of
the Utahs on the north, to the Apaches on the south.' _Backus_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 209. 'Fifty miles from the Rio del
Norte.' _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 102. 'From the 33° to the 38° of north
latitude.' and 'from Soccorro to the valley of Taos.' _Hughes'
Doniphan's Ex._, p. 202. Concurrent authorities: _Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon._, p. 78; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 184; _Ludewig's Ab.
Lang._, p. 132.

  [Sidenote: MOJAVES AND YUMAS.]

The _Mojaves_ dwell on the Mojave and Colorado rivers, as far up as
Black Cañon. The word Mojave 'appears to be formed of two Yuma
words--hamook (three), and häbî (mountains)--and designates the tribe of
Indians which occupies a valley of the Colorado lying between three
mountains. The ranges supposed to be referred to are: 1st, "The
Needles," which terminates the valley upon the south, and is called
Asientic-häbî, or first range; 2d, the heights that bound the right bank
of the Colorado north of the Mojave villages, termed Havic-häbî, or
second range; and, 3d, the Blue Ridge, extending along the left bank of
the river, to which has been given the name of Hamook-häbî, or third
range.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 30. 'Von 34° 36´
nordwärts bis zum Black Cañon.' _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. 430-4. 'Inhabit the Cottonwood valley.' _Ives'
Colorado Riv._, p. 79. 'Occupy the country watered by a river of the
same name, which empties into the Colorado.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._,
vol. ii., p. 178. 'The Mohaves, or Hamockhaves, occupy the river above
the Yumas.' _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 302. See further:
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 122; _Cal. Mercantile Jour._, vol. i., p. 227;
_Jones_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 217; _Willis_, in _Id._, _Spec.
Com._, 1867, pp. 329-30; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 123.

The _Hualapais_ are 'located chiefly in the Cerbat and Aquarius
Mountains, and along the eastern <DW72> of the Black Mountains. They
range through Hualapai, Yampai, and Sacramento valleys, from Bill
Williams Fork on the south to Diamond River on the north.' _Jones_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 217. 'In the almost inaccessible mountains
on the Upper Colorado.' _Poston_, in _Id._, 1863, p. 387. 'On the north
and south of the road from Camp Mohave to Prescott.' _Whittier_, in
_Id._, 1868, p. 140. 'In the northwest part of Arizona.' _Willis_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 329.

The _Yumas_ or Cuchans range 'from the New River to the Colorado, and
through the country between the latter river and the Gila, but may be
said to inhabit the bottom lands of the Colorado, near the junction of
the Gila and the Colorado.' _Ind. Traits_, vol. i., in _Hayes
Collection_. 'Both sides of the Colorado both above and below the
junction with the Gila.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., pp. 177-9.
'From about sixty miles above Fort Yuma to within a few miles of the
most southern point of that part of the Colorado forming the boundary.'
_Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 107. 'Das
eigentliche Gebiet dieses Stammes ist das Thal des untern Colorado; es
beginnt dasselbe ungefähr achtzig Meilen oberhalb der Mündung des Gila,
und erstreckt sich von da bis nahe an den Golf von Californien.'
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, vol. i., pp. 122, 430-1, 434.
'La junta del Gila con el Colorado, tierra poblada de la nacion yuma.'
_Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p.
849. 'Le nord de la Basse-Californie, sur la rive droite du
Rio-Colorado.' _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 186. 'For
ten or fifteen miles north and south' in the valley near the mouth of
the Gila. _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 42. See _Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept._, p. 101, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Latham's
Comparative Philology_, vol. viii., p. 420; _Lachapelle_,
_Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 78; _Mowry's Arizona_, p. 33; _McKinstry_, in
_San Francisco Herald_, _June, 1853_; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 205;
_Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, pp. 301-2; _Bailey_, in _Id._,
1858, p. 202; _Jones_, in _Id._, 1869, p. 216; _Howard_, in _Id._, 1872,
pp. 161-2; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 561.

The _Cosninos_ 'roam northward to the big bend of the Colorado.'
_Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 14, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii. 'In the vicinity of Bill Williams and San Francisco
Mountains.' _Jones_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 221. See also:
_Figuier's Hum. Race_, p. 484; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 185.

The _Yampais_ inhabit the country west and north-west of the Aztec range
of mountains to the mouth of the Rio Virgen. _Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept._, p. 14, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii. 'Am obern
Colorado.' 'Nördlich von den Mohaves.' _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. 431, 277. 'On the west bank of the Colorado,
about the mouth of Bill Williams's fork.' _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1857, p. 302; _Poston_, in _Id._, 1863, p. 387.

The _Yalchedunes_ or Talchedunes 'live on the right bank of the
Colorado, and their tribes first appear in lat. 33° 20´.' _Cortez_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 124.

The _Yamajabs_ or Tamajabs 'are settled on the left bank of the Colorado
from 34° of latitude to 35°.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
iii., p. 124; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 62.

The _Cochees_ are in the 'Chiricahua mountains, southern Arizona and
northern Sonora.' _Whittier_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1868, p. 141.

The _Nijoras_ dwell in the basin of the Rio Azul. 'Petite tribu des
bords du Gila.' _Ruxton_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1850, tom.
cxxvi., p. 47; _Gallatin_, in _Id._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 291.

The _Soones_ live 'near the head waters of the Salinas.' Emory's
Reconnoissance, p. 133; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._,
1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 296.

The _Cocopas_ 'live along the Colorado for fifty miles from the mouth.'
_Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 31. 'On the Colorado bottoms were the
Cocopahs, the southern gulf tribes of which Consag calls the Bagiopas,
Hebonomas, Quigyamas, Cuculetes, and the Alchedumas.' _Browne's Explor.
of Lower Cal._, p. 54. 'On the right bank of the river Colorado, from
lat. 32° 18´ upward.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p.
123. 'Range all the way from Port Isabel, upon the east bank of the
river (Colorado), to the boundary line between the Republic of Mexico
and the United States.' _Johnson's Hist. Arizona_, p. 10. 'Between the
Gila and the Gulf, and near the latter.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol.
ii., p. 179. See also: _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_,
vol. i., p. 107; _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 301; _Poston_,
in _Id._, 1863, p. 386; _Bailey_, in _Id._, 1858, p. 202; _Howard_, in
_Id._, 1872, p. 149.

Without definitely locating them, Salmeron enumerates the following
nations, seen by Oñate during his trip through New Mexico:

The Cruzados, somewhere between the Moquis and the Rio Gila, near a
river which he calls the Rio Sacramento. 'Dos jornadas de allí
(Cruzados) estaba un rio de poco agua, por donde ellos iban á otro muy
grande que entra en la mar, en cuyas orillas habia una nacion que se
llama Amacava.' 'Pasada esta nacion de amacabos ... llegaron á la nacion
de los Bahacechas.' 'Pasada esta nacion de Bahacecha, llegaron á la
nacion de los indios ozaras.' 'La primera nacion pasado el rio del
nombre de Jesus, es Halchedoma.' 'Luego está la nacion Cohuana.' 'Luego
está la nacion Haglli.' 'Luego los Tlalliquamallas.' _Salmeron_,
_Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 31-6. 'La
nacion Excanjaque que habita cien leguas del Nuevo-México, rumbo
Nordeste.' _Id._, p. 92. 'Habitan indios excanjaques aquel tramo de
tierra que en cuarenta y seis grados de altura al polo y ciento sesenta
y dos de longitud, se tiende oblícuamente al abrigo que unas serranías
hacen á un rio que corre Norueste, Sur deste á incorporarse con otro que
se va á juntar con el Misissipi, son contérmino de los pananas.' _Id._,
p. 107. 'Cerca de este llano de Matanza, está otro llano de esa otra
parte del rio en que hay siete cerros, habitados de la nacion Aixas.'
_Id._, p. 92. 'La nacion de los Aijados, que hace frente por la parte
del Oriente y casi confina con la nacion Quivira por la parte del norte,
estando vecina de los Tejas por Levante.' _Paredes_, in _Id._, p. 217.


  [Sidenote: PUEBLO FAMILY.]

In the PUEBLO FAMILY, besides the inhabitants of the villages situated
in the valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, I include the seven Moqui
villages lying west of the former, and also the Pimas, the Maricopas,
the Pápagos, and the Sobaipuris with their congeners of the lower Gila
river. 'The number of inhabited pueblos in the Territory [New Mexico] is
twenty-six.... Their names are Taos, Picoris, Nambé, Tezuque, Pojuaque,
San Juan, San Yldefonso, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Cochiti,
Isleta, Silla, Laguna, Acoma, Jemez, Zuñi, Sandia, and Santa Clara....
In Texas, a short distance below the southern boundary of New Mexico,
and in the valley of the Del Norte, is a pueblo called Isleta of the
South,' and another called Los Lentes. _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 115-16.
San Gerónimo de Taos, San Lorenzo de Picuries, San Juan de los
Caballeros, Santo Tomas de Abiquiu, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, San
Francisco de Nambé, Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Pojuaque, San Diego
de Tesuque, N. S. de los Angeles de Tecos, San Buena Ventura de Cochiti,
Santo Domingo, San Felipe, N. S. de los Dolores de Sandia, San Diego de
Jemes, N. S. de la Asumpcion de Zia, Santa Ana, San Augustin del Isleta,
N. S. de Belem, San Estevan de Acoma, San Josef de La Laguna, N. S. de
Guadalupe de Zuñi. _Alencaster_, in _Meline's Two Thousand Miles_, p.
212. Taos, eighty-three miles north north-east of Santa Fé; Picuris, on
Rio Picuris, sixty miles north by east of Santa Fé; San Juan, on the Rio
Grande, thirty-four miles north of Santa Fé, on road to Taos; Santa
Clara, twenty-six miles north north-west of Santa Fé; San Ildefonso, on
Rio Grande, eighteen miles north of Santa Fé; Nambe, on Nambe Creek,
three miles east of Pojuaque; Pojuaque, sixteen miles north of Santa Fé;
Tesuque, eight miles north of Santa Fé; Cochiti, on west bank of Rio
Grande, twenty-four miles south-west of Santa Fé; Santo Domingo, on Rio
Grande, six miles south of Cochiti; San Felipe, on Rio Grande, six miles
south of Santo Domingo; Sandia, on Rio Grande, fifteen miles south of
San Felipe; Isleta, on Rio Grande, thirty miles south of Sandia; Jemes,
on Jemes River, fifty miles west of Santa Fé; Zia, near Jemes,
fifty-five miles west of Santa Fé; Santa Ana, near Zia, sixty-five miles
west of Santa Fé; Laguna, west of Albuquerque forty-five miles, on San
José River; Acoma, one hundred and fifteen miles west of Santa Fé, on a
rock five hundred feet high, fifteen miles south-west of Laguna; Zuñi,
one hundred and ninety miles west south-west of Santa Fé, in the Navajo
country, on Zuñi River. _Meline's Two Thousand Miles_, p. 222. See
_Abert_, in _Emory's Reconnoissance_, pp. 488-94; _Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept._, pp. 10-12, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Ward_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, pp. 191, 193-4; _Barreiro_, _Ojeada sobre N.
Mex._, p. 15. 'La primera, entrando sur á norte, es la nacion Tigua....
Están poblados junto á la sierra de Puruai, que toma el nombre del
principal pueblo que se llama asi, y orillas del gran rio ... fueran de
éste, pueblan otros dos pueblos, el uno San Pedro, rio abajo de Puruai y
el otro Santiago, rio arriba.... La segunda nacion es la de Tahanos, que
al rumbo oriental y mano derecha del camino, puebla un rio que de la
parte del Oriente ... viene á unirse con el rio Grande; su pueblo
principal es Zandia con otros dos pueblos.... La tercera nacion es la de
los Gemex, que á la parte Occidua puebla las orillas del Rio-Puerco cuyo
principal pueblo Qicinzigua.... La cuarta nacion es de los teguas, que
están poblados al Norte de los tahanas, de esa otra parte del rio, su
principal es Galisteo ... con otros dos pueblos, y hay al rumbo
oriental, encaramada en una sierra alta, la quinta de Navon de los
Pecos, su principal pueblo se llama así, otro se llama el Tuerto, con
otras rancherías en aquellos picachos.... La sesta nacion es la de los
queres.... El pueblo principal de esta nacion es Santo Domingo ... la
sétima nacion al rumbo boreal es la de los tahos.... La octava nacion es
la de los picuries, al rumbo Norueste de Santa Cruz, cuyo pueblo
principal es San Felipe, orillas del rio Zama, y su visita Cochite,
orilla del mismo rio.... La última nacion es la de los tompiras, que
habita de esa otra parte de la cañada de Santa Clara y rio Zama, en un
arroyo que junta al dicho rio, y es las fronteras de los llanos de
Cíbola ó Zuñi.' _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., pp. 98-100.

'Some sixty miles to the south southeast of Fort Defiance is situated
the pueblo of Zuñi, on a small tributary of the Colorado Chiquito.'
_Davis' El Gringo_, p. 422. 'On the Rio de Zuñi.' _Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon._, p. 90. 'To the N. E. of the Little Colorado, about lat. 35°,
are the Zunis.' _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 563.

The _Moquis_, are settled 'West from the Navajos, and in the fork
between the Little and the Big Colorados.' The names of their villages
are, according to Mr Leroux, 'Óráibè, Shúmuthpà, Múshàilnà, Ahlélà,
Guálpí, Shiwinnà, Téquà.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 13,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii. 'Westward of the capital of New Mexico
... Oraibe, Taucos, Moszasnavi, Guipaulavi, Xougopavi, Gualpi.'
_Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 121. 'Desde estos parages
(Zuñi) corriendo para el Vest Noruest, empiezan los Pueblos, y
Rancherías de las Provincias de Moqui Oraybe: los Pueblos Moquinos son:
Hualpi, Tanos, Moxonavi, Xongopavi, Quianna, Aguatubi, y Rio grande de
espeleta.' _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., pp. 425-6;
_Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. ii., p. 527. 'The five pueblos in
the Moqui are Orayxa, Masanais, Jongoapi, Gualpa, and another, the name
of which is not known.' _Ruxton's Adven. Mex._, p. 195. 'The three
eastern villages are located on one bluff, and are named as follows:
Taywah, Sechomawe, Jualpi.... Five miles west of the above-named
villages ... is ... the village of Meshonganawe.... One mile west of the
last-named village ... is ... Shepowlawe. Five miles, in a northwestern
direction, from the last-named village is ... Shungopawe. Five miles
west of the latter ... is the Oreybe village.' _Crothers_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1872, p. 324. Further authorities: _Palmer_, in _Id._, 1870, p.
133; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 290; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i.,
p. 185, vol. ii., p. 40; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 305;
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 278; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 127; _Marcy's
Life on the Border_, p. 111.

  [Sidenote: THE PIMAS OF ARIZONA.]

'The _Pimas_ inhabit the country on both banks of the Gila River, two
hundred miles above its mouth. They claim the territory lying between
the following boundaries: Commencing at a mountain about twelve miles
from the bend of the Gila River, the line runs up said river to the
Maricopa Coppermine. The north line extends to Salt River and the
southern one to the Picacho.' _Walker's Pimas, MS._ 'La partie la plus
septentrionale de l'intendance de la Sonora porte le nom de la
Pimeria.... On distingue la Pimeria alta de la Pimeria baxa.'
_Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 296. 'Corre, pues, esta Pimería
alta, de Sur á Norte desde los 30 grados hasta los 34 que se cuentan
desde esta mision de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores hasta el rio del Gila
... y de Oriente á Poniente desde el valle de los pimas, llamados
sobaipuris, hasta las cercanías y costas del seno del mar californio,
habitadas de los pimas sobas.... Por el Sur tiene el resto de las
naciones ópata, endeves, pertenecientes á dicha provincia y entre ellas
y la sierra-madre, de Oriente á Poniente, la Pimería baja.' _Mange_,
_Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. 345-6. 'Los
pueblos de pimas bajos son ... desde Taraitzi hasta Cumuripa, Onapa,
Nuri, Movas y Oanbos lo son hàcia el Sur de Cumuripa, Suaqui, San José
de Pimas, Santa Rosalía, Ures y Nacameri hácia el Poniente, son la
frontera contra los seris.... Los pimas altos ocupan todo el terreno que
hay desde de Cucurpe por Santa Ana Caborca hasta la mar de Oriente á
Poniente y Sur Norte, todo lo que desde dicha mision tirando por
Dolores, Remedios, Cocospera el presidio de Terrenate, y desde éste
siguiendo el rio de San Pedro ó de los Sobaipuris hasta su junta con el
rio Xila, y por ambas orillas de este hasta el Colorado y entre la mar,
ó seno de Californias se encierra.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 553-4. 'From the river Yaqui in
Sonora, northward to the Gila and even beyond the Tomosatzi (Colorado)
eastward beyond the mountains in the province of Taraumara, and westward
to the sea of Cortez.' _Smith_, _Grammar of the Pima or Névome
Language_, p. viii; _Id._, _Heve Language_, pp. 5-7; _Arricivita_,
_Crónica Seráfica_, p. 396; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. ii.,
p. 216. 'Nördlich vom Flusse Yaqui, vom Dorfe S. José de Pimas bis zu
dem über 60 Leguas nördlicher gelegenen Dorfe Cucurápe, bewohnen die
Pimas bajas die Mitte des Landes.' 'Nördlich vom Fluss Ascensión, von
der Küste weit ins Land hinein, treffen wir die Pimas altas.'
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. 419-20. 'Pimérie haute
et basse. La première s'étend depuis les Rios Colorado et Gila jusqu'à
la ville de Hermosillo et au Rio de los Ures, et la seconde depuis cette
limite jusqu'au Rio del Fuerte qui la sépare de Sinaloa.' _Mofras_,
_Explor._, tom. i., p. 208. 'Los pimas altos ocupan los partidos de la
Magdalena y del Altar; lindan al Norte con el Gila; al Este con los
apaches y con los ópatas, sirviendo de limite el rio San Pedro ó de
Sobaipuris; al Oeste el mar de Cortés, y al Sur el terreno que ocuparon
los séris.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 347. See also:
_Malte-Brun_, _Sonora_, pp. 14-15; _Mill's Hist. Mex._, p. 191;
_Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 81; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 437;
_Cutts' Conq. Cal._, p. 195; _Stanley's Portraits_, p. 58;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 296; _Cremony's Apaches_, pp.
89-90; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 50.

The _Maricopas_ inhabit both sides of the Gila River, for about 36
leagues in the vicinity of its junction with the Asuncion River.
_Apostólicos Afanes_, p. 354. 'On the northern bank of the Gila, a few
miles west of that of the Pimas, in about west longitude 112°.'
_Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 102, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii. 'Desde Stue Cabitic, se estienden à lo largo del rio (Gila)
como treinta y seis leguas.' _Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 849; _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_,
tom. ii., pp. 404-5. 'Vom südlichen Ufer des Gila bis zum östlichen des
Colorádo.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 420;
_Emory's Reconnoissance_, pp. 131-2; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 123. 'Au sud du rio Gila, sur une étendue de
près de 150 milles, en remontant depuis l'embouchure.' _Gallatin_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 291; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 18; _Escudero_, _Noticias de Chihuahua_, p. 228.

The Pimas and Maricopas live 'on the Gila, one hundred and eighty miles
from its junction with the Colorado.' _Mowry's Arizona_, p. 14. 'Wo der
112te Grad westlicher Länge den Gila-Strom Kreuzt, also ungefähr auf der
Mitte der Strecke, die der Gila, fast vom Rio Grande del Norte bis an
die Spitze des Golfs von Kalifornien, zu durchlaufen hat, liegen die
Dörfer der Pimos und Coco-Maricopas.' _Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_, tom.
iv., p. 137. 'Non loin du confluent du rio Salinas, par 112° environ de
longitude.' _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom.
cxxxi., pp. 289-90. 'On the Gila river, about one hundred miles above
the confluence of that stream with the Colorado.' _Dole_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1864, p. 20. 'Claimed as their own property the entire Gila
valley on both sides, from the Piñal mountains to the Tesotal.' _Mowry_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 358. 'From Maricopa Wells to a short
distance beyond Sacaton.' _Whittier_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1868, p.
142. Limits also given in _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 232;
_Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 45; _Bailey_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1858, pp.
203; _Poston_, in _Id._, 1864, p. 152.

The _Pápagos_ 'inhabit that triangular space of arid land bounded by the
Santa Cruz, Gila, and Colorado rivers, and the Mexican boundary line.'
_Poston_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 384. 'Nördlich von diesen
(Pimas altas) hausen im Osten der Sierra de Santa Clara, welche sich
unter 31½° nördlicher Breite dicht am östlichen Ufer des Meerbusens von
Californien erhebt, die Papágos oder Papábi-Ootam.' _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. i., p. 210. 'Junto al rio de San Marcos: 50 leguas mas
arriba habita la nacion de los Papagos.' _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom.
iv., p. 217. 'In the country about San Xavier del Baca, a few miles from
Tucson.' _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 19; _Jones_, in _Id._,
p. 220; _Dole_, in _Id._, 1864, p. 21. 'Wander over the country from San
Javier as far west as the Tinajas Altas.' _Emory's Rept. Mex. and U. S.
Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 123. See also: _Davidson_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1865, p. 133; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 81.

The _Sobaipuris_, a nation related to the Pimas, live among the lower
Pimas. 'Por una sierrezuela que hay al Oriente de este rio y sus
rancherías, se dividen éstas del valle de los pimas sobaipuris, que á
poca distancia tienen las suyas muchas y muy numerosas, las mas al
Poniente y pocas al Oriente del rio, que naciendo de las vertientes del
cerro de Terrenate, que está como treinta leguas al Norte de esta
mision, corre de Sur à Norte hasta juntarse con el tantas veces nombrado
de Gila y juntos corren al Poniente.' _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 349. Reference also in _Alcedo_,
_Diccionario_, tom. iv., p. 218; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p.
210.


  [Sidenote: LOWER CALIFORNIANS.]

The LOWER CALIFORNIAN FAMILY includes all the nations inhabiting the
Peninsula of Lower California, northward to the mouth of the Colorado
River.

The _Cochimís_ inhabit the peninsula north of the twenty-sixth degree of
north latitude. 'I Cochimí ne presero la parte settentrionale da gr. 25
sino a 33, e alcune isole vicine del Mar Pacifico.' _Clavigero_, _Storia
della Cal._, tom. i., p. 109. 'Desde el territorio de Loreto, por todo
lo descubierto al Norte de la Nacion Cochimí, ó de los Cochimies.' 'La
Nacion, y Lengua de los Cochimies ázia el Norte, despues de la ultima
Mission de San Ignacio.' 'Los Laymones son los mismos, que los Cochimies
del Norte.' _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., pp. 63-7. 'Los
Cochimíes ocupaban la peninsula desde Loreto hasta poco mas allá de
nuestra frontera. Los de las misiones de San Francisco Javier y San José
Comondú se llamaban edúes; los de San Ignacio didúes.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 366; _Forbes' Cal._, p. 21; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, pp.
49, 99; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 207; _Buschmann_, _Spuren der
Aztek. Spr._, pp. 469-70. 'Between San Fernando and Moleje were the
Limonies, divided (going from north) into the Cagnaguets, Adacs and
Kadakamans.' 'From Santo Tomas to San Vicente they were termed Icas.'
_Browne's Lower Cal._, p. 54; _Hist. Chrétienne de la Cal._, p. 163.
'Nördlich von Loréto schwärmt der zahlreiche Stamm der Cochimíes, auch
Cochimas oder Colimíes genannt. Zu ihnen gehören die Laimónes und die
Icas.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 443.

The _Guaicuris_ roam south of the Cochimís, as far as Magdalena Bay. 'Si
stabilirono tra i gr. 23½ e 26.' _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom.
i., p. 109. 'Los guaicuras se subdividen en guaicuras, coras, conchos,
uchitas, y aripas. Los guaicuras vivian principalmente en la costa del
Pacífico, desde el puerto de San Bernabe hasta el de la Magdalena. Los
coras en la costa del Golfo, desde los pericúes hasta la mision de los
Dolores, comprendiendo el puerto de la Paz. Entre los guaicuras, los
coras, y los pericúes estaban los uchitas ó uchities. Hasta el mismo
Loreto, ó muy cerca llegaban los conchos ó monquies, á quienes los
jesuitas pusieron lauretanos, ... una rama de su nacion nombrada
monquí-laimon ó monquíes del interior, porque vivian lejos de la costa,
y se encuentran tambien nombrados por solo laimones. Los aripas al Norte
de los guaicuras.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 365-6. 'Desde la
Paz hasta mas arriba del Presidio Real de Loreto, es de los Monquis ...
à si mismos se llaman con vocablo general Monqui, ó Monquis ... los
Vehities, que pueblan las cercanías de la Bahía y Puerto de la Paz; y la
de los Guaycúras, que desde la Paz se estienden en la Costa interior
hasta las cercanías de Loreto. Los Monquis mismos se dividen en Liyùes,
Didiùs, y otras ramas menores.' _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom.
i., pp. 63-7. 'Los Guaicuras se establecieron entre el paralelo de 23°
30´ y el de 26°.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 207. 'Von La Paz
bis über den Presidio von Loréto dehnt der Stamm Monqui, Moqui oder
Mongui sich aus, welchem die Familien Guaycùra und Uchíti oder Vehíti
angehören, die jedoch von einigen Reisenden für ganz verschiedene Stämme
gehalten werden.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 443;
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 473; _Forbes' Cal._, p. 21;
_Browne's Lower Cal._, p. 54; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 198. 'La nacion
ya nombrada Guaicure, que habita el ramalde la sierra giganta, que viene
costeando el puerto de la Magdalena hasta el de San Bernabé.'
_Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p.
64.

The _Pericúis_ live in the southern portion of the Peninsula from Cape
San Lucas northward to La Paz. 'Desde el Cabo de San Lucas, hasta mas
acà del Puerto de la Paz de la Nacion Pericù.... A los Indios, que caen
al Sùr, ò Mediodia de su territorio, llaman Edù, ó Equù, ó Edùes ... se
divide en varias Nacioncillas pequeñas, de las quales la mas nombrada es
la de los Coras, nombre propio de una Ranchería, que se ha comunicado
despues à algunos Pueblos, y al Rio, que desagua en la Bahía de San
Bernabé.' _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., pp. 63-7. 'Los
pericúes habitan en la mision de Santiago, que tiene sujeto á San José
del Cabo y en las islas de Cerralvo, el Espíritu Santo y San José.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 365. 'I Pericui ne occuparono la parte
australe dal C. di S. Luca sino a gr. 24, e le isole adjacenti di
Cerralvo, dello Spirito Santo, e di S. Giuseppe.' _Clavigero_, _Storia
della Cal._, tom. i., p. 109. 'Im Süden, vom Cap San Lucas bis über den
Hafen Los Pichilingues und die Mission La Paz hinaus wohnen die Perícues
zu welchen die Familien Edú oder Equu und Cora gerechnet werden.'
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 443. See also:
_Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 207; _Californias, Noticias_, carta
i., p. 86; _Browne's Lower Cal._, p. 45; _Forbes' Cal._, p. 21;
_Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 480.


The NORTHERN MEXICAN FAMILY is composed of the inhabitants of the States
of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and portions of
Tamaulipas, Durango, and Zacatecas, south as far as 23° north latitude,
divided as follows:

  [Sidenote: CERIS AND ÓPATAS.]

The _Seris_ 'live towards the coast of Sonora, on the famous Cerro
Prieto, and in its immediate neighborhood.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii., p. 123. 'Reside in the village near Hermosillo,
occupy the island of Tiburon in the Gulf of California, north of
Guaymas.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 464. 'Son las Islas
nombradas S. Antonio, Taburon, S. Estevan, Bocalinas, Salsipuedes, la
Tortuga, la ensenada de la Concepcion, habitadas de Indios de la nacion
Seris.' _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 490. 'Su principal abrigo
es el famoso cerro Prieto, al Poniente de San José de los Pimas, doce
leguas, y doce casi al Sur del Pitic; del mar como cerca de catorce
leguas al Oriente, y de la boca del rio Hiaqui al Norte, treinta
leguas.... Otro asilo tienen, así en su isla del Tiburon, casi como
cuarenta leguas al Poniente de la hacienda del Pitic y como una legua de
la costa, en el seno de Californias; como en la de San Juan Bautista,
cerca de nueve leguas del Tiburon al Sud-sudueste y á mas de dos leguas
de tierra.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., vol. iv., pp. 559-60. 'Los ceris ... [1779] estaban situados en la
villa de Horcasitas en un pueblo llamado el Pópulo, una legua hácia el
Este de dicha villa, camino para Nacameri. De allí se trasladaron en
1789 al pueblo de Ceris.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 124. 'The
Céres are confined to the island of Tiburon, the coast of Tépoca, and
the Pueblo of Los Céres, near Pitic.' _Hardy's Trav._, p. 437. 'Zwischen
dem Flecken Petíc und der Küste, und diese hinauf bis zum Flusse
Ascensión.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 419. The
country adjacent to the Bay of San Juan Bautista was occupied by the
Ceris. _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 247. 'Sus madrigueras las han
tenido en el famoso cerro Prieto, doce leguas al Oeste de San José de
los Pimas, en la cadena que se extiende hácia Guaymas, en el rincon de
Márcos, en las sierras de Bocoatzi Grande, en la sierra de Picu cerca de
la costa, y sobre todo en la isla del Tiburon, situada en el Golfo de
Californias, á una legua de la playa.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p.
354; _Pajaken_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 13, 1862_. Concurrent
authorities: _Lachappelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 79; _Dillon_, _Hist.
Mex._, p. 215; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. i., p. 565; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._,
p. 34; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 57; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom.
i., p. 214; _Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 166.

The Salineros 'hácia los confines de la Pimeria alta.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 354.

The Tepocas are south of the latter. 'Ordinarily live on the island of
Tiburon.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 122. 'Los mas
próximos á la isla del Tiburon.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 354;
_Malte-Brun_, _Sonora_, pp. 20-1; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. i., p. 214.

The Guaymas and Upanguaymas live near the like-named port. 'Ocupaban el
terreno en que ahora se encuentra el puerto de ese nombre, y que se
redujeron al pueblo de Belen.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 354.

The _Ópatas_ occupy central and eastern Sonora. 'In the eastern part of
the State, on the banks of the Sonora and Oposura, and in the vicinity
of the town of Arispe and the mineral region of Nocasari.' _Mayer's
Mex., Aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. 300. 'Leurs villages couvrent les bords
des rivières de Yaqui, de Sonora et de Nacaméri, ainsi que la belle
vallée d'Oposura.' _Zuñiga_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1842, tom.
xciii., pp. 238-9. 'Im Osten des Staats, an den Ufern der Flüsse Sonóra
und Oposúra und bis gegen die Stadt Aríspe und den Minendistrict von
Nacosári hinauf.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 420.
'Habita el centro del Estado de Sonora.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i.,
p. 403. 'Le long des rivières de San Miguel de Horcasitas, d'Arispe, de
los Ures et d'Oposura.' _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1842, tom. xcv., p. 319. 'Confinan al Norte con los pimas y con
los apaches; al Este con la Tarahumara; al Sur con la Pimeria baja, y al
Oeste con los pimas y con los séris.' 'Ocupan en el Estado de Sonora los
actuales partidos de Sahuaripa, Oposura, Ures, Arizpe y parte del de
Magdalena.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 338, 343-4. The Ópatas,
Eudebes, and Jovas 'pueblan la mayor parte de la Sonora, desde muy
adentro de la sierra, son sus terrenos hácia al Sur desde este que
pusimos por lindero al Oriente, por el desierto pueblo de Natora,
Aribetzi, Bacanora, Tonitzi, Soyopa, Nacori, Alamos, parte de Ures,
Nacameri, Opodepe, Cucurpe hácia el Poniente; desde aquí Arispe,
Chinapa, Bacoatzi, Cuquiaratzi hasta Babispe hácia el Norte, y desde
esta mision la poco ha citado sierra hasta Natora, los que la terminan
hácia el Oriente.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 552-3. See also: _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._,
p. 174; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. i., p. 213; _Malte-Brun_, _Sonora_, p.
14; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 444; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 437;
_Pajaken_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _June 6, 1862_; _Prichard's Nat. Hist.
Man_, tom. ii., p. 562; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. i., p. 597; _Ludewig's Ab.
Lang._, p. 139; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 117, 145. In early
days 'they occupied the whole western <DW72> of the Sierra, from the
headquarters of the Sonora River to Nuri, near the Yaqui towns. They
were then esteemed different tribes in different localities, and are
named in the old records as Jobas, Teqüimas, Teguis, and Cogüinachies.'
_Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 166. 'La nacion ópata se subdivide
en ópatas tegüis, avecindados en los pueblos de Opodepe, Terrapa,
Cucurpe, Alamos, Batuco. En opatas tegüimas en Sinoquipe, Banamichi,
Huepaca, Aconchi, Babiacora, Chinapa, Bacuachi, Cuquiarachi, Cumpas.
Ópatas Cogüinachis en Toniche, Matape, Oputo, Oposura, Guasavas,
Bacadeguachi, Nacori (otro), Mochopa. Los del pueblo de Santa Cruz se
dice que son de nacion contla. Los Batucas, en el pueblo de Batuco
corresponden tambien á los ópatas, así como los sahuaripas, los himeris
y los guasabas.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 343-4, and
_Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 156-6.

To the Jovas 'pertenecen los pueblos de San José Teopari, Los Dolores,
Sahuaripa, donde hay tambien ópatas, Pónida, Santo Tomas, Arivetzi, San
Mateo Malzura.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 345; _Pimentel_,
_Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 249. Ovas, 'esta nacion está poblada á orillas
del rio Papigochic, variedad de algunos pueblos y corre hasta cerca del
partido de Samaripa y uno de sus pueblos llamado Teopari (que es de
nacion ova su gente) y corre como se ha dicho poblada en este rio hasta
cerca de la mision de Matachic.' _Zapata_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iv., tom. iii., p. 341. 'Los ovas, tribu que vive principalmente en
Sonora ... en Chihuahua está poblada orillas del rio Papigochi (el
Yaqui), llegando hasta cerca de Yepomera, de la mision de tarahumares de
Matachic; sus rancherías se llamaron Oparrapa, Natora, Bacaniyahua ó
Baipoa, Orosaqui y Xiripa.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 325.

The Sobas 'ocuparon à Caborca, encontrándose tambien en los
alrededores.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 348.

The Potlapiguas, 'nacion gentil cerca de Babispe y de Bacerac, colocada
en la frontera.' _Ib._

The Tepahues were 'habitadores de una península que forman dos rios ó
brazos del Mayo al Oriente de los de esta nacion.' _Id._, p. 356.

The Tecayaguis, Cues or Macoyahuis were 'en las vertientes del rio,
antes de los tepahues ... sus restos se encuentran en el pueblo de la
Concepcion de Macoyahui.' _Ib._

The Hymeris, 'nacion situada en los varios valles que forma la Sierra
Madre entre Occidente y Norte del valle de Sonora.' _Alegre_, _Hist.
Comp. de Jesus_, tom. ii., p. 243.

The _Sonoras_ inhabit the valley of Soñora, which 'cae a la banda del
Norte, apartado de la villa (Sinaloa) ciento y treinta leguas.' _Ribas_,
_Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 392.

The Eudeves, Eudebes, Hegues, Hequis, Heves, Eudevas or Dohme dwell in
the villages 'Matape, Nacori, Los Alamos, Robesco, Bacanora, Batuco,
Tepuspe, Cucurpe, Saracatzi, Toape, and Opodepe.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 344.

The Sibubapas 'del pueblo de Suaqui.' _Id._, p. 351.

The Nures, 'habitadores del pueblo de Nuri.' _Ib._ 'Habita cerca de la
de los Nebomes.' _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, vol. iii., p. 350.

The Hios, 'á ocho leguas al Este de Tepahue.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 351.

The Huvagueres and Tehuisos are neighbors of the Hios. _Ib._

The Basiroas and Teatas, 'más al Este.' _Ib._

The Tupocuyos are four leagues Northwest of Santa Magdalena. 'De Santa
Magdalena en ... el rumbo al Noroeste ... á 4 leguas de distancia
llegamos á la ranchería del Tupocuyos.' _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 232.

  [Sidenote: SINALOAS AND MAYOS.]

'The Indians of the state of Cinaloa belong to different tribes: towards
the south, in the country and in the Sierra, the Coras, Najarites, and
Hueicolhues are to be found; to the north of Culiacan, the Cinaloas,
Cochitas and Tuvares; and towards the town of El Fuerte, and farther
north, we find the Mayos Indians, to which belong also the tribes
Quasare, Ahome, and Ocoronis.' _Sevin_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xxx., p. 12; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 402.

The _Sinaloas_ 'tiene su assiento y poblaciones en el mismo rio de
Tegueco, y Cuaque, en lo mas alto dél, y mas cercanas a las haldas de
serranias de Topia; y sus pueblos comiençan seis leguas arriba del
fuerte de Montesclaros.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 199, 47.
'Los mas orientales de las gentes que habitaban las riberas del que
ahora llamamos rio del Fuerte.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom.
i., p. 460. 'Avecindados en una parte de las orillas, hácia las fuentes
del rio del Fuerte.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 329.

The _Mayos_ occupy the banks of the rivers Mayo and Fuerte. The Mayo
river 'baña todos los pueblos de indígenas llamados los Mayos.'
_Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 82. 'Die eigentlichen Mayos wohnen
hauptsächlich westlich and nordwestlich von der Stadt Alamos.'
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 402. 'Los mayos, sobre
el rio Mayo ... están distribuidos en los pueblos de Santa Cruz de Mayo,
Espíritu Santo Echojoa ó Echonova, Natividad Navajoa ó Navohoua,
Concepcion Cuirimpo, San Ignacio de Tesia, Santa Catalina Cayamoa ó
Camoa, San Bartolomé Batacosa, Masiaca.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_,
pp. 356, 354; _Malte-Brun_, _Sonora_, p. 13. 'The Mayos on the river
Mayo inhabit the following towns: Tepágue, Conecáre, Camóa, Tésia,
Navahóa, Curinghóa, Echehóa, and Santa Cruz de Mayo, a seaport. Towns of
the same nation on the Rio del Fuerte: Tóro, Báca, Chóis, Omi, San
Miguel, Charác, Sivilihóa, and Teguéco.' _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 438, 390;
_Ward's Mexico_, vol. i., p. 583, vol. ii., p. 606; also: _Stone_, in
_Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 165; _Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc._, vol. ii.,
p. 299.

The _Yaquis_ are settled on the Rio Yaqui and between it and the Rio
Mayo. On the Yaqui River at a distance of twelve leagues from the sea,
'está poblada la famosa Nacion de Hiaquis.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los
Triumphos_, p. 284. 'Lista de los pueblos del rio Yaqui, contados desde
Cocori, primer pueblo al otro lado del rio de Buenavista, al Este del
Estado, camino para la ciudad de Alamos, y rio abajo hasta Belen:
Cocori, Bacum, Torin, Bicam, Potam, Rahum, Huirivis.' _Velasco_,
_Noticias de Sonora_, p. 84. 'Zwischen den Flüssen Mayo und Yaquí....
Die Ortschaften des Stammes Yaquí (Hiaquí) sind besonders: Belén,
Huadíbis, Raún, Potan, Bican, Torin, Bacún und Cocorún.' _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 419; _Malte-Brun_, _Sonora_, p. 13. 'Les
habitations des Yaquis commencent, à partir de la rivière de ce nom, et
s'étendent également sur le Rio de Mayo Fuerte et de Sinaloa, sur une
étendue de plus de 140 lieues.' _Zuñiga_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1842, tom. xciii., p. 239; _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Id._, tom.
xcv., p. 306. 'Taraumara es la residencia de los Indios Yaquis.' 'Are
still farther north (than the Mayos), and belong entirely to the state
of Sonora.' _Sevin_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxx., p. 12;
_Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., pp. 164-5; _Pajaken_, in _Cal.
Farmer_, _June 6, 1862_; _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. v., p. 46.
'Occupent le pays situé au sud de Guaymas jusqu'au Rio del Fuerte.'
_Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. i., p. 212. See further: _Ferry_, _Scènes de
la Vie Sauvage_, pp. 15, 45; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. i., p. 582, vol. ii.,
p. 606; _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 437-8; _Combier_, _Voy._, p. 200; _Mex. in
1842_, pp. 67-8; _Hist. Chrétienne de la Cal._, p. 244.

The _Zuaques_ have their villages between the Mayo and Yaqui rivers.
'Los zuaques estaban adelante, á cinco leguas de los tehuecos, y sus
tierras corrian por espacio de diez leguas.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 332. 'Sus pueblos ... eran tres ... el principal dellos,
llamado Mochicaui.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 163;
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 419.

The _Tehuecos_ are west of the Sinaloas. 'Seis leguas al Oeste del
último de sus pueblos (Sinaloas) seguian los teguecos ó tehuecos.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 332. 'Los pueblos desta Nacion, que en
sus principios fueron tres, començauan quatro leguas rio arriba del
vltimo de los Çuaques.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 171.

The _Ahomes_ dwell on the Rio Zuaque four leagues from the sea. 'La
Nacion Ahome, y su principal pueblo.... Dista quatro leguas de la mar de
Californias.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 145; _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 332; _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, vol. i., p. 33;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 522.

The _Vacoregues_ 'vivian en las playas del mar y en los médanos, ... un
pueblo, orillas del rio (Fuerte), no lejos de Ahome.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 332.

The _Batucaris_ 'frecuentaban un lagunazo á tres leguas de Ahome.' _Ib._

The _Comoporis_ 'existian en una península, siete leguas de Ahome.'
_Ib._

'En vna peninsula retirada, y en los Medanos, ó montes de arena del mar,
viuian las rancherias de la gente fiera destos Comoporis.' _Ribas_,
_Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 153.

The _Guazaves_ 'distante diez, y doze leguas de la villa' (Cinaloa).
_Id._, p. 46. 'Habitadores de San Pedro Guazave y de Tamazula, orillas
del rio Sinaloa.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 332.

The _Zoes_ 'eran Indios serranos, que tenian sus poblaciones en lo alto
del mismo rio de los Cinaloas, y a las haldas de sus serranias.'
_Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 208. 'Se establecieron á las
faldas de la Sierra, en las fuentes del rio del Fuerte cercanos á los
sinaloas.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 333. 'Confinan con los
tubares.' _Zapata_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. 395.

The _Huites_ 'Vivian en la Sierra, à siete leguas de los sinaloas.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 333.

The _Ohueras_ and _Cahuimetos_ dwell at 'San Lorenzo de Oguera ...
situado á seis leguas al E. de la villa de Sinaloa y sobre el rio.'
_Id._, p. 334.

The _Chicoratos_ and _Basopas_, 'en la sierra, y á siete leguas al E. de
Oguera, se encuentra la Concepcion de Chicorato.... Cinco leguas al
Norte tiene à San Ignacio de Chicuris, en que los habitantes son tambien
basopas.' _Ib._

The _Chicuràs_ 'eran vecinos de los chicoratos.' _Ib._

The _Tubares_ or Tovares live in the 'pueblos de Concepcion, San Ignacio
y San Miguel.' 'habitan uno de los afluentes del rio del Fuerte.' _Id._,
pp. 323-4. 'Poblada en varias rancherias sobre los altos del rio grande
de Cinaloa.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 117. 'En el distrito
de Mina.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 254.

The _Chinipas_, _Guailopos_, and _Maguiaquis_ live 'en San Andres
Chinipas.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 324; _Ribas_, _Hist. de los
Triumphos_, p. 95.

The _Hizos_ are in 'Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Voragios ó Taraichi.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 324.

The _Varogios_, _Husorones_, _Cutecos_ and _Tecàrgonis_ are in 'Nuestra
Señora de Loreto de Voragios ó Sinoyeca y en Santa Ana.' _Ib._

The _Tarahumares_ inhabit the district of Tarahumara in the state of
Chihuahua. 'Provincia ... confina por el O con la de Sonora, por el E
con el Nuevo México, sirviéndole de límites el rio Grande del Norte, por
este rumbo no están conocidos aun sus términos, por el S O con la de
Cinaloa ... toma el nombre de la Nacion de Indios así llamada, que
confinaba con la de los Tepeguanes.' _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. v.,
p. 46; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 363. 'In den tiefen und wilden
Schluchten von Tararécua und Santa Sinforósa, jagen verschiedene
Familien der Tarahumáras.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii.,
p. 521; _Mexikanische Zustände_, tom. i., p. 74. 'Bewohnen einen Theil
des Berglandes im W. der Hauptstadt, wo sie namentlich in dem schönen
Hochthale des Rio Papigóchic in allen Ortschaften einen Theil der
Bevölkerung bilden.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 213. 'Inhabit the
towns in Mulatos.' _Hardy's Trav._, p. 438. 'En la raya que divide los
Reynos de la Vizcaya y de la Galicia no en los terminos limitados que
hoy tiene que es Acaponeta, sino en los que antes tubo hasta cerca de
Sinaloa.' _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 491. 'Al Oriente tienen
el rio de los Conchos y al Poniente la Sinaloa, Sonora y las regiones
del Nuevo México, al Norte y al Austro la Nacion de los Tepehuanes. 'Se
estiendan por el Norte hasta mas abajo de San Buenaventura.' 'Vivian en
S. José de Bocas, cabecera de una de las misiones de los jesuitas,' in
Durango. _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 319-25. 'Á tres leguas de
San José Temaichic está otro pueblo y mucha gente en él llamada taraumar
Pachera.' _Zapata_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. 333;
_Richthofen_, _Mexico_, p. 448. 'Les Tahues étaient probablement les
mêmes que ceux que l'on désigne plus tard sous le nom de Tarahumaras.'
'Leur capitale était Téo-Colhuacan.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol
Vuh_, preface, p. 191.

The _Conchos_ inhabit the banks of the Rio Conchos, near its confluence
with the Rio del Norte. 'Endereço su camino hazia el Norte, y a dos
jornadas topo mucha cantidad de Indios de los que llaman Conchos.'
_Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 384, 390. 'En en Real del
Parral.' _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, p. 97. 'Se estiende hasta las
orillas del rio grande del Norte. Por la parte del septentrion confina
con los laguneros, y al Mediodia tiene algunos pueblos de los tepehuanes
y valle de Santa Bárbara.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. ii.,
p. 58.

The _Passaguates_ live twenty-four leagues north of the Conchos.
'Andadas las veinte y quatro leguas dichas (from the Conchos), toparon
otra nacion de Indios, llamados Passaguates.' _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's
Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 384, 391.

The Mamites, Colorados, Arigames, Otaquitamones, Pajalames, Poaramas
were in the neighborhood of the Conchos. _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_,
p. 325.

The _Guazapares_ are 'a veinte leguas de distancia del pueblo y partido
de Loreto al Sur, reconociendo al Oriente, y solas diez del pueblo y
partido de Santa Inés, caminando derecho al Oriente, está el pueblo y
partido de Santa Teresa de Guazapares, llamado en su lengua Guazayepo.'
_Zapata_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. 389.

The _Temoris_ dwell in the 'pueblo de Santa María Magdalena de
Temoris.... A cinco leguas de distancia hácia el Norte del pueblo y
cabecera de Santa Teresa está el pueblo llamado Nuestra Señora del Valle
Humbroso.' _Id._, p. 390.

The _Tobosos_ are north of the Tarahumares and in the Mission of San
Francisco de Coahuila, in the state of Coahuila. 'Se extendian por el
Bolson de Mapimí, y se les encuentra cometiendo depredaciones así en
Chihuahua y en Durango, como en las misiones de Parras, en las demas de
Coahuila y en el Norte de Nuevo Leon.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_,
pp. 308-9, 302, 325. In Coahuila, 'Un paraje ... que llaman la Cuesta de
los muertos, donde tienen habitacion los Indios Tobosos.' _Villa-Señor y
Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., pp. 296-7, 348-9. 'A un paraje que hoy es
la mision del Santo nombre de Jesus.' _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia_, p.
519.

The Sisimbres, Chizos, Cocoyomes, Coclamas, Tochos, Babos, and Nures
live near the Tobosos. _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 325. 'Valle de
San Bartholome, Presidio de la Provincia de Tepeguana ... antigua
residencia de los Indios Infieles Cocoyomes.' _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_,
tom. i., pp. 222-3.

The _Tepagues_ are 'Cinco leguas arriba del rio de Mayo, en vn arroyo.'
_Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 253.

The _Conicaris_ live 'distante de Chinipa diez y seis leguas.' _Id._,
pp. 265, 254.

  [Sidenote: NORTH-EASTERN MEXICAN TRIBES.]

A multitude of names of nations or tribes are mentioned by different
authorities, none of which coincide one with the other. But few nations
are definitely located. I therefore first give the different lists of
names, and afterwards locate them as far as possible. 'Babeles,
Xicocoges, Gueiquizales, Goxicas, Manos Prietas, Bocoras, Escabas,
Cocobiptas, Pinanacas, Codames, Cacastes, Colorados, Cocomates,
Jaímamares, Contores, Filifaes, Babiamares, Catujanes, Apes, Pachagues,
Bagnames, Isipopolames, Piez de benado. Chancafes, Payaguas, Pachales,
Jumes, Johamares, Bapancorapinamacas, Babosarigames, Pauzanes, Paseos,
Chahuanes, Mescales, Xarames, Chachaguares, Hijames, Iedocodamos,
Xijames, Cenízos, Pampapas, Gavilanes. Sean estos nombres verdaderos, ó
desfigurados segun la inteligencia, caprichos, ó voluntariedad de los
que se emplearon en la pacificacion del Pais, ó de los fundadores de las
Doctrinas, parece mas creible que los mencionados Yndios, fuesen
pequeñas parcialidades, ó ramos de alguna nacion cayo nombre genérico no
ha podido Saberse.' _Revillagigedo_, _Carta, MS._ 'Pacpoles, Coaquites,
Zíbolos, Canos, Pachoches, Sicxacames, Siyanguayas, Sandajuanes,
Liguaces, Pacuazin, Pajalatames y Carrizos.' _Padilla_, cap. lxix.,
quoted in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 306. 'Negritos, Bocalos,
Xanambres, Borrados, Guanipas, Pelones, Guisoles, Hualahuises, Alasapas,
Guazamoros, Yurguimes, Mazames, Metazures, Quepanos, Coyotes, Bguanas,
Zopilotes, Blancos, Amitaguas, Quimis, Ayas, Comocabras, Mezquites.'
_Archivo General, MSS._, tom. xxxi., fol. 208, quoted in _Ib._ 'Paogas,
Caviseras, Vasapalles, Ahomamas, Yanabopos, Daparabopos, Mamazorras,
Neguales, Salineros y Baxaneros, conocidos generalmente bajo la
apelacion de Laguneros.' _Id._, p. 305. 'Rayados y Cholomos.' _Id._, p.
306.

'Las tribus que habitaban el Valle (del rio Nazas) se nombraban
Irritilas, Miopacoas, Meviras, Hoeras y Maiconeras, y los de la laguna'
[Laguna grande de San Pedro or Tlahuelila]. _Id._, p. 305.

'Pajalates, Orejones, Pacoas, Tilijayas, Alasapas, Pausanes, y otras
muchas diferentes, que se hallan en las misiones del rio de San Antonio
y rio grande ... como son; los Pacúaches, Mescales, Pampopas, Tácames,
Chayopines, Venados, Pamaques, y toda la juventud de Pihuiques,
Borrados, Sanipáos y Manos de Perro.' _Id._, p. 306; _Pimentel_,
_Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 409. 'Á media legua corta ... [de San Juan
Bautista] se fundó la mision de San Bernardo ... con las naciones de
Ocanes, Canuas, Catuxanes, Paxchales, Pomulumas, Pacuaches, Pastancoyas,
Pastalocos y Pamasus, á que se agregaron despues los Pacuas, Papanacas,
Tuancas y otras.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 303.

The Gijames are in the mountains near the mission of El Santo Nombre de
Jesus de Peyotes. _Morfi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv.,
p. 434.

The Pitas and Pasalves at the Mission of 'Nuestra Señora de los Dolores
de la Punta.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 303.

The Pampopas 'habitaban en el rio de las Nueces, à 22 leguas al Sur de
la mision de San Juan Bautista; los Tilijaes mas abajo de los
anteriores; al Sur de estos los Patacales, y los Cachopostales cerca de
los Pampopas. Los Pajalaques vivian en el rio de San Antonio como à 40
leguas de la mision de San Bernardo; los Pacos y los Pastancoyas à 15
leguas en el paraje nombrado el Carrizo; los Panagues à 18 leguas de la
mision sobre el rio de las Nueces; Los Pauzanes sobre el rio de San
Antonio, y los Paguachis à 15 leguas del mismo San Bernardo.' ... 'Con
Indios de la naciones Mahuames, Pachales, Mescales, Jarames, Ohaguames y
Chahuames ... con ellos y con las tribus de Pampopas, Tilofayas,
Pachalocos y Tusanes situó de nuevo la mision de San Juan Bautista,
junto al presidio del mismo nombre, cerca del rio Bravo.' 'A tiro de
escopeta [from Santo Nombre de Jesus Peyotes] se encuentra San Francisco
Vizarron de los Pausanes ... con familias de Tinapihuayas, Pihuiques y
Julimeños, aunque la mayor parte fueron Pauzanes.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, pp. 303-4. 'En el valle de Santo Domingo, á orilla del rio
de Sabinas ... San Juan Bautista ... lo pobló con indios Chahuanes,
Pachales, Mescales y Jarames, à que se agregaron despues algunos
Pampopas, Tilofayas, Pachalocos y Tusanes.' _Morfi_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 440-1.

The Cabesas, Contotores, Bazaurigames and others were at the mission San
Buenaventura. _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 530.

The Gabilanes and Tripas Blancas roamed over a stretch of country
situated north of the Presidio of Mapimi, between the rivers San Pedro
and Conchos to their confluence with the Rio Grande. _Villa-Señor y
Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., pp. 348-9.

The _Laguneros_ 'poblados à las margenes de la laguna que llaman Grande
de san Pedro, y algunos dellos en las isletas que haze la misma laguna.'
_Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 669.

Los misioneros franciscanos atrajeron de paz las tribus siguientes, con
los cuales fundaron cinco misiones. San Francisco de Coahuila, un cuarto
de legua al Norte de Monclova, con indios Boboles y Obayas, à los cuales
se agregaron algunos Tobosos y Tlaxcaltecas conducidas de San Esteban
del Saltillo. Santa Rosa de Nadadores, puesta en 1677 à cuarenta leguas
al Noroeste de Coahuila, de indios Cotzales y Manosprietas, trasladada
junto al rio de Nadadores para huir de la guerra de los Tobosos, y
colocada al fin, en 1693, à siete leguas al Noroeste de Coahuila: se le
agregaron ocho familias Tlaxcaltecas. San Bernardo de la Candela, con
indios Catujanes, Tilijais y Milijaes, y cuatro familias Tlaxcaltecas.
San Buenaventura de las cuatro Ciénegas, veinte leguas al Oeste de
Coahuila, con indios Cabezas, Contores y Bauzarigames: la mision
repuesta en 1692 con los Tocas y los Colorados. _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 302.

The _Irritilas_ occupy 'la parte del partido de Mapimí al Este.' _Id._,
p. 319.

The _Pisones_ and _Xanambres_ roam 'Al Sur del valle de la Purísima y al
Norte hasta Rio Blanco, confinando al Oeste con los Cuachichiles.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 298.

Other names which cannot be located are: Cadimas, Pelones, Nazas,
Pamoranos, Quedexeños, Palmitos, Pintos, Quinicuanes, Maquiapemes,
Seguyones, Ayagua, Zima, Canaina, Comepescados, Aguaceros, Vocarros,
Posuamas, Zalaias, Malahuecos, Pitisfiafuiles, Cuchinochis, Talaquichis,
Alazapas, Pafaltoes. _Id._, pp. 299-300.

  [Sidenote: TRIBES OF TAMAULIPAS.]

The nations or tribes of Tamaulipas, although very numerous, are mostly
located.

The _Olives_ live in Horcasitas. _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 293.

The _Palagueques_ are at the Mission of San Francisco Xavier. _Ib._

The _Anacanas_, 'a una legua de Altamira.' _Ib._

The _Aretines_, _Panguais_, and _Caramiguais_ in the 'sierra del
Chapopote, que remata en la barra del Tordo.' _Ib._

The _Mapulcanas_, _Cataicanas_, _Caramiguais_, _Panguais_, and
_Zapoteros_ live near the Salinas, which are between the Cerro del Maiz
and the sea. _Ib._

The _Caribays_, _Comecamotes_, _Ancasiguais_, _Tagualilos_, and
_Pasitas_ are near De Soto la Marina and Santander. _Ib._

The _Moraleños_ and _Panguajes_ live on the coast between Marina and
Altamirano. _Ib._

The _Martinez_, 'en la Sierra de Tamaulipa vieja.' _Ib._

The _Mariguanes_, _Caramariguanes_, _Aretines_, 'habitada desde el cerro
de S. José á la mar.' _Ib._

The _Tumapacanes_, 'en el camino para Santander.' _Ib._

The _Inapanames_, 'á una y media leguas de la primera villa
(Santillana).' _Ib._

The _Pintos_ and _Quinicuanes_ dwell near San Fernando de Austria. _Ib._

The _Tedexeños_, 'en las lagunas de la barra.' _Ib._

The _Comecrudos_, 'donde el rio se vacia en sus crecientes.' _Ib._

The _Tamaulipecos_ and _Malincheños_ live at the mission of S. Pedro
Alcántara. _Ib._

The _Guixolotes_, _Cadimas_, _Canaynes_, and _Borrados_ are 'al pié de
la sierra de Tamaulipas, teniendo al Sur el terreno que se llama la
Tamaulipa Moza.' _Id._, pp. 293-4.

The _Nazas_, _Narices_, _Comecrudos_, and _Texones_ are at the mission
of Reynosa. _Id._, p. 294.

The _Tanaquiapemes_, _Saulapaguemes_, _Auyapemes_, _Uscapemes_,
_Comesacapemes_, _Gummesacapemes_, _Catanamepaques_ are 'rumbo al Este y
sobre el rio, à seis leguas de la mision ... se internan à las tierras
llegando en sus correrías únicamente hasta el mar.' _Ib._

The _Carrizos_, _Cotomanes_, and _Cacalotes_ are at 'Camargo, situado
sobre el rio da S. Juan ... al otro lado del Bravo ... los cuales por
fuera del rio Grande llegan hasta Revilla.' _Ib._

The _Garzas_ and _Malaguecos_ live near rio Alamo. _Id._, p. 294.

No location for the following can be found: Politos, Mulatos, Pajaritos,
Venados, Payzanos, Cuernos quemados. _Id._, pp. 295-6.

The _Tepehuanes_ inhabit the mountains of southern Chihuahua and the
northern portions of Durango, a district commonly called the partido de
Tepehuanes. 'Estiende desde la Sierra del Mezquital hasta el Parral ...
hasta adelante de Topia, muy cerca de Caponeta.' _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de
Zacatecas_, pp. 187-8. 'Se extiende esta region desde la altura misma de
Guadiana, á poco ménos de 25 grados hasta los 27 de latitud
septentrional. Sus pueblos comienzan á las veinticinco leguas de la
capital de Nueva-Vizcaya, ácia el Noroeste en Santiago de Papásquiaro.
Al Norte tiene á la provincia de Taraumara, al Sur la de Chiametlán y
costa del seno Californio, al Oriente los grandes arenales y naciones
vecinas á la laguna de S. Pedro, y al Poniente la Sierra Madre de Topía,
que la divide de esta provincia y la de Sinaloa.' _Alegre_, _Hist.
Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 319. 'Sus pueblos, parte en llanos, y parte
en sierra, a las vertientes de la de Topia, y san Andres.... Y por essa
parte vezinos a las Naziones Xixime, y Acaxee, y aun a las de la tierra
mas adentro de Cinaloa.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 573. For
concurrent testimony see: _Zapata_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv.,
tom. iii., p. 310; _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., pp.
344-5; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 43; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p.
323; _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 318-19.

The _Acaxées_ inhabit the valleys of the mountain regions of Topia and
S. Andres in Durango and Sinaloa. 'La principal Nacion, en cuyas tierras
está el Real de Topia, es la Acaxee.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_,
p. 471. 'Lo limitan al Norte y al Este el Tepehuan, al Sur el Xixime y
al Oeste el Sabaibo y el Tebaca.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp.
319, 310, 315; _Zapata_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., pp.
416-17. 'San Pedro valle de Topia, el mineral de Topia, Asuncion
Sianori, San Antonio Tahuahueto y los Dolores de Agua Caliente, las
cuales poblaciones marcan los terrenos habitados por los Acaxees.'
_Tamaron_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 314.

The _Tebacas_ lived among the Acaxees in the mountain districts of Topia
and S. Andres. _Id._, p. 334.

The _Sabaibos_ 'habitaban en el partido de San Ignacio Otatitlan y
pueblos de Piaba, Alaya y Quejupa.' _Ib._

The _Cácaris_ dwell in Cacaria. _Id._, p. 319.

The _Papudos_ and _Tecayas_ were settled in the district of San Andres.
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., pp. 379-80.

The _Xiximes_ inhabited 'en el coraçon desta sierra' de San Andres.
_Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 531. 'Ocupan el partido de San
Dimas.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 315-17.

The _Hinas_ 'Habitan la mayor parte en profundísimas quebradas del
centro de la sierra, y muchos á las márgenes del rio de Humace, que en
su embocadura llaman de Piaxtla, muy cerca de su nacimiento, como á
cinco leguas de Yamoriba.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. ii.,
p. 195. 'Habitantes de las márgenes del rio de Piaztla.' _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 316.

The _Humes_ are in the Sierra de San Andres. 'Como nueue leguas del
pueblo de Quilitlan, y en lo mas alto de toda esta sierra, caminando al
Oriente.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 562. 'Nueve leguas mas
adelante del lugar de Queibos ó de Santiago.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. ii., p. 199; _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 316, 325.

The _Zacatecos_ inhabit the like-named State, and particularly near the
rio Nazas. 'Baxò la Sierra, que oy llaman del calabazal, y parò â las
orillas de un rio, que oy llaman de Suchil.' _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de
Zacatecas_, p. 26. 'Los que habitan en el rio de las Nasas son indios
zacatecos.' _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. 33. 'Se
extendian hasta el rio Nazas. Cuencamé, Cerro Gordo, S. Juan del Rio,
Nombre de Dios, quedaban comprendidos en esta demarcacion.' _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 319.

The _Guachichiles_, Cuachichiles, or Huachichiles 'corrian por Zacatecas
hasta San Potosí y Coahuila.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 285. 'La
villa del Saltillo está fundada sobre el terreno que en lo antiguo
ocuparon los indios cuachichiles.' _Id._, pp. 301, 287; _De Laet_,
_Novus Orbis_, p. 281.


FOOTNOTES:

[636] The Comanches 'are divided into three principal bands, to wit: the
Comanche, the Yamparack and the Tenawa.' _Burnet_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. i., p. 230; 'Ietans, termed by the Spaniards Comanches, and
in their own language Na-uni, signifying "life people."' _Prichard's
Nat. Hist._, vol. ii., p. 549. 'The Comanches and the numerous tribes of
Chichimecas ... are comprehended by the Spaniards under the vague name
of Mecos.' _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 422. 'The tribe called
themselves Niyuna.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., pp. 575-6;
_Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 231; _Neighbors_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1856, p. 175; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 115; _French's Hist. La._, p.
155. 'Se divide en cuatro ramas considerables bajo los nombres de
Cuchanticas, Jupes, Yamparicas y Orientales.' _García Conde_, in _Soc.
Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 318; see also _Cortez_, in _Pac. R.
R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 121. The Jetans or Camanches, as the Spaniards
term them, or Padoucas, as they are called by the Pawnees. _Pike's
Explor. Trav._, p. 214.

[637] _Turner_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 76. 'Los Indios
yutas, ... son los mismos que los comanches ó cumanches, pues yuta eso
quiere decir en la lengua de los lipanes. Por consiguente no se pueden
distinguir esos nombres, que aunque de dos lenguas diferentes espresan
una misma nacion.' _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 251. 'The
Comanches are a branch of the Shoshones or Snakes.' _Ruxton's Adven._,
p. 244. 'The Pawnees are descended from a cousin-germanship of the same
stock.' _Edward's Hist. Tex._, pp. 108-9. 'Si le sang des Aztéques
existe encore sans mélange en Amerique, il doit couler dans les veines
des Comanches.' _Domenech's Jour._, p. 16; see also _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 24; _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Azt. Spr._, p. 391.

[638] 'Probably because their winter quarters are always located amid
the forests which grow upon the Sierras.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 243.

[639] Cordero gives the following tribal names, which he says are used
among themselves: Vinni ettinenne, Tontos; Segatajenne, Chiricaguis;
Tjuiccujenne, Gileños; Iccujenne, Mimbreños; Yutajenne, Faraones;
Sejenne, Mescaleros; Cuelcajenne, Llaneros; Lipajenne and Yutajenne,
Lipans and Navajos. _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 369, 379-385.
'Los pimas gileños llaman á los yavipais taros ó nifores; los jamajabs
les llaman yavipais y nosotros apaches.' _Garces_, _Diario_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., pp. 265, 352-3. 'Yavipais Tejua que
son los indómitos Apaches.' _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 471.
'Yavapais, or Apache Mohaves, as they are more generally called.'
_Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 217. 'Pueden dividirse en
nueve tribus principales ... Tontos, Chirocahues, Gileños, Mimbreños,
Faraones, Mezcaleros, Llaneros, Lipanes y Navajoes. Todos hablan un
mismo idioma.... No componen una nacion uniforme en sus usos y
costumbres, pero coinciden en la major parte de sus inclinaciones,
variando en otras con proporcion á los terrenos de su residencia, á
las necesidades que padecen.' _García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._,
_Boletin_, tom. v., p. 314. Apaches, 'their name is said to signify
'men.'' Mescaleros, 'the meaning of the name, probably, is drinkers of
mescal.' _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., pp. 118-9.
_Froebel's Central Amer._, pp. 309, 353, 491; _Froebel_, _Aus
Amerika_, tom. ii., pp. 161, 223, 425; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol.
i., p. 285; _Wislizenus' Tour_, p. 26; _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 351;
_Ruxton's Adven._, p. 194; _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iv., p. 216; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., pp. 212-13; _Mowry_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 298; _Steck_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1863, p. 108, and _Id._, 1864, p. 182, 1858, p. 197; _Bailey_, in
_Id._, 1858, p. 206; _Clum_, in _Id._, 1871, p. 42; _Bartlett's Pers.
Nar._, vol. i., p. 325. Called Coyoteros, because it is believed that
'they feed upon the flesh of the coyote.' _Hardy's Trav._, p. 430.
'Les Gileños ... avec les Axuas et les Apaches qui viennent de la
Sierra Madre sont confondus sous le nom de Pápagos.' _Mofras_,
_Explor._, tom. i., p. 213; _Bustamante_, in _Cavo_, _Tres Siglos_,
tom. iii., pp. 79-80. 'Tonto, in Spanish means stupid.' 'Tonto is a
Spanish corruption of the original Indian name.' _Palmer_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 460; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii.,
pp. 5-8; _Ayers_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1858, p. 175; _Collins_, in
_Id._, 1860, p. 161; _Id._, 1861, p. 122; _Maxwell_, in _Id._, 1863,
p. 116; _Parker_, in _Id._, 1869, p. 23; _Walker_, in _Id._, 1872, p.
53; _Clum_, in _Id._, 1871, p. 368; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p.
214; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 275; _Turner_, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1852, tom. cxxxv., p. 308.

[640] 'The Apaches and their congeners belong to the Athapascan family.'
_Turner_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 84, and in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1852, tom. cxxxv., p. 311; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., p. 10.

[641] 'The Apaches call the Navajoes Yútahkah. The Navajoes call
themselves, as a tribe, Tenúai (man). The appellation Návajo was
unquestionably given them by the Spaniards.' _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 217, 218. 'The Navajoes and Apaches are
identically one people.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 306; _Ruxton's Adven._,
p. 194; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 229; _Poston_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1863, p. 389. 'Navajoes and Apaches have descended from the same
stock.' _Carleton_, in _Ind. Aff., Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 134. 'The
Navajoes are a Pueblo Indian.' _Griner_, in _Id._, p. 329. 'Allied to
the Crow Indians.' _Fitzpatrick_, in _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 133;
_Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 348. 'Most civilized of all the wild Indians of
North America.' _Farnham's Life in Cal._, p. 372. The Navajoes 'are a
division of the ancient Mexicans.' _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 180.

[642] '"Yumah," signifies "Son of the River," and is only applied to the
Indians born on the banks of the Colorado. This nation is composed of
five tribes ... among which ... the Yabipaïs (Yampaïs or Yampaos).'
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 65. 'The Cajuenches and Cuchans ...
belong to two different divisions of one tribe, which forms part of the
great nation of the Yumas.' _Id._, p. 10.

[643] Cosninos, 'Es ist mehrfach die Ansicht ausgesprochen worden, dass
die meisten derselben zu dem Stamme der Apaches gehören, oder vielmehr
mit ihnen verwandt sind.' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 330-1;
_Figuier's Human Race_, p. 482.

[644] 'The Yampais form a connecting link between the Gila, Colorado,
and Pueblo Indians.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 98.
Yampais are related to the Yumas. _Möllhausen_, _Reisen_, tom. i., p.
431. Yampais: 'Unable to separate them from the Tonto-Apaches.' _Mowry_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 302.

[645] 'Llaman á estos indios los cruzados, por unas cruces que todos,
chicos y grandes se atan del copete, que les viene á caer en la frente;
y esto hacen cuando ven á los españoles.' _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iii., p. 31.

[646] 'Unos dicen que á un lado de estas naciones (Yutas) para hácia al
Poniente está la nacion de los nijoras, y otros afirman que no hay tal
nacion Nijora, sino que esta palabra nijor quiere decir cautivo, y que
los cocomaricopas les dan de noche á las naciones mas inmediatas y les
quitan sus hijos, los que cautivan y venden á los pimas y éstos á los
españoles; si es asi que hay tal nacion, está en esta inmediacion del
rio Colorado para el rio Salado ó rio Verde.' _Noticias de la Pimeria_,
in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 838. 'Todos estos
cautivos llaman por acá fuera Nijores, aunque hay otra nacion Hijeras á
parte.' _Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom.
iv., p. 852.

[647] For further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter.

[648] 'Besonders fiel uns der Unterschied zwischen den im Gebirge,
ähnlich den Wölfen lebenden Yampays und Tontos ... und den von
vegetabilischen Stoffen sich nährenden Bewohnern des Colorado-Thales
auf, indem erstere nur kleine hässliche Gestalten mit widrigem
tückischem Ausdruck der Physiognomie waren, die anderen dagegen wie
lauter Meisterwerke der schöpferischen Natur erschienen.' _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, p. 384.

[649] The Navajos are 'of good size, nearly six feet in height, and well
proportioned; cheek-bones high and prominent, nose straight and well
shaped; hair long and black; eyes black; ... feet small; lips of
moderate size; head of medium size and well shaped; forehead not small
but retreating.' _Lethermann_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 288.
'Fine looking, physically.' 'Most symmetrical figure, combining ease,
grace and power, and activity.' And the Comanches 'about five feet ten
inches in height, with well proportioned shoulders, very deep chest, and
long, thin, but muscular arms.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 49, 305, 15.
The Mojave 'men are tall, erect, and finely proportioned. Their features
are inclined to European regularity; their eyes large, shaded by long
lashes.' The Cuchans are 'a noble race, well formed, active and
intelligent.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., pp. 110, 114.
The Navajos are distinguished 'by the fullness and roundness of their
eyes.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii., p. 31. 'The Camanches are small of stature ... wear
moustaches and heads of long hair.' _Pope_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
ii., p. 15. The Comanches 'que da un aspecto bien particular á estas
naciones, es la falta completa de cejas, pues ellos se las arrancan;
algunos tienen una poca barba.' _Berlandier and Thovel_, _Diario_, p.
253. The Yumas 'if left to their natural state, would be fine looking,'
but the Hualpais 'were squalid, wretched-looking creatures, with splay
feet, large joints and diminutive figures ... features like a toad's....
They present a remarkable contrast to our tall and athletic Mojaves.'
The Navajos are 'a fine looking race with bold features.' 'The Mojaves
are perhaps as fine a race of men physically, as there is in existence.'
_Ives' Colorado River_, pp. 44, 54, 97-8, 108, 73, 128, 19, 39, 59, 66,
plate p. 66. The Comanches are 'de buena estatura.' _Beaumont_, _Crónica
de Mechoacan, MS._, p. 527. The people between the Colorado and Gila
rivers. 'Es gente bien agestada y corpulenta, trigueños de color.'
_Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p.
851. The Cruzados are described as 'bien agestados y nobles y ellas
hermosas de lindos ojos y amorosas.' _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 31; see also _Cordoue_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, serie i., tom. x., p. 446. In New Mexico
Allegre describes them as 'corpulentos y briosos, pero mal agestados,
las orejas largas ... tienen poco barba.' _Allegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. i., p. 332; and of the same people Alcedo writes 'son de
mejor aspecto, color y proporcion que los demás.' _Diccionario_, tom.
iii., p. 184. And Lieut. Möllhausen, who frequently goes into ecstasies
over the splendid figures of the lower Colorado people, whom he calls
the personification of the ancient gods of the Romans and Greeks, says
further that they are 'grosse, schön gewachsene Leute,' and describes
their color as 'dunkelkupferfarbig.' Of the women he adds 'Ganz im
Gegensatze zu den Männern sind die Weiber der Indianer am Colorado
durchgängig klein, untersetzt und so dick, dass ihr Aussehen mitunter
an's komische gränzt.' Comparing the Hualapais with the Mojaves he
writes 'auf der einen Seite die unbekleideten, riesenhaften und
wohlgebildeten Gestalten der Mohaves ... auf der andern Seite dagegen
die im Vergleich mit erstern, zwergähnlichen, hagern.... Figuren der
Wallpays, mit ihren verwirrten, struppigen Haaren, den kleinen,
geschlitzten Augen und dem falschen, gehässigen Ausdruck in ihren
Zügen.' The Cosninos he calls 'hässlich und verkümmert.' _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, pp. 331, 382-8; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen_, tom. i., pp. 123-4,
199, 215, 274, 293, 318, tom. ii., pp. 43, 37, and plate frontispiece.
_Möllhausen_, _Mormonenmädchen_, tom. ii., p. 140. The Comanche 'men are
about the medium stature, with bright copper- complexions ...
the women are short with crooked legs ... far from being as good looking
as the men.' In the Colorado Valley 'are the largest and best-formed men
I ever saw, their average height being an inch over six feet.' _Marcy's
Army Life_, pp. 25, 279. 'Les Comanchés ont la taille haute et élancée,
et sont presque aussi blancs que les Européens.' _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, serie v., No. 96, p. 192. And of the Comanches see further.
_Dragoon Camp._, p. 153. 'Robust, almost Herculean race.' _Foote's
Texas_, vol. i., p. 298. 'Exceedingly handsome.' _Calderon de la Barca's
Life in Mex._, vol. ii., p. 308; _Hartmann and Millard's Texas_, p. 109.
'Women are ugly, crooklegged, stoop-shouldered.' _Parker's Notes on
Tex._, pp. 189, 232, 194; _Mexikanische Zustände_, tom. i., p. 373;
_Froebel's Cent. Am._, p. 267; see also _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom.
ii., p. 101; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii., pp. 37-8; _Domenech_,
_Journ._, p. 132. The Yuma 'women are generally fat.' 'The men are
large, muscular, and well formed.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii.,
pp. 180, 178. Navajo women are 'much handsomer and have lighter
complexions than the men.' _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, pp. 218-19; _Simpson's
Jour. Mil. Recon._, p. 52; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 7, 10,
24, 65, plate 8. The Navajos have 'light flaxen hair, light blue eyes
... their skin is of the most delicate whiteness.' _Brownell's Ind.
Races_, p. 545; _Hughes' Doniphan's Ex._, p. 203. On the Mojaves see
further, _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 138; _Sitgreaves' Zuñi
Ex._, p. 18; _Cal. Mercantile Jour._, vol. i., p. 227, plate; _Clum_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 363. And on the Yumas. _Poston_, in _Ind.
Rept. Aff._, 1863, p. 387; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 61; _Taylor_,
in _Cal. Farmer_, _Feb. 22, 1860_. Women's 'feet are naturally small.'
_Emory's Rept._, in _U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 109.
The Yampais are broad-faced, and have 'aquiline noses and small eyes.'
_Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 460. _Indian Traits_, in
_Hayes Col._

[650] 'Their average height is about five feet four or five inches. They
are but slimly built, and possess but little muscular development ...
light brownish red color.' Some have 'a Chinese cast of countenance ...
rusty black hair.' _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 418. Their
'features were flat, <DW64>-like ... small legged, big-bellied and
broad-shouldered.' _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 52. 'More miserable
looking objects I never beheld;' legs, 'large and muscular.' _Fremont
and Emory's Notes of Trav._, p. 139. 'Widerliche Physiognomien und
Gestalten ... unter mittlerer Grösse ... grosse Köpfe, vorstehende Stirn
und Backenknochen, dicke Nasen, aufgeworfene Lippen und kleine
geschlitzte Augen.... Ihr Gesicht war dunkler als ich es jemals bei
Indianern gefunden.' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 360. 'Von zottigen
weit abstehenden Haupthaaren bedeckt.' _Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_, tom.
iii., p. 49. 'Ill-formed, emaciated, and miserable looking race ... had
all a treacherous-fiendish look.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p.
327. 'Physically of a slighter build than any Indians I have seen.'
_Clum_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 47. 'Most wretched looking
Indians I have ever seen.' _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, p. 14. 'Small in
stature.... Coal-black eye.' _Peters' Life of Carson_, p. 326. 'Hair is
very black and straight, much resembling horse hair ... appears to
belong to the Asiatic type.' _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 211. 'Gipsy looking with an eye singularly wild and piercing.'
_Houstoun's Texas_, p. 227. 'Have very light complexions.' _Ward's
Mexico_, vol. i., p. 580. 'Die Lipanis haben blondes Haar, und sind
schöne Leute.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 215, tom. ii., pt.
ii., p. 421. 'Sont des beaux hommes.' _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_,
p. 82. 'Tall, majestic in figure; muscular.' _Brantz-Mayer's Mex.
Aztec., etc._, vol. ii., p. 123. 'Fine physical conformation.' _Foote's
Texas_, vol. i., p. 298. 'Their skin looked whiter than I have ever seen
it in the Indians.' _Wizlizenus' Tour_, p. 71. 'Crian pié menor que los
otros indios.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 564. 'Todos son morenos, cuerpo bien proporcionado,
ojos vivos, cabello largo y lampiños.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_,
p. 265. 'Su talla y color diferencian algo en cada tribu, variando este
desde el bronceado al moreno. Son todos bien proporcionados ... y
ninguna barba.' _García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom.
v., p. 314; see also _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp.
370-1. 'Though not tall, are admirably formed, with fine features and a
bright complexion, inclining to yellow.' _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 117.
'Son altos, rubios y de bellisimas proporciones.' _Revista Científica_,
tom. i., p. 55. 'Taille ordinaire, de couleur foncé.' 'Comme ces Indiens
ne font leur nourriture que de chair et principalement de celle de l'âne
et du mulet, ils exhalent une odeur si pénétrante que les chevaux et
surtout les mules rebroussent chemin aussitôt qu'ils les éventent.'
_Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 187.

[651] 'Cut their hair short over the forehead, and let it hang behind.'
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 65. Distinguished 'durch den
vollständig gleichmässigen Schnitt ihrer schwarzen Haare.' _Möllhausen_,
_Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 274; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_,
p. 384; _Browne's Apache Country_, 107; _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, pp. 15,
18; _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., pp. 460, 461; _Whipple_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., pp. 98, 110.

[652] Mojave girls, after they marry, tattoo the chin 'with vertical
blue lines.' _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 463. Yumas:
'Doch ist ihnen das Tätowiren nicht fremd; dieses wird indessen mehr von
den Frauen angewendet welche sich die Mundwinkel und das Kinn mit blauen
Punkten und Linien schmücken.' _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._,
tom. i., p. 124; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 385; _Stratton's Capt.
Oatman Girls_, pp. 151-2; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 33,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., and plate; _Michler_, in _Emory's
Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 110; _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 186; _Treasury of Trav._, p. 32.

[653] 'Das Gesicht hatten sich alle Vier (Mojaves) auf gleiche Weise
bemalt, nämlich kohlschwarz mit einem rothen Striche, der sich von der
Stirne über Nase, Mund und Kinn zog.' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 383,
385, 388; plate, 394. 'Painted perfectly black, excepting a red stripe
from the top of his forehead, down the bridge of his nose to his chin.'
_Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 67. The Apaches 'Se tiñen el cuerpo y la cara
con bastantes colores.' _Doc. Hist. N. Vizcaya, MS._, p. 5. 'Pintura de
greda y almagre con que se untan la cara, brazos y piernas.' _Cordero_,
in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 371; _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv.,
tom. iii., p. 11; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 266; _Henry_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 211; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 337;
_Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 418; _Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept._, p. 33, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., and plate;
_Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 110; _Sedelmair_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., vol. iv., p. 858.

[654] 'Naked with the exception of the breech-cloth.' _Sitgreaves' Zuñi
Ex._, pp. 14, 18; see also plates; Mojave men 'simply a breech-cloth.'
_Touner_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871. 'No clothing but a strip of
cotton.... The Yumas display 'a ludicrous variety of tawdry colors and
dirty finery.' _Ives' Colorado Rept._, pp. 54, 59, 66. See 
plates of Yumas, Mojaves, and Hualpais, 'Andan enteramente desnudos.'
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 111; _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, p. 383; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 62; _Hardy's
Trav._, pp. 336, 342; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 138; _Pattie's
Pers. Nar._, p. 149; _Walker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1872, p. 162;
_Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 124; _Whipple_, in _Pac.
R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 33; _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 29, 132; _Soc.
Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 93, p. 186; _Indian Traits_, vol. i.,
in _Hayes Col._

[655] 'A few stripes of the inner bark of the willow or acacia tied
scantily round their waists.' _Hardy's Trav._, p. 336. 'Long fringe of
strips of willow bark wound around the waist.' _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._,
p. 18. The men wear 'a strip of cotton,' the women 'a short petticoat,
made of strips of bark.' _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 66. 'Nude, with the
exception of a diminutive breech cloth.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 29.
'Las mas se cubren de la cintura hasta las piernas con la cáscara
interior del sauce.' _Sedelmair_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom.
iv., p. 851. 'Las mugeres se cubren de la cintura á la rodilla con la
cáscara interior del sauce.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom.
iii., p. 111; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 384; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in
die Felsengeb._, vol. i., p. 123; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p.
138; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 186; _Whipple_, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 114; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's
Rept._, p. 33, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., plate and cuts;
_Touner_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 364; _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1870, p. 130; _Michler_, in _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey_, vol. i., pp. 109, 110, with plate.

[656] 'Partly clothed like the Spaniards, with wide drawers, moccasins
and leggings to the knee ... their moccasins have turned-up square toes
... mostly they have no head-dress, some have hats, some fantastic
helmets.' _Cutts' Conq. of Cal._, p. 184. 'They prefer the legging and
blanket to any other dress.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., pp. 320,
328. 'Mexican dress and saddles predominated, showing where they had
chiefly made up their wardrobe.' _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 61. 'Los
hombres, se las acomodan alrededor del cuerpo, dejando desambarazados
los brazos. Es en lo general la gamuza ó piel del venado la que emplean
en este servicio. Cubren la cabeza de un bonete ó gorra de lo mismo, tal
vez adornado de plumas de aves, ó cuernos de animales.... El vestuario
de las mujeres es igualmente de pieles.' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 371. 'Cervinis tergoribus amiciuntur tam foeminæ quam
mares.' _Benavides_, in _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 316; _Alarchon_, in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 431, 437; _Sonora, Descrip. Geog._, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 564; _Doc. Hist. N. Vizcaya,
MS._, p. 5; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 117; _Hughes' Doniphan's Ex._, p.
214; _Peters' Life of Carson_, p. 451; _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. v., pp. 210, 211; _Walker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1872, p.
174; _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 248; _Roedel_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 397; _Niza_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série
i., tom. ix., pp. 266, 268; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., pp. 161,
424; see also _Froebel's Cent. Am._, pp. 309, 490; _García Conde_, in
_Album Mex._, tom. i., pp. 46, 166, 167; _Linati_, _Costumes_, plate
xxii.; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 266; _Möllhausen_,
_Flüchtling_, tom. ii., p. 173; _Beaumont_, _Crón. de Mechoacan, MS._,
p. 417; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 82.

[657] The hair of the Mohaves is occasionally 'matted on the top of the
head into a compact mass with mud.' _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, p. 18.
'Their pigments are ochre, clay, and probably charcoal mingled with
oil.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, pp. 33, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii. 'Ihr Hauptschmuck dagegen sind die langen, starken
Haare, die mittelst nasser Lehmerde in Rollen gedreht.' _Möllhausen_,
_Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 124. The Axuas 'Beplastered their
bodies and hair with mud.' _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 343-4, 356, 368, 370;
_Browne's Apache Country_, pp. 61, 63.

[658] Small white beads are highly prized by the Mohaves. _Ives'
Colorado River_, pp. 68-9. 'The young girls wear beads ... a necklace
with a single sea-shell in front.' The men 'leather bracelets, trimmed
with bright buttons ... eagles' feathers, called "sormeh," sometimes
white, sometimes of a crimson tint ... strings of wampum, made of
circular pieces of shell.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.,
pp. 114, 115. 'Shells of the pearl-oyster, and a rough wooden image are
the favorite ornaments of both sexes' with the Apaches. _Henry_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 210. 'Sus adornos en el cuello y
brazos son sartas de pesuñas de venado y berrendos, conchas, espinas de
pescado y raices de yerbas odoríferas. Las familias mas pudientes y
aseadas bordan sus trajes y zapatos de la espina del puerco-espin.'
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 371. 'Adórnanse con
gargantillas de caracolillos del mar, entreverados de otras cuentas, de
conchas coloradas redondas.' _Sedelmair_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 851. 'Las mugeres por arracadas ó aretes, se cuelgan
conchas enteras de nácar, y otras mayores azules en cada oreja.'
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 111; _Froebel_, _Aus
Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 424; _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 61; _Cremony's
Apaches_, p. 222; _García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i., pp. 166,
167; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 149; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii.,
p. 181; _Almanza_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 837;
_Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 463; _Velasco_, _Noticias
de Sonora_, p. 266; _Browne's Apache Country_, pp. 60-64; _Michler_, in
_Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, pp. 109-110; _Whipple_,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 98; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's
Rept._, p. 33, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, pp. 389, 394, 399; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 210;
_Hardy's Trav._, p. 364; _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, pp.
418-19; _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, serie i., tom. ix., pp. 266, 268,
273; _Alarchon_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 437; _Mexikanische
Zustände_, tom. i., p. 64.

[659] The 'hair is worn long and tied up behind' by both sexes;
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 290. 'Langes starkes Haar
in einen dicken Zopf zusammengeknotet.' _Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_, tom.
iv., p. 36; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 329.

[660] 'Tolerably well dressed, mostly in buckskin.... They dress with
greater comfort than any other tribe, and wear woolen and well-tanned
buckskin ... the outer seams are adorned with silver or brass buttons.'
_Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 406, 411, 412. Leggins made of deer-skin with
thick soles ... a leathern cap shaped like a helmet, decorated with
cocks', eagles' or vultures' feathers. _Figuier's Hum. Race_, pp. 481,
482. 'Auf dem Kopfe tragen sie eine helmartige Lederkappe die gewöhnlich
mit einem Busch kurzer, glänzender Truthahnfedern und einigen Geier oder
Adlerfedern geschmückt ist.' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 229, 230. 'A
close banded cap is worn by the men which is gracefully ornamented by
feathers, and held under the chin by a small throat-latch.'
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 435, and plate vii., Fig. 3, p. 74.
'Their wardrobes are never extravagantly supplied.' _Backus_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 212. The women 'wear a blanket.'
_Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 128, and plate. The women 'wore blankets,
leggins and moccasons.' _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 51, 52, 81.
'Over all is thrown a blanket, under and sometimes over which is worn a
belt, to which are attached oval pieces of silver.' _Letherman_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 290. The women's dress is 'chiefly
composed of skins ... showily corded at the bottom, forming a kind of
belt of beads and porcupine quills.' _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, pp. 118-9.
_Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 329; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. ii., pp. 220, 224, 235; _Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_,
tom. iv., pp. 36, 37; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 31, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Bristol_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec.
Com._, 1867, p. 344; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 305.

[661] 'Tattooed over the body, especially on the chest.' _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 281. 'Tattoo their faces and breasts.' _Marcy's
Army Life_, p. 25. 'Mares juxta atque foeminæ facies atque artus
lineis quibusdam persignant.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 310;
_Warden_, _Recherches_, p. 79; _Farnham's Trav._, p. 32.

[662] 'They never cut the hair, but wear it of very great length, and
ornament it upon state occasions with silver and beads.' _Marcy's Army
Life_, p. 25. 'Their heads are covered with bits of tin and glass.'
_Shepard's Land of the Aztecs_, p. 182. 'Der dicke und lang über den
Rücken hinabhängende Zopf mit abwärts immer kleiner werdenden silbernen
Scheiben belastet, die, im Nacken mit der Grösse einer mässigen
Untertasse beginnend, an der Spitze des Zopfes mit der Grösse eines
halben Thalers endigten.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 100,
and _Froebel's Cent. Am._, p. 266. They 'never cut their hair, which
they wear long, mingling with it on particular occasions silver
ornaments and pearls.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 24. 'Todos
ellos llevan la cabeza trasquilada desde la mitad hasta la frente, y
dejan lo demas del pelo colgando.' _Beaumont_, _Crón. de Mechoacan,
MS._, p. 527; _Revista Cientifica_, tom. i., p. 162; _Parker's Notes on
Tex._, p. 194; _Dragoon Camp._, p. 153; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p.
115; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 27, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii.; _García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i., p. 299;
_Combier_, _Voy._, p. 224.

[663] 'Im Gesichte mit Zinnober bemalt, auf dem Kopfe mit Adlerfedern
geschmückt.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 100. 'It takes them
a considerable time to dress, and stick feathers and beads in their
hair.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 281. 'Fond of decking
themselves with paint, beads and feathers.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 25,
26, 30. 'Vederbosschen op't hoofd.' _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p.
209. 'En quanto á los colores, varian mucho, no solamente en ellos, sino
tambien en los dibujos que se hacen en la cara.' _García Conde_, in
_Album Mex._, tom. i., p. 299. The Comanches 'de tout sexe portent un
miroir attaché au poignet, et se teignent le visage en rouge.' _Soc.
Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 192; _Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept._, p. 27, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Palmer_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 450; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, pp. 35, 36;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 133; _Parker's Notes on Tex._, pp.
181, 194, 197, 202; _Wislizenus' Tour_, p. 71; _Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon._, p. 119; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 332;
_Combier_, _Voy._, p. 224; _Hartmann and Millard_, _Texas_, p. 110;
_Larenaudière_, _Mex. et Guat._, p. 147, plate; _Tempsky's Mitla_, p.
80; _Gilliam's Trav._, p. 305; _Horn's Captivity_, p. 25.

[664] 'The Camanches prefer dark clothes.' _Parker's Notes on Tex._, pp.
180, 181, 202. 'Les guerriers portent pour tout vêtement une peau de
buffle en manteau.' _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 192.
'Las mugeres andan vestidas de la cintura para abajo con unos cueros de
venado adobado en forma de faldellines, y cubren el cuerpo con unos
capotillos del mismo cuero.' _Beaumont_, _Crón. de Mechoacan, MS._, p.
527. 'Vistense galanos ... asi hombres como mugeres con mantas pintadas
y bordadas.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 681. 'Sus
vestidos se componen de unas botas, un mediano delantal que cubre sus
vergüenzas, y un coton, todo de pieles: las mugeres usan una manta
cuadrada de lana negra muy estrecha.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_,
tom. i., p. 332. 'Tam mares quam foeminæ gossypinis tunicis et ferarum
exuviis vestiebantur ad Mexicanorum normam et quod insolens barbaris,
ideoque Hispanis novum visum, utebantur calceis atque ocreis quæ è
ferarum tergoribus et taurino corio consuta erant. Foeminis capillus
bene pexus et elegantur erat dispositus, nec ullo præterea velamine
caput tegebant.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 311; _Froebel_, _Aus
Amerika_, pp. 99, 101; _Dragoon Camp._, p. 153; _Warden_, _Recherches_,
pp. 79, 80; _García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i., p. 299;
_Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv.,
pp. 25, 31, 91; _Revista Cientifica_, tom. i., p. 162; _Horn's
Captivity_, p. 22; _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 25, 29, 45; _Palmer_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 450; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 15;
_Larenaudière_, _Mex. et Guat._, p. 147, plate; _Gallatin_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., pp. 252, 272, 273;
_Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 216, and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 243;
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. iv., p. 127;
_Wislizenus' Tour_, p. 71; _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p.
109; _Escudero_, _Noticias de Chihuahua_, p. 230; _Gregg's Com.
Prairies_, vol. ii., pp. 38, 310, 312; _Foster's Pre-Hist. Races_, p.
228; _Hartmann and Millard_, _Texas_, p. 110; _Domenech_, _Jour._, pp.
134, 135; _Maillard_, _Hist. Tex._, p. 240, _Jaramillo_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 372, 377; _Castaño de
Soza_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. iv., p. 331; _Houstoun's
Tex._, p. 227; _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. iii., p. 184; _Farnham's
Trav._, p. 32; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 133; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 24.

[665] The Apaches 'rarely remain more than a week in any one locality.'
_Cremony's Apaches_, p. 240. 'Cette nation étant nomade et toujours à la
poursuite du gibier.' _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série
i., tom. p. 133; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 266; _Marcy's Army
Life_, p. 44; _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 212;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 202; _Backus_, in _Id._, vol. iv., p.
213; _Ten Broeck_, in _Id._, vol. iv., p. 89; _Bailey_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1858, p. 206; _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 325;
_Foote's Texas_, p. 298; _Carleton_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1867, p. 325;
_Holley's Texas_, p. 152; _Dragoon Camp._, p. 153; _Kennedy's Texas_,
vol. i., p. 437; _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, pt. x., p. 456.

[666] 'The principal characteristic I believe, is the form of their
wigwams; one sets up erect poles, another bends them over in a circular
form, and the third gives them a low oval shape.' _Bartlett's Pers.
Nar._, vol. i., p. 106. Other tribes make their lodges in a different
way, by a knowledge of which circumstance, travelers are able to
discover on arriving at a deserted camp whether it belongs to a hostile
or friendly tribe. _Parker's Notes on Texas_, p. 213; _Hartmann and
Millard_, _Texas_, p. 110; _García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._,
_Bulletin_, tom. v., p. 315.

[667] 'Sus chozas ó jacales son circulares, hechas de ramas de los
árboles, cubiertas con pieles de caballos, vacas, ó cíbolos.' _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 371. 'I did expect ... to find that the Navajos
had other and better habitations than the conical, pole, brush, and mud
lodge.' _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, p. 77. 'The Camanches make their
lodges by placing poles in the ground in a circle and tying the tops
together.' _Parker's Notes on Texas_, p. 213. Huts are only temporary,
conical, of sticks. _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 289.
'Sie bestanden einfach aus grossen Lauben von Cedernzweigen, deren
Wölbung auf starken Pfählen ruhte, und von Aussen theilweise mit Erde,
Lehm, und Steinen bedeckt war.' _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. ii., pp. 15, 220-233. 'Un grand nombre de forme
ronde.' _Jaramillo_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix.,
p. 379. 'Their lodges are rectangular.' _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, p. 18;
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 194;
_Ives' Colorado River_, p. 100; _Figuier's Hum. Race_, p. 482.

[668] 'They make them of upright poles a few feet in height ... upon
which rest brush and dirt.' _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary
Survey_, vol. i., pp. 111-12. 'The very rudest huts hastily constructed
of branches of cedar trees, and sometimes of flat stones for small
roofs.' _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217. These huts
are about eight feet high, eighteen feet in diameter at base, the whole
being covered with bark or brush and mud. _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._,
p. 60. 'Exceedingly rude structures of sticks about four or five feet
high.' _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 213. 'The
Comanches make their lodges ... in a conical shape ... which they cover
with buffalo hides.' _Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 213. 'Ils habitent
sous des tentes.' _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., tom. 96, p. 192;
_Davis' El Gringo_, p. 414; _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 212; _Bent_, in _Id._, vol. i., p. 243; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol.
i., p. 290; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 96; _Farnham's Trav._, p. 32;
_Mange_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 299; _Villa-Señor
y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., p. 413; _Dufey_, _Résumé de l'Hist._,
tom. i., p. 4; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 279;
_Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 131; _Dillon_, _Hist. Mex._, p. 97; _Ludecus_,
_Reise_, p. 104; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 205; _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p.
352; _Emory's Recon._, p. 61; _Marcy's Rept._, p. 219; _Gallatin_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cli., p. 274; _Jaramillo_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, serie i., tom. ix., pp. 372-9; _Beaumont_,
_Crón. de Mechoacan_, p. 417; _Alarchon_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol.
iii., p. 431; _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 239; see also, _Montanus_,
_Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 209; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 109-115;
_Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 230; _Cordoue_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. x., p. 443; _De Laet_, _Novus
Orbis_, p. 301; _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 544; _Hardy's Trav._, p.
336.

[669] _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, p. 18. 'This compels the Navajoes to erect
substantial huts of an oval form, the lower portion of the hut being
excavated.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 306. 'They live in brush houses, in
the winter time, digging a hole in the ground and covering this with a
brush roof.' _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 130; _Hughes'
Doniphan's Ex._, p. 218; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 136;
_Maillard's Hist. Tex._, p. 241.

[670] 'Their lodges are ... about four or five feet high, with a
triangular opening for ingress or egress.' _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 213. The most they do is to build small huts ...
with thick poles for the arches and a small door through which a single
person can hardly pass. _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 266. A
ranchería of the Cuabajai is described as 'formada como una grande
galeria en una pieza muy larga adornada con arcos de sauz, y cubierta
con esteras de tule muy delgadas y bien cocidas; tenia ventanas para la
luz y desahogar el humo y dos puertas, una al Oriente y otra al
Poniente, ... á los dos lados de la pieza habia varios cámaras ó
alojamientos para dormir.' _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, pp. 474-5.

[671] 'Some live in caves in the rocks.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1855, p. 289. 'They do not live in houses built of stone as has
been repeatedly represented, but in caves, caverns, and fissures of the
cliffs.' _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217. 'Ils
habitaient des cavernes et des lieux souterrains, où ils déposaient
leurs récoltes.' _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom.
cxxxi., p. 309. Most of the Navajos 'live in houses built of stone.'
_Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 180; _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 352;
_Almanza_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 825;
_Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 679; _Sanchez_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 93; _Gordon's Hist. and Geog. Mem._, p.
88.

[672] 'The large cottonwood posts and the substantial roof of the wide
shed in front, are characteristic of the architecture of this people.'
_Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 23, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii. 'They are built upon sandy soil and are thirty or forty feet
square; the sides about two feet thick of wicker-work and straw ...
their favorite resort seems to be the roof, where could usually be
counted from twenty to thirty persons, all apparently at home.'
_Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 464.

[673] See plate in _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 48. 'The fire is made in the
front of the lodge.' _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.
70.

[674] 'In every village may be seen small structures, consisting of a
frame-work of slight poles, bent into a semi-spherical form and covered
with buffalo hides. These are called medicine lodges and are used as
vapor-baths.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 60. 'They make huts three feet
high for bath-rooms and heat them with hot stones.' _Letherman_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 289.

[675] _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xviii., p. 464; _Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 23, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.

[676] 'Ils sont très-laborieux; ils cultivent les melons, les haricots,
et d'autres légumes; ils récoltent aussi en abondance le maïs.' _Soc.
Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 186. 'Bohnen, Mais, Weizen,
feingeriebenes Mehl, Kürbisse und Melonen.' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_,
pp. 385, 396-7. 'The Yumas and other tribes on the Colorado, irrigate
their lands, and raise wheat, corn, melons, &c.' _Bartlett's Pers.
Nar._, vol. ii., pp. 263, 180, 181; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p.
81; _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 419; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. i., p. 332; _Ives' Colorado River_, pp. 60, 67, 70, 73;
_Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., pp. 117, 128,
129; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 123; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., pp. 40, 65, 66; _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, p. 18; _Browne's Apache
Country_, pp. 51, 52, 107; _Mowry's Arizona_, p. 33; _Pattie's Pers.
Nar._, p. 91; _Mexicanische Zustände_, tom. i., p. 64; _Möllhausen_,
_Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 111; _Champagnac_, _Voyageur_,
p. 84; _Bent_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 243; _Eaton_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's
Rept._, pp. 13, 120, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Thümmel_,
_Mexiko_, p. 349; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851,
tom. cxxxi., pp. 288-9; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 567;
_Farnham's Life in Cal._; _Davis' El Gringo_, p. 411; _Clark_, in _Hist.
Mag._, vol. viii., p. 280; _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 25-6.

[677] 'A small but agreeable nut called the Piñon, grows abundantly in
this country; and during a period of scarcity, it sometimes constitutes
the sole food of the poorer class of natives for many successive weeks.'
_Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 212. 'Living upon the
fruit of the mezquit and tornilla trees.' _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, pp.
10, 19; _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 112.
'Tambien tienen para su sustento mescali, que es conserva de raiz de
maguey.' _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii.,
tom. iv., p. 31; _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 212;
_Hardy's Trav._, pp. 338; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 147, 331, 350,
396, 397; _Cordoue_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. x., p.
446; _Castañeda_, in _Id._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 53, 54; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. i., p. 217; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 234.

[678] 'The quail and hare of the valley, and the deer and lizards of the
plains, together furnish but a scanty supply.' _Ehrenberg_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 110. 'They ate worms, grasshoppers, and reptiles.'
_Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, pp. 115-116. 'An den dünnen Gurt hatten
unsere Besucher noch Ratten, grosse Eidechsen und Frösche befestigt.'
_Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 383. 'Depending upon game and roots for
food.' _Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 137, and 1869, p. 92.
'Mas para ellos es plato regaladísimo el de ratones del campo asados ó
cocidos y toda especie de insectos.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_,
tom. i., p. 332; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 430; _Arricivita_, _Crónica
Seráfica_, pp. 419, 473; _Figuier's Hum. Race_, p. 484; _Backus_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 212; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 297.

[679] On the Rivers Colorado and Gila. 'Usan de hilo torcido unas redes
y otras de varios palitos, que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas, en
que forman á modo de un pequeño barquito para pescar del infinito
pescado que hay en el rio.' _Sedelmair_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 851. The Cajuenches when the produce is insufficient,
live on fish. _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 10. The Navajos 'live
by raising flocks and herds, instead of hunting and fishing.' _Davis' El
Gringo_, p. 411. The Apaches 'no comen pescado alguno, no obstante de lo
que abundan sus rios.' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p.
375. 'El Apache no come el pescado, aunque los hay abundantes en sus
rios.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 285; _Emory's Rept. U. S. and
Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 123; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_,
p. 149; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 373; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. 227-8.

[680] 'They do not make butter and cheese.... Some who own cattle make
from the curd of soured milk small masses, which some have called
cheese.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 292. 'They never
to my knowledge make butter or cheese, nor do I believe they know what
such things are.' _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217.
The Navajoes 'make butter and cheese.' _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p.
180. Some of the 'men brought into camp a quantity of cheese.' _Ives'
Colorado River_, pp. 128, 130.

[681] _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 112.
'They plant corn very deep with a stake and raise very good crops.'
_Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 337; _Merriwether_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 172.

[682] 'The metate is a slightly hollowed hard stone, upon which soaked
maize is laid and then reduced to paste.... The paste so formed is then
patted between the hands until it assumes a flat, thin and round
appearance when it is laid on a hot pan and baked into a tortilla.'
_Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 145-6. 'Ils récoltent aussi en abondance le
maïs dont ils font de tortillas.' _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v.,
No. 96, p. 186. 'Their meat was boiled with water in a Tusquin (clay
kettle) and this meat-mush or soup was the staple of food among them.'
_Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, pp. 114, 115. 'A large Echino Cactus
... hollowed so as to make a trough. Into this were thrown the soft
portions of the pulpy substance which surrounds the heart of the cactus;
and to them had been added game and plants gathered from the banks of
the creek. Mingled with water, the whole had been cooked by stirring it
up with heated stones.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p.
96. 'Ils mangent des pains de maïs cuits sous la cendre, aussi gros que
les gros pains de Castille.' _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._,
série i., tom. ix., p. 49; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 238; _Pattie's Pers.
Nar._, p. 63; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 291; _Castaño de
Soza_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. iv., pp. 330-1.

[683] 'The Apaches rely chiefly upon the flesh of the cattle and sheep
they can steal ... they are said, however, to be more fond of the meat
of the mule than that of any other animal.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_,
vol. i., pp. 290-1. 'A nonproductive race, subsisting wholly on plunder
and game.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 141. The Jicarilla Apaches: 'the
chase is their only means of support.' _Carson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1860, p. 164. 'They live entirely by hunting.' _Delgado_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1866, p. 138. 'Die Nahrung der Apaches besteht hauptsächlich in
dem Fleische der Rinder und Schafe ... doch soll, wie man sagt,
Maulthierfleisch ihre Lieblingsspeise sein.' _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 352.
'Ihre besten Leckerbissen sind Pferde und Mauleselfleisch, welches sie
braten und dem Rindfleische vorziehen.' _Ochs_, in _Murr_,
_Nachrichten_, p. 289. Their daintiest food is mule and horseflesh.
_Apostólicos Afanes_, p. 432. 'Anteriormente antes que en la frontera
abundase el ganado, uno de sus alimentos era la came del caballo, y la
caza de diferentes animales.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, pp.
266-7; _Edward's Hist. Texas_, p. 95; _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 112; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p.
327; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 187; _Stratton's
Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 116; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. i., p. 580; _Armin_,
_Das Heutige Mexiko_, p. 282; _Stanley's Portraits_, p. 57; _Palmer_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 460; _Edwards' Campaign_, p. 95;
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 276; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 202;
see further _Ind. Aff. Repts._, from 1854-73; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 308; _Peters' Life of Carson_,
p. 452; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 679.

[684] 'What I would have sworn was an antelope, proved to be a young
Indian, ... who having enveloped himself in an antelope's skin with
head, horns and all complete, had gradually crept up to the herd under
his disguise.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 28, 194. 'Se viste de una piel
de los mismos animales, pone sobre su cabeza otra de la clase de los que
va á buscar, y armado de su arco y flechas andando en cuatro piés,
procura mezclarse en una banda da ellos.' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 375; _García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i.,
p. 372; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 212; _Ferry_, _Scènes de la
Vie Sauvage_, p. 262.

[685] 'They always asked if we had bear on the table, for they wished to
avoid it.... I found they had some superstitious prejudice against it.'
_Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 324. 'The Apaches are rather fond
of lion and panther meat, but seldom touch that of the bear.' _Cremony's
Apaches_, p. 226. 'Tambien matan para comer osos.' _Salmeron_,
_Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 25. The
Navajoes 'never kill bears or rattlesnakes unless attacked.'
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 291. 'Sie verehren den
Bären, der nie von ihnen getödtet wird, und dessen Fleisch zu essen sie
sich scheuen. Schweinefleisch verschmähen sie desgleichen; beim ärgsten
Hunger können sie es nicht über sich gewinnen, davon zu kosten.'
_Armin_, _Das Heutige Mexiko_, p. 278; _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 370.

[686] 'The Northern and Middle Comanches ... subsist almost exclusively
upon the flesh of the buffalo, and are known among the Indians as
buffalo-eaters.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 19, 26, 46. 'They plant no
corn, and their only food is meat, and a few wild plants that grow upon
the prairies.' _Marcy's Rept._, p. 188. The Comanches are a 'nation
subsisting solely by the chase.' _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 214.
'Subsist mainly upon the buffalo.' _Graves_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854,
p. 180. 'Acknowledge their entire ignorance of even the rudest methods
of agriculture.' _Baylor_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1856, p. 177; _Bent_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 244; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
v., p. 575; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 103, and _Froebel's
Cent. Amer._, p. 268; _Combier_, _Voy._, p. 292; _French's Hist. Coll.
La._, pt. ii., p. 155; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 115; _Gregg's Com.
Prairies_, pp. 214-16, 307; _Figuier's Hum. Race_, p. 480; _Ludecus_,
_Reise_, p. 104; _Dragoon Camp._, p. 153; _Foote's Texas_, p. 298; _Soc.
Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 192; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., p. 21; _Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 469; _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p.
345; _Holley's Texas_, p. 153; _Dufey_, _Résumé_, tom. i., p. 4;
_Dewees' Texas_, p. 233; _Frost's Ind. Battles_, p. 385.

[687] 'Luego que los cíbolos echan á huir, los cazadores sin
apresurarlos demasiado los persiguen á un galope corto, que van
activando mas y mas hasta que rompen en carrera ... el indio sin cesar
de correr, dispara su arco en todas direcciones, y va sembrando el campo
de reses.... Las indias al mismo tiempo van dessollando cada una de
aquellas reses, recogiendo la piel y la carne.' _Revista Científica_,
tom. i., pp. 165-6. 'At a suitable distance from their prey they divide
into two squadrons, one half taking to the right, and the other to the
left, and thus surround it.' _Edward's Hist. Tex._, p. 108; _French's
Hist. Coll. La._, pt. ii., p. 155; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii.,
pp. 214-216. Women when they perceive a deer or antelope 'give it chase,
and return only after capturing it with the lasso.' _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 249.

[688] 'When any game was killed, the Indians would tear out the heart,
liver, and entrails, and eat them raw.' _Frost's Ind. Battles_, p. 385.
'Ces Indiens se nourissent de viande crue et boivent du sang.... Ils
coupent la viande en tranches très-minces et la font sécher au soleil;
ils la réduisent ensuite en poudre pour la conserver.' _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 190-1. 'They "jerked"
or dried the meat and made the pemmican.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 18.
'Comen las criadillas crudas, recogiendo la sangre que corre del cuerpo
con unas tutundas ó jicaras, se la beben caliente.' _Beaumont_, _Crón.
de Mechoacan, MS._, p. 528; _Farnham's Trav._, p. 32; _Horn's
Captivity_, pp. 16, 23; _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 345.

[689] 'At one time their larder is overstocked and they gorge themselves
to repletion.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 32, 44, 46. 'Catch and tame
these wild horses, and when unsuccessful in chase, subsist upon them.'
_Holley's Texas_, p. 153. 'When pressed by hunger from scarcity of game,
they subsist on their young horses and mules.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. ii., pp. 132-3. 'Have a rare capacity for enduring hunger, and
manifest great patience under its infliction. After long abstinence they
eat voraciously.' _Burnet_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 231;
_Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 235; _Edward's Hist. Tex._, p. 108.

[690] The tribe 'lived in the most abject condition of filth and
poverty.' _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 96. 'With very few exceptions,
the want of cleanliness is universal--a shirt being worn until it will
no longer hang together, and it would be difficult to tell the original
color.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 290. 'They are
fond of bathing in the summer, ... but nothing can induce them to wash
themselves in winter.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 302. They give off very
unpleasant odors. _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., p.
307. 'They seem to have a natural antipathy against water, considered as
the means of cleansing the body ... water is only used by them in
extreme cases; for instance, when the vermin become too thick on their
heads, they then go through an operation of covering the head with mud,
which after some time is washed out.' _Dodt_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1870, p. 130; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, 108; _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 214; _Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 203;
_Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 470.

[691] 'They defecate promiscuously near their huts; they leave offal of
every character, dead animals and dead skins, close in the vicinity of
their huts.' _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 339; _Stratton's
Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 114; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 380.

[692] The Mojave 'arms are the bow and arrow, the spear and the club.'
_Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, p. 18. 'Armed with bows and arrows.' _Fremont
and Emory's Notes of Trav._, p. 39. The Querechos 'use the bow and
arrow, lance and shield.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 19, 23. 'The Apache
will invariably add his bow and arrows to his personal armament.'
_Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 15, 75-6, 103, 189. 'Neben Bogen und Pfeilen
führen sie noch sehr lange Lanzen.' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 230.
'They use the bow and arrow and spear.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1855, p. 293. 'Armed with bows and arrows, and the lance.'
_Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 214. For 
lithograph of weapons see _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 50,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii. 'El armamento de los apaches se
componen de lanza, arco y flechas.' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 372. 'Las armas de los apaches son fusil, flechas y
lanza.' _García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p.
315. 'Los Yumas son Indios ... de malas armas, muchos no llevan arco, y
si lo llevan es mal dispuesto, y con dos ó tres flechas.' _Garces_, in
_Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 419; _Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 851; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp.
de Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 111; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom.
vi., p. 399; _Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 190; _Drew_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1869, p. 105; _Odin_, in _Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 450;
_Wislizenus' Tour_, p. 71; _Dewees' Texas_, p. 233; _Holley's Texas_, p.
153; _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 543; _Dragoon Camp._, p. 153; _Moore's
Texas_, p. 33; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. ii., p. 602; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 421; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_,
p. 82; _Combier_, _Voy._, p. 224; _Brantz-Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc._, vol.
ii., p. 123; _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 444; _Peters' Life of Carson_, p.
452; _Cutts' Conq. of Cal._, p. 185; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i.,
pp. 328-9, 451; _Pagés' Travels_, vol. i., p. 107; _Linati_, _Costumes_,
plate xxii.; _Armin_, _Das Heutige Mexiko_, p. 274; _Möllhausen_,
_Mormonenmädchen_, tom. ii., p. 152; _Figuier's Hum. Race_, pp. 480-2,
with cut.

[693] 'Their weapons of war are the spear or lance, the bow, and the
laso.' _Hughes' Doniphan's Ex._, p. 173.

[694] Among 'their arms of offence' is 'what is called Macána, a short
club, like a round wooden mallet, which is used in close quarters.'
_Hardy's Trav._, p. 373. 'War clubs were prepared in abundance.'
_Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 176. Die Apachen 'nur Bogen, Pfeile
und Keulen.' _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 444. 'Their clubs are of mezquite
wood (a species of acacia) three or four feet long.' _Emory's Rept. U.
S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 108. 'Ils n'ont d'autre arme
qu'un grand croc et une massue.' _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No.
96, p. 186. 'Arma sunt ... oblongi lignei gladii multis acutis silicibus
utrimque muniti.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 311. 'Sus Armas son
Flechas, y Macanas.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 681.
Among the Comanches: 'Leur massue est une queue de buffle à l'extrémité
de laquelle ils insèrent une boule en pierre on en métal.' _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 193; _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1857, p. 302.

[695] 'Mit vierstreifigen Strickschleudern bewaffnet.' _Mexikanische
Zustände_, tom. i., p. 64. 'Sie fechten mit Lanzen, Büchsen, Pfeilen und
Tamahaks.' _Ludecus_, _Reise_, p. 104. 'Une petite hache en silex.'
_Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 193; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., p. 539; _Treasury of Trav._, p. 31; _Escudero_,
_Noticias de Chihuahua_, p. 230; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 272.

[696] The Querecho 'bows are made of the tough and elastic wood of the
"bois d'arc" or Osage orange (Maclura Aurantiaca), strengthened and
reenforced with the sinews of the deer wrapped firmly around them, and
strung with a cord made of the same material.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p.
24. The Tonto 'bow is a stout piece of tough wood ... about five feet
long, strengthened at points by a wrapping of sinew ... which are joined
by a sinew string.' _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 418. The
Navajo 'bow is about four feet in length ... and is covered on the back
with a kind of fibrous tissue.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._,
1855, p. 293. The Yuma 'bow is made of willow.' _Emory's Rept. U. S. and
Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 108. 'Langen Bogen von Weidenholz.'
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 124. Apaches: 'the
bow forms two semicircles, with a shoulder in the middle; the back of it
is entirely covered with sinews, which are laid on ... by the use of
some glutinous substance.' _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 338. 'Los tamaños
de estas armas son differentes, segun las parcialidades que las usan.'
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 372; _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, p. 360; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p.
453; _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 98; _Pattie's Pers.
Nar._, pp. 117, 149; _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 450.

[697] The Apaches: 'Tous portaient au poignet gauche le bracelet de cuir
... Ce bracelet de cuir est une espèce de paumelle qui entoure la main
gauche, ... Le premier sert à amortir le coup de fouet de la corde de
l'arc quand il se détend, la seconde empêche les pennes de la flèche de
déchirer la peau de la main.' _Ferry_, _Scènes de la vie Sauvage_, p.
256. 'With a leather bracelet on one wrist and a bow and quiver of
arrows form the general outfit.' _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867,
p. 418.

[698] The Coyoteros 'use very long arrows of reed, finished out with
some hard wood, and an iron or flint head, but invariably with three
feathers at the opposite end.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 103. Navajoes:
'the arrow is about two feet long and pointed with iron.' _Letherman_,
in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 293. The Querechos 'arrows are twenty
inches long, of flexible wood, with a triangular point of iron at one
end, and two feathers ... at the opposite extremity.' _Marcy's Army
Life_, p. 24. The Apache 'arrows are quite long, very rarely pointed
with flint, usually with iron. The feather upon the arrow is placed or
bound down with fine sinew in threes, instead of twos.... The
arrow-shaft is usually made of some pithy wood, generally a species of
yucca.' _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 209. 'Sagittæ
acutis silicibus asperatæ.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 311. 'Arrows
were ... pointed with a head of stone. Some were of white quartz or
agate, and others of obsidian.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol.
iii., p. 98. The Tonto 'arrows ... are three feet long ... the cane is
winged with four strips of feather, held in place by threads of sinew
... which bears on its free end an elongated triangular piece of quartz,
flint, or rarely iron.' _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 418.
The Lipan arrows 'have four straight flutings; the Comanches make two
straight black flutings and two red spiral ones.' _Domenech's Deserts_,
vol. ii., p. 270; _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, p. 18; _Tempsky's Mitla_, p.
82; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 276; _Conder's Mex. Guat._, vol. ii., p.
76; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 360; _Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_, tom.
iv., p. 31; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 149.

[699] The Apache 'quivers are usually made of deer-skin, with the hair
turned inside or outside, and sometimes of the skin of the wild-cat,
with the tail appended.' _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p.
210. 'Quiver of sheep-skin.' _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii.,
p. 461. 'Quiver of fresh-cut reeds.' _Fremont and Emory's Notes of
Trav._, p. 39. 'Un carcax ó bolsa de piel de leopardo en lo general.'
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 373; _Whipple, Ewbank,
and Turner's Rept._, p. 31, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Tempsky's
Mitla_, p. 80.

[700] 'The spear is eight or ten feet in length, including the point,
which is about eighteen inches long, and also made of iron.'
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 293. Should the Apaches
possess any useless firearms, 'generalmente vienen á darles nuevo uso,
haciendo de ellas lanzas, cuchillos, lengüetas de flechas.' _Cordero_,
in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 372. 'La lanza la usan muy larga.'
_García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 315. 'Lance
of fifteen feet in length.' _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 338; _Hassel_,
_Mex. Guat._, p. 276; _Holley's Texas_, p. 153; _Cutts' Conq. of Cal._,
p. 242; _Revista Científica_, tom. i., p. 162; _Parker's Notes on Tex._,
p. 195; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 298.

[701] The Comanche 'shield was round ... made of wicker-work, covered
first with deer skins and then a tough piece of raw buffalo-hide drawn
over, ... ornamented with a human scalp, a grizzly bear's claw and a
mule's tail ... for the arm were pieces of cotton cloth twisted into a
rope.' _Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 195. 'En el brazo izquierdo llevaba
el chimal, que es un escudo ovalado, cubierto todo de plumas, espejos,
chaquiras y adornos de paño encarnado.' _Revista Científica_, tom. i.,
p. 162. Their shield 'is generally painted a bright yellow.' _Domenech's
Deserts_ vol. ii., p. 268. 'Shield of circular form, covered with two
thicknesses of hard, undressed buffalo hide, ... stuffed with hair ... a
rifle-ball will not penetrate it unless it strikes perpendicular to the
surface.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 24-5; _Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_,
tom. iv., p. 31; _Tempsky's Mitla_, p. 80. A 'Navajo shield ... with an
image of a demon painted on one side ... border of red cloth, ...
trimmed with feathers.' _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p.
454; _Linati_, _Costumes_, plate xxii.; _Shepard's Land of the Aztecs_,
p. 182; _Edward's Hist. Tex._, p. 104.

[702] 'Wherever their observations can be made from neighboring heights
with a chance of successful ambush, the Apache never shows himself.'
_Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 79, 189. 'Attacking only when their numbers,
and a well-laid ambush, promise a certainty of success.' _Smart_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 419. 'Colocan de antemano una emboscada.'
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 375; _Parker_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1869, pp. 221-3, 256; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 4;
_Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 47; _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary
Survey_, p. 107; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 276; _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 186; _Davis_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._,
1868, p. 161.

[703] 'Salen ... generalmente divididos en pequeñas partidas para
ocultar mejor sus rastros.... Es imponderable la velocidad con que huyen
despues que han ejecutado un crecido robo ... las montañas que
encumbran, los desiertos sin agua que atraviesan.' _García Conde_, in
_Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 316. 'They steal upon their
enemies under the cover of night.' _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 107; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 303;
_Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 83; _Apostólicos Afanes_, p. 434;
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 375-6; _Browne's Apache
Country_, p. 279; _Figuier's Hum. Race_, p. 480; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._,
p. 276.

[704] 'La practica, que observan para avisarse los unos à los otros ...
es levantar humaredas.' _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., p.
394. 'Smokes are of various kinds, each one significant of a particular
object.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 183-4. 'In token of retreate sounded
on a certaine small trumpet ... made fires, and were answered againe
afarre off ... to giue their fellowes vnderstanding, how wee marched and
where we arriued.' _Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, tom. iii., p. 376;
_Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_, tom. ii., p. 157; _Smart_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1867, p. 419.

[705] 'La suma crueldad con que tratan á los vencidos atenaccandolos
vivos y comiendose los pedazos de la carne que la arrancan.' _Doc. Hist.
N. Vizcaya, MS._, p. 4. 'Their savage and blood-thirsty natures
experience a real pleasure in tormenting their victim.' _Cremony's
Apaches_, p. 266. 'Hang their victims by the heels to a tree and put a
slow fire under their head.' _Browne's Apache Country_, pp. 201, 93, 96.
Among the Navajos, 'Captives taken in their forays are usually treated
kindly.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 295. 'Ils
scalpent avec la corde de leur arc, en la tournant rapidement autour de
la tête de leur victime.' _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 82;
_Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 303; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, pp.
114-118, 138, 149, 218; _Farnham's Trav._, p. 32; _Graves_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 180; _Labadi_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1862, p. 247;
_Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 453; _Scenes in the
Rocky Mts._, p. 180; _Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 167; _Henry_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 212; _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv.,
tom. iii., p. 10; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 118.

[706] _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 216; _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii., p. 114.

[707] 'Obran en la guerra con mas táctica que los apaches.' _García
Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 318. 'A young man is
never considered worthy to occupy a seat in council until he has
encountered an enemy in battle.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 34; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 22; _Domenech_, _Jour._, pp. 140-1; _Foote's
Texas_, vol. i., p. 298; _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 346; _Maillard's
Hist. Tex._, p. 243.

[708] 'When a chieftain desires to organize a war-party, he ... rides
around through the camp singing the war-song.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p.
53. 'When a chief wishes to go to war ... the preliminaries are
discussed at a war-dance.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 132;
_Armin_, _Das Heutige Mexiko_, p. 280; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol.
ii., p. 315.

[709] 'They dart forward in a column like lightning.... At a suitable
distance from their prey, they divide into two squadrons.' _Holley's
Texas_, p. 153. 'A Comanche will often throw himself upon the opposite
side of his charger, so as to be protected from the darts of the enemy.'
_Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii., pp. 312-13; _Dewees' Texas_, p. 234;
_Shepard's Land of the Aztecs_, p. 182; _Ludecus_, _Reise_, p. 104.

[710] 'Ils tuent tous les prisonniers adultes, et ne laissent vivre que
les enfants, qu'ils élèvent avec soin pour s'en servir comme
d'esclaves.' _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 290. 'Invariably kill
such men as offer the slightest impediment to their operations, and take
women and children prisoners.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 24, 54.
'Prisoners of war belong to the captors.' _Burnet_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. i., p. 232; _Farnham's Trav._, p. 32; _Figuier's Hum.
Race_, p. 480; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 41; _Foote's Texas_, vol. i.,
p. 298; _Horn's Captivity_, p. 15; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 205.

[711] 'Ten chiefs were seated in a circle within our tent, when the
pipe, the Indian token of peace, was produced ... they at first refused
to smoke, their excuse being, that it was not their custom to smoke
until they had received some presents.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol.
ii., p. 39.

[712] 'I saw no earthenware vessels among them; the utensils employed in
the preparation of food being shallow basins of closely netted straw.
They carried water in pitchers of the same material, but they were
matted all over with a pitch.' _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p.
419. 'Aus Binsen und Weiden geflochtene Gefässe, mitunter auch einige
aus Thon geformte;' ... by the door stood 'ein breiter Stein ... auf
welchem mittelst eines kleineren die Mehlfrüchte zerrieben wurden.'
_Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 396, 404. 'Panniers of wicker-work, for
holding provisions, are generally carried on the horse by the women.'
_Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 210; _Neighbors_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 129. 'Their only implements are
sticks.' _Greene_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 140. 'They (the Axuas
of Colorado River) had a beautiful fishing-net made out of grass.' ...
'They had also burnt earthen jars, extremely well made. The size of each
of them might be about two feet in diameter in the greatest swell; very
thin, light, and well formed.' _Hardy's Trav._, p. 338. 'Nets wrought
with the bark of the willow.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 220;
_Browne's Apache Country_, p. 200. 'Tienen mucha loza de las coloradas,
y pintadas y negras, platos, caxetes, saleros; almofias, xicaras muy
galanas: alguna de la loza está vidriada. Tienen mucho apercibimiento de
leña, é de madera, para hacer sus casas, en tal manera, á lo que nos
dieron á entender, que cuando uno queria hacer casa, tiene aquella
madera allí de puesto para el efecto, y hay mucha cantidad. Tiene dos
guaxexes á los lados del pueblo, que le sirven para se bañar, porque de
otros ojos de agua, á tiro de arcabuz, beben y se sirven. A un cuarto de
legua va el rio Salado, que decimos, por donde fué nuestro camino,
aunque el agua salada se pierde de muchas leguas atrás.' _Castaño de
Sosa_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. iv., p. 331; _Taylor_, in
_Cal. Farmer_, _Feb. 14th, 1862_; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 200.
'Their only means of farming are sharpened sticks.' _Colyer_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 50.

[713] 'Their utensils for the purpose of grinding breadstuff, consist of
two stones; one flat, with a concavity in the middle; the other round,
fitting partly into the hollow of the flat stone.' _Henry_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 209; _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._,
1867, p. 418; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 282.

[714] 'The cradle of the Navajo Indians resembles the same article made
by the Western Indians. It consists of a flat board, to support the
vertebral column of the infant, with a layer of blankets and soft
wadding, to give ease to the position, having the edges of the
frame-work ornamented with leather fringe. Around and over the head of
the child, who is strapped to this plane, is an ornamented hoop, to
protect the face and cranium from accident. A leather strap is attached
to the vertebral shell-work, to enable the mother to sling it on her
back.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 435-6, and plate p. 74.

[715] 'The saddle is not peculiar but generally resembles that used by
the Mexicans. They ride with a very short stirrup, which is placed
further to the front than on a Mexican saddle. The bit of the bridle has
a ring attached to it, through which the lower jaw is partly thrust, and
a powerful pressure is exerted by this means when the reins are
tightened.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 292. 'Sa selle
est faite de deux rouleaux de paille reliés par une courroie et
maintenus par une sangle de cuir.' _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p.
82; _Tempsky's Mitla_, p. 80. The Navajos have 'aus zähem Eschenholz
gefertigten Sattelbogen.' _Möllhausen_, _Flüchtling_, tom. iv., p. 39.

[716] 'Das Netz war weitmaschig, aus feinen, aber sehr starken Bastfäden
geflochten, vier Fuss hoch, und ungefähr dreissig Fuss lang. Von vier zu
vier Fuss befanden sich lange Stäbe an demselben, mittelst welcher es im
Wasser, zugleich aber auch auf dem Boden und aufrecht gehalten wurde.'
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 227; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. i., p. 220.

[717] 'El apache para sacar lumbre, usa ... un pedazo de sosole y otro
de lechuguilla bien secos. Al primero le forman una punta, lo que frotan
con la segunda con cuanta velocidad pueden á la manera del ejercicio de
nuestros molinillos para hacer el chocolate: luego que ambos palos se
calientan con la frotacion, se encienden y producen el fuego.'
_Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 282.

[718] The Navajos 'manufacture the celebrated, and, for warmth and
durability, unequaled, Navajo blanket. The Navajo blankets are a wonder
of patient workmanship, and often sell as high as eighty, a hundred, or
a hundred and fifty dollars.' _Walker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1872, p.
53. 'Navajo blankets have a wide and merited reputation for beauty and
excellence.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 305; _Ind. Aff. Rept., Spec.
Com._, 1867, p. 341; _Turner_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1852,
tom. cxxxv., p. 314; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, pp. 13, 32,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Davis' El Gringo_, p. 411; _Hughes'
Doniphan's Ex._, p. 203; _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 180; _Figuier's
Hum. Race_, p. 481; _Peters' Life of Carson_, p. 125; _Prichard's Nat.
Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 567; _Farnham's Life in Cal._, pp. 373-4.

[719] 'This art may have been acquired from the New Mexicans, or the
Pueblo Indians.' _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217.
'This manufacture of blankets ... was originally learned from the
Mexicans when the two people lived on amicable terms.' _Cremony's
Apaches_, p. 367.

[720] 'The blanket is woven by a tedious and rude process, after the
manner of the Pueblo Indians.... The manner of weaving is peculiar, and
is, no doubt, original with these people and the neighboring tribes.'
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 291; _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 437.

[721] 'The spinning and weaving is done ... by hand. The thread is made
entirely by hand, and is coarse and uneven.' _Letherman_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 291. 'The wool or cotton is first prepared
by carding. It is then fastened to the spindle near its top, and is held
in the left hand. The spindle is held between the thumb and the first
finger of the right hand, and stands vertically in the earthen bowl. The
operator now gives the spindle a twirl, as a boy turns his top, and
while it is revolving, she proceeds to draw out her thread, precisely as
is done by our own operatives, in using the common spinning-wheel. As
soon as the thread is spun, the spindle is turned in an opposite
direction, for the purpose of winding up the thread on the portion of it
next to the wooden block.' _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv.,
p. 436.

[722] _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 436. 'The colors
are woven in bands and diamonds. We have never observed blankets with
figures of a complicated pattern.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._,
1855, p. 291.

[723] 'The colors, which are given in the yarn, are red, black, and
blue. The juice of certain plants is employed in dyeing, but it is
asserted by recent authorities that the brightest red and blue are
obtained by macerating strips of Spanish cochineal, and altamine dyed
goods, which have been purchased at the towns.' _Backus_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 436. 'The colors are red, blue,
black, and yellow; black and red being the most common. The red strands
are obtained by unravelling red cloth, black by using the wool of black
sheep, blue by dissolving indigo in fermented urine, and yellow is said
to be by coloring with a particular flower.' _Letherman_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 291. The women 'welche sich in der Wahl
der Farben und der Zusammenstellung von bunten Streifen und
phantastischen Figuren in dem Gewebe gegenseitig zu übertreffen suchen.
Ursprünglich trugen die Decken nur die verschiedenen Farben der Schafe
in breiten Streifen, doch seit die Navahoes farbige, wollene Stoffe von
Neu-Mexiko beziehen können, verschaffen sie sich solche, um sie in Fäden
aufzulösen, und diese dann zu ihrer eigenen Weberei zu verwenden.'
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. 235; _Ruxton's
Adven. Mex._, p. 195.

[724] 'Ils (the Apaches) travaillent bien les cuirs, font de belles
brides.' _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 82. 'They manufacture
rough leather.' _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 335. 'Man macht Leder.'
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 195. 'It has been represented that these
tribes (the Navajos) wear leather shoes.... Inquiry from persons who
have visited or been stationed in New Mexico, disaffirms this
observation, showing that in all cases the Navajo shoes are skins,
dressed and smoked after the Indian method.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
v., p. 204; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 305; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol.
i., p. 286. They 'knit woolen stockings.' _Davis' El Gringo_, p. 411.
'They also manufacture ... a coarse woolen cloth with which they clothe
themselves.' _Clark_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. viii., p. 280; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. i., p. 403, vol. ii., pp. 244-5. 'The Navajoes raise no
cotton.' _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 212. 'Sie sind
noch immer in einigen Baumwollengeweben ausgezeichnet.' _Thümmel_,
_Mexiko_, p. 349. 'These people (the inhabitants of Arizona in 1540) had
cotton, but they were not very carefull to vse the same: because there
was none among them that knew the arte of weauing, and to make apparel
thereof.' _Alarchon_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 433; _Bent_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 243; _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 89; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 680;
_Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. iii., p. 184.

[725] The Xicarillas, 'manufacture a sort of pottery which resists the
action of fire.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 8; _Graves_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 177. The Yuma 'women make baskets of willow,
and also of tule, which are impervious to water; also earthen ollas or
pots, which are used for cooking and for cooling water.' _Emory's Rept.
U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 111; _Revillagigedo_,
_Carta, MS._, p. 21. 'Figure 4. A scoop or dipper, from the Mohave
tribe, and as neat and original an article in earthenware as could well
be designed by a civilized potter.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's
Rept._, p. 46, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii. 'Professor Cox was
informed that the New Mexican Indians  their pottery black by
using the gum of the mezquite, which has much the appearance and
properties of gum arabic, and then baking it. Much of the ancient
pottery from the Colorado Chiquito is , the prevailing tints
being white, black, and red.' _Foster's Pre-Hist. Races_, p. 250;
_Ruxton's Adven. Mex._, p. 195. The Yampais had 'some admirably made
baskets of so close a texture as to hold water; a wicker jar coated with
pine tree gum.' _Sitgreaves' Zuñi. Ex._, p. 10; _Bent_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 243.

[726] _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, p. 286. 'In regard to the manufacture of
plumage, or feather-work, they certainly display a greater fondness for
decorations of this sort than any Indians we have seen.... I saw no
exhibition of it in the way of embroidery.' _Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon._, p. 79; _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 349.

[727] 'Mines d'argent exploitées par les Comanches, qui en tirent des
ornements pour eux et pour leurs chevaux, ainsi que des balles pour
leurs fusils.' _Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 132.

[728] The Mescaleros had 'a raft of bulrush or cane, floated and
supported by some twenty or thirty hollow pumpkins fastened together.'
_Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. iii., p. 56. The Yumas had 'batteaus which
could hold 200 or 300 pounds weight.' _Id._, vol. iv., p. 546. The
Mojaves had 'Flössen, die von Binsen-Bündeln zusammengefügt waren (die
einzige Art von Fahrzeug, welche ich bei den Bewohnern des
Colorado-Thales bemerkte).' _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 401. 'Merely
bundles of rushes placed side by side, and securely bound together with
willow twigs ... their owners paddled them about with considerable
dexterity.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 117, and
plate. _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. 238, 254;
_Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 69.

[729] 'Immense numbers of horses and sheep, attesting the wealth of the
tribe.' _Ives' Colorado Riv._, pp. 128, 130. 'They possess more wealth
than all the other wild tribes in New Mexico combined.' _Graves_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, p. 179. 'They are owners of large flocks and
herds.' _Bent_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 243; _Eaton_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217; _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 211, 212; _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 180;
_Davis' El Gringo_, p. 411; _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855,
pp. 291-2; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom.
cxxxi., p. 289; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 567; _Hughes'
Doniphan's Ex._, p. 173; _Peters' Life of Carson_, p. 124; _Thümmel_,
_Mexiko_, p. 349; _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, p. 79; _Palmer_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 460; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 254;
_Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 60.

[730] The Jicarilla Apaches 'manufacture a species of coarse
earthenware, which they exchange for corn and wheat.' _Keithly_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 115. _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p.
123.

[731] 'Das Eigenthum des Vaters nicht auf den Sohn übergeht, sondern
dass Neffen und Nichten als die rechtmässigen Erben anerkannt werden
wenn nicht der Vater bei Lebzeiten schon seine Habe an die eigenen
Kinder geschenkt hat.' _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom.
ii., p. 234. 'The husband has no control over the property of his
wife.... Property does not descend from father to son, but goes to the
nephew of the decedent, or, in default of a nephew, to the niece ... but
if, while living, he distributes his property to his children, that
disposition is recognised.' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855,
pp. 294-5. 'When the father dies ... a fair division is not made; the
strongest usually get the bulk of the effects.' _Bristol_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 357.

[732] 'The blankets, though not purchasable with money ... were sold, in
some instances, for the most trifling article of ornament or clothing.'
_Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, p. 81. Shell beads, which they call
'pook,' are their substitute for money.' _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii., p. 115.

[733] The Querechos encountered by Coronado had with them 'un grand
troupeau de chiens qui portaient tout ce qu'ils possédaient.'
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 117.
'The only property of these people, with the exception of a few articles
belonging to their domestic economy, consists entirely in horses and
mules.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 22; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p.
23; _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 347; _Marcy's Rept._, p. 188;
_Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 116-17.

[734] 'There are no subdivisions of land acknowledged in their
territory, and no exclusive right of game.' _Neighbors_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 131. 'Their code is strictly
Spartan.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 23.

[735] 'They are sufficiently astute in dealing.' _Burnet_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 232. 'Le chef des Indiens choisit,
parmi ces objets, ceux qui sont nécessaires à sa tribu.' _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 193. 'In Comanche trade the main
trouble consists in fixing the price of the first animal. This being
settled by the chiefs.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii., p. 45;
_Parker's Notes on Tex._, pp. 190, 234; _Burnet_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. i., p. 232; _Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 130; _Dewees' Texas_,
p. 36.

[736] Mr Bartlett, describing an excursion he made to the Sierra Waco
near the Copper Mines in New Mexico, says, he saw 'an overhanging rock
extending for some distance, the whole surface of which is covered with
rude paintings and sculptures, representing men, animals, birds, snakes,
and fantastic figures ... some of them, evidently of great age, had been
partly defaced to make room for more recent devices.' _Bartlett's Pers.
Nar._, vol. i., pp. 170-4, with cuts. In Arizona, Emory found 'a mound
of granite boulders ... covered with unknown characters.... On the
ground nearby were also traces of some of the figures, showing some of
the hieroglyphics, at least, to have been the work of modern Indians.'
_Emory's Reconnoissance_, pp. 89, 90, with cut. The Comanches 'aimaient
beaucoup les images, qu'ils ne se lassaient pas d'admirer.' _Domenech_,
_Jour._, p. 136.

[737] 'The Apaches count ten thousand with as much regularity as we do.
They even make use of the decimal sequences.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p.
237.

[738] 'They have no computation of time beyond the seasons ... the cold
and hot season ... frequently count by the Caddo mode--from one to ten,
and by tens to one hundred, &c.... They are ignorant of the elements of
figures.' _Neighbors_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., pp. 129-30.
'Ce qu'ils savent d'astronomie se borne à la connaissance de l'étoile
polaire.... L'arithmétique des sauvages est sur leurs doigts; ... Il leur
faut absolument un objet pour nombrer.' _Hartmann and Millard_, _Tex._,
pp. 112-13.

[739] The Navajos have no tribal government, and in reality no chiefs.
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 288. 'Their form of
government is so exceedingly primitive as to be hardly worthy the name
of a political organization.' _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 412, 413; _Ives'
Colorado Riv._, p. 71. 'Ils n'ont jamais connu de domination.' _Soc.
Géog._, _Bulletin_, série. v., No. 96, p. 187. 'Each is sovereign in his
own right as a warrior.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 177.

[740] 'It is my opinion that the Navajo chiefs have but very little
influence with their people.' _Bennett_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p.
238, and 1870, p. 152; _Bristol_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867,
p. 357.

[741] 'Los padres de familia ejercen esta autoridad en tanto que los
hijos no salen de la infancia, porque poco antes de salir de la pubertad
son como libres y no reconocen mas superioridad que sus propias fuerzas,
ó la del indio que los manda en la campaña.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de
Sonora_, pp. 282-3. 'Every rich man has many dependants, and these
dependants are obedient to his will, in peace and in war.' _Backus_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 211; _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., p. 89. 'Every one who has a few horses and sheep is a
"head man."' _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 288;
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. 233. The rule of
the Querechos is 'essentially patriarchal.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 20.

[742] 'When one or more (of the Navajos) are successful in battle or
fortunate in their raids to the settlements on the Rio Grande, he is
endowed with the title of captain or chief.' _Bristol_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1867, p. 357. 'En cualquiera de estas incorporaciones toma el
mando del todo por comun consentimiento el mas acreditado de valiente.'
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 373. The Comanches have
'a right to displace a chief, and elect his successor, at pleasure.'
_Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 346. A chief of the Comanches is never
degraded 'for any private act unconnected with the welfare of the whole
tribe.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 130.

[743] The office of chief is not hereditary with the Navajos. _Cremony's
Apaches_, p. 307. The wise old men of the Querechos 'curb the
impetuosity of ambitious younger warriors.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 20.
'I infer that rank is (among the Mojaves), to some extent, hereditary.'
_Ives' Colorado Riv._, pp. 67, 71. 'This captain is often the oldest son
of the chief, and assumes the command of the tribe on the death of his
father,' among the Apaches. _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 210.

[744] The Mescaleros and Apaches 'choose a head-man to direct affairs
for the time being.' _Carleton_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1854, p. 315.
'Es gibt auch Stämme, an deren Spitze ein Kriegs- sowie ein
Friedens-Häuptling steht.' _Armin_, _Das Heutige Mexiko_, p. 279;
_García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 315.

[745] When Col. Langberg visited the Comanches who inhabit the Bolson de
Mapimi, 'wurde dieser Stamm von einer alten Frau angeführt.' _Froebel_,
_Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 222; _Id._, _Cent. Amer._, p. 352; _Hardy's
Trav._, p. 348. 'I have never known them (Comanches) to make a treaty
that a portion of the tribe do not violate its stipulations before one
year rolls around.' _Neighbors_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 267.

[746] The chiefs of the Comanches 'are in turn subject to the control of
a principal chief.' _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 345. 'La autoridad
central de su gobierno reside en un gefe supremo.' _Revista Científica_,
tom. i., p. 57; _Escudero_, _Noticias de Chihuahua_, p. 229. The
southern Comanches 'do not of late years acknowledge the sovereignty of
a common ruler and leader in their united councils nor in war.' _Marcy's
Army Life_, p. 43. The Gila Apaches acknowledge 'no common head or
superior.' _Merriwether_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1854, pp. 170, 172.

[747] The Comanches 'hold regular councils quarterly, and a grand
council of the whole tribe once a year.' _Edward's Hist. Tex._, p. 108.
'At these councils prisoners of war are tried, as well as all cases of
adultery, theft, sedition and murder, which are punished by death. The
grand council also takes cognizance of all disputes between the chiefs,
and other matters of importance.' _Maillard's Hist. Tex._, p. 244.
'Their decisions are of but little moment, unless they meet the
approbation of the mass of the people; and for this reason these
councils are exceedingly careful not to run counter to the wishes of the
poorer but more numerous class, being aware of the difficulty, if not
impossibility, of enforcing any act that would not command their
approval.' _Collins_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 274. 'Singulis
pagis sui Reguli erant, qui per praecones suos edicta populo
denuntiabant.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 311. 'Tienen otra Persona,
que llaman Pregonero, y es la segunda Persona de la República; el oficio
de este, es manifestar al Pueblo todas las cosas que se han de hacer.'
_Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., p. 337; _Id._, tom. i., p. 680.
They recognize 'no law but that of individual caprice.' _Steck_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 109. The Comanches 'acknowledge no right but
the right of the strongest.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 575. 'La
loi du talion est la base fondamentale du code politique, civil et
criminel de ces diverses peuplades, et cette loi reçoit une rigoureuse
application de nation à nation, de famille à famille, d'individu à
individu.' _Hartmann and Millard_, _Tex._, p. 114.

[748] The Comanches punish 'Adultery, theft, murder, and other crimes
... by established usage.' _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 347. Among the
Navajos, 'Lewdness is punished by a public exposure of the culprit.'
_Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 180. _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 26, 59.
Navajoes 'regard each other's right of property, and punish with great
severity any one who infringes upon it. In one case a Navajo was found
stealing a horse; they held a council and put him to death.' _Bristol_,
in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 344. A Cuchano young boy who
frightened a child by foretelling its death, which accidentally took
place the next day, 'was secretly accused and tried before the council
for "being under the influence of evil spirits,"' and put to death.
_Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. iii.;
_Feudge_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1868, p. 137. Among the Yumas, 'Each
chief punishes delinquents by beating them across the back with a stick.
Criminals brought before the general council for examination, if
convicted, are placed in the hands of a regularly appointed executioner
of the tribe, who inflicts such punishment as the council may direct.'
_Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. iii.

[749] The Apache chief Ponce, speaking of the grief of a poor woman at
the loss of her son, says: 'The mother of the dead brave demands the
life of his murderer. Nothing else will satisfy her.... Would money
satisfy me for the death of my son? No! I would demand the blood of the
murderer. Then I would be satisfied.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 69. 'If
one man (Apache) kills another, the next of kin to the defunct
individual may kill the murderer--if he can. He has the right to
challenge him to single-combat.... There is no trial, no set council, no
regular examination into the crime or its causes; but the ordeal of
battle settles the whole matter.' _Id._, p. 293.

[750] _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 7; _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1855, p. 294. 'Ils (Comanches) tuent tous les prisonniers
adultes, et ne laissent vivre que les enfans.' _Dillon_, _Hist. Mex._,
p. 98. The Navajos 'have in their possession many prisoners, men, women,
and children, ... whom they hold and treat as slaves.' _Bent_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 244.

[751] One boy from Mexico taken by the Comanches, said, 'dass sein
Geschäft in der Gefangenschaft darin bestehe die Pferde seines Herrn zu
weiden.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 102; _Gregg's Com.
Prairies_, vol. ii., p. 313. The natives of New Mexico take the women
prisoners 'for wives.' _Marcy's Rept._, p. 187. Some prisoners liberated
from the Comanches, were completely covered with stripes and bruises.
_Dewees' Texas_, p. 232. Miss Olive Oatman detained among the Mohaves
says: 'They invented modes and seemed to create necessities of labor
that they might gratify themselves by taxing us to the utmost, and even
took unwarranted delight in whipping us on beyond our strength. And all
their requests and exactions were couched in the most insulting and
taunting language and manner, as it then seemed, and as they had the
frankness soon to confess, to fume their hate against the race to whom
we belonged. Often under the frown and lash were we compelled to labor
for whole days upon an allowance amply sufficient to starve a common
dandy civilized idler.' _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, pp. 114-18,
130.

[752] 'It appeared that the poor girl had been stolen, as the Indian
(Axua) said, from the Yuma tribe the day before, and he now offered her
for sale.' _Hardy's Trav._, p. 379. 'The practice of parents selling
their children is another proof of poverty' of the Axuans. _Id._, p.
371.

[753] 'According to their (Tontos') physiology the female, especially
the young female, should be allowed meat only when necessary to prevent
starvation.' _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 115. The Comanches
'enter the marriage state at a very early age frequently before the age
of puberty.' _Neighbors_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 132.
Whenever a Jicarilla female arrives at a marriageable age, in honor of
the 'event the parents will sacrifice all the property they possess, the
ceremony being protracted from five to ten days with every demonstration
of hilarity.' _Steck_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 109; _Marcy's Army
Life_, p. 28-9. Among the Yumas, the applicant for womanhood is placed
in an oven or closely covered hut, in which she is steamed for three
days, alternating the treatment with plunges into the near river, and
maintaining a fast all the time.' _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary
Survey_, vol. i., pp. 110-11. The Apaches celebrate a feast with
singing, dancing, and mimic display when a girl arrives at the
marriageable state, during which time the girl remains 'isolated in a
huge lodge' and 'listens patiently to the responsibilities of her
marriageable condition,' recounted to her by the old men and chiefs.
'After it is finished she is divested of her eyebrows.... A month
afterward the eye lashes are pulled out.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 143,
243-6.

[754] There is no marriage ceremony among the Navajoes 'a young man
wishing a woman for his wife ascertains who her father is; he goes and
states the cause of his visit and offers from one to fifteen horses for
the daughter. The consent of the father is absolute, and the one so
purchased assents or is taken away by force. All the marriageable women
or squaws in a family can be taken in a similar manner by the same
individual; i. e., he can purchase wives as long as his property holds
out.' _Bristol_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 357; _Marcy's
Army Life_, p. 49; _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 214;
_Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 233.

[755] Among the Apaches, the lover 'stakes his horse in front of her
roost.... Should the girl favor the suitor, his horse is taken by her,
led to water, fed, and secured in front of his lodge.... Four days
comprise the term allowed her for an answer.... A ready acceptance is
apt to be criticised with some severity, while a tardy one is regarded
as the extreme of coquetry.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 245-9; _Ten
Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 89; _Marcy's Army Life_,
pp. 30, 51. The Apache 'who can support or keep, or attract by his power
to keep, the greatest number of women, is the man who is deemed entitled
to the greatest amount of honor and respect.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp.
44, 85. Un Comanche, 'peut épouser autant de femmes qu'il veut, à la
seule condition de donner à chacune un cheval.' _Domenech_, _Jour._, p.
135. Among the Navajoes, 'The wife last chosen is always mistress of her
predecessors.' _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 42, in _Pac. R.
R. Rept._, vol. iii. They seldom, if ever, marry out of the tribe.
_Ward_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 455. 'In general, when
an Indian wishes to have many wives he chooses above all others, if he
can, sisters, because he thinks he can thus secure more domestic peace.'
_Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 306. 'I think that few, if any, have
more than one wife,' of the Mojaves. _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 71.

[756] 'The Navajo marriage-ceremony consists simply of a feast upon
horse-flesh.' _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 460. When the
Navajos desire to marry, 'they sit down on opposite sides of a basket,
made to hold water, filled with atole or some other food, and partake of
it. This simple proceeding makes them husband and wife.' _Davis' El
Gringo_, p. 415.

[757] The Comanche women 'are drudges.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v.,
p. 575; _Dufey_, _Résumé de l'Hist._, tom. i., p. 4; _Neighbors_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 265; _Escudero_, _Noticias de Chihuahua_, p.
230; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 308. Labor is considered
degrading by the Comanches. _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 347. The
Apache men 'no cuidan de otras cosas, sino de cazar y divertirse.'
_Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv.,
p. 563; _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 29, 49, 56. 'La femme (du Comanche) son
esclave absolue, doit tout faire pour lui. Souvent il n'apporte pas même
le gibier qu'il a tué, mais il envoie sa femme le chercher au loin.'
_Dubuis_, in _Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 459. The Navajos 'treat their women
with great attention, consider them equals, and relieve them from the
drudgery of menial work.' _Hughes' Doniphan's Ex._, p. 203. The Navajo
women 'are the real owners of all the sheep.... They admit women into
their councils, who sometimes control their deliberations; and they also
eat with them.' _Davis' El Gringo_, p. 412; _Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept._, p. 101., in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii. 'De aquí
proviene que sean árbitros de sus mugeres, dandoles un trato
servilísimo, y algunas veces les quitan hasta la vida por celos.'
_Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 268. 'Les Comanches, obligent le
prisonnier blanc, dont ils ont admiré le valeur dans le combat, á s'unir
aux leurs pour perpétuer sa race.' _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 462.

[758] Among the Apaches, 'muchas veces suele disolverse el contrato por
unánime consentimiento de los desposados, y volviendo la mujer á su
padre, entrega este lo que recibió por ella.' _Cordero_. in _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 373. When the Navajo women abandon the husband,
the latter 'asks to wipe out the disgrace by killing some one.' _Ind.
Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 334; _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. iv., p. 217.

[759] Navajo women, 'when in parturition, stand upon their feet, holding
to a rope suspended overhead, or upon the knees, the body being erect.'
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 290. 'Previous to a birth,
the (Yuma) mother leaves her village for some short distance and lives
by herself until a month after the child is born; the band to which she
belongs then assemble and select a name for the little one, which is
given with some trivial ceremony.' _Emory's Rept._, vol. i., p. 110;
_Marcy's Army Life_, p. 31. 'Si el parto es en marcha, se hacen á un
lado del camino debajo de un árbol, en donde salen del lance con la
mayor facilidad y sin apuro ninguno, continuando la marcha con la
criatura y algun otro de sus chiquillos, dentro de una especie de red,
que á la manera de una canasta cargan en los hombros, pendiente de la
frente con una tira de cuero ó de vaqueta que la contiene, en donde
llevan ademas alunos trastos ó cosas que comer.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de
Sonora_, p. 281; _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 462. 'Luego que sale á luz
esta, sale la vieja de aquel lugar con la mano puesta en los ojos, y no
se descubre hasta que no haya dado una vuelta fuera de la casa, y el
objeto que primero se le presenta á la vista, es el nombre que se le
pone á la criatura.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 335.

[760] _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 92; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 320; _Ives' Colorado River_, pp. 66, 71;
_Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 211. 'Quand les Indiennes
(Comanches) voyagent avec leurs enfants en bas âge, elles les suspendent
à la selle avec des courroies qu'elles leur passent entre les jambes et
sous les bras. Les soubresauts du cheval, les branches, les broussailles
heurtent ces pauvres petits, les déchirent, les meurtrissent: peu
importe, c'est une façon de les aguerrir.' _Domenech_, _Journ._, p. 135;
_Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 52. 'A la edad de siete años de los
apaches, ó antes, lo primero que hacen los padres, es poner á sus hijos
el carcax en la mano enseñándoles á tirar bien, cuya táctica empiezan á
aprender en la caza.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 283. The
Apaches, 'juventutem sedulo instituunt castigant quod aliis barbaris
insolitum.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 316. Male children of the
Comanches 'are even privileged to rebel against their parents, who are
not entitled to chastise them but by consent of the tribe.' _Kennedy's
Texas_, vol. i., p. 346-7. In fact a Navajo Indian has said, 'that he
was afraid to correct his own boy, lest the child should wait for a
convenient opportunity, and shoot him with an arrow.' _Letherman_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 294.

[761] _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 354; _Cremony's Apaches_,
p. 367; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 399; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 119.

[762] 'The Navajo women are very loose, and do not look upon fornication
as a crime.' _Guyther_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 339;
_Cremony's Apaches_, p. 244. 'Prostitution is the rule among the (Yuma)
women, not the exception.' _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p. 301;
_Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 476; _Browne's Apache Country_,
p. 96. 'Prostitution prevails to a great extent among the Navajoes, the
Maricopas, and the Yuma Indians; and its attendant diseases, as before
stated, have more or less tainted the blood of the adults; and by
inheritance of the children.' _Carleton_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec.
Com._, 1867, p. 433. Among the Navajoes, 'the most unfortunate thing
which can befall a captive woman is to be claimed by two persons. In
this case, she is either shot or delivered up for indiscriminate
violence.' _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 50. The Colorado River Indians
'barter and sell their women into prostitution, with hardly an
exception.' _Safford_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1870, p. 139. 'The Comanche
women are, as in many other wild tribes, the slaves of their lords, and
it is a common practice for their husbands to lend or sell them to a
visitor for one, two, or three days at a time.' _Marcy's Rept._, p. 187;
_Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 419. 'Las faltas conyugales no se
castigan por la primera vez; pero á la segunda el marido corta la punta
de la nariz á su infiel esposa, y la despide de su lado.' _Revista
Científica_, vol. i., p. 57; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96,
p. 192. 'The squaw who has been mutilated for such a cause, is _ipso
facto_ divorced, and, it is said, for ever precluded from marrying
again. The consequence is, that she becomes a confirmed harlot in the
tribe.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii., pp. 43, 308-10, 313. 'El
culpable, segun dicen, jamas es castigado por el marido con la muerte;
solamente se abroga el derecho de darle algunos golpes y cogerse sus
mulas ó caballos.' _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 253; _Marcy's
Army Life_, p. 49. 'These yung men may not haue carnall copulation with
any woman: but all the yung men of the countrey which are to marrie, may
company with them.... I saw likewise certaine women which liued
dishonestly among men.' _Alarchon_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p.
436.

[763] 'They tolde mey that ... such as remayned widowes, stayed halfe a
yeere, or a whole yeere before they married.' _Alarchon_, in _Hakluyt's
Voy._, vol. iii., p. 431; _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary
Survey_, vol. i., p. 110; _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 54; _Möllhausen_,
_Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. 234; _García Conde_, in _Soc.
Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 315.

[764] 'En las referidas reuniones los bailes son sus diversiones
favoritas. Los hacen de noche al son de una olla cubierta la boca con
una piel tirante, que suenan con un palo, en cuya estremidad lian un
boton de trapos. Se interpolan ambos secsos, saltan todos a un mismo
tiempo, dando alaridos y haciendo miles de ademanes, en que mueven todos
los miembros del cuerpo con una destreza extraordinaria, arremedando al
coyote y al venado. Desta manera forman diferentes grupos
simétricamente.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 269; _Marcy's Army
Life_, p. 177; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 285. 'Este lo forma una junta de
truhanes vestidos de ridiculo y autorizados por los viejos del pueblo
para cometer los mayores desórdenes, y gusten tanto de estos hechos, que
ni los maridos reparan las infamias que cometen con sus mugeres, ni las
que resultan en perjuicio de las hijas.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. i., p. 335. 'The females (of the Apaches) do the principal
part of the dancing.' _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p.
212. 'Among the Abenakis, Chactas, Comanches, and other Indian tribes,
the women dance the same dances, but after the men, and far out of their
sight ... they are seldom admitted to share any amusement, their lot
being to work.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., pp. 199, 214. 'De éstos
vinieron cinco danzas, cada una compuesta de treinta indias; de éstas,
veintiseis como de 15 à 20 años, y las cuatro restantes de mas edad, que
eran las que cuidaban y dirigian à las jóvenes.' _Museo Mex._, tom. i.,
p. 288. 'The dance (of the Tontos) is similar to that of the California
Indians; a stamp around, with clapping of hands and slapping of thighs
in time to a drawl of monotones.' _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867,
p. 419.

[765] _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 180. The Yumas 'sing some few
monotonous songs, and the beaux captivate the hearts of their lady-loves
by playing on a flute made of cane.' _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. iii. 'No tienen mas orquesta que sus voces
y una olla ó casco de calabazo à que se amarra una piel tirante y se
toca con un palo.' _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp.
373-4; _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 419; _Ives' Colorado Riv._,
pp. 71-2; _García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i., pp. 166, 168.

[766] _Stanley's Portraits_, p. 55; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p.
133. 'Y el vicio que tienen estos Indios, es jugar en las Estufas las
Mantas, y otras Preseas con vnas Cañuelas, que hechan en alto (el qual
Juego vsaban estos Indios Mexicanos) y al que no tiene mas que vna
Manta, y la pierde, se la buelven; con condicion, que ha de andar
desnudo por todo el Pueblo, pintado, y embijado todo el cuerpo, y los
Muchachos dandole grita.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 680.

[767] _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 347.

[768] 'The players generally take each about ten arrows, which they hold
with their bows in the left hand; he whose turn it is advances in front
of the judges, and lances his first arrow upwards as high as possible,
for he must send off all the others before it comes down. The victory
belongs to him who has most arrows in the air together, and he who can
make them all fly at once is a hero.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p.
198. 'The Indians amuse themselves shooting at the fruit (pitaya), and
when one misses his aim and leaves his arrow sticking in the top of the
cactus, it is a source of much laughter to his comrades.' _Browne's
Apache Country_, p. 78; _Armin_, _Das Heutige Mexiko_, p. 309. The hoop
and pole game of the Mojaves is thus played. 'The hoop is six inches in
diameter, and made of elastic cord; the poles are straight, and about
fifteen feet in length. Rolling the hoop from one end of the course
toward the other, two of the players chase it half-way, and at the same
time throw their poles. He who succeeds in piercing the hoop wins the
game.' _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 463; _Emory's Rept.
U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. iii.; _Whipple_, in _Pac.
R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 114; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. 216, 223; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 395;
_Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 214. 'Tienen unas
pelotas de materia negra como pez, embutidas en ella varias conchuelas
pequeñas del mar, con que juegan y apuestan arrojándola con el pié.'
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 111; _Sedelmair_,
_Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., vol. iv., p. 851.

[769] 'Los salvages recogen sus hojas generalmente en el Otoño, las que
entónces están rojas y muy oxidadas: para hacer su provision, la secan
al fuego ó al sol, y para fumarlas, las mezclan con tabaco.' _Berlandier
y Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 257. The Comanches smoke tobacco, 'mixed with
the dried leaves of the sumach, inhaling the smoke into their lungs, and
giving it out through their nostrils.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 29, 32;
_Alarchon_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 432; _Letherman_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 285.

[770] _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 352. The Comanches 'avoid the use of
ardent spirits, which they call "fool's water."' _Kennedy's Texas_, vol.
i., p. 347; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii., p. 307. _Dubuis_, in
_Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 469. 'In order to make an intoxicating beverage
of the mescal, the roasted root is macerated in a proportionable
quantity of water, which is allowed to stand several days, when it
ferments rapidly. The liquor is boiled down and produces a strongly
intoxicating fluid.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 217. 'When its stem (of the
maguey) is tapped there flows from it a juice which, on being fermented,
produces the pulque.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 290. The
Apaches out of corn make an intoxicating drink which they called
"teeswin," made by boiling the corn and fermenting it. _Murphy_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 347; _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 334,
337.

[771] _Jones_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 223; _Emory's Rept. U. S.
and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 108; _Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 137;
_Turner_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1852, tom. 135, p. 307;
_Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 212; _García Conde_, in
_Album Mex._, 1849, tom. i., p. 165; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 277;
_Shepard's Land of the Aztecs_, p. 182; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p.
114-6; _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 61; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la
Géog._, tom. vi., p. 399. The Apache women, 'Son tan buenas ginetas, que
brincan en un potro, y sin mas riendas que un cabrestillo, saben
arrendarlo.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 564; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 298; _Marcy's Army
Life_, p. 28; _Figuier's Hum. Race_, p. 480. 'A short hair halter was
passed around under the neck of the horse, and both ends tightly braided
into the mane, on the withers, leaving a loop to hang under the neck,
and against the breast, which, being caught up in the hand, makes a sling
into which the elbow falls, taking the weight of the body on the middle
of the upper arm. Into this loop the rider drops suddenly and fearlessly,
leaving his heel to hang over the back of the horse, to steady him, and
also to restore him when he wishes to regain his upright position on the
horse's back.' _Brownell's Ind. Races_, p. 540; _Davis' El Gringo_, p.
412. Les Comanches 'regardent comme un déshonneur d'aller à pied.' _Soc.
Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 192; _Cremony's Apaches_, p.
282. The Comanches, for hardening the hoofs of horses and mules, have a
custom of making a fire of the wild rosemary--artemisia--and exposing
their hoofs to the vapor and smoke by leading them slowly through it.
_Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 203.

[772] _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 18; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p.
290; _Cordoue_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. x., p. 443;
_Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 454; _Montanus_,
_Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 209. 'Les Teyas et Querechos ont de grands
troupeaux de chiens qui portent leur bagage; ils l'attachent sur le dos
de ces animaux au moyen d'une sangle et d'un petit bât. Quand la charge
se dérange les chiens se mettent à hurler, pour avertir leur maître de
l'arranger.' _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom.
ix., pp. 117, 125, 190. 'On the top of the bank we struck a Camanche
trail, very broad, and made by the lodge poles, which they transport
from place to place ... by fastening them on each side of their pack
horses, leaving the long ends trailing upon the ground.' _Parker's Notes
on Tex._, p. 154. 'Si carecen de cabalgaduras, cargan los muebles las
mujeres igualmente que sus criaturas.' _García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex.
Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 317; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 128.

[773] _Neighbors_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 132;
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, p. 234; _Marcy's Army Life_,
pp. 29, 33, 189; _Marcy's Rept._, p. 187; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol.
ii., pp. 38, 46; _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, pp. 473, 475;
_Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 378. When the Yampais
'wish to parley they raise a firebrand in the air as a sign of
friendship.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., p. 218.

[774] 'These messengers (of the Mohaves) were their news-carriers and
sentinels. Frequently two criers were employed (sometimes more) one from
each tribe. These would have their meeting stations. At these stations
these criers would meet with promptness, and by word of mouth, each
would deposit his store of news with his fellow expressman, and then
each would return to his own tribe with the news.' _Stratton's Capt.
Oatman Girls_, pp. 220, 283. 'El modo de darse sus avisos para reunirse
en casos de urgencia de ser perseguidos, es por medio de sus telégrafos
de humos que forman en los cerros mas elevados formando hogueras de los
palos mas humientos que ellos conocen muy bien.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de
Sonora_, p. 281. _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 5. 'Para no
detenerse en hacer los humos, llevan los mas de los hombres y mujeres,
los instrumentos necessarios para sacar lumbre; prefieren la piedra, el
eslabon, y la yesca; pero si no tienen estos útiles, suplen su falta con
palos preparados al efecto bien secos, que frotados se inflaman.'
_García Conde_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., p. 317.

[775] _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217; _Sitgreaves'
Zuñi Ex._, p. 18. 'Su frazada en tiempo de frio es un tizon encendido
que aplicándolo á la boca del estómago caminan por los mañanas, y
calentando ya el sol como a las ocho tiran los tizones, que por muchos
que hayan tirado por los caminos, pueden ser guias de los caminantes.'
_Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., vol. iv., p.
851.

[776] The Comanches 'have yearly gatherings to light the sacred fires;
they build numerous huts, and sit huddled about them, taking medicine
for purification, and fasting for seven days. Those who can endure to
keep the fast unbroken become sacred in the eyes of the others.'
_Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 451. If a Yuma kills one of
his own tribe he keeps 'a fast for one moon; on such occasions he eats
no meat--only vegetables--drinks only water, knows no woman, and bathes
frequently during the day to purify the flesh.' _Emory's Rept. U. S. and
Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 110. 'It was their (Mojaves,) custom
never to eat salted meat for the next moon after the coming of a captive
among them.' _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 180; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 402; _Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 13; _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, pp. 125-6.

[777] 'Entre cuyas tribus hay algunas que se comen á sus enemigos.'
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 332. 'Los chirumas, que me
parecen ser los yumas, no se que coman carne humana como dijo el indio
cosnina.' _Garces_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. 363.
'Among the spoil which we took from these Camanches, we found large
portions of human flesh evidently prepared for cooking.' _Dewees'
Texas_, p. 232-3. Certain Europeans have represented the Comanches 'as a
race of cannibals; but according to the Spaniards ... they are merely a
cruel, dastardly race of savages.' _Pagés' Travels_, vol. i., p. 107.

[778] _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 451; _Berlandier y
Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 253; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 34; _Davis' El
Gringo_, p. 407.

[779] _Smart_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 418. 'Gonorrhoea and
syphilis are not at all rare' among the Navajos. _Letherman_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 290; _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 31.

[780] _Hardy's Trav._, p. 442-3. 'Los comanches la llaman Puip; y cuando
uno de entre ellos está herido, mascan la raiz (que es muy larga) y
esprimen el yugo y la saliva en la llaga.' _Berlandier y Thovel_,
_Diario_, p. 257; _Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 290;
_Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 118; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 156;
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 289; _Browne's Apache
Country_, p. 63; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 142; _Id._, _Reisen in die
Felsengeb._, tom. i., p. 118; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 335;
_Neighbors_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., p. 130; _Parker's Notes
on Tex._, p. 193. The Apaches: 'Cuando se enferma alguno á quien no han
podido hacer efecto favorable la aplicacion de las yerbas, único
antidoto con que se curan, lo abandonan, sin mas diligencia ulterior que
ponerle un monton de brasas á la cabecera y una poca de agua, sin
saberse hasta hoy qué significa ésto ó con qué fin la hacen.' _Velasco_,
_Noticias de Sonora_, p. 280.

[781] _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 217; _Domenech_,
_Jour._, pp. 13, 139; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 42, in
_Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
v., p. 212; _Parker's Notes on Tex._, p. 240-1. Among the Comanches
during the steam bath, 'the shamans, or medicine-men, who profess to
have the power of communicating with the unseen world, and of
propitiating the malevolence of evil spirits, are performing various
incantations, accompanied by music on the outside.' _Marcy's Army Life_,
p. 60; _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 576; _Bristol_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 358. 'De aquí ha sucedido que algunos indios
naturalmente astutos, se han convertido en adivinos, que han llegado á
sostener como á sus oràculos. Estos mismos adivinos hacen de médicos,
que por darse importancía á la aplicacion de ciertas yerbas, agregan
porcion de ceremonias supersticiosas y ridiculas, con cánticos estraños,
en que hablan á sus enfermos miles de embustes y patrañas.' _Velasco_,
_Noticias de Sonora_, p. 280.

[782] At the Colorado river they 'burned those which dyed.' _Alarchon_,
in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 432; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p.
404; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 97; _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._,
vol. xvii., p. 467; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 240-1. 'It is
the custom of the Mojaves to burn their property when a relation dies to
whose memory they wish to pay especial honor.' _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p.
69. 'Die Comanches tödteten früher das Lieblingsweib des gestorbenen
Häuptlings.' _Müller_, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 88. 'No Navajo
will ever occupy a lodge in which a person has died. The lodge is
burned.' _Backus_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 213;
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, p. 289. 'When a death occurs
they (Yumas) move their villages, although sometimes only a short
distance, but never occupying exactly the same locality.' _Emory's Rept.
U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 110.

[783] 'When a Comanche dies ... he is usually wrapped in his best
blankets or robes, and interred with most of his "jewelry," and other
articles of esteem.' _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. ii., pp. 317, 243.
'Cuando muere algun indio, ... juntando sus deudos todas las alhajas de
su peculio, se las ponen y de esta manera lo envuelven en una piel de
cíbolo y lo llevan á enterrar.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom.
i., p. 336; _Kennedy's Texas_, vol. i., p. 347; _Wislizenus' Tour_, p.
69. The Comanches cover their tombs 'with grass and plants to keep them
concealed.' _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 363; _Id._, _Jour._, p.
14. The Apaches: 'probably they bury their dead in caves; no graves are
ever found that I ever heard of.' _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. v., p. 212. See also _James' Exped._, vol. ii., p. 305. 'On the
highest point of the hill, was a Comanche grave, marked by a pile of
stones and some remnants of scanty clothing.' _Parker's Notes on Tex._,
pp. 137, 151. The custom of the Mescalero Apaches 'heretofore has been
to leave their dead unburied in some secluded spot.' _Curtis_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 402; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 50; _Möllhausen_,
_Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. 233; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p.
119.

[784] Among the Navajos 'Immediately after a death occurs a vessel
containing water is placed near the dwelling of the deceased, where it
remains over night; in the morning two naked Indians come to get the
body for burial, with their hair falling over and upon their face and
shoulders. When the ceremony is completed they retire to the water,
wash, dress, do up their hair, and go about their usual avocations.'
_Bristol_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com._, 1867, p. 358. The Navajos
'all walked in solemn procession round it (the grave) singing their
funeral songs. As they left it, every one left a present on the grave;
some an arrow, others meat, moccasins, tobacco, war-feathers, and the
like, all articles of value to them.' _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 119;
_Revista Científica_, tom. i., p. 57. 'A los niños y niñas de pecho les
llevan en una jicara la leche ordenada de sus pechos las mismas madres,
y se las echan en la sepultura; y esto lo hacen por algunos dias
continuos.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 543; _Neighbors_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii.,
p. 133; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 280; _Froebel_, _Aus
Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 100; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._,
tom. i., p. 304; _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 56. 'When a young warrior dies,
they mourn a long time, but when an old person dies, they mourn but
little, saying that they cannot live forever, and it was time they
should go.' _Parker's Notes on Tex._, pp. 192, 236.

[785] _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 414-5; _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 250, 297.

[786] 'The quality of mercy is unknown among the Apaches.' _Cremony's
Apaches_, pp. 33-4, 193, 215-16, 227-8. 'Perfectly lawless, savage, and
brave.' _Marcy's Rept._, p. 197. 'For the sake of the booty, also take
life.' _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 202. 'Inclined to intemperance
in strong drinks.' _Henry_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 211.
'Ferocísimos de condicion, de naturaleza sangrientos.' _Almanza_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 824. 'Sumamente vengativo.'
_Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 283. 'Alevoso y vengativo caracte
... rastutos ladrones, y sanguinarios.' _Bustamante_, in _Cavo_, _Tres
Siglos_, tom. iii., p. 78. 'I have not seen a more intelligent,
cheerful, and grateful tribe of Indians than the roving Apaches.'
_Colyer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, pp. 15, 47, 51; _García Conde_, in
_Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. v., pp. 314-15, 317; _Doc. Hist. N.
Vizcaya, MS._, p. 4; _Cordero_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p.
371; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., pp. 322, 326-7; _Smart_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 419; _Apostólicos Afanes_, p. 430;
_Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 83; _Turner_, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1852, tom. cxxxv., pp. 307, 314; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., pp. 5, 6, 8; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. i., p.
294; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 330, 361; _Bent_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. i., p. 243; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. i., p. 580; _Mowry's
Arizona_, pp. 31-2; _Pope_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. ii., p. 13;
_Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 14, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii.; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom.
cxxxi., p. 273; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., pp. 291, 295; _Hist.
Chrétienne de la Cal._, p. 99; _Edward's Hist. Tex._, p. 95; _Peters'
Life of Carson_, p. 323; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p.
187; _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 341; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 276;
_Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., pp. 462-3; _Figuier's Hum.
Race_, pp. 482, 484; _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 419; _Alegre_,
_Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. ii., p. 404; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 44;
_Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 111;
_Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., pp. 475-6, and _Cent. Amer._, p.
527; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 117; _Whipple_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. iii., p. 99; _Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 850; see further, _Ind. Aff. Repts._, from 1854 to
1872; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, pp. 116, 122.

[787] The Navajos: 'Hospitality exists among these Indians to a great
extent.... Nor are these people cruel.... They are treacherous.'
_Letherman_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1855, pp. 292, 295. 'Brave, hardy,
industrious.' _Colyer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 89; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 40. 'Tricky and unreliable.' _Simpson's Jour.
Mil. Recon._, p. 56. The Mojaves: 'They are lazy, cruel, selfish; ...
there is one good quality in them, the exactitude with which they fulfil
an agreement.' _Ives' Colorado Riv._, pp. 20, 71-2; _Backus_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 211; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol.
i., p. 329; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. 234;
_Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 217-18; _Hughes'
Doniphan's Ex._, p. 203; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 384.

[788] _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 124. 'Estos indios
se aventajan en muchas circunstancias á los yumas y demas naciones del
Rio Colorado; son menos molestos y nada ladrones.' _Garces_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. 273; also in _Arricivita_, _Crónica
Seráfica_, p. 472; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 62.

[789] 'Grave and dignified ... implacable and unrelenting ...
hospitable, and kind ... affectionate to each other ... jealous of their
own freedom.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 25, 30-1, 34, 36-9, 41, 60. 'Alta
estima hacen del valor estas razas nomadas.' _Museo Mex._, tom. ii., p.
34. 'Loin d'être cruels, ils-sont très-doux et très-fidèles dans leurs
amitiés.' _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, serie i., tom. ix.,
p. 191; _Payno_, in _Revista Científica_, tom. i., p. 57; _Escudero_,
_Noticias de Chihuahua_, pp. 229-30; _Domenech_, _Jour._, pp. 13, 137,
469; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, tom. v., No. 96, p. 193; _Neighbors_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. ii., pp. 132-3; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_,
vol. i., pp. 293, 295; vol. ii., pp. 307, 313; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 273; _Shepard's Land of the
Aztecs_, p. 182; _Pagés' Travels_, vol. i., p. 107; _Calderon de la
Barca's Life in Mex._, vol. ii., p. 308.

[790] 'Tiguex est situé vers le nord, à environ quarante lieues,' from
Cíbola. _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix.,
p. 165. 'La province de Cibola contient sept villages; le plus grand se
nomme Muzaque.' _Id._, p. 163. Of two provinces north of Tiguex, 'l'une
se nommait Hemes, et renfermait sept villages; l'autre Yuque-Yunque.'
_Id._, p. 138. 'Plus au nord (of Tiguex) est la province de Quirix ...
et celle de Tutahaco.' _Id._, p. 168. From Cicuyé to Quivira, 'On compte
sept autres villages.' _Id._, p. 179. 'Il existe aussi, d'après le
rapport ... un autre royaume très-vaste, nommé villes, et la capitale.
Acus sans aspiration est un royaume.' _Niza_, in _Ternaux-Compans_,
_Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 271. 'The kingdome of Totonteac so much
extolled by the Father prouinciall, ... the Indians say is a hotte lake,
about which are five or sixe houses; and that there were certaine other,
but that they are ruinated by warre. The kingdome of Marata is not to be
found, neither haue the Indians any knowledge thereof. The kingdome of
Acus is one onely small citie, where they gather cotton which is called
Acucu, and I say that this is a towne. For Acus with an aspiration nor
without, is no word of they countrey. And because I gesse that they
would deriue Acucu of Acus, I say that it is this towne whereinto the
kingdom of Acus is conuerted.' _Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol.
iii., p. 378; _Espeio_, in _Id._, pp. 386-394; _Mendoza_, _Lettre_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 296; _De Laet_, _Novus
Orbis_, p. 315; _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 100; _Escalante_, in _Id._, pp. 124-5; _Pike's
Explor. Trav._, pp. 341-2; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii.,
pp. 528-9; _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 220;
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 197.

[791] _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, pp. 10-12, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii.; _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 128-130; _Hezio_,
_Noticia de las Misiones_, in _Meline's Two Thousand Miles_, pp. 208-9;
_Chacon_, in _Id._, pp. 210-11; _Alencaster_, in _Id._, p. 212; _Davis'
El Gringo_, p. 115; _Calhoun_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p.
633.

[792] _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, p. 13, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii. 'Los nombres de los pueblos del Moqui son, segun
lengua de los Yavipais, Sesepaulabá, Masagneve, Janogualpa, Muqui,
Concabe y Muca á quien los zuñís llaman Oraive, que es en el que
estuve.' _Garces_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. 332;
_Ruxton's Adven. Mex._, p. 195; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 127.

[793] Affirmations are abundant enough, but they have no foundation
whatever in fact, and many are absurd on their face. 'Nous affirmons que
les Indiens Pueblos et les anciens Mexicains sont issus d'une seule et
même souche.' _Ruxton_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1850, tom.
cxxvi., p. 44. 'These Indians claim, and are generally supposed, to have
descended from the ancient Aztec race.' _Merriwether_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1854, p. 174. 'They are the descendants of the ancient rulers of
the country.' _Davis' El Gringo_, p. 114. 'They are the remains of a
once powerful people.' _Walker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1872, p. 55;
_Colyer_, in _Id._, 1869, p. 90. 'They (Moquis) are supposed by some to
be descended from the band of Welsh, which Prince Madoc took with him on
a voyage of discovery, in the twelfth century; and it is said that they
weave peculiarly and in the same manner as the people of Wales.' _Ten
Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 81. 'Il est assez
singulier que les Moquis soient désignés par les trappers et les
chasseurs américains, qui pènètrent dans leur pays ... sous le nom
d'Indiens Welches.' _Ruxton_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1850,
tom. cxxvi., p. 55. 'Moques, supposed to be vestiges of Aztecs.' _Amer.
Quart. Register_, vol. i., p. 173; _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p.
431.

[794] 'Les hommes sont petits.' _Mendoza_, _Lettre_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 294. The Moquis are
'of medium size and indifferently proportioned, their features strongly
marked and homely, with an expression generally bright and
good-natured.' _Ives' Colorado Riv._, pp. 120-2, 123-7. The Keres 'sind
hohen Wuchses.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 528;
_Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 453; _Hassel_, _Mex.
Guat._, p. 197; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., p.
240; _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 301; _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, p.
93; _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp.
67-8; _Ruxton_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1850, tom. cxxvi., pp.
52-3; _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 342.

[795] 'The people are somewhat white.' _Niza_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol.
iii., p. 372. 'Much fairer in complexion than other tribes.' _Ruxton's
Adven. Mex._, p. 195; _Kendall's Nar._, vol. i., p. 379; _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, p. 230; _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., pp. 423, 431;
_Walker_, in _S. F. Herald_, _Oct. 15, 1853_; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., p. 41.

[796] 'Prettiest squaws I have yet seen.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 111.
Good looking and symmetrical. _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 421-2.

[797] _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 81. 'Many of
the inhabitants have white skin, fair hair, and blue eyes.' _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. i., p. 210, vol. ii., p. 66; _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 220-1; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 285; _Palmer_,
in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 456.

[798] 'A robust and well-formed race.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 90, 103.
'Well built, generally tall and bony.' _Walker's Pimas, MS._ The
Maricopas 'sont de stature plus haute et plus athlétique que les
Pijmos.' _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi.,
p. 290; see also _Emory_, in _Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav._, pp.
49, 50; _Id._, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. ii., p. 12; _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. ii., p. 19; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. iii.,
p. 103; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 196; _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 132;
_Bigler's Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS._; _Johnson's Hist.
Arizona_, p. 11; _Brackett_, in _Western Monthly_, p. 169; _Froebel_,
_Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 448; _San Francisco Bulletin_, _July, 1860_.

[799] 'Las mujeres hermosas.' _Mange_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv.,
tom. i., pp. 298, 364. 'Rather too much inclined to embonpoint.' _Ives'
Colorado Riv._, pp. 31, 33, 39; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p.
229.

[800] 'Ambos secsos ... no mal parecidos y muy melenudos.' _Velasco_,
_Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 116, 161. 'Trigueños de color.' _Sedelmair_,
_Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 851. 'Die
Masse, Dicke und Länge ihres Haupthaares grenzt an das Unglaubliche.'
_Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 455; _Id._, _Cent. Amer._, p.
513; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 557; _Pattie's Pers.
Nar._, pp. 143-5, 149; _Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls_, p. 180.

[801] 'Heads are uncovered.' _Ruxton's Adven. Mex._, p. 196. 'Los
hombres visten, y calçan de cuero, y las mugeres, que se precian de
largos cabellos, cubren sus cabeças y verguenças con lo mesmo.'
_Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 275. 'De kleeding bestond uit kotoene
mantels, huiden tot broeken, genaeyt, schoenen en laerzen van goed
leder.' _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, pp. 209, 217-18. The women 'having
the calves of their legs wrapped or stuffed in such a manner as to give
them a swelled appearance.' _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 14, 115;
_De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp. 297-8, 301, 303, 312-13; _Coronado_, in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 377, 380; _Espejo_, in _Id._, pp.
384-96; _Niza_, in _Id._, pp. 368, 370; _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._,
vol. xvii., p. 457; _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, pp. 30, 122,
in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., pp.
197, 203, vol. ii., pp. 213, 281; _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's
Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 73-88; _Wizlizenus' Tour_, p. 26; _Larenaudière_,
_Mex. et Gaut._, p. 147; _Warden_, _Recherches_, p. 79; _Marcy's Army
Life_, pp. 99-100, 105-6; _Foster's Pre-Hist. Races_, p. 394;
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp.
61-68, 76, 163, 173, 177; _Jaramillo_, in _Id._, pp. 369-371; _Ives'
Colorado Riv._, pp. 119-127; _Ruxton_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._,
1850, tom. cxxvi., p. 53; _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv.,
p. 220; _Abert_, in _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 471; _Mayer's Mex.,
Aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. 359; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 217, 283;
_Kendall's Nar._, vol. i., p. 379; _Revilla-Gigedo_, _Carta, MS._;
_Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. iv., p. 388; _Arricivita_, _Crónica
Seráfica_, p. 479; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., pp. 248, 279-80;
_Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., pp. 195, 239.

[802] Both sexes go bareheaded. 'The hair is worn long, and is done up
in a great queue that falls down behind.' _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 147,
154-5, 421. The women 'trençan los cabellos, y rodeanse los à la cabeça,
por sobre las orejas.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 273. 'Llevan las
viejas el pelo hecho dos trenzas y las mozas un moño sobre cada oreja.'
_Garces_, _Diario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., pp. 328-9;
_Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 220.

[803] 'Van vestidos estos indios con frazadas de algodon, que ellos
fabrican, y otras de lana.' _Garces_, _Diario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie ii., tom. i., p. 235. Their dress is cotton of domestic
manufacture. _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 132. 'Kunstreich dagegen sind
die bunten Gürtel gewebt, mit denen die Mädchen ein Stück Zeug als Rock
um die Hüften binden.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., pp. 440, 447;
_Browne's Apache Country_, p. 68; _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary
Survey_, vol. i., p. 123; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 452, vol.
ii., pp. 216-7, 219; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 104; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp.
de Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 103; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, pp. 31, 33;
_Mowry's Arizona_, p. 30; _Mange_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom.
i., pp. 364-5; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 116; _Briefe aus den
Verein. Staat._, tom. ii., p. 322.

[804] 'Men never cut their hair.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 90. They plait
and wind it round their heads in many ways; one of the most general
forms a turban which they smear with wet earth. _Froebel_, _Aus
Amerika_, tom. ii., pp. 454-6; _Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav._, p.
47; _Emory_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. ii., p. 9; _Pattie's Pers.
Nar._, pp. 143, 145, 149; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 107;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 296.

[805] _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom.
iv., p. 542. 'All of them paint, using no particular design; the men
mostly with dark colors, the women, red and yellow.' _Walker's Pimas,
MS._; _Johnson's Hist. Arizona_, p. 11. 'The women when they arrive at
maturity, ... draw two lines with some blue- dye from each corner
of the mouth to the chin.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 228.

[806] 'Adornanse con gargantillas de caracolillos del mar, entreverados
de otras cuentas de concha colorada redonda.' _Mange_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 299. 'They had many ornaments of sea
shells.' _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 132. 'Some have long strings of
sea-shells.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 230-1. 'Rarely use
ornaments.' _Walker's Pimas, MS._; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, pp. 252-6;
_Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp.
850-1.

[807] _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 91; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1851, tom. 131, p. 292; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 108. The
Maricopas 'occupy thatched cottages, thirty or forty feet in diameter,
made of the twigs of cotton-wood trees, interwoven with the straw of
wheat, corn-stalks, and cane.' _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 132;
_Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 117;
_Mange_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. 277, 365-6.
'Leurs (Pápagos) maisons sont de formes coniques et construites en jonc
et en bois.' _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 188;
_Walker's Pimas, MS._; _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., p.
395; _Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom.
iv., p. 851; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 115, 161. 'Andere,
besonders die dummen Papagos, machten Löcher und schliefen des Nachts
hierinnen; ja im Winter machten sie in ihren Dachslöchern zuvor Feuer,
und hitzten dieselben.' _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 245. 'Their summer
shelters are of a much more temporary nature, being constructed after
the manner of a common arbor, covered with willow rods, to obstruct the
rays of the vertical sun.' _Hughes' Doniphan's Ex._, p. 222. In front of
the Pimo house is usually 'a large arbor, on top of which is piled the
cotton in the pod, for drying.' _Emory_, in _Fremont and Emory's Notes
of Trav._, p. 48. The Pápagos' huts were 'fermées par des peaux de
buffles.' _Ferry_, _Scènes de la Vie Sauvage_, p. 107. Granary built
like the Mexican _jakals_. They are better structures than their
dwellings, more open, in order to give a free circulation of air through
the grain deposited in them. _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 382,
vol. ii., pp. 233-5.

[808] _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., p. 412; _Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, pp. 21, 23, 122, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._,
vol. ii.; _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 177; _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_,
in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 25, 30-1. 'Ellas son las
que hacen, y edifican las Casas, assi de Piedra, como de Adove, y Tierra
amasada; y con no tener la Pared mas de vn pie de ancho, suben las Casas
dos, y tres, y quatro, y cinco Sobrados, ó Altos; y á cada Alto,
corresponde vn Corredor por de fuera; si sobre esta altura hechan mas
altos, ó Sobrados (porque ay Casas que llegan á siete) son los demás, no
de Barro, sino de Madera.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p.
681. For further particulars, see _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_,
_Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 2, 42, 58, 69, 71, 76, 80, 138, 163,
167, 169; _Niza_, in _Id._, pp. 261, 269, 270, 279; _Diaz_, in _Id._,
pp. 293, 296; _Jaramillo_, in _Id._, pp. 369, _Cordoue_, in _Id._, tom.
x., pp. 438-9; _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 13, 90, 114; _Bent_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 244; _Ten Broeck_, in _Id._, vol.
iv., pp. 76, 80, and plates, pp. 24, 72; _Warden_, _Recherches_, p. 79;
_Ruxton's Adven. Mex._, p. 191; _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol.
xvii., p. 455; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 453;
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 278; _Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc._, vol. ii.,
p. 359; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., pp. 268, 276; _Hughes'
Doniphan's Ex._, p. 195; _Garces_, _Diario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
ii., tom. i., p. 322; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, pp. 119, 121, 126; _Marcy's
Army Life_, pp. 97, 99, 104, 105; _Ruxton_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1850, tom. cxxvi., pp. 42, 45, 52, 57; _Gallatin_, in _Id._,
1851, tom. cxxxi., pp. 248, 257, 267, 270, 277, 278, 288; _Espejo_, in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 385, 392, 394-6; _Coronado_, in _Id._,
vol. iii., pp. 377, 379; _Niza_, in _Id._, vol. iii., pp. 367, 372;
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 538; _Möllhausen_,
_Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. 238; _Id._, _Tagebuch_, pp.
217-18, 285; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, pp. 209, 215, 217. The town
of Cíbola 'domos è lapidibus et caemento affabre constructas et
conjunctim dispositas esse, superliminaria portarum cyaneis gemmis,
(Turcoides vocant) ornata.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp. 297, 311-14;
_Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 480. 'The houses are well
distributed and very neat. One room is designed for the kitchen, and
another to grind the grain. This last is apart, and contains a furnace
and three stones made fast in masonry.' _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 118-20,
141, 311, 313, 318, 420, 422; _Castaño de Sosa_, in _Pacheco_, _Col.
Doc. Inéd._, tom. iv., pp. 329-30; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p.
178; _Foster's Pre-Hist. Races_, p. 394.

[809] In the province of Tucayan, 'domiciliis inter se junctis et
affabre constructis, in quibus et tepidaria quae vulgo Stuvas
appellamus, sub terra constructa adversus hyemis vehementiam.' _De
Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 301. 'In the centre was a small square box of
stone, in which was a fire of guava bushes, and around this a few old
men were smoking.' _Marcy's Army Life_, p. 110. 'Estufas, que mas
propiamente deberian llamar sinagogas. En estas hacen sus juntas, forman
sus conciliábulos, y ensayan sus bailes á puerta cerrada.' _Alegre_,
_Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 333; _Beaumont_, _Crón. de
Mechoacan, MS._, p. 418; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 273; _Simpson's
Jour. Mil. Recon._, pp. 13, 21; _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_,
_Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 139, 165, 169-70, 176; _Espejo_, in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 392-3; _Niel_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 90-1.

[810] 'Magna ipsis Mayzü copia et leguminum.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_,
pp. 298, 302, 310-13, 315. 'Hallaron en los pueblos y casas muchos
mantenimientos, y gran infinidad de gallinas de la tierra.' _Espejo_, in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 386, 393. 'Criaban las Indias muchas
Gallinas de la Tierra.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 678.
'Zy leven by mair, witte orweten, haesen, konynen en vorder wild-braed.'
_Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 215, and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 242.
Compare _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 177; _Marcy's Army Life_, pp.
97-8, 104, 108; _Cortez_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 122;
_Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, pp. 5-6; _Jaramillo_, in _Ternaux-Compans_,
_Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 369-71; _Diaz_, in _Id._, pp. 294-5;
_Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., pp. 268, 281; _Ten Broeck_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 86; _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._,
pp. 16, 82, 91, 113; _Wislizenus' Tour_, p. 26; _Bent_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., p. 244; Ruxton, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1850, tom. cxxvi., p. 52; _Gallatin_, in _Id._, 1851, tom.
cxxxi., pp. 270-1, 279, 288-9, 292, 297; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom.
ii., pp. 439, 445, 453; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in the Felsengeb._, tom.
ii., pp. 239, 284; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., pp. 178, 214-18,
233-7; _Browne's Apache Country_, pp. 78, 94, 107-10, 141-2, 276-7;
_Sedelmair_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 848, 850;
_Id._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 19; _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 131;
_Mowry's Arizona_, p. 30; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 278; _Hughes'
Doniphan's Ex._, pp. 196, 221; _Eaton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iv., p. 221; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 273; _Ind. Aff. Repts._, from
1857 to 1872.

[811] 'Para su sustento no reusa animal, por inmundo que sea.'
_Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., p. 395. 'Los pápagos se
mantienen de los frutos silvestres.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_,
pp. 160-1. 'Hatten grossen Appetit zu Pferd- und Mauleselfleisch.'
_Murr_, _Nachrichten_, pp. 247-9, 267, 282-92; _Sonora_, _Descrip.,
Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 837-8; _Soc.
Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 188; _Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._,
vol. v., p. 166.

[812] The Pimas 'Hacen grandes siembras ... para cuyo riego tienen
formadas buenas acequias.' _Garces_, _Diario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie ii., tom. i., pp. 235, 237. 'We were at once impressed with the
beauty, order, and disposition of the arrangements for irrigating.'
_Emory_, in _Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav._, pp. 47-8. With the
Pueblos: 'Regen-bakken vergaederden 't water: of zy leiden 't uit een
rievier door graften.' _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 218; _De Laet_,
_Novus Orbis_, p. 312; _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, tom. iii., pp.
385-7, 392-4; _Cutts' Conq. of Cal._, p. 196.

[813] _Walker's Pimas, MS._; _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 299. 'Usan de hilo torcido unas redes y
otras de varios palitos, que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas.'
_Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp.
851-2.

[814] 'Hacen de la Masa de Ma'z por la mañana Atole.... Tambien hacen
Tamales, y Tortillas.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 679.
'The fruit of the petajaya ... is dried in the sun.' _Cremony's
Apaches_, pp. 89, 91, 106, 111-12. 'From the suwarrow (Cereus Giganteus)
and pitaya they make an excellent preserve.' _Emory's Rept. U. S. and
Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 123. See also _Ives' Colorado Riv._,
pp. 31, 45, 121, 123, 126; _Carleton_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1854, p.
308; _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 8, 76;
_Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, tom. iii., p. 378; _Simpson's Jour.
Mil. Recon._, pp. 113, 115; _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._,
série i., tom. ix., pp. 61, 71, 164, 170-2; _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 114,
119, 121-2, 147-8; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 218-9, 285.

[815] _Ives' Colorado Riv._, pp. 119-20, 124. 'Ils vont faire leurs
odeurs au loin, et rassemblent les urines dans de grands vases de terre
que l'on va vider hors du village.' _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_,
_Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 171.

[816] 'The only defensive armor they use is a rude shield made of raw
bull-hide.' _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 145-6. 'Bows and arrows, and the
wooden boomerang.' _Colyer_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 91. The
Papagos 'armes sont la massue, la lance et l'arc; ils portent aussi une
cuirasse et un bouclier en peau de buffle.' _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_,
série v., No. 96, p. 188. For further comparisons see _Whipple, Ewbank,
and Turner's Rept._, p. 30, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.; _Gregg's
Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 280; _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 300;
_Larenaudière_, _Mex. et Guat._, p. 147; _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 342;
_Niza_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, tom. iii., p. 372; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 528.; _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc.
Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 299; _Sedelmair_, in _Id._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 851; _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Id._, p. 106;
_Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., pp. 217, 237.

[817] Bows 'of strong willow-boughs.' _Walker's Pimas, MS._ 'Bows are
six feet in length, and made of a very tough and elastic kind of wood,
which the Spaniards call Tarnio.' _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, pp. 91, 149.

[818] The Pima 'arrows differ from those of all the Apache tribes in
having only two feathers.' _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 103. 'War arrows have
stone points and three feathers; hunting arrows, two feathers and a
wooden point.' _Walker's Pimas, MS._; _Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._,
tom. iii., p. 380.

[819] The Pimas: 'Flechas, ennervadas con el eficaz mortífero veneno que
componen de varias ponzoñas, y el zumo de la yerba llamada en pima
_Usap_.' _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom.
i., p. 307. 'Die Spitzen ihrer Pfeile ... welche mit einer dunklen
Substanz überzogen waren. Sie behaupteten, dass diese aus Schlangengift
bestehe, was mir indess unwahrscheinlich ist.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_,
tom. ii., p. 438; _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i.,
tom. ix., pp. 59, 107, 126.

[820] 'Una macana, como clava ó porra.... Estas son de un palo muy duro
y pesado.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii.,
tom. iv., p. 556. 'Macanas, que son vnas palos de media vara de largo, y
llanos todos de pedernales agudos, que bastan a partir por medio vn
hombre.' _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, tom. iii., pp. 386, 393.

[821] 'De grosses pierres avaient été rassemblées au sommet, pour les
rouler sur quiconque attaquerait la place.' _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 270. 'They have placed around
all the trails leading to the town, pits, ten feet deep.' _Ten Broeck_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 81. See further, _Coronado_, in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 376; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 279;
_Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv.,
p. 840; _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix.,
p. 179.

[822] 'Painted to the eyes, their own heads and their horses covered
with all the strange equipments that the brute creation could afford.'
_Emory's Reconnoissance_, p. 37.

[823] 'Sometimes a fellow would stoop almost to the earth, to shoot
under his horse's belly, at full speed.' _Emory's Reconnoissance_, p.
37.

[824] _Walker's Pimas, MS._

[825] _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 106.

[826] _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., pp. 274-5; _Browne's Apache
Country_, p. 104; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, pp. 93, 148; _Cutts' Conq. of
Cal._, p. 223; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, serie v., No. 96, p. 188.

[827] _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 78-9;
_Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 206; _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 108-9.

[828] _Walker's Pimas, MS._; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., pp. 292-4.

[829] Baskets and pottery 'are ornamented with geometrical figures.'
_Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 382, vol. ii., pp. 227-8, 236.
'Schüsselförmige runde Körbe (Coritas), diese flechten sie aus einem
hornförmigen, gleich einer Ahle spitzigen Unkraute.' _Murr_,
_Nachrichten_, p. 193. The Pueblos had 'de la vaiselle de terre
très-belle, bien vernie et avec beaucoup d'ornements. On y vit aussi de
grands jarres remplies d'un métal brillant qui servait à faire le vernis
de cette faïence.' _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i.,
tom. ix., pp. 138, 173, 185; see also _Niza_, in _Id._, p. 259. 'They
(Pueblos) vse vessels of gold and siluer.' _Niza_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._,
vol. iii., p. 372; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, pp. 216, 271, 273, 279;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 435; _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 97,
111; _Carleton_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1854, p. 308; _Palmer_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., pp. 457, 459; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol.
i., p. 278; _Foster's Pre-Hist. Races_, p. 393; _Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon._, p. 97; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 425;
_Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 380; _Browne's Apache
Country_, pp. 68, 109, 112, 276.

[830] 'All the inhabitants of the Citie (Cíbola) lie vpon beddes raysed
a good height from the ground, with quilts and canopies ouer them, which
couer the sayde Beds.' _Niza_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 370;
_Id._, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 271. The
Quires had 'umbracula (vulgo Tirazoles) quibus Sinenses utuntur Solis,
Lunæ, et Stellarum imaginibus eleganter picta.' _De Laet_, _Novus
Orbis_, p. 312; _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 393. The
Moquis' chief men have pipes made of smooth polished stone. _Ten
Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 87; _Ives' Colorado
Riv._, p. 121.

[831] _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 72, 76, 87.
'Sie flechten von zartgeschlitzten Palmen auf Damastart die schönsten
ganz leichten Hüthe, aus einem Stücke.' _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 192.
The Maricopa blankets will turn rain. _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 106, 90.
The Moquis wove blankets from the wool of their sheep, and made cotton
cloth from the indigenous staple. _Poston_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863,
p. 388. The Maricopas make a heavy cloth of wool and cotton, 'used by
the women to put around their loins; and an article from 3 to 4 inches
wide, used as a band for the head, or a girdle for the waist.'
_Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 224. 'Rupicaprarum tergora
eminebant (among the Yumanes) tam industriè præparata ut cum Belgicis
certarent.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 310.

[832] _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 301; _Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey_, vol. i., pp. 117, 123; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 290; _Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon._, pp. 91, 113, 115; _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol.
iv., pp. 81, 86; _Eaton_, in _Id._, vol. iv., p. 221; _Emory_, in
_Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav._, p. 48; see further _Ind. Aff.
Reports_, from 1854 to 1872; _Browne's Apache Country_, p. 290. 'These
Papagos regularly visit a salt lake, which lies near the coast and just
across the line of Sonora, from which they pack large quantities of
salt, and find a ready market at Tubac and Tucson.' _Walker_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 352, and 1860, p. 168. 'Many Pimas had jars of the
molasses expressed from the fruit of the Cereus Giganteus.' _Emory_, in
_Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav._, p. 48.

[833] 'Die Vernichtung des Eigenthums eines Verstorbenen,--einen
unglücklichen Gebrauch der jeden materiellen Fortschritt unmöglich
macht.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. i., p. 437. 'The right of
inheritance is held by the females generally, but it is often claimed by
the men also.' _Gorman_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1858, p. 200. 'All the
effects of the deceased (Pima) become common property: his grain is
distributed; his fields shared out to those who need land; his chickens
and dogs divided up among the tribe.' _Browne's Apache Country_, pp. 69,
112; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 121; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 262; _Niza_, in _Ternaux-Compans_,
_Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 264, 265, 267, 268; _Id._, in _Hakluyt's
Voy._, vol. iii., p. 372. The Zuñis 'will sell nothing for money, but
dispose of their commodities entirely in barter.' _Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon._, p. 91. The Pimos 'wanted white beads for what they had to sell,
and knew the value of money.' _Cutts' Conq. of Cal._, p. 188;
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. xi., pp. 164,
72. 'Ils apportèrent des coquillages, des turquoises et des plumes.'
_Cabeza de Vaca_, _Relation_, in _Id._, tom. vii., p. 274; _Diaz_, in
_Id._, tom. xi., p. 294; _Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p.
377. Many of the Pueblo Indians are rich, 'one family being worth over
one hundred thousand dollars. They have large flocks.' _Colyer_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 89; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 144.

[834] _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 278; _Davis' El Gringo_, p.
147; _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 177; _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._,
vol. xvii., p. 458; _Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, tom. iii., p. 380;
_Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 284.

[835] 'Estos ahijados tienen mucho oro y lo benefician.' _Salmeron_,
_Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. i., p. 28. 'They
vse vessels of gold and siluer, for they have no other mettal.' _Niza_,
in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 372; _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 2, 133; _Espejo_, in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 386-8, 393-5; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe
Weereld_, p. 217; _Diaz_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom.
ix., p. 294.

[836] Pueblo government purely democratic; election held once a year.
'Besides the officers elected by universal suffrage, the principal
chiefs compose a "council of wise men."' _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 142-4.
'One of their regulations is to appoint a secret watch for the purpose
of keeping down disorders and vices of every description.' _Gregg's Com.
Prairies_, vol. i., p. 274. See further: _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 61, 168; _Niza_, in
_Id._, p. 269; _Palmer_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xvii., p. 455; _De
Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 298; _Wislizenus' Tour_, p. 26; _Mayer's Mex.,
Aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. 359; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxi., p. 277; _Stanley's Portraits_, p. 55.

[837] _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 85, 76;
_Marcy's Army Life_, p. 108.

[838] 'Gobierno no tienen alguno, ni leyes, tradiciones ó costumbres con
que gobernarse.' _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv.,
tom. i., p. 366. 'Cada cual gobernado por un anciano, y todas por el
general de la nacion.' _Escudero_, _Noticias de Sonora y Sinaloa_, p.
142; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 267. Compare: _Grossman_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1870, p. 124; _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1859, p. 356;
_Walker's Pimas, MS._

[839] 'Un homme n'épouse jamais plus d'une seule femme.' _Castañeda_,
in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 164; _Ten Broeck_,
in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 86-7; _Ward_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1864, p. 190.

[840] 'Ils traitent bien leurs femmes.' _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 126. 'Desde que maman
los Niños, los laban sus Madres con Nieve todo el cuerpo.' _Torquemada_,
_Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 679; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 123; _Scenes
in the Rocky Mts._, p. 178.

[841] 'Early marriages occur ... but the relation is not binding until
progeny results.' _Poston_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 152. 'No girl
is forced to marry against her will, however eligible her parents may
consider the match.' _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 222-4;
_Davis' El Gringo_, p. 146; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 105; _Browne's
Apache Country_, p. 112.

[842] 'Si el marido y mujer se desavienen y los hijos non pequeños, se
arriman á cualquiera de los dos y cada uno gana por su lado.' _Mange_,
_Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 369. 'Tanto
los pápagos occidentales, como los citados gilas desconocen la
poligamia.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 161. 'Among the Pimas
loose women are tolerated.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 102-4; _Ruxton_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1850, tom. cxxvi., p. 59; _Emory's Rept.
U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey_, vol. i., p. 117.

[843] 'The Pimas also cultivate a kind of tobacco, this, which is very
light, they make up into cigaritos, never using a pipe.' _Walker's
Pimas, MS._ The Pueblos 'sometimes get intoxicated.' _Walker_, in _Ind.
Aff. Rept._, 1860, p. 169. The Pueblos 'are generally free from
drunkenness.' _Davis' El Gringo_, p. 146. _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 112;
_Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 446; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p.
249.

[844] _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, p. 17. 'Their hair hung loose upon
their shoulders, and both men and women had their hands painted with
white clay, in such a way as to resemble open-work gloves. The women ...
were bare-footed, with the exception of a little piece tied about the
heel.... They all wore their hair combed over their faces, in a manner
that rendered it utterly impossible to recognize any of them.... They
keep their elbows close to their sides, and their heels pressed firmly
together, and do not raise the feet, but shuffle along with a kind of
rolling motion, moving their arms, from the elbows down, with time to
the step. At times, each man dances around his squaw; while she turns
herself about, as if her heels formed a pivot on which she moved.' _Ten
Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 74. The dresses of the
men were similar to those worn on other festivities, 'except that they
wear on their heads large pasteboard towers painted typically, and
curiously decorated with feathers; and each man has his face entirely
covered by a vizor made of small willows with the bark peeled off, and
dyed a deep brown.' _Id._, p. 83. 'Such horrible masks I never saw
before--noses six inches long, mouths from ear to ear, and great goggle
eyes, as big as half a hen's egg, hanging by a string partly out of the
socket.' _Id._, p. 85. 'Each Pueblo generally had its particular uniform
dress and its particular dance. The men of one village would sometimes
disguise themselves as elks, with horns on their heads, moving on
all-fours, and mimicking the animal they were attempting to personate.
Others would appear in the garb of a turkey, with large heavy wings.'
_Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., pp. 271, 275. 'Festejo todo (Pimas) el
dia nuestra llegada con un esquisito baile en forma circular, en cuyo
centro figaraba una prolongada asta donde pendian trece cabelleras,
arcos, flechas y demas despojos de otros tantos enemigos apaches que
habian muerto.' _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv.,
tom. i., p. 277. 'Este lo forma una junta de truhanes vestidos de
ridículo y autorizados por los viejos del pueblo para cometer los
mayores desórdenes, y gustan tanto de estos hechos, que ni los maridos
reparan las infamias que cometen con sus mugeres, ni las que resultan en
perjuicio de las hijas.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., pp.
333-5. For further particulars see _Kendall's Nar._, vol. i., p. 378;
_Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 104-8; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 244;
_Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 154-5; _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii.,
p. 394; _Sitgreaves' Zuñi Ex._, plates 1, 2, 3; _Whipple_, in _Pac. R.
R. Rept._, vol. iii., p. 67; _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 343.

[845] _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 73-4;
_Johnson's Hist. Arizona_, p. 11. 'Their instruments consisted, each of
half a gourd, placed before them, with the convex side up; upon this
they placed, with the left hand, a smooth stick, and with their right
drew forward and backwards upon it, in a sawing manner, a notched one.'
_Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, p. 17. 'I noticed, among other things, a
reed musical instrument with a bell-shaped end like a clarionet, and a
pair of painted drumsticks tipped with gaudy feathers.' _Ives' Colorado
Riv._, p. 121. 'Les Indiens (Pueblos) accompagnent leurs danses et leur
chants avec des flûtes, où sont marqués les endroits où il faut placer
les doigts.... Ils disent que ces gens se réunissent cinq ou six pour
jouer de la flûte; que ces instruments sont d'inégales grandeurs.'
_Diaz_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 295;
_Castañeda_, in _Id._, pp. 72, 172; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii.,
p. 455; _Garces_, _Diario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p.
331. 'While they are at work, a man, seated at the door, plays on a
bagpipe, so that they work keeping time: they sing in three voices.'
_Davis' El Gringo_, p. 119.

[846] The Cocomaricopas, 'componen unas bolas redondas del tamaño de una
pelota de materia negra como pez, y embutidas en ellas varias conchitas
pequeñas del mar con que hacen labores y con que juegan y apuestan,
tirándola con la punta del pié corren tres ó cuatro leguas y la
particularidad es que el que da vuelta y llega al puesto donde
comenzaron y salieron á la par ese gana.' _Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 851. 'It is a favorite
amusement with both men [Maricopas] and boys to try their skill at
hitting the pitahaya, which presents a fine object on the plain. Numbers
often collect for this purpose; and in crossing the great plateau, where
these plants abound, it is common to see them pierced with arrows.'
_Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 237; _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, 1857, p. 301. 'Amusements of all kinds are universally resorted
to [among the Pueblos]; such as foot-racing, horse-racing,
cock-fighting, gambling, dancing, eating, and drinking.' _Ward_, in
_Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 192; _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. 299, 365.

[847] _Walker's Pimas, MS._ 'The Papago of to-day will on no account
kill a coyote.' _Davidson_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1865, p. 132. 'Eben so
abergläubischen Gebrauch hatten sie bey drohenden Kieselwetter, da sie
den Hagel abzuwenden ein Stück von einem Palmteppiche an einem Stecken
anhefteten und gegen die Wolken richteten.' _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, pp.
203, 207; _Arny_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, pp. 385, 389. 'A sentinel
ascends every morning at sunrise to the roof of the highest house, and,
with eyes directed towards the east, looks out for the arrival of the
divine chieftain, who is to give the sign of deliverance.' _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. i., p. 165, 197, 390, 210, and vol. ii., p. 54. 'On a dit
que la coutume singulière de conserver perpétuellement un feu sacré près
duquel les anciens Mexicains attendaient le retour du dieu Quetzacoatl,
existe aussi chez les Pueblos.' _Ruxton_, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1850, tom. cxxvi., p. 58; _Sedelmair_, _Relacion_, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv.. p. 851; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 278; _Cremony's Apaches_, p. 92;
_Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._, p. 93. 'I, however, one night, at San
Felipe, clandestinely witnessed a portion of their secret worship. One
of their secret night dances is called Tocina, which is too horrible to
write about.' _Arny_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 385; _Ward_, in
_Id._, 1864, p. 192; _Ives' Colorado Riv._, p. 121; _Ten Broeck_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 73, 77; _Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_,
p. 278. 'Ils ont des prêtres ... ils montent sur la terrasse la plus
élevée du village et font un sermon au moment où le soleil se lève.'
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 133,
164, 239.

[848] _Walker's Pimas, MS._; _Mowry_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1857, p.
361; _Ruggles_, in _Id._, 1869, p. 209; _Andrews_, in _Id._, 1870, p.
117; _Ward_, in _Id._, 1864, p. 188; _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 119, 311.
The cause of the decrease of the Pecos Indians is 'owing to the fact
that they seldom if ever marry outside of their respective pueblos.'
_Parker_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1869, p. 251; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p.
273. 'Au milieu [of the estufa] est un foyer allumé, sur lequel on jette
de temps en temps une poignée de thym, ce qui suffit pour entretenir la
chaleur, de sorte qu'on y est comme dans un bain.' _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 170.

[849] _Walker's Pimas, MS._ The Pimas, 'usan enterrar sus varones con su
arco y flechas, y algun bastimento y calabazo de agua, señal que
alcanzan vislumbre de la immortalidad, aunque no con la distincion de
prémio ó castigo.' _Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iv., tom. i., p. 369. 'The Maricopas invariably bury their dead, and
mock the ceremony of cremation.' ... 'sacrifice at the grave of a
warrior all the property of which he died possessed, together with all
in possession of his various relatives.' _Cremony's Apaches_, pp. 103,
105. 'The Pimos bury their dead, while the Coco-Maricopas burn theirs.'
_Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 262. 'The females of the family
[Pueblo] approached in a mournful procession (while the males stood
around in solemn silence), each one bearing on her head a tinaja, or
water-jar, filled with water, which she emptied into the grave, and
whilst doing so commenced the death-cry. They came singly and emptied
their jars, and each one joined successively in the death-cry; ... They
believe that on a certain day (in August, I think) the dead rise from
their graves and flit about the neighboring hills, and on that day, all
who have lost friends, carry out quantities of corn, bread, meat, and
such other good things of this life as they can obtain, and place them
in the haunts frequented by the dead, in order that the departed spirits
may once more enjoy the comforts of this nether world.' _Ten Broeck_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 75-8. If the dead Pima was a chief,
'the villagers are summoned to his burial. Over his grave they hold a
grand festival. The women weep and the men howl, and they go into a
profound mourning of tar. Soon the cattle are driven up and slaughtered,
and every body heavily-laden with sorrow, loads his squaw with beef, and
feasts for many days.' _Browne's Apache Country_, pp. 112-13; _Murr_,
_Nachrichten_, pp. 204, 210, 281; _Ferry_, _Scènes de la vie Sauvage_,
p. 115; _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p. 500; _Id._, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii.,
p. 437; _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix.,
p. 165.

[850] 'Though naturally disposed to peaceful pursuits, the Papagoes are
not deficient in courage.' _Browne's Apache Country_, pp. 142, 107,
110-11, 140, 277; _Johnson's Hist. Arizona_, p. 10; _Stone_, in _Hist.
Mag._, vol. v., p. 166; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p.
188; _Escudero_, _Noticias de Sonora y Sinaloa_, p. 142; _Velasco_,
_Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 116, 160; _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, pp. 500,
506, 512; _Id._, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., pp. 437, 447, 454; _Garces_,
_Diario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. 238; _Sedelmair_,
_Relacion_, in _Id._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. 850; _Gallardo_, in
_Id._, p. 892. 'The peaceful disposition of the Maricopas is not the
result of incapacity for war, for they are at all times enabled to meet,
and vanquish the Apaches in battle.' _Emory_, in _Fremont and Emory's
Notes of Trav._, p. 49; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. iii., pp.
62, 103; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 282; _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 440, 443;
_Mange_, _Itinerario_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp.
365-6; _Mowry's Arizona_, p. 30; _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, pp.
397, 412; _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii.,
tom. iv., pp. 553-5, 838. 'The Pueblos were industrious and unwarlike in
their habits.' _Marcy's Army Life_, pp. 98, 110. The Moquis 'are a mild
and peaceful race of people, almost unacquainted with the use of arms,
and not given to war. They are strictly honest.... They are kind and
hospitable to strangers.' _Davis' El Gringo_, pp. 421, 145. 'C'est une
race (Pueblos) remarquablement sobre et industrieuse, qui se distingue
par sa moralité.' _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1851,
tom. cxxxi., pp. 277, 288, 290; _Ruxton_, in _Id._, 1850, tom. cxxvi.,
pp. 45, 47, 60; _Ruxton's Adven. Mex._, p. 191; _Ives' Colorado Riv._,
pp. 31, 36, 45, 122, 124-7; _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., p. 120,
268, 274; _Pike's Explor. Trav._, p. 342; _Ribas_, _Hist. de los
Triumphos_, p. 241; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. iv., p.
453; _Champagnac_, _Voyageur_, p. 84; _Hughes' Doniphan's Ex._, pp. 196,
221; _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 392; _Wislizenus'
Tour_, p. 26; _Pattie's Pers. Nar._, p. 91; _Ten Broeck_, in
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., pp. 72, 87; _Eaton_, in _Id._, p. 220;
_Bent_, in _Id._, vol. i., p. 244; _Kendall's Nar._, vol. i., p. 378;
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 126,
163; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 528; _Möllhausen_,
_Tagebuch_, p. 144; _Möllhausen_, _Reisen in die Felsengeb._, tom. ii.,
p. 240. The Pueblos 'are passionately fond of dancing, and give
themselves up to this diversion with a kind of frenzy.' _Domenech's
Deserts_, vol. i., pp. 198, 185, 203, 206, and vol. ii., pp. 19, 51-2;
_Cutts' Conq. of Cal._, pp. 188-9, 222; _Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon._,
pp. 81, 91, 113, 115; _Scenes in the Rocky Mts._, p. 177; _Torquemada_,
_Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., pp. 679-80; _Mayer's Mex. as it Was_, p. 239;
_Id._, _Mex., Aztec etc._, vol. ii., p. 358. See further: _Ind. Aff.
Rept._, from 1854 to 1872.

[851] _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1863, p. 359; _Forbes' Cal._,
pp. 20-2; _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. i., p. 239; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de
la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 451; _Gleeson's Hist. Cath. Church_, vol. i.,
pp. 95-6; _Prichard's Researches_, vol. v., p. 446. 'Esse sono tre nella
California Cristiana, cioè quelle de' Pericui, de' Guaicuri, e de'
Cochimì.' _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i., p. 109. Venegas, in
giving the opinion of Father Taravàl, says: 'Tres son (dice este habil
Missionero) las Lenguas: la Cochimi, la Pericù, y la de Loreto. De esta
ultima salen dos ramos, y son: la Guaycùra, y la Uchiti; verdad es, que
es la variacion tanta, que el que no tuviere connocimiento de las tres
Lenguas, juzgara, no solo que hay quatro Lenguas, sino que hay cinco....
Està poblada la primera àzia el Medioda, desde el Cabo de San Lucas,
hasta mas acá del Puerto de la Paz de la Nacion Pericú, ó siguiendo la
terminacion Castellana de los Pericúes: la segunda desde la Paz, hasta
mas arriba del Presidio Real de Loreto, es de los Monquis; la tercera
desde el territorio de Loreto, por todo lo descubierto al Norte de la
nacion Cochimi, ó de los Cochimíes.' _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._,
tom. i., pp. 63-6. 'Auf der Halbinsel Alt-Californien wohnen: an der
Südspitze die Perícues, dann die Monquis oder Menguis, zu welchen die
Familien der Guaycúras und Coras gehören, die Cochímas oder Colímiës,
die Laimónes, die Utschítas oder Vehítis, und die Icas.' _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. i., p. 212. 'All the Indian tribes of the Peninsula seem
to be affiliated with the Yumas of the Colorado and with the Coras below
La Paz ... in no case do they differ in intellect, habits, customs,
dress, implements of war, or hunting, traditions, or appearances from
the well-known Digger Indians of Alta-California, and undoubtedly belong
to the same race or family.' _Browne's Lower Cal._, pp. 53-4.

[852] 'Di buona statura, ben fatti, sani, e robusti.' _Clavigero_,
_Storia della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 112-13. 'El color en todos es muy
moreno ... no tienen barba ni nada de vello en el cuerpo.' _Californias,
Noticias_, carta i., pp. 47, 61, carta ii., p. 12. Compare: _Kino_, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. 407; _Crespi_, in _Id._, serie
iv., tom. vii., p. 135; _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii.,
fol. 345, 351; _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., p. 68;
_Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1863, p. 357; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. 443-4; _Gleeson's Hist. Cath. Church_,
p. 99.

[853] 'Siendo de gran deshonra en los varones el vestido.'
_Salvatierra_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. v., p. 42. 'Aprons
are about a span wide, and of different length.' _Baegert_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1863, pp. 361-2. Consult further: _Venegas_,
_Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., pp. 81-8, 113; _Gleeson's Hist. Cath.
Church_, pp. 96-9, 107-10; _Forbes' Cal._, pp. 9, 18; _Clavigero_,
_Storia della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 120-3, 133, 144; _Gemelli Careri_, in
_Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol. iv., p. 469, and in _Berenger_, _Col.
de Voy._, tom. ii., p. 371.

[854] 'Unos se cortan un pedazo de oreja, otros las dos; otros agugerean
el labio inferior, otros las narizes, y es cosa de risa, pues allí
llevan colgando ratoncillos, lagartijitas, conchitas. &c.' _Californias,
Noticias_, carta i., pp. 48, 22. 'It has been asserted that they also
pierce the nose. I can only say that I saw no one disfigured in that
particular manner.' _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1863, p. 362.
'Nudi agunt, genas quadratis quibusdam notis signati.' _De Laet_, _Novus
Orbis_, p. 306. Further reference: _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_,
tom. ii., pp. 279, 282; _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii.,
fol. 347-8, and in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 412; _Delaporte_,
_Reisen_, tom. x., p. 428.

[855] _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., p. 88; _Campbell's Hist.
Span. Amer._, p. 86; _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii.,
fol. 347, 350; _Californias, Noticias_, carta i., p. 45; _Lockman's Trav.
Jesuits_, vol. i., p. 403. 'Le abitazioncelle più comuni sono certe
chiuse circolari di sassi sciolti, ed ammucchiati, le quali hanno cinque
piedi di diametro, e meno di due d'altezza.' _Clavigero_, _Storia della
Cal._, tom. i., p. 119. 'I am certainly not much mistaken in saying that
many of them change their night-quarters more than a hundred times in a
year.' _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1863, p. 361.

[856] 'Twenty-four pounds of meat in twenty-four hours is not deemed an
extraordinary ration for a single person.' _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1863, pp. 364-7. 'No tienen horas señaladas para saciar su
apetito: comen cuanto hallan por delante; hasta las cosas mas sucias
sirven á su gula.' _Californias, Noticias_, carta i., pp. 46-7, 21; see
also: _Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom.
iv., p. 13; _Salvatierra_, in _Id._, serie iv., tom. v., p. 116;
_Crespi_, in _Id._, serie iv., tom. vii., pp. 106, 135, 143;
_Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., pp. 423-4; _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 153; _Alegre_, _Hist.
Comp. de Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 106; _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_,
_Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 350; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._,
tom. vi., p. 451; _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. i., p. 318.

[857] 'La pesca si fa da loro in due maniere, o con reti nella spiaggia,
o ne' gorghi rimasi della marea, o con forconi in alto mare.'
_Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 111, 125-6; 'Use neither
nets nor hooks, but a kind of lance.' _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._,
1863, p. 364. 'Forman los Indios redes para pescar, y para otros usos.'
_Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., p. 52.

[858] 'Poichè le stesse donne si lavavano, e si lavano anche oggidì con
essa (orina) la faccia.' _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i., p.
133.

[859] _Gemelli Careri_, in _Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol. iv., p. 469;
_Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 346, 351; _Baegert_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1863, p. 362; _Kino_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iv., tom. i., p. 407; _Crespi_, in _Id._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. 143.
'Si trovarono altre spezie d'armi per ferir da vicino, ma tutte di
legno. La prima è un mazzapicchio, simile nella forma a una girella col
suo manico tutta d'un pezzo. La seconda è a foggia d'un ascia di
legnajuolo tutta anch'essa d'un sol pezzo. La terza ha la forma d'una
piccola scimitara.' _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 124,
127.

[860] 'El modo de publicar la guerra era, hacer con mucho estruendo gran
provision de cañas, y pedernales para sus flechas, y procurar, que por
varios caminos llegassen las assonadas à oídos de sus contrarios.'
_Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., pp. 97-8. Referring to
Venegas' work, Baegert, _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 385, says: 'All
that is said in reference to the warfare of the Californians is wrong.
In their former wars they merely attacked the enemy unexpectedly during
the night, or from an ambush, and killed as many as they could, without
order, previous declaration of war, or any ceremonies whatever.' See
also: _Apostólicos Afanes_, pp. 424-5, and _Clavigero_, _Storia della
Cal._, tom. i., p. 127.

[861] 'In lieu of knives and scissors they use sharp flints for cutting
almost everything--cane, wood, aloë, and even their hair.' _Baegert_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1863, p. 363. 'Le loro reti, tanto quelle da
pescare, quanto quelle, che servono a portare checchessia, le fanno col
filo, che tirano dalle foglie del Mezcal.' _Clavigero_, _Storia della
Cal._, tom. i., p. 124. Further notice in _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_,
_Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 350; _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._,
tom. i., p. 90; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 447.

[862] Vancouver, _Voy._, vol. ii., p. 482, speaking of Lower California
says: 'We were visited by one of the natives in a straw canoe.' 'Vedemmo
che vsci vna canoua in mare con tre Indiani dalle lor capanne.' _Ulloa_,
in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 350-1, 343, 347, and in
_Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 418. See further: _Clavigero_, _Storia
della Cal._, tom. i., p. 126; _Gemelli Careri_, in _Churchill's Col.
Voyages_, vol. iv., p. 469, and in _Berenger_, _Col. de Voy._, tom. ii.,
p. 371.

[863] 'Tienen trato de pescado con los indios de tierra adentro.'
_Salmeron_, _Relaciones_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p.
17; also, _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 347-8.

[864] 'Su modo de contar es muy diminuto y corto, pues apénas llegan á
cinco, y otros á diez, y van multiplicando segun pueden.' _Californias,
Noticias_, carta i., p. 103. 'Non dividevano l'Anno in Mesi, ma
solamente in sei stagioni.' _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i.,
pp. 110-11.

[865] _Clavigero_, _Storia della, Cal._, tom. i., pp. 129-30. _Venegas_,
_Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., p. 79. 'Entre ellos siempre hay alguno
mas desahogado y atrevido, que se reviste con el caracter de Capitan:
pero ni este tiene jurisdiccion alguna, ni le obedecen, y en estando
algo viejo lo suelen quitar del mando: solo en los lances que les tiene
cuenta siguen sus dictámenes.' _Californias, Noticias_, carta i., pp.
40, 45.

[866] _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 130-4; _Ulloa_, in
_Ramusio_, _Navigationi_ tom. iii., fol. 348; _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_,
_Theatro_, tom. ii., p. 284; _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1863,
pp. 367-9. 'Sus casamientos son muy ridiculos: unos para casarse enseñan
sus cuerpos á las mugeres, y estas á ellos; y adoptándose á su gusto, se
casan: otros en fin, que es lo mas comun, se casan sin ceremonia.'
_Californias, Noticias_, carta i., pp. 50, 40-1. 'El adulterio era
mirado como delito, que por lo menos daba justo motivo á la venganza, á
excepción de dos ocasiones: una la de sus fiestas, y bayles: y otra la
de las luchas.' _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., p. 93. 'Les
hommes s'approchaient des femmes comme des animaux, et les femmes se
mettaient publiquement à quatre pattes pour les recevoir.' _Castañeda_,
in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 153. This method of
copulation is by no means peculiar to the Lower Californians, but is
practiced almost universally by the wild tribes of the Pacific States.
Writers naturally do not mention this custom, but travellers are
unanimous in their verbal accounts respecting it.

[867] 'Fiesta entre los Indios Gentiles no es mas que una concurrencia
de hombres y mugeres de todas partes para desahogar los apetitos de
luxuria y gula.' _Californias, Noticias_, carta i., pp. 60-75. 'Una de
las fiestas mas celebres de los Cochimies era la del dia, en que
repartian las pieles à las mugeres una vez al año.' _Venegas_, _Noticia
de la Cal._, tom. i., pp. 85-6, 96; _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._,
1864, p. 389; _Salvatierra_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. v.,
pp. 103, 116.

[868] _Californias, Noticias_, carta i., pp. 59-65; _Clavigero_, _Storia
della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 126, 146. 'There existed always among the
Californians individuals of both sexes who played the part of sorcerers
or conjurers, pretending to possess the power of exorcising the devil.'
_Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 389.

[869] _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, pp. 385-7. 'Las carreras,
luchas, peleas y otras trabajos voluntarios les ocasionan muchos dolores
de pecho y otros accidentes.' _Californias, Noticias_, carta i., pp.
85-99.

[870] _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 112-13, 142-5;
_Apostólicos Afanes_, pp. 426-7; _Salvatierra_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie iv., tom. v., p. 23; _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., pp. 433-4.
'Rogaba el enfermo, que le chupassen, y soplassen de el modo mismo, que
lo hacian los Curanderos. Executaban todos por su orden este oficio de
piedad, chupando, y soplando primero la parte lesa, y despues todos los
otros organos de los sentidos.' _Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom.
i., pp. 117-18.

[871] Baegert says: 'It seems tedious to them to spend much time near an
old, dying person that was long ago a burden to them and looked upon
with indifference. A person of my acquaintance restored a girl to life
that was already bound up in a deer-skin, according to their custom, and
ready for burial.' _Baegert_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, p. 387.

[872] 'Solevano essi onorar la memoria d'alcuni defunti ponendo sopra
un' alta pertica la loro figura gossamente formata di rami, presso alla
quale si metteva un Guama a predicar le loro lodi.' _Clavigero_, _Storia
della Cal._, tom. i., p. 144; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No.
96, p. 184.

[873] 'La estupidèz è insensibilidad: la falta de conocimiento, y
reflexion: la inconstancia, y volubilidad de una voluntad, y apetitos
sin freno, sin luz, y aun sin objeto: la pereza, y horror à todo
trabajo, y fatiga à la adhesion perpetua à todo linage de placer, y
entretenimiento puerìl, y brutàl: la pusilanimidad, y flaqueza de animo;
y finalmente, la falta miserable de todo lo que forma à los hombres esto
es racionales, politicos, y utiles para sì, y para la sociedad.'
_Venegas_, _Noticia de la Cal._, tom. i., pp. 74-9, 87-8. 'Las naciones
del Norte eran mas despiertas, dóciles y fieles, ménos viciosas y
libres, y por tanto mejor dispuestas para recibir el cristianismo que
las que habitaban al Sur.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. lxxxix. 'Eran
los coras y pericues, y generalmente las rancherias del Sur de
California, mas ladinos y capaces; pero tambien mas viciosos é inquietos
que las demas naciones de la península.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 252. 'Ces peuples sont d'une tres-grande docilité,
ils se laissent instruire.' _Californie, Nouvelle Descente_, in _Voy. de
l'Empereur de la Chine_, p. 104. Other allusions to their character may
be found in _Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex._, vol. i., p. 330;
_Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. ii., p. 292; _Baegert_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1864, pp. 378-85; _Crespi_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie iv., tom. vii., pp. 135, 143-6; _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_,
p. 442; _Clavigero_, _Storia della Cal._, tom. i., pp. 113-14;
_Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 451.

[874] Father Ribas, the first priest who visited the Yaquis, was
surprised at the loud rough tone in which they spoke. When he
remonstrated with them for doing so, their reply was, 'No vés que soy
Hiaqui: y dezianlo, porque essa palabra, y nombre, significa, el que
habla a gritos.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 285. Mayos:
'Their name comes from their position, and means in their own language
boundary, they having been bounded on both sides by hostile tribes.'
_Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 165. 'Segun parece, la palabra
_talahumali ó tarahumari_ significa, "_corredor de a pié_;" de _tala ó
tara_, pié, _y huma_, correr'. _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 364.
'La palabra _tepehuan_ creen algunos que es Mexicana, y corrupcion de
_tepehuani_, conquistador; ó bien un compuesto de _tepetl_, monte, y
_hua_, desinencia que en Mexicano indica posesion, como si dijéramos
señor ó dueño del monte. Otros, acaso con mas exactitud, dicen que
_tepchuan_ es voz tarahumar, derivada de _pehua_ ó pegua, que significa
_duro_, lo cual conviene con el carácter de la nacion.' _Id._, tom. ii.,
p. 45. 'La palabra _acaxee_ parece ser la misma que la de _acaxete_,
nombre de un pueblo perteneciente al estado de _Puebla_, ambos
corrupcion de la palabra Mexicana _acaxitl_, compuesta de _atl_ (agua,)
y de _caxitl_ (cazuela ó escudilla), hoy tambien corrompida, _cajete_:
el todo significa _alberca_, nombre perfectamente adecuado á la cosa,
pues que Alcedo, [_Diccion. geográf. de América_] dice que en _Acaxete_,
"hay una caja ó arca de agua de piedra de cantería, en que se recogen
las que bajan de la Sierra y se conducen à _Tepeaca_: el nombre, pues,
nos dice que si no la obra arquitectónica, á lo menos la idea y la
ejecucion, vienen desde los antiguos Mexicanos."' _Diccionario Universal
de Hist. Geog._, tom. i., p. 31.

[875] 'Las mugeres son notables por los pechos y piés pequeños.'
_Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, p. 169. 'Tienen la vista muy aguda....
El oido es tambien vivissimo.' _Arlegui_, _Crón. de Zacatecas_, pp.
174-5. See also, _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 7, 145, 285,
677; _Zuñiga_, in _Escudero_, _Noticias de Sonora y Sinaloa_, p. 142;
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 416; _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, pp. 184, 189; _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans._, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 44, 49; _Beaumont_,
_Crón. de Mechoacan, MS._, p. 242; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, pp.
79-80; _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 80; _Berlandier y Thovel_,
_Diario_, p. 69; _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 289, 299; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._,
vol. i., pp. 444, 446; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., pp. 214-15,
tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 419; _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom.
iii., fol. 345; _Guzman_, _Rel. Anon._, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de
Doc._, tom. ii., fol. 296; _Sevin_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxx., p. 12; _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp. 284-5; _Ward's Mexico_, vol.
i., pp. 571, 583; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 562;
_Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 362.

[876] 'No alcanzan ropa de algodon, si no es algunas pampanillas y
alguna manta muy gruesa; porque el vestido de ellos es de cuero de
venados adobados, y el vestido que dellos hacen es coser un cuero con
otro y ponérselos por debajo del brazo atados al hombro, y las mujeres
traen sus naguas hechas con sus jirones que les llegan hasta los
tobillos como faja.' _Guzman_, _Rel. Anón._, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de
Doc._, tom. ii., pp. 296, 290, 481. The Ceri women wear 'pieles de
alcatras por lo general, ó una tosca frazada de lana envuelta en la
cintura.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 131, 74, 153.

[877] The Temoris had 'las orejas cercadas de los zarcillos que ellos
vsan, adornados de conchas de nacar labradas, y ensartadas en hilos
azules, y cercan toda la oreja.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp.
226, 286, 472. Near Culiacan, Nuño de Guzman met about 50,000 warriors
who 'traian al cuello sartas de codornices, pericos pequeños y otros
diferentes pajaritos.' _Tello_, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._, tom.
ii., p. 354. The Humes, 'coronadas sus cabezas de diademas de varias
plumas de papagayos, guacamayas con algunos penachos de hoja de plata
batida.' _Ahumada_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. 96.
'Los Indios de este nuevo Reyno son de diversas naciones que se
distinguen por la diversidad de rayas en el rostro.' _Padilla_, _Conq.
N. Galicia, MS._, pp. 472, 531. 'No hemos visto á ningun carrizo pintado
con vermellon, tal como lo hacen otros.' _Berlandier y Thovel_,
_Diario_, p. 69. For further description see _Hardy's Trav._, pp.
289-90, 298; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. i., p. 445; _Combier_,
_Voy._, pp. 199-200; _Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp.
362-4; _Espejo_, in _Id._, pp. 384, 390-1; _Cabeza de Vaca_, _Relation_,
in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. vii., p. 250; _Castañeda_,
in _Id._, tom. ix., p. 157; _Jaramillo_, in _Id._, p. 366; _Ward's
Mexico_, vol. i., p. 571; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96,
pp. 184-5, 190; _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 552; _Arnaya_, in _Id._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. 63;
_Descrip. Top._, in _Id._, serie iv., tom. iv., pp. 113-14;
_Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, pp. 79-80; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._,
tom. ii., pp. 574-6, 609; _Sevin_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxx., pp. 12, 25-6; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., pp. 401,
406, and ii., pp. 124, 184; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, pp. 208, 226,
228; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, pp. 235, 254-5; _Cabeza de Vaca_,
_Relation_, pp. 167-8; _García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i., p. 93;
_Beaumont_, _Crón. de Mechoacan, MS._, pp. 241-2; _Hazart_,
_Kirchen-Geschichte_, tom. ii., p. 539.

[878] 'Todos los pueblos de los indios cobiertas las casas de esteras, á
las cuales llaman en lengua de México _petates_, y por esta causa le
llamamos Petatlan.' _Guzman_, _Rel. Anón._, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de
Doc._, tom. ii., p. 296. Compare _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_,
_Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 49, 156; _Combier_, _Voy._, pp. 157,
160, 164, 200; _Coronado_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 363;
_Niza_, in _Id._, p. 366; _Espejo_, in _Id._, p. 384; _Montanus_,
_Nieuwe Weereld_, pp. 206, 216, 227-8; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, pp.
232, 255; _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 3, 6, 7, 155, 222, 594;
_Cabeza de Vaca_, _Relation_, pp. 167, 175; _Id._, in _Ramusio_,
_Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 327; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii.,
pp. 574, 576, 609; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 396;
_Azpilcueta_, in _Id._, tom. ii., p. 186; _Berlandier y Thovel_,
_Diario_, p. 68.

[879] 'Comian inmundas carnes sin reservar la humana.' _Padilla_, _Conq.
N. Galicia, MS._, pp. 530, 80, 84, 533. 'Ils mangent tous de la chair
humaine, et vont à la chasse des hommes.' _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 152, 158-9. See also,
_Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, pp. 150, 180-2; _Ribas_, _Hist. de los
Triumphos_, pp. 3, 6, 7, 11, 14, 175, 217, 385, 671.

[880] Poçolatl, 'beuida de mayz cozido.' Pinolatl, 'beuida de mayz y
chia tostado.' _Molina_, _Vocabulario_. The Batucas 'cuanto siembran es
de regadío ... sus milpas parecen todas huertas.' _Azpilcueta_, in
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. ii., p. 186, see also p. 184;
Acaxées, mode of fishing, etc., in _Id._, tom. i., pp. 401-5, also
283-4, 399, 402-3; Tarahumaras, mode of fishing, hunting, and cooking.
_Murr_, _Nachrichten_, pp. 310, 317, 322-3, 337, 342. The Yaquis 'fields
and gardens in the highest state of cultivation.' _Ward's Mexico_, vol.
ii., p. 606. For further account of their food and manner of cooking,
etc., see _Revista Mexicana_, tom. i., pp. 375-6; _Gomara_, _Hist.
Ind._, fol. 54; _Zepeda_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p.
158; _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 72, 169-70; _Bartlett's Pers.
Nar._, vol. i., pp. 465, 469; _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._ serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 549-50; _Jaramillo_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 366; _Cabeza de Vaca_,
in _Id._, tom. vii., pp. 242-3, 249-50, 265; _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's
Voy._, tom. iii., p. 384; _Coronado_, in _Id._, pp. 363, 374; _Oviedo_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p. 609; _Combier_, _Voy._, pp. 160-2, 169, 198,
200, 312; _Guzman_, _Rel. Anón._, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._, tom.
ii., p. 289; _Tello_, in _Id._, p. 353; _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp.
286, 310; _Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 442; _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 185; _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_,
_Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 341-2; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., pp. 256, 260; _Zuñiga_, in _Id._, 1842,
tom. xciii., p. 239; _Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 166;
_Malte-Brun_, _Sonora_, pp. 14-5.

[881] Of the Ceris it is said that 'la ponzoña con que apestan las
puntas de sus flechas, es la mas activa que se ha conocido por acá ...
no se ha podido averiguar cuáles sean á punto fijo los mortíferos
materiales de esta pestilencial maniobra? Y aunque se dicen muchas
cosas, como que lo hacen de cabezas de víboras irritadas cortadas al
tiempo que clavan sus dientes en un pedazo de bofes y de carne humana ya
medio podrida ... pues no es mas que adivinar lo que no sabemos. Sin
duda su principal ingrediente será alguna raíz.' _Sonora_, _Descrip.
Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 560-1, 552. 'El
magot es un árbol pequeño muy losano y muy hermoso á la vista; pero á
corta incision de la corteza brota una leche mortal que les servia en su
gentilidad para emponzoñar sus flechas.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. ii., p. 215. See also _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 298-9, 391;
_Stone_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 166; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol.
ii., p. 57; _Cabeza de Vaca_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i.,
tom. vii., pp. 250-1; _Castañeda_, in _Id._, série i., tom. ix., pp.
209, 222-3; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, pp. 185-6, 190;
_Arlegui_, _Chron. de Zacatecas_, p. 153; _Tello_, in _Icazbalceta_,
_Col. de Doc._, tom. ii., p. 354; _Guzman_, _Rel. Anón._, in _Id._, p.
289, 296; _Descrip. Topog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iv.,
p. 114; _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 10, 110, 473, 677; _De
Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp. 285, 287, 305, 310; _Sevin_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xxx., pp. 12, 25; _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_,
p. 68; _Ramirez_, in _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 284;
_Combier_, _Voy._, pp. 198, 346; _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol.
iii., pp. 384, 390; _Niza_, in _Id._, p. 567; _Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_,
_Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 342-3; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, pp.
208, 228; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, pp. 234, 255; _Padilla_, _Conq. N.
Galicia, MS._, p. 520; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 55.

[882] 'El jóven que desea valer por las armas, ántes de ser admitido en
toda forma á esta profesion, debe hacer méritos en algunas campañas ...
despues de probado algun tiempo en estas experiencias y tenida la
aprobacion de los ancianos, citan al pretendiente para algun dia en que
deba dar la última prueba de su valor.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. ii., pp. 218-9, 396-8, and tom. i., pp. 396-9. Examine
_Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv.,
pp. 544-7; _Lizasoin_, in _Id._, pp. 684-5.

[883] As to the Mayos, 'eran estos indios en sus costumbres y modo de
guerrear como los de Sinaloa, hacian la centinela cada cuarto de hora,
poniendose en fila cincuenta indios, uno delante de otro, con sus arcos
y flechas y con una rodilla en tierra.' _Beaumont_, _Crón. de Mechoacan,
MS._, p. 241. See also _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 9, 18, 76,
473-4; _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 522; _Guzman_, _Rel.
Anón._, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._, tom. ii., pp. 301-2; _Hazart_,
_Kirchen-Geschichte_, tom. ii., p. 539; _Ferry_, _Scènes de le vie
Sauvage_, p. 76; _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, p. 150; _Coronado_,
in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p. 363; _Gallatin_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1851, tom. cxxxi., p. 256.

[884] See _Combier_, _Voy._, p. 157; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, pp. 307,
335, 337; _Descrip. Topog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iv., tom. iv.,
p. 114; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 290.

[885] 'Vsauan el arte de hilar, y texer algodon, ó otras yeruas
siluestres, como el Cañamo de Castilla, o Pita.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los
Triumphos_, pp. 12, 200. For the Yaquis, see _Velasco_, _Noticias de
Sonora_, p. 73; for the Ópatas and Jovas, _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in
_Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 550-2; and for the
Tarahumares, _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 344; _Cabeza de Vaca_,
_Relation_, pp. 166, 174; Id., in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii.,
fol. 327; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, pp. 79-80.

[886] 'El indio tomando el asta por medio, boga con gran destreza por
uno y otro lado.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. iii., p. 119.
'An Indian paddles himself ... by means of a long elastic pole of about
twelve or fourteen feet in length.' _Hardy's Trav._, pp. 297, 291. See
also _Niza_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., pp. 366; _Cabeza de Vaca_,
_Relation_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. vii., p. 250;
_Ulloa_, in _Ramusio_, _Navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. 342.

[887] The Carrizos 'no tienen caballos, pero en cambio, sus pueblos
están llenos de perros.' _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 70. The
Tahus 'sacrifiaient une partie de leurs richesses, qui consistaient en
étoffes et en turquoises.' _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._,
série i., tom. ix., p. 150. Compare further, _Combier_, _Voy._, pp.
200-1; _Zuñiga_, in _Escudero_, _Noticias de Sonora y Sinaloa_, p. 135;
_Mex. in 1842_, p. 68; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. ii., p. 260;
_Id._, _Cent. Amer._, p. 380; _Cabeza de Vaca_, _Relation_, p. 167.

[888] 'Son grandes observadores de los Astros, porque como siempre
duermen á Cielo descubierto, y estan hechos â mirarlos, se marabillan de
qualquier nueva impression, que registran en los Cielos.' _Arlegui_,
_Chrón. de Zacatecas_, p. 175. Among the Yaquis, 'hay asimismo músicos
de violin y arpa, todo por puro ingenio, sin que se pueda decir que se
les hayan enseñado las primeras reglas.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de
Sonora_, p. 74. See also _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 12; _De
Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 285; _Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._,
série i., tom. ix., p. 152; _Combier_, _Voy._, p. 201; _Murr_,
_Nachrichten_, p. 370; _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 80.

[889] 'Leyes, ni Reyes que castigassen tales vicios y pecados, no los
tuuieron, ni se hallaua entre ellos genero de autoridad y gouierno
politico que los castigasse.' _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 11;
_Combier_, _Voy._, p. 200; _Ahumada_, _Carta_, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie iv., tom. iii., p. 96; _Espejo_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii.,
p. 384.

[890] The word _cacique_, which was used by the Spaniards to designate
the chiefs and rulers of provinces and towns throughout the West Indies,
Central America, Mexico, and Peru, is originally taken from the Cuban
language. Oviedo, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iv., p. 595, explains it as
follows: 'Cacique: señor, jefe absoluto ó rey de una comarca ó Estado.
En nuestros dias suele emplearse esta voz en algunas poblaciones de la
parte oriental de Cuba, para designar al regidor decano de un
ayuntamiento. Asi se dice: Regidor cacique. Metafóricamente tiene
aplicacion en nuestra península, para designar á los que en los pueblos
pequeños llevan la voz y gobiernan á su antojo y capricho.'

[891] 'Juntos grandes y pequeños ponen á los mocetones y mujeres
casaderas en dos hileras, y dada una seña emprenden á correr éstas; dada
otra siguen la carrera aquellos, y alcanzándolas, ha de cojer cada uno
la suya de la tetilla izquierda; y quedan hechos y confirmados los
desposorios.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie
iii., tom. iv., p. 542-3. 'Unos se casan con una muger sola, y tienen
muchas mancebas.... Otras se casan con quantas mugeres quieren.... Otras
naciones tienen las mugeres por comunes.' _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de
Zacatecas_, pp. 154-7. For further account of their family relations and
marriage customs, see _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 11, 145,
171, 201, 242, 475; _Soc. Géog._, _Bulletin_, série v., No. 96, p. 186;
_Castañeda_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. 150,
152, 155, 158; _Hazart_, _Kirchen-Geschichte_, tom. ii., p. 541;
_Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 530; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de
Jesus_, tom. i., p. 452; _Arista_, in _Id._, p. 417; _Berlandier y
Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 70; _Combier_, _Voy._, p. 201; _Löwenstern_,
_Mexique_, p. 409.

[892] Les Yaquis 'aiment surtout une danse appelée _tutuli gamuchi_ ...
dans laquelle ils changent de femmes en se cédant réciproquement tous
leurs droits conjugaux.' _Zuñiga_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._,
1842, tom. xciii., pp. 238-9. The Sisibotaris; 'En las danzas ... fué
muy de notar que aunque danzaban juntos hombres y mugeres, ni se
hablaban ni se tocaban inmediatamente las manos.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp.
de Jesus_, tom. ii., p. 124, and tom. i., pp. 405-7. In the province of
Pánuco, 'cuando estan en sus borracheras é fiestas, lo que no pueden
beber por la boca, se lo hacen echar por bajo con un embudo.' _Guzman_,
_Rel. Anón._, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._, tom. ii., p. 295. See
further, _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 9, 15, 256, 672; _Murr_,
_Nachrichten_, pp. 321, 343, 345; _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 287;
_Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, pp. 519, 530; _Castañeda_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. 158; _Hardy's Trav._,
p. 440; _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, pp. 158, 160; _Donnavan's
Adven._, pp. 46, 48; _Las Casas_, _Hist. Indias, MS._, lib. iii., cap.
168; _García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i., p. 167; _Soc. Géog._,
_Bulletin_, série v., No. 96. p. 190; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom.
ii., p. 261; _Id._, _Cent. Amer._, p. 381; _Sevin_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xxx., p. 25.

[893] The Ópatas have 'grande respeto y veneracion que hasta hoy tienen
á los hombrecitos pequeños y contrahechos, á quienes temen y franquean
su casa y comida.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist. Mex._,
serie iii., tom. iv., p. 628. 'Angulis atque adytis angues complures
reperti, peregrinum in modum conglobati, capitibus supra et infra
exsertis, terribili rictu, si quis propuis accessisset, cæterum innocui;
quos barbari vel maxime venerabantur, quod diabolus ipsis hac forma
apparere consuesset: eosdem tamen et manibus contrectabant et nonnunquam
iis vescebantur.' _De Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 284. Further reference in
_Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 472; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom.
iii., pp. 574-5; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p. 79; _Cabeza de
Vaca_, _Relation_, p. 169; _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, pp. 166-7;
_Sevin_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxx., p. 26.

[894] 'Quando entre los Indios ay algun contagio, que es el de viruelas
el mas continuo, de que mueren innumerables, mudan cada dia lugares, y
se van á los mas retirados montes, buscando los sitios mas espinosos y
enmarañados, para que de miedo de las espinas, no entren (segun juzgan,
y como cierto lo afirman) las viruelas.' _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de
Zacatecas_, pp. 152-3, 182. See also, _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom.
ii., pt. ii., p. 431; _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_, pp. 70-1;
_Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 399, tom. ii., pp. 213-4,
219-20; _Ribas_, _Hist. de los Triumphos_, pp. 17, 322-3; _Löwenstern_,
_Mexique_, p. 411; _Hardy's Trav._, p. 282; _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._,
in _Doc. Hist. Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 547-8.

[895] See _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iii., p. 516; _Villa_, in _Prieto_,
_Viajes_, p. 443.

[896] 'Las mas de las naciones referidas son totalmente barbaras, y de
groseros entendimientos; gente baxa.' _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_,
p. 149. The Yaquis: 'by far the most industrious and useful of all the
other tribes in Sonora ... celebrated for the exuberance of their wit.'
_Hardy's Trav._, pp. 439, 442. 'Los ópatas son tan honrados como
valientes ... la nacion ópata es pacífica, dócil, y hasta cierto punto
diferente de todas los demas indígenas del continente ... son amantes
del trabajo.' _Zuñiga_, in _Escudero_, _Noticias de Sonora y Sinaloa_,
pp. 139-41. 'La tribu ópata fué la que manifestó un carácter franco,
dócil, y con simpatías á los blancos ... siempre fué inclinada al órden
y la paz.' _Velasco_, _Noticias de Sonora_, pp. 151, 117. The Ópatas
'son de génio malicioso, disimulados y en sumo grado vengativos; y en
esto sobresalen las mujeres.' _Sonora_, _Descrip. Geog._, in _Doc. Hist.
Mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 629-30. See also: _Ribas_, _Hist. de
los Triumphos_, pp. 237, 285, 358, 369, 385; _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._,
vol. i., pp. 442-3; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. i., p. 583, vol. ii., p. 606;
_Combier_, _Voy._, pp. 198-201; _Malte-Brun_, _Sonora_, pp. 13-14;
_Browne's Apache Country_, p. 248; _Lachapelle_, _Raousset-Boulbon_, p.
79; _Cabeza de Vaca_, _Relation_, pp. 169, 176; _Arricivita_, _Crónica
Seráfica_, pp. 405, 442; _Alegre+, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., pp.
284, 402-3, 405, 452, and tom. ii., p. 184; _Padilla_, _Conq. N.
Galicia, MS._, pp. 80, 84; _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_, pp. 69-70;
_García Conde_, in _Album Mex._, tom. i., p. 93.




  [Illustration: NATIVE RACES of the PACIFIC STATES
   MEXICAN GROUP]


CHAPTER VI.

WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.

      TERRITORIAL ASPECTS--TWO MAIN DIVISIONS; WILD TRIBES OF
      CENTRAL MEXICO, AND WILD TRIBES OF SOUTHERN MEXICO--THE
      CORAS AND OTHERS IN JALISCO--DESCENDANTS OF THE AZTECS--THE
      OTOMÍS AND MAZAHUAS ADJACENT TO THE VALLEY OF MEXICO--THE
      PAMES--THE TARASCOS AND MATLALTZINCAS OF MICHOACAN--THE
      HUAZTECS AND TOTONACS OF VERA CRUZ AND TAMAULIPAS--THE
      CHONTALES, CHINANTECS, MAZATECS, CUICATECS, CHATINOS,
      MIZTECS, ZAPOTECS, MIJES, HUAVES, CHIAPANECS, ZOQUES,
      LACANDONES, CHOLES, MAMES, TZOTZILES, TZENDALES, CHOCHONES,
      AND OTHERS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO.


The term WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, which I employ to distinguish this from
the other groupal divisions of the Native Races of the Pacific States
needs some explanation. The territory embraced under this title extends
from latitude 23° north, to the eighteenth parallel on the Atlantic, and
the fifteenth on the Pacific; that is to the Central American line,
including Yucatan and excluding Guatemala. At the time of the conquest,
a large portion of this region as well as part of Central America was
occupied by those nations that we call civilized, which are fully
described in the second volume of this work. These several precincts of
civilization may be likened to suns, shining brightly at their
respective centres, and radiating into the surrounding darkness with
greater or less intensity according to distance and circumstances. The
bloody conquest achieved, these suns were dimmed, their light went out;
part of this civilization merged into that of the conquerors, and part
fell back into the more distant darkness. Later many of the advanced
aboriginals became more and more identified with the Spaniards; the
other natives soon came to be regarded as savages, who, once pacified,
spread over the seat of their nation's former grandeur, obliterating
many of the traces of their peoples' former high advancement;--so that
very shortly after the Spaniards became masters of the land, any
description of its aborigines could but be a description of its savage
nations, or of retrograded, or partially obliterated peoples of higher
culture. And thus I find it, and thus must treat the subject, going over
the whole territory almost as if there had been no civilization at all.

For variety and striking contrasts the climate and scenery of central
and southern Mexico is surpassed by no region of equal extent in the
world. It is here that the tierra caliente, or hot border-land of either
ocean, the tierra templada, or temperate belt adjacent, and the tierra
fria, or cool elevated table-land assume their most definite forms. The
interior table-lands have an average elevation above the sea of from
5,000 to 8,000 feet. The geological formation is on a Titanic scale;
huge rocks of basalt, granite, and lava rise in fantastic shapes,
intersected by deep barrancas or ravines presenting unparalleled scenes
of grandeur. Prominent among the surrounding mountains tower the
snow-clad crests of Orizaba and Popocatepetl,--volcanic piles whose
slumbering fires appear to be taking but a temporary rest. The plateau
is variegated with many lakes; the soil, almost everywhere fertile, is
overspread with a multitudinous variety of nopal, maguey, and forests of
evergreen, among which the graceful fir and umbrageous oak stand
conspicuous. Seasons come and go and leave no mark behind; or it may be
said that spring, satisfied with its abode, there takes up its perpetual
rest; the temperature is ever mellow, with resplendent sunshine by day,
while at night the stars shine with a brilliancy nowhere excelled. The
limits of the tierra templada it is impossible to define, as the term
is used in a somewhat arbitrary manner by the inhabitants of different
altitudes. On the lowlands along the coast known as the tierra caliente,
the features of nature are changed; vegetation assumes a more luxuriant
aspect; palms, parasitical plants and trees of a tropical character,
take the place of the evergreens of a colder clime; the climate is not
salubrious, and the heat is oppressive. On the Atlantic side furious
storms, called 'northers,' spring up with a suddenness and violence
unexampled in other places, often causing much destruction to both life
and property.

  [Sidenote: TRIBES OF CENTRAL MEXICO.]

For the purpose of description, I separate the Wild Tribes of Mexico in
two parts,--the _Wild Tribes of Central Mexico_, and the _Wild Tribes of
Southern Mexico_. The first of these divisions extends from 23° north
latitude to the northern boundary of the state of Oajaca, or rather to
an imaginary line, taking as its base said boundary and running from the
Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, that is to say from Vera Cruz to
Acapulco.

To enumerate and locate all the nations and tribes within this
territory, to separate the uncivilized from the civilized, the mythical
from the real, is not possible. I have therefore deferred to the end of
this chapter such authorities as I have on the subject, where they will
be found ranged in proper order under the head of Tribal Boundaries. Of
the tribes that are known to have possessed no civilization, such as was
found among the Aztecs and other cultivated nations, I will only mention
the people denominated _Chichimecs_, under which general name were
designated a multitude of tribes inhabiting the mountains north of the
valley of Mexico, all of which were prominently dependent on the result
of the chase for their subsistence; the ancient _Otomís_ who mostly
occupied the mountains which inclose the valley of Mexico; and the
_Pames_ in Querétaro. South of Mexico were numerous other nations who
were more or less intermixed with those more civilized. Finally, I shall
describe those people who, since they came in contact with the whites,
have retrograded in such a degree, that their manners and customs can
only be given in connection with those of the Wild Tribes, and which
comprise a large proportion of all the present aborigines of
Mexico.[897]


  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL FEATURES IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

The natives of the valley of Mexico are represented by some authorities
as tall, by others as of short stature; but from what I gather we may
conclude that on the whole they are over rather than under the middle
height, well made and robust. In Vera Cruz they are somewhat shorter,
say from four feet six inches to five feet at most, and clumsily made,
having their knees further apart than Europeans and walking with their
toes turned in; the women are shorter than the men and become fully
developed at a very early age. In Jalisco both sexes are tall; they are
also well built, and among the women are found many forms of such
perfection that they might well serve as models for sculpture.
Throughout the table-lands, the men are muscular and well proportioned.
Their skin is very thick and conceals the action of the muscles; they
are out-kneed, turn their toes well in, and their carriage is anything
but graceful.[898] Various opinions have been advanced by competent
persons in regard to the features of the natives of Mexico. Baron Von
Humboldt describes them as resembling the aborigines of Canada, Peru,
Florida, and Brazil; having elongated eyes, the corners turned towards
the temples, prominent cheek-bones, large lips, and a sweet expression
about the mouth, forming a strong contrast with their otherwise gloomy
and severe aspect. Rossi says that their eyes are oval, and that their
physiognomy resembles that of the Asiatics. According to Prescott, they
bear a strong resemblance to the Egyptians, and Viollet le Duc asserts
that the Malay type predominates. They have generally a very narrow
forehead, an oval face, long black eyes set wide apart, large mouth with
thick lips, teeth white and regular, the nose small and rather flat. The
general expression of the countenance is melancholy, and exhibits a
strange combination of moroseness and gentleness. Although some very
handsome women are to be found among them, the majority of the race,
both men and women, are ugly, and in old age, which with the women
begins early, their faces are much wrinkled and their features quite
harsh. They have acute senses, especially that of sight, which remains
unimpaired to a very advanced age. Long, straight, black, thick, and
glossy hair is common to all; their beard is thin, and most of them,
especially in the capital and its vicinity, have a small moustache; but
very few, if any, have hair on their legs, thighs, or arms. It is very
seldom that a gray-haired native is found. All the people referred to,
are remarkable for their strength and endurance, which may be judged of
by the heavy burdens they carry on their backs. The inhabitants of the
table-lands are of various hues; some are olive, some brown, others of a
red copper color. In the Sierras some have a bluish tint as if dyed with
indigo. The natives of the tierras calientes are of a darker complexion,
inclining to black. There are some called _Indios Pintos_, whose cuticle
is of a less deep color, inclining more to yellowish and marked with
dark copper- spots.[899]

  [Sidenote: MEXICAN COSTUMES.]

  [Sidenote: DRESS IN MICHOACAN.]

In the valley of Mexico the natives wear the _ichapilli_, or a sort of
shirt without sleeves, made of white and blue striped cotton, which
reaches to the knees and is gathered round the waist with a belt. This
is frequently the only garment worn by the aborigines of the Mexican
valley. In lieu of the ancient feather ornaments for the head, they now
use large felt or straw hats, the rim of which is about nine inches in
width; or they bind round the head a  handkerchief. Most of the
men and women go barefooted, and those who have coverings for their
feet, use the _cacles_, or _huaraches_, (sandals) made of tanned leather
and tied with thongs to the ankles. The dress of the women has undergone
even less change than that of the men, since the time of the Spanish
conquest. Many of them wear over the ichapilli a cotton or woolen cloth,
bound by a belt just above the hips; this answers the purpose of a
petticoat; it is woven in stripes of dark colors or embellished with
figures. The ichapilli is white, with figures worked on the breast, and
is longer than that worn by the men. In Puebla the women wear very
narrow petticoats and elegant _quichemels_ covering the breast and back
and embroidered all over with silk and worsted. In the state of Vera
Cruz and other parts of the tierra caliente the men's apparel consists
of a short white cotton jacket or a dark- woolen tunic, with
broad open sleeves fastened round the waist with a sash, and short blue
or white breeches open at the sides near the knee; these are a Spanish
innovation, but they continue to wear the square short cloak, _tilma_ or
_tilmatli_, with the end tied on one of the shoulders or across the
breast. Sometimes a pair of shorter breeches made of goat or deer skin
are worn over the cotton ones, and also a jacket of the same material.
The women wear a coarse cotton shift with large open sleeves, often
worked about the neck in bright  worsted, to suit the wearer's
fancy; a blue woolen petticoat is gathered round the waist, very full
below, and a blue or brown rebozo is used as a wrapper for the
shoulders. Sometimes a muffler is used for the head and face.[900] They
bestow great care on their luxuriant hair, which they arrange in two
long braids that fall from the back of the head, neatly painted and
interwoven with worsted of lively colors, and the ends tied at the
waist-band or joined behind; others bind the braids tightly round the
head, and occasionally add some wild flowers.[901] In the tierra fria, a
thick dark woolen blanket with a hole in the centre through which passes
the head protects the wearer during the day from the cold and rain, and
serves at night for a covering and often for the bed itself. This
garment has in some places taken the place of the tilmatli. Children are
kept in a nude state until they are eight or ten years old, and infants
are enveloped in a coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and limbs
exposed. The Huicholas of Jalisco have a peculiar dress; the men wear a
short tunic made of coarse brown or blue woolen fabric, tightened at the
waist with a girdle hanging down in front and behind, and very short
breeches of poorly dressed goat or deer skin without hair, at the lower
edges of which are strung a number of leathern thongs. Married men and
women wear straw hats with high pointed crowns and broad turned-up rims;
near the top is a narrow and handsomely woven band of many colors, with
long tassels. Their long bushy hair is secured tightly round the crown
of the head with a bright woolen ribbon. Many of the men do up the hair
in queues with worsted ribbons, with heavy tassels that hang below the
waist.[902] De Laet, describing the natives of Jalisco early in the
seventeenth century, speaks of square cloths made of cotton and maguey
tied on the right or left shoulder, and small pebbles or shells strung
together as necklaces. Mota Padilla, in his history of New Galicia, says
that the Chichimecs at Xalostitlan, in 1530, went naked. The inhabitants
of Alzatlan about that time adorned themselves with feathers. In
Zacualco, the common dress of the women about the same period,
particularly widows, was the _huipil_, made of fine cotton cloth,
generally black. The natives of the province of Pánuco, for many years
after the Spanish Conquest, continued to go naked; they pulled out the
beard, perforated the nose and ears, and, filing their teeth to a sharp
point, bored holes in them and dyed them black. The slayer of a human
being used to hang a piece of the skin and hair of the slain at the
waist, considering such things as very valuable ornaments. Their hair
they dyed in various colors, and wore it in different forms. Their women
adorned themselves profusely, and braided their hair with feathers.
Sahagun, speaking of the Matlaltzincas, says that their apparel was of
cloth made from the maguey; referring to the Tlahuicas, he mentions
among their faults that they used to go overdressed; and of the
Macoaques, he writes: that the oldest women as well as the young ones
paint themselves with a varnish called _tecocavitl_, or with some
 stuff, and wear feathers about their arms and legs. The
Tlascaltecs in 1568 wore cotton-cloth mantles painted in various fine
colors. The inhabitants of Cholula, according to Cortés, dressed better
than the Tlascaltecs; the better class wearing over their other clothes
a garment resembling the Moorish cloak, yet somewhat different, as that
of Cholula had pockets, but in the cloth, the cut, and the fringe,
there was much resemblance to the cloak worn in Africa. Old Spanish
writers tell us that the natives of Michoacan made much use of feathers
for wearing-apparel and for adorning their bodies and heads. At their
later religious festivals, both sexes appear in white, the men with
shirt and trowsers, having a band placed slantingly across the breast
and back, tied to a belt round the waist, and on the head a small red
cloth arranged like a turban, from which are pendent scarlet feathers,
similar to those used by the ancient Aztec warriors. The man is also
adorned with a quantity of showy beads, and three small mirrors, one of
which is placed on his breast, another on his back, and the third
invariably on his forehead. At his back he carries a quiver, and in his
hand a bow, adorned with bright  artificial flowers, or it may be
the Aztec axe, so painted and varnished as to resemble flint. At the
present time, a native woman, however poor, still wears a necklace of
coral or rows of red beads. The unmarried women of Chilpanzinco used to
daub their faces with a pounded yellow flower. In Durango, the natives
were accustomed to rub their swarthy bodies with clay of various colors,
and paint reptiles and other animals thereon.[903]

The dwellings of the Wild Tribes of Central Mexico vary with climate and
locality. In the lowlands, sheds consisting of a few poles stuck in the
ground, the spaces between filled with rushes, and the roof covered with
palm-leaves, afforded sufficient shelter. In the colder highlands they
built somewhat more substantial houses of trunks of trees, tied together
with creeping plants, the walls plastered with mud or clay, the roof of
split boards kept in place with stones. In treeless parts, houses were
constructed of adobe or sun-dried bricks and stones, and the interior
walls covered with mats; the best houses were only one story high, and
the humbler habitations too low to allow a man to stand erect. The
entire house constituted but one room, where all the family lived,
sleeping on the bare ground. A few stones placed in the middle of the
floor, served as a fireplace where food was cooked. In Vera Cruz there
is a separate small hut for cooking purposes. The wild nomadic
Chichimecs lived in caverns or fissures of rocks situated in secluded
valleys, and the Pames contented themselves with the shade afforded by
the forest-trees.[904]

  [Sidenote: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE.]

Corn, beans, tomatoes, chile, and a variety of fruits and vegetables
constitute the chief subsistence of the people, and in those districts
where the banana flourishes, it ranks as an important article of food.
The natives of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas gather large quantities of the
pitahaya, by means of an osier basket attached to a long pole; round the
brim are arranged several forks, for the purpose of detaching the fruit,
which then drops into the basket. From the blossoms and buds they make a
ragout, and also grind the seeds for bread. From the sea and rivers they
obtain a plentiful supply of fish, and they have acquired from childhood
a peculiar habit of eating earth, which is said to be injurious to their
physical development. It has been stated that in former days they used
human flesh as food.

The Otomís and tribes of Jalisco cultivated but little grain, and
consumed that little before it ripened, trusting for a further supply of
food to the natural productions of the soil and to game, such as
rabbits, deer, moles, and birds, and also foxes, rats, snakes and other
reptiles. Corn-cobs they ground, mixed cacao with the powder, and baked
the mixture on the fire. From the lakes in the valley of Mexico they
gathered flies' eggs, deposited there in large quantities by a species
of flies called by the Mexicans _axayacatl_, that is to say,
'water-face,' and by MM. Meneville and Virlet d'Aoust _corixa femorata_
and _notonecta unifasciata_. The eggs being pounded, were moulded into
lumps and sold in the market-place; they were esteemed a special
delicacy, and were eaten fried. These people are also accused by some
authors of having eaten human flesh.[905]

Other tribes, inhabiting the valley of Mexico, Puebla, Michoacan, and
Querétaro, show a greater inclination to cultivate the soil, and live
almost wholly on the products of their own industry. They plant corn by
making a hole in the ground with a sharp-pointed stick, into which the
seed is dropped and covered up. Honey is plentiful, and when a tree is
found where bees are at work, they stop the entrance with clay, cut off
the branch and hang it outside their huts; after a short time they
remove the clay, and the bees continue their operations in their new
locality, as if they had not been disturbed.[906]

Gemelli Careri thus describes a novel method of catching ducks: "Others
contrive to deceive ducks, as shy as they are; for when they have us'd
'em to be frequently among calabashes left floating on the lake for that
purpose, they make holes in those calabashes, so that putting their
heads in them, they can see out of them, and then going up to the neck
in the water, they go among the ducks and draw 'em down by the feet."
For making tortillas, the corn is prepared by placing it in water, to
which a little lime is added, and allowing it to soak all night, or it
is put to simmer over a slow fire; the husk is then easily separated and
the corn mashed or ground on the metate. From this paste the tortilla is
formed by patting it between the hands into a very thin cake, which is
cooked on an earthern pan placed over the fire; the tortilla is eaten
with boiled beans, and a mixture of chile and lard. The ground corn is
also mixed with water and strained through a sieve; of this liquor they
make a gruel, to which is added a little cacao or sugar. The sediment
which remains in the sieve is used to make tamales, which are a
combination of chopped meat, chile, and onions, which ingredients are
covered with the corn paste, and the whole enveloped in corn or plantain
leaves and boiled or baked. The Mexicans are very moderate eaters, but
have an insatiable passion for strong liquors.[907]

Laziness and filth follow us as we proceed southward in our
observations; among the Mexicans, the poorer classes especially are
filthy in their persons, and have a disgusting appearance, which
increases with the infirmities of age. Many of them indulge freely in
the use of a steam-bath called _temazcalli_, similar to the Russian
vapor-bath, but it does not appear to have the effect of cleansing their
persons.[908]

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS AND SHIELDS.]

All these tribes use bows and arrows; the latter carried in a quiver
slung at the back, a few spare ones being stuck in the belt for
immediate use. A heavy club is secured to the arm by a thong, and
wielded with terrible effect at close quarters. In battle, the principal
warriors are armed with spears and shields. Another weapon much in use
is the sling, from which they cast stones to a great distance and with
considerable accuracy. The natives of the valley of Mexico kill birds
with small pellets blown through a hollow tube.[909]

The clubs, which are from three to four feet in length, are made of a
species of heavy wood, some having a round knob at the end similar to a
mace, others broad and flat, and armed with sharp pieces of obsidian,
fastened on either side. Acosta states that with these weapons they
could cut off the head of a horse at one stroke. Spears and arrows are
pointed with flint or obsidian, the latter having a reed shaft with a
piece of hard wood inserted into it to hold the point. Their quivers are
made of deer-skin, and sometimes of seal or shark-skin. Shields are
ingeniously constructed of small canes so woven together with thread
that they can be folded up and carried tied under the arm. When wanted
for use they are loosed, and when opened out they cover the greater part
of the body.[910]

  [Sidenote: WAR AND TREATMENT OF CAPTIVES.]

Aboriginally, as with most northern nations, warfare was the normal
state of these people. The so-called Chichimecs attacked all who entered
their domain, whether for hunting, collecting fruit, or fighting. War
once declared between two tribes, each side endeavors to secure by
alliance as many of their neighbors as possible; to which end
ambassadors are despatched to the chiefs of adjacent provinces, each
bearing in his hand an arrow of the make peculiar to the tribe of the
stranger chief. Arriving at the village, the messenger seeks out the
chief and lays the arrow at his feet; if the proposal of his master be
accepted by the stranger chief, the rendezvous is named and the
messenger departs. The ambassadors having returned with their report,
preparations are at once made for the reception of the allies, a feast
is prepared, large quantities of game and intoxicating drink are made
ready, and as soon as the guests arrive the viands are placed before
them. Then follow eating and drinking, concluding with drunken orgies;
this finished, a council is held, and the assault planned, care being
taken to secure places suitable for an ambuscade and stones for the
slingers. A regular organization of forces is observed and every effort
made to outflank or surround the enemy. Archers and slingers march to an
attack in single file, always occupying the van, while warriors armed
with clubs and lances are drawn up in the rear; the assault is commenced
by the former, accompanied with furious shouts and yells. During the
period of their wars against the Spaniards, they often expended much
time and labor in the fortification of heights by means of tree-trunks,
and large rocks, which were so arranged, one on top of another, that at
a given signal they might be loosened, and let fall on their assailants.
The chiefs of the Tepecanos and contiguous tribes carried no weapons
during the action, but had rods with which they chastised those who
exhibited symptoms of cowardice, or became disorderly in the ranks.[911]
The slain were scalped or their heads cut off, and prisoners were
treated with the utmost barbarity, ending invariably in the death of the
unfortunates; often were they scalped while yet alive, and the bloody
trophy placed upon the heads of their tormentors. The heads of the slain
were placed on poles and paraded through their villages in token of
victory, the inhabitants meanwhile dancing round them. Young children
were sometimes spared, and reared to fight in the ranks of their
conquerors; and in order to brutalize their youthful minds and eradicate
all feelings of affection toward their own kindred, the youthful
captives were given to drink the brains and blood of their murdered
parents. The Chichimecs carried with them a bone, on which, when they
killed an enemy, they marked a notch, as a record of the number each had
slain. Mota Padilla states that when Nuño de Guzman arrived in the
valley of Coynan, in Jalisco, the chiefs came out to meet him, and, as a
sign of peace and obedience, dropped on one knee; upon being raised up
by the Spaniards, they placed round their necks strings of rabbits and
quails, in token of respect.[912]

As the wants of the people are few and simple, so is the inventory of
their implements and household furniture. Every family is supplied with
the indispensable metate, an oblong stone, about twelve by eighteen
inches, smooth on the surface and resting upon three legs in a slanting
position; with this is used a long stone roller, called the
_metlapilli_, for rubbing down the maize, and a large earthen pan,
called the _comalli_, on which to bake the tortillas. Their bottles,
bowls, and cups are made from gourds, often prettily painted, and kept
hanging round the walls; some unglazed earthenware vessels, ornamented
with black figures on a dull red ground, are used for cooking, a block
of wood serves for a stool and table, and lastly a few petates (Aztec,
_petlatl_, 'palm-leaf mat'), are laid upon the ground for beds. These
comprise the whole effects of a native's house. For agricultural
purposes, they have wooden spades, hoes, and sharp stakes for planting
corn. Their products are carried home or to market in large wicker-work
frames, often five feet high by two and a half feet broad, made from
split palm-leaves.[913]

In the State of Jalisco, the natives are celebrated for the manufacture
of blankets and woolen mantas; in other parts of the country they
continue to weave cotton stuffs in the same manner as before the
conquest, all on very primitive hand-looms. The common designs are in
blue or red and white stripes, but they are sometimes neatly worked with
figures, the juice from the murex or purple shell supplying the
vermilion color for the patterns. The inhabitants of Tonala exhibit much
taste and excellence in the production of pottery, making a great
variety of toys, masks, figures, and ornaments, besides the vessels for
household use. In the vicinity of Santa Cruz, the fibres of the aloe,
crushed upon the metate, are employed for the manufacture of ropes,
nets, bags, and flat round pelotas, used in rubbing down the body after
a bath. Palm-leaf mats and dressed skins also figure largely among the
articles of native industry.[914]

In Vera Cruz, they have canoes dug out of the trunk of a mahogany or
cedar tree, which are capable of holding several persons, and are worked
with single paddles.[915]

  [Sidenote: TRADE AND ARTS.]

A considerable trade is carried on in pottery, mats, dressed skins, and
manufactures of the aloe-fibre; also fruit, feathers, vegetables, and
fish. All such wares are packed in light osier baskets, which, thrown
upon their backs, are carried long distances to the several markets. In
the province of Vera Cruz, vanilla, jalap, and other herbs are important
articles of native commerce, and all the interior tribes place a high
value on salt, for which they readily exchange their products.[916]

The natives display much patience and skill in ornamental work,
especially carvings in stone, and in painting; although the figures,
their gods bearing witness, are all of grotesque shapes and appearance.
With nothing more than a rude knife, they make very ingenious figures,
of wax, of the pith of trees, of wood, charcoal, clay, and bone. They
are fond of music, and readily imitate any strain they hear. From time
immemorial they have retained a passion for flowers, in all seasons of
the year tastefully decorating therewith their dwellings and shops. The
art of working in gold and silver is well known to the natives of
Jalisco, who execute well-shaped specimens of cups and vases,
beautifully engraved and ornamented.[917]

The wild tribes surrounding, and in places intermixed with, the
Civilized Nations of Central Mexico, as far as I can learn, do not
appear to have had any systematic tribal government; at least, none of
the old historians have given any account of such. Some of the tribes
attach themselves to chiefs of their own choice, to whom they pay a
certain tribute from the produce of their labor or hunting expeditions,
while others live without any government or laws whatsoever, and only
elect a chief on going to war.[918]

  [Sidenote: MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.]

Marriage takes place at an early age, and girls are seldom found single
after they attain fourteen or fifteen years. Gomara, however, says that
women in the district of Tamaulipas are not married till they reach the
age of forty. The Otomís marry young, and if, when arrived at the age of
puberty, a young girl has not found a mate, her parents or guardians
select one for her, so that none shall remain single. Among the
Guachichiles, when a young man has selected a girl, he takes her on
trial for an indefinite period; if, afterwards, both parties are
satisfied with each other, the ceremony of marriage is performed; should
it happen, however, that the man be not pleased, he returns the girl to
her parents, which proceeding does not place any obstacle in the way of
her obtaining another suitor. The Chichimecs cannot marry without the
consent of parents; if a young man violates this law and takes a girl
without first obtaining the parental sanction, even with the intention
of marrying her, the penalty is death; usually, in ancient times, the
offender was shot with arrows. When one of this people marries, if the
girl proves not to be a virgin, the marriage is null, and the girl is
returned to her parents. When a young man desires to marry, his parents
make a visit to those of the intended bride, and leave with them a
bouquet of flowers bound with red wool; the bride's parents then send
round to the houses of their friends a bunch of mariguana, a narcotic
herb, which signifies that all are to meet together at the bride's
father's on the next night. The meeting is inaugurated by smoking; then
they chew mariguana, during which time all preliminaries of the marriage
are settled. The following day the resolutions of the conclave are made
known to the young man and woman, and if the decision is favorable, the
latter sends her husband a few presents, and from that time the parties
consider themselves married, and the friends give themselves up to
feasting and dancing.[919]

A plurality of wives was found among all the inhabitants of this region
at the time of the Spanish conquest, the first wife taking precedence of
those who came after her. Many had concubines who, it may be said,
ranked third in the family circle. The missionary Fathers, however, soon
put an end to the custom of more than one wife, whenever they had the
power to do so. Herrera says that the Chichimecs indulged in one wife
only, but that they had the habit of repudiating her for any slight
cause, and of taking another. The women are kept under subjection by
their husbands, and not only have all the indoor work to do, such as
cooking, spinning, and mat-making, but they are also required to carry
heavy burdens home from the market, and bring all the wood and water for
household use. Infants are carried on the mother's back, wrapped in a
coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and legs free. Among the
Chichimecs, when a woman goes out of her house, she places her child in
a wicker basket, and there leaves it, usually suspending it from the
branch of a tree. A child is suckled by the mother until another comes
on and crowds it out. Mühlenpfordt relates that he saw a boy of seven
or eight years of age demanding suck and receiving it from his mother. A
woman near her time of confinement, retires to a dark corner of the
house, attended by some aged woman, who sings to her, and pretends to
call the baby from afar. This midwife, however, does not in any way
assist at the birth, but as soon as the child is born she goes out,
meanwhile covering her face with her hands, so that she may not see.
Having walked once round the house, she opens her eyes, and the name of
the first object she sees is chosen as the name of the child. Among the
Otomís, a young woman about to become a mother is the victim of much
unnecessary suffering arising from their superstitious practices; loaded
with certain amulets and charms, she must carefully avoid meeting
certain individuals and animals whose look might produce evil effects--a
black dog especially must be avoided. The song of a mocking-bird near
the house is held to be a happy omen. At certain hours the mother was to
drink water which had been collected in the mountains, and previously
presented to the gods; the phases of the moon were carefully watched.
She was obliged to undergo an examination from the old crone who
attended her, and who performed certain ceremonies, such as burning
aromatic herbs mingled with saltpetre. Sometimes, amidst her pains, the
ancient attendant obliged her charge to jump about, and take powerful
medicines, which frequently caused abortion or premature delivery. If
the child was a boy, one of the old men took it in his arms and painted
on its breast an axe or some implement of husbandry, on its forehead a
feather, and on the shoulders a bow and quiver; he then invoked for it
the protection of the gods. If the child proved to be a female, the same
ceremony was observed, with the exception that an old woman officiated,
and the figure of a flower was traced over the region of the heart,
while on the palm of the right hand a spinning-wheel was pictured, and
on the left a piece of wool, thus indicating the several duties of after
life. According to the _Apostólicos Afanes_, the Coras call the child
after one of its uncles or aunts. In twelve months' time a feast is
prepared in honor of said young, and the mother and child, together with
the uncle or aunt, placed in the middle of the circle of relatives. Upon
these occasions much wine is drunk, and for the first time salt is
placed in the child's mouth. As soon as the child's teeth are all cut, a
similar meeting takes place, and the child is then given its first meal;
and again, at the age of twelve, the ancients come together, when the
youth is first given wine to drink. As a rule, young people show great
respect and affection for their parents; all their earnings being at
once handed over to them.[920]

In early times, immorality and prostitution existed among these nations
to an unparalleled extent. Gomara says that in the province of
Tamaulipas there were public brothels, where men enacted the part of
women, and where every night were assembled as many as a thousand, more
or less, of these worse than beastly beings, according to the size of
the village. It is certain that incest and every species of fornication
was commonly practiced, especially in the districts of Vera Cruz,
Tamaulipas, and Querétaro.[921]

  [Sidenote: CHILDREN AND AMUSEMENTS.]

Their amusements are stamped with the general melancholy of their
character. Dancing, accompanied with music and singing, is their
favorite pastime, but it is seldom indulged in without the accompanying
vice of intoxication. When the Totonacs join in their national dances,
they attach a kind of rattle called _aiacachtli_ to a band round the
head, that produces a peculiar sound during the performance. Among some
tribes women are not permitted to join in the dances. They make various
kinds of drinks and intoxicating liquors. One is made from the fruit of
the nopal or prickly pear, which is first peeled and pressed; the juice
is then passed through straw sieves, and placed by a fire or in the sun,
where in about an hour it ferments. Another drink, called chicha, is
made from raw sugar-cane, which is mashed with a wooden mallet and
passed through a pressing-machine. Their principal and national drink is
pulque, made from the agave americana, and is thus prepared: When the
plant is about to bloom, the heart or stalk is cut out, leaving a hole
in the center, which is covered with the outer leaves. Every twenty-four
hours, or in the hotter climates twice a day, the cavity fills with the
sap from the plant, which is taken out and fermented by the addition of
some already-fermented pulque, and the process is continued until the
plant ceases to yield a further supply. The liquor obtained is at first
of a thick white color, and is at all times very intoxicating.[922]

  [Sidenote: MAKING AN ALLIANCE.]

Father Joseph Arlegui, in his _Chrónica de la Provincia de Zacatecas_,
which province then comprised a much larger extent of territory than the
present state of Zacatecas, describes a singular ceremony nowhere else
mentioned. It is employed when one nation wishes to form a close
connection, friendship, alliance, family or blood relationship, so to
say (tratan de hacerse parientes), with another nation; and the process
is as follows: From the tribe with which the alliance is desired, a man
is seized, and a feast or drunken carousal commenced. Meanwhile the
victim destined to form the connecting link between the two bands, and
whose blood is to cement their friendship, is kept without food for
twenty-four hours. Into him is then poured of their execrable beverages
until he is filled, and his senses are deadened, when he is stretched
before a fire, built in a wide open place, where all the people may have
access to him. Having warmed well his body, and rubbed his ears, each
aspirant to the new friendship, armed with a sharp awl-shaped
instrument, made of deer's bone, proceeds to pierce the ears of the
prostrate wretch, each in turn forcing his sharpened bone through some
new place, which causes the blood to spurt afresh with every incision.
With the blood so drawn, the several members of the tribe anoint
themselves, and the ceremony is done. On the spot where the relative of
a Cora is killed in a fight, a piece of cloth is dipped in blood, and
kept as a remembrance, until his death be avenged by killing the slayer,
or one of the males of his family. When meeting each other on a journey,
they make use of many complimentary salutations, and a kind of
freemasonry appears to exist among them. Major Brantz Mayer mentions a
tribe at Cuernavaca that, in the event of a white man arriving at their
village, immediately seize and place him under guard for the night in a
large hut; he and his animals are carefully provided for until the
following day, when he is despatched from the village under an escort,
to wait upon him until far beyond the limits of the settlement. The
custom, at the present day, of hiding money in the ground is universal;
nothing would induce a native to entrust his savings with another. The
inhabitants of Querétaro spend much of their time basking in the sun,
and if the sun does not yield sufficient warmth, they scoop out a hole
in the ground, burn in it branches and leaves of the maguey, and when
properly heated, lay themselves down in the place, and cover themselves
with a mat or the loose earth.[923]

The Mexicans are not subject to many diseases. Small-pox, brought into
the country at the time of the conquest, typhoid fever, and syphilis are
those which cause the greatest destruction of life; the two former are
aggravated by the filthy condition of the villages. Yellow fever, or
black vomit, very rarely attacks the aborigines. The measles is a
prevalent disease. Death is likewise the result of severe wounds,
fractures, or bruises, most of which end in mortification, owing to
neglect, or to the barbarous remedies applied to combat them. The
Huastecs of Vera Cruz suffer from certain worms that breed in their
lips, and highly esteem salt for the curative properties they believe it
to possess against this disorder. At the village of Comalá, in the state
of Colima, a considerable number of the children are born deaf and dumb,
idiots, or deformed; besides which, when they reach a mature age, if we
may believe the early chroniclers, the goitres are more or less
developed on them, notwithstanding Humboldt's assertion that the
aborigines never suffer from this disorder. There is another disease,
cutaneous in its character, which is quite prevalent in many parts of
the country, and is supposed to be contracted under the influence of a
warm, humid, and unhealthy climate, and may be described as follows:
Without pain the skin assumes a variety of colors, the spots produced
being white, red, brownish, or blue. The Pintos, as south-western
coast-dwellers are called, the chief victims to this disorder,
experience no physical pain, except when they go into a cold climate;
then they feel twitchings in the places where the skin has changed
color. The disease is declared to be contagious: and from all accounts
no remedy for it has been as yet discovered. Formerly, an epidemic
called the _matlalzahuatl_ visited the country at long intervals and
caused terrible havoc. All the Spanish writers who speak of it call it
the _peste_, and suppose it to be the same scourge that destroyed nearly
the whole population of the Toltec empire in the eleventh century.
Others believe it to have borne a greater similarity to yellow fever.
The disease, whatever it is, made its appearance in 1545, 1576, and
1736, since which date I find no mention of it, destroying each time an
immense number of people; but upon no occasion did it attack the pure
whites or the mestizos. Its greatest havoc was in the interior, on the
central plateau, and in the coldest and most arid regions, the lowlands
of the coast being nearly, if not entirely, free from its effects.[924]

  [Sidenote: MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

When small-pox was first introduced, the natives resorted to bathing as
a cure, and a very large number succumbed to the disease. An old Spanish
author, writing in 1580, states that the natives of the kingdom of New
Spain had an extensive knowledge of medicinal herbs; that they seldom
resorted to bleeding or compound purgatives, for they had many simple
cathartic herbs. They were in the habit of making pills with the
India-rubber gum mixed with other substances, which they swallowed, and
rubbed themselves withal, to increase their agility and suppleness of
body. Cold water baths are commonly resorted to when attacked with
fever, and they cannot be prevailed upon to abandon the practice. The
_temazcalli_ or sweat-bath, is also very much used for cases of severe
illness. The bath-house stands close to a spring of fresh water, and is
built and heated not unlike a European bake-oven. When up to the
required temperature the fire is taken out, and water thrown in; the
patient is then thrust into it naked, feet foremost and head near the
aperture, and laid on a mat that covers the hot stones. The hole that
affords him air for breathing is about eighteen inches square. When
sufficiently steamed, and the body well beaten with rushes, a cold water
bath and a brisk rubbing complete the operation.[925]

In Michoacan, the natives believe that the leaves of a plant called
_cozolmecatl_ or _olcacaran_ applied to a sore part of the body will
foretell the result of the disorder; for if the leaves adhere to the
spot, it is a sure sign that the sufferer will get well, but if they
fall off, the contrary will happen. When prostrated with disease, the
nearest relatives and friends surround the patient's couch and hold a
confab upon the nature of his ailment and the application of the remedy.
Old sorceresses and charlatans put in practice their spells; fumigations
and meltings of saltpetre abound; and by some jugglery, out of the
crystallized saltpetre is brought a monstrous ant, a horrible worm, or
some other object, which, as they allege, is the cause of the disorder.
As the disease progresses, the friends of the sufferer severally
recommend and apply, according to the judgment each may have formed of
the matter, oil of scorpions or of worms, water supposed to produce
miraculous effects on fevers, or like applications, and these empirical
remedies, most of which are entirely useless, and others extremely
barbarous, are applied together without weight or measure.[926]

  [Sidenote: BURIAL AND CHARACTER.]

In common with other peoples, it is usual with these nations to place
several kinds of edibles in the grave with the deceased. Among the
Coras, when one died, the corpse was dressed and wrapped in a mantle; if
a man, with bow and arrows, and if a woman, with her distaff, etc., and
in this manner the body was buried in a cave previously selected by the
deceased. All his worldly goods were placed at the door of his former
house, so that he might come and take them without crossing the
threshold, as they believed the dead returned to see about property. If
the deceased had cattle, his friends and relatives every now and then
placed some meat upon sticks about the fields, for fear he might come
for the cattle he formerly owned. Five days after death a hired wizard
essayed to conjure away the shade of the departed property-holder. These
spirit-scarers went smoking their pipes all over the dead man's house,
and shook zapote-branches in the corners, till they pretended to have
found the fancied shadow, which they hurled headlong to its final
resting-place. Upon the second of November most of the natives of the
Mexican valley bring offerings to their dead relatives and friends,
consisting of edibles, live animals, and flowers, which are laid on or
about the graves. The anniversary or commemoration of the dead among the
ancient Aztecs occurred almost upon the same day.[927]

The thick-skinned, thoughtful and reserved aboriginals of central Mexico
are most enigmatical in their character. Their peculiar cast of
features, their natural reserve, and the thickness of their skin, make
it extremely difficult to ascertain by the expression of the face what
their real thoughts are. The general characteristics of this people may
be summed up as follows: peaceable, gentle and submissive to their
superiors, grave even to melancholy, and yet fond of striking
exhibitions and noisy revelry; improvident but charitable, sincerely
pious, but wallowing in ignorance and superstitions; quick of
perception, and possessed of great facility for acquiring knowledge,
especially of the arts, very imitative, but with little originality,
unambitious, unwilling to learn, and indifferent to the comforts of
life. Irascibility is by no means foreign to their nature, but it seems
to lie dormant until awakened by intoxication or some powerful impulse,
when the innate cruelty flames forth, and they pass suddenly from a
state of perfect calmness to one of unrestrained fierceness. Courage and
cowardice are so blended in their character that it is no easy matter to
determine which is the predominant trait. A fact worthy of notice is
that upon many occasions they have proved themselves capable of facing
danger with the greatest resolution, and yet they will tremble at the
angry frown of a white man. Laziness, and a marked inclination to
cheating and stealing are among the other bad qualities attributed to
them; but there is abundant evidence to show, that although naturally
averse to industry, they work hard from morning till night, in mining,
agriculture, and other occupations, and in their inefficient way
accomplish no little labor. Murder and highway robbery are crimes not
generally committed by the pure aboriginal, who steals rarely anything
but food to appease his hunger or that of his family. A Mexican author
says, the Indian cuts down a tree to pick its fruit, destroys an oak of
ten years growth for a week's firewood; in other words, he produces
little, consumes little, and destroys much. Another Mexican writer
affirms that the Indian is active, industrious, handy in agricultural
labor, a diligent servant, a trusty postman, humble, hospitable to his
guests, and shows a sincere gratitude to his benefactors.[928]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

The Pames, Otomís, Pintos, and other nations north of the Mexican valley
were, at the time of the conquest, a barbarous people, fierce and
warlike, covetous even of trifles and fond of display. The Michoacaques
or Tarascos are warlike and brave, and for many years after the conquest
showed themselves exceedingly hostile to the whites, whom they attacked,
plundered, and frequently murdered, when traveling through their
country. In 1751 they were already quiet, and gave evidences of being
intelligent and devoted to work. The men in the vicinity of the city of
Vera Cruz are careless, lazy, and fickle; much given to gambling and
drunkenness; but the women are virtuous, frugal, cleanly, and extremely
industrious. The natives of Jalapa, judging by their countenance, are
less intelligent, and lack the sweetness of character that distinguishes
the inhabitants of the higher plateau; they are, however, peaceable and
inoffensive. The wild tribes of the north are rude, revengeful, dull,
irreligious, lazy, and given to robbery, plunder, and murder. Such are
the characteristics attributed to them under the name of Chichimecs by
old Spanish authors and others. Indeed, the only creditable traits they
were allowed to possess, were, in certain parts, courage and an
independent spirit. Of the nations of Jalisco, both ancient and modern
writers bear testimony to their bravery. They are also sagacious and
somewhat industrious, but opposed to hard labor (as what savage is not),
and not easily kept under restraint. Those who dwell on Lake Chapala are
quiet and mild, devoted to agricultural pursuits. They indeed proved
themselves high-spirited and efficient in defending their rights, when
long oppression had exhausted their forbearance. The Coras were hardy
and warlike, averse to any intercourse with the whites and to the
Christian religion, but by the efforts of the missionaries, and the
heavy blows of the Spanish soldiers, they were brought under
subjection, and became tractable.[929]


  [Sidenote: THE NATIONS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO.]

The SOUTHERN MEXICANS, under which name I group the people inhabiting
the present states of Oajaca, Guerrero, Chiapas, the southern portion of
Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and Yucatan, constitute the second and last division
of this chapter. Much of this territory is situated within the _tierras
calientes_, or hot lands, wherein every variety of tropical vegetation
abounds in luxuriant profusion. The heat, especially along the coast, to
the unacclimated is most oppressive. The great chain of the cordillera
in its transit across the Tehuantepec isthmus, approaches nearer to the
Pacific seaboard than to the Atlantic, and dropping from the elevated
table-land of central Mexico, seeks a lower altitude, and breaks into
cross-ridges that traverse the country in an east and west direction.
Upon the northern side of the isthmus are plains of considerable extent,
of rich alluvial soil, through which several rivers, after draining the
mountain districts, discharge into the Mexican gulf. These streams, in
their course through the table-lands, are bordered by rich lands of
greater or lesser extent. On the southern side, nature puts on a bolder
aspect and a narrower belt of lowlands is traversed by several rivers,
which discharge the drainage of the southern <DW72> into the Pacific
Ocean, and into the lagoons that border the ocean. One of the most
important features of Yucatan is the absence of any important river. The
coast, which is of great extent, has in general a bleak and arid
appearance, and is little broken except on the north-west, where it is
indented by the laguna de Terminos, and on the eastern side by the bays
of Ascension, Espíritu Santo, and Chetumel. The central part of the
Yucatan peninsula is occupied by a low ridge of mountains, of barren
aspect. A short distance from the coast the general appearance of the
country improves, being well-wooded, and containing many fertile tracts.

Many of the nations occupying this region at the time of the conquest
may be called cultivated, or at least, progressive, and consequently
belong to the civilized nations described in the second volume of this
work; others falling back into a state of wildness after the central
civilization was extinguished, makes it extremely difficult to draw any
line separating civilization from savagism. Nevertheless we will examine
them as best we may; and if it be found that what we learn of them
refers more to the present time than has been the case with nations
hitherto treated, the cause will be obvious.

The _Zapotecs_, who were in former times a very powerful nation, still
occupy a great portion of Oajaca, surrounded by the ruins of their
ancient palaces and cities. The whole western part of the state is taken
up by the _Miztecs_. Tributary to the above before the conquest, were
the _Mijes_ and other smaller tribes now residing in the mountain
districts in the centre of the isthmus. The _Huaves_, who are said to
have come by sea from the south, and to have landed near the present
city of Tehuantepec, spread out over the lowlands and around the lagoons
on the south-western coast of Oajaca. In the province of Goazacoalco,
and in Tabasco, are the _Ahualulcos_, and _Chontales_, who occupy a
large portion of the latter state. South of them in Chiapas are the
_Choles_, _Tzendales_, _Zotziles_, _Alames_, and _Quelenes_, and in the
extreme south-eastern end of the same state, and extending into Central
America, some tribes of the _Lacandones_ are located. The extensive
peninsula of Yucatan, the ancient name of which was Mayapan, formed the
independent and powerful kingdom of the Mayas, who held undisputed
possession of the country until, after a heroic resistance, they were
finally compelled to yield to the superior discipline and weapons of the
Spanish invaders.[930]

  [Sidenote: PHYSIQUE IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN.]

The Zapotecs proper are well-formed and strong; the features of the men
are of a peculiar cast and not pleasing; the women, however, are
delicately formed, and graceful with handsome features. Another tribe of
the same nation, the Zapotecs of Tehuantepec, are rather under the
medium height, with a pleasing oval face and present a fine personal
appearance. Not a few of them have light- hair, and a somewhat
fair complexion. Their senses, especially that of sight, are acute, and
the constitution sound and robust, notwithstanding their habits of
intoxication. The females have regular and handsome features, and though
of small stature and bizarre in their carriage, are truly graceful and
seductive. Dark lustrous eyes, long eye-lashes, well defined eye-brows,
luxuriant and glossy jet-black hair, play havoc with the men. Those of
Acayucan village are particularly noted for their beauty. But not all
are thus; instance the Chatinos who are remarkably ugly. The natives of
Oajaca are generally large and well-formed; those of Sierra are of a
light-yellow complexion, and their women are tolerably white with mild
features. Some branches of the Miztecs and Mazatecs carry upon their
shoulders very large loads. Father Burgoa writing of the Miztecs, of
Yangüistlan, in the year 1541, speaks of their beautiful complexion and
fine forms. The Mijes are of good height, strongly built, hardy, and
active; they wear a beard, and altogether their aspect is repulsive. The
Zoques are very much like the Mijes, their features are as prominent and
unprepossessing; but they are probably more athletic. The Chontales are
tall and very robust. In the village of Tequisistlan, Oajaca, shortly
after the Spanish conquest, they were all reported as of a gigantic
stature. The Huaves present a different appearance from any of the other
natives of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. They are generally well-made, and
of strong constitutions. The natives of Tabasco who dwell in the country
bordering on the river of that name, are of medium height, and with
well-developed limbs. Both men and women have round flat faces, low
foreheads, small eyes, flattish noses, thick lips, small but quite full
mouths, white teeth, and tawny complexions. The Ahualulcos are rather
under the middle height, but of great physical strength. They have a low
narrow forehead, salient cheek-bones, full lips, white teeth, small
beard, and coarse hair. Their features are aquiline, and the expression
of their countenance is melancholy, one of gentleness blended with
sternness. They strongly resemble the descendants of the Aztecs of
Mexico. The women are more delicately made, and some beautiful ones are
seen among them. They move quickly and with much natural grace.[931]

The descendants of the Mayas are of medium size, with good limbs, large
faces and mouth, the upper lip slightly arched, and a marked tendency to
stoutness; the nose is somewhat flat, eyes sleepy-looking and hair black
and glossy, which rarely turns gray; complexion of a copper color, and
in some instances yellowish. Naturally strong, the Maya or Yucatec can
carry heavy loads long distances, and perform a great deal of hard labor
without showing signs of fatigue. An old Spanish writer mentions that
they were generally bow-legged, and many of them squint-eyed. The same
author says they had good faces, were not very dark, did not wear a
beard, and were long-lived. The women are plump, and generally speaking
not ugly.[932]

  [Sidenote: DRESS IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN.]

Very scanty was the dress of the dwellers on Tehuantepec isthmus. In
Oajaca and Chiapas, the men wore a piece of deer or other skin fastened
round the waist, and hanging down in front, and the women wore aprons of
maguey-fibre. Montanus in describing the Mijes says they were quite
naked, but that some wore round the waist a white deer-skin dressed with
human hearts. The Lacandones, when going to war, wore on their shoulders
the skin of a tiger, lion, or deer. The Quelenes wrapped round their
head a  cloth, in the manner of a turban, or garland of flowers.
At present, the usual dress of the Zapotecs is a pair of wide Mexican
drawers, and short jacket of cotton, with a broad-brimmed hat, made of
felt or straw--yet the Huaves and many of the poorer class, still wear
nothing but a breech-cloth. The costume of the women is simple, and not
without elegance. That of the Miztecs, Zapotecs, and others dwelling in
the city of Tehuantepec is a skirt made of cotton,--sometimes of
wool--that reaches nearly to the ankles, prettily and often elaborately
worked in various designs and colors. The upper part of the body is
covered with a kind of chemisette, with short sleeves called the
_huipil_, of fine texture, and adorned with lace and gold or silk
threads. On the head is a white cotton covering, made like a narrow sack
or sleeve, which is drawn on and hangs down over the back. In Tabasco,
the dress of the men differs little from that of the people of
Tehuantepec; the Tabascan women wear a cotton petticoat or a few yards
of calico wrapped round the waist, and reaching below the knees. Over
the petticoat they wear a frock with sleeves to the wrist, leaving the
bosom and neck exposed. Children and boys go naked; indeed, whenever
clothing to any extent is found in this region, we may be sure that the
foreign trader is at the bottom of it.[933]

Both sexes usually wear the hair long, parting it in the middle, and
either permit it to hang in loose tresses over the shoulders, or,
binding it with gay  ribbons, loop it up on the back of the head,
where it is fastened with a large comb. On festive occasions they
interweave flowers with the hair, and also mingle with it a species of
shining beetle, called _cucullo_, which emits a phosphorescent light,
and produces a very pretty effect. Among the Zoques who reside at San
Miguel and Santa María Chimalapa, the males shave the crown of the head,
a custom of possible monkish origin peculiar to themselves. Feather
tufts and skins of green birds were formerly much used for ornaments;
they had also necklaces made of pieces of gold joined together, and
amber beads. Nose and ears were pierced, and pieces of stone or amber or
gold rings or a bit of carved wood inserted. Montanus describes a kind
of snake called _ibobaca_, which he says the inhabitants of Chiapas wore
round the neck.[934] They also painted and stained the face. When
Fernandez de Córdova explored the northern coast of Yucatan, he found
the people clad in cotton garments, and at the present day this forms
the principal material from which their clothing is made. Men now wear a
cotton shirt or blouse, usually without sleeves, and wide drawers; round
the waist is tied a white or  sash; for protection from the sun,
a straw hat is worn, or perhaps a piece of  calico, and their
sandals are made from deer-skin. Instead of drawers, they used to wear a
broad cotton band passed round the loins, the ends of which were
arranged to hang one in front and the other behind; a cloak or mantle of
cotton called _zugen_ was thrown over the shoulders. Colonel Galindo
mentions that they used the bark of the India-rubber tree for making
garments, and Cogolludo says that when the Spaniards arrived at Aké, in
the year 1527, the army of natives were in a state of nudity, with only
their privy parts covered, and the whole body besmeared with clay of
different colors. The women display considerable taste in the style of
their garments; over a petticoat, which reaches to their ankles, and
prettily bordered at the bottom, they have a dress with sleeves down to
the elbow; the skirt is open at the sides, and does not fall as low as
the petticoat, so that the border of the latter may be seen, the bosom
of the dress is open, and on each side of the breast and round the neck
it is embroidered with coarse silk, as in Tehuantepec; the huipil
(Aztec, _vipilli_) is also worn. In country places women wear the
petticoat alone, using the overskirt or huipil only on special
occasions. When out of doors, they cover the head and part of the face
with a piece of cotton cloth.[935] All permit the hair to attain to its
full length; the men plait theirs and wind it round the head, leaving a
short end to hang down behind, while that of the women hangs in dark
masses over their shoulders, or is neatly bound up behind and decorated
with flowers or feathers. Herrera states that it was customary to scorch
the faces of young children to prevent the growth of their beards, and
the men allowed the hair to grow down over the eyebrows, making their
heads and foreheads flat on purpose. They pierced nose and ears,
ornamenting them with rings set with pearls and bits of amber, and wore
collars and bracelets of gold. Some among them filed their teeth. They
painted the face and all exposed parts of the body in many colors, using
white or yellow with black and red, covering themselves from the waist
upward with a variety of designs and figures. When going to battle paint
was much used, in order to render their appearance more formidable; men
tattooed on the chest, and the women mixed liquid amber with their
pigments, which, when rubbed over the body, emitted a perfume.[936]

  [Sidenote: ZAPOTEC BUILDINGS.]

The better class of Zapotecs of the present day build their houses in a
substantial manner of adobes; the common people construct a more simple
dwelling with branches arranged in a double row, and the space between
filled in with earth; they also make them of wattled cane-work plastered
with clay. Such dwellings are cool and proof against the frequent
earthquakes that occur in their territory. Roofs are thatched with
palmetto-leaves without opening, nor are there any windows in the walls.
The interior is divided into several compartments, according to size and
necessity.[937] The Mijes thatch their houses with bundles of coarse
straw. The Chinantecs, Chochos, and Chontales originally built no
houses, but sought out the most shady forests, where they dwelt, or they
located themselves in ravines and rocky parts, living in caverns or
holes under the rocks; the Tzendales of Chiapas had many towns and
painted their houses; the Ahualulcos lived together in communities, and
had commodious, well-built houses of interwoven cane, plastered on the
inside with mud, the roof thatched with palmetto.[938]

  [Sidenote: PREPARATION OF FOOD.]

From the earliest times of which we have any record, the natives of
Oajaca and the isthmus of Tehuantepec cultivated corn and vegetables,
and likewise followed the chase; those who dwelt on the borders of the
sea or lakes applied themselves to fishing. The Zapotecs now raise
wheat, and build mills. It is asserted by an old Spanish chronicler that
this nation exceeded all others in eating and drinking. As early as
1690, they gathered crops of maguey, maize, Spanish peas, chile,
potatoes, and pumpkins, and bred swine and poultry. Of late they
cultivate rice, sugar-cane, and other tropical productions, as also do
the inhabitants of Tehuantepec. Primitive agriculture has undergone but
little alteration; deer are caught by means of traps and nets. The
Miztecs, Mijes, and Cuicatecs have from the earliest times been
cultivators of the soil. The Mijes make a coarse or impure sugar from
sugar-cane; their corn-fields are often many miles distant from their
dwellings. The Huaves, the greater portion of whom are on the borders of
the lagoons on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, live mostly on the proceeds
of their fisheries, although they raise a small supply of grain and
fruit. Their fishing is almost exclusively done with sweep-nets in
shallow waters, and during one month of the year they catch large
schools of shrimps in traps. The Zoques produce the small quantity of
corn that they need, some _achote_, many very fine oranges, and tobacco.
They are fond of iguanas and their eggs, and of parrots, killing the
latter with stones. The Chontales of Tabasco and Tehuantepec use maize
and cocoa as food. They eat flesh only upon great religious festivals,
marriages, or other celebrations, but are fond of fish. In olden times
they were cannibals, and Antonio de Herrera, the chief chronicler of the
Indies, accused also the natives of Chiapas of being eaters of human
flesh. Since the conquest the natives have lived mostly on corn and
other vegetable productions, cultivated by themselves. A large portion
of the Mayas and of the other aborigines of Yucatan are to-day engaged
in the cultivation of the soil, they also breed such domestic animals as
they need for themselves. They are very simple and frugal in their
eating.[939] All the natives of this section of the Mexican republic
grind their maize in the same manner; after first soaking it in lye or
in lime and water, it is bruised on the metate, or rubbing-stone, being
wet occasionally, until it becomes a soft paste. With this they make
their tortillas and other compounds, both to eat and drink. To make
tortillas the maize paste is shaped into thin cakes with the palms of
the hands and cooked upon a flat clay pan. The _totoposte_ is a smaller
cake used for journeys in lieu of the tortillas. The difference between
them is in the manner of preparation; the totopostes are cooked one side
only and laid near the fire which makes them crisp, and require to be
moistened in order to render them eatable. Tamales are a favorite dish
and are made of pork, game, or poultry. The meat is cut up in small
pieces and washed; a small quantity of the maize paste seasoned with
cinnamon, saffron, cloves, pimento, tomatoes, coarse pepper, salt, red
coloring matter, and some lard added to it, is placed on the fire in a
pan and as soon as it has acquired the consistency of a thick gruel, it
is removed, mixed with the meat, some more lard and salt added, and the
mass kneaded for a few moments. It is then divided into small portions,
which are enveloped in a thin paste of maize. The tamales thus prepared
are covered with a banana-leaf or corn-husk and placed in a pot or pan
over which large leaves are laid. They are allowed to boil from one hour
and a half to two hours. The _posole_ is a nourishing drink made of sour
maize paste mixed with water; sometimes they add a little honey to it.
They also prepare a drink by parching corn and grinding it to powder on
the metate, and mixing it with water and a little _achote_. This last
drink they prefer to the posole, for long journeys.[940]

The natives of Tehuantepec and especially those who reside in the
Goazacoalco district are neat and clean in regard to their personal
habits. They observe the custom of bathing daily. In their ablutions
they make use of a plant called _chintule_ the root of which they mix
with water, thereby imparting to their bodies a strong aromatic odor.
The same plant is used when they wash their clothes, the scent from
which remains on them for some time. A pleasing feature in the
appearance of these people is the spotless whiteness of their cotton
dresses and the care they bestow on their luxuriant hair.

The other tribes who inhabit this isthmus as well as those of Chiapas
are not so clean in their persons, and as a consequence are much
infested with vermin which the women have a disgusting habit of eating
when picked from the heads of their children. The Mayas make frequent
use of cold water, but this practice appears to be more for pleasure
than for cleansing purposes, as neither in their persons nor in their
dwellings do they present an appearance of cleanliness.[941]

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS AND WAR.]

The weapons of the Southern Mexicans were in most respects similar to
those used by the Central Mexicans, namely, bows and arrows, macanas,
and lances, the latter of great length and very strong. In Tabasco they
carried turtle-shell shields highly polished so as to reflect the sun;
they also had flint stones for lances and arrow-points, but sometimes
weapon-points were made from strong thorns and fish-bones. The hard
wooden sword of the Maya was a heavy and formidable weapon, and required
the use of both hands to wield it; the edge was grooved for the purpose
of inserting the sharp flint with which it was armed. Slings were
commonly used by all these nations. In addition to shields the Mayas had
for defensive armor garments of thickly quilted cotton called
_escaupiles_, which covered the body down to the lower part of the
thigh, and were considered impervious to arrows. The flint knife of
former days has now been replaced by the machete which serves the
purpose of both cutlass and chopping-knife, and without it no native
ever goes into the woods.[942]

When the Spaniards first arrived at Tabasco, they encountered a people
well-skilled in the art of war, with a fair knowledge of military
tactics, who defended their country with much bravery; their towns and
villages were well fortified with intrenchments or palisades, and strong
towers and forts were built on such places as presented the most
favorable position for resisting attacks. To their forts they retired
when invaded by a superior force, and from the walls they hurled large
rocks with damaging effect against their foes. Cortés found erected on
the bank of the Tabasco River, in front of one of their towns, a strong
wooden stockade, with loopholes through which to discharge arrows; and
subsequently, during his march through their country, they frequently
set fire to their villages, with the object of harassing his troops.
When advancing to battle they maintained a regular formation, and they
are described as having met Francisco Montejo in good order, drawn up in
three columns, the centre under the command of their chief, accompanied
by their chief priest. The combatants rushed forward to the attack with
loud shouts, cheered on by the blowing of horns and beating of small
drums called _tunkules_. Prisoners taken in battle were sacrificed to
their gods.[943]

The furniture of their houses is of the plainest description, and
limited to their absolute wants. Their tables or benches are made of a
few rough boards, and a mat called _petate_, spread on the floor, serves
for a bed, while a coarse woolen blanket is used for covering; some few
have small cane bedsteads. The natives of Tabasco and Yucatan more
commonly have a network _hamaca_ or hammock, suspended from two posts or
trees. Their cooking-utensils consist of the metate, pots made of
earthenware, and gourds. The universal machete carried by man and boy
serves many purposes, such as chopping firewood, killing animals,
eating, and building houses. Burgoa describes nets of a peculiar make
used by the Zapotecs for catching game; in the knots of the net were
fixed the claws of lions, tigers, bears, and other wild beasts of prey,
and at intervals were fastened a certain number of small stones; the
object of such construction being probably to wound or disable the
animal when caught.[944]

  [Sidenote: OAJACAN MANUFACTURES.]

The Zapotecs, Miztecs, Mayas, and others, since the conquest, have long
been justly celebrated for the manufacture of cotton stuffs, a fact that
is all the more surprising when we consider the very imperfect
implements they possessed with which to perform the work. Burgoa speaks
of the excellence and rich quality of their manufactures in cotton,
silk, and gold thread, in 1670, and Thomas Gage, writing about the same
time, says "it is rare to see what works those Indian women will make in
silk, such as might serve for patterns and samplers to many
Schoolmistresses in England." All the spinning and weaving is done by
the women; the cotton clothes they make are often interwoven with
beautiful patterns or figures of birds and animals, sometimes with gold
and silk thread. A species of the agave americana is extensively
cultivated through the country, from the fibres of which the natives
spin a very strong thread that is used chiefly for making hammocks; the
fibre is bleached and then dyed in different rich tints. The materials
they have for dyeing are so good that the colors never fade. The
Zapotecs have also an intimate knowledge of the process of tanning
skins, which they use for several domestic purposes.[945]

Notwithstanding their proximity to the sea-coast, and although their
country is in many parts intersected by rivers and lagoons, they have a
surprisingly slight knowledge of navigation, few having any vessels with
which to venture into deep water. The inhabitants of Tabasco, the
Yucatan coast, and Cozumel island possess some canoes made from the
single trunk of a mahogany-tree, which they navigate with small lateen
sails and paddles. The Huaves and others are in complete ignorance of
the management of any description of boats.[946]

The Zoques make from the ixtle and pita thread and superior hammocks, in
which they have quite a trade. In the neighborhood of Santa María they
grow excellent oranges, and sell them throughout all the neighboring
towns. The Zapotecs have, many of them, a considerable commerce in
fruits, vegetables, and seeds. In the city of Tehuantepec the business
of buying and selling is conducted exclusively by women in the
market-place. The Ahualulcos are chiefly employed in cutting planks and
beams, with which they supply many places on this isthmus; they also
trade to some extent in seeds and cotton cloths. Different kinds of
earthenware vessels for domestic purposes are made by the natives of
Chiapas, and by them exchanged for salt, hatchets, and glass ornaments.
The Mayas have an extensive business in logwood, which, besides maize
and poultry, they transport to several places along the coast. Mr
Stephens describes a small community of the Maya nation, numbering about
a hundred men with their families, living at a place called Schawill,
who hold and work their lands in common. The products of the soil are
shared equally by all, and the food for the whole settlement is prepared
at one hut. Each family contributes its quota of provisions, which, when
cooked, are carried off smoking hot to their several dwellings. Many of
the natives of Tabasco earn a livelihood by keeping bee-hives; the bees
are captured wild in the woods, and domesticated. The Huaves breed
cattle and tan hides; cheese and tasajo, or jerked meat, are prepared
and exported by them and other tribes on the isthmus of Tehuantepec. At
the present day cochineal is cultivated to a considerable extent, and
forms an important article of commerce among the inhabitants. A rather
remarkable propensity to the possession of large numbers of mules is
peculiar to the Mijes; such property in no way benefits them, as they
make no use of them as beasts of burden; indeed, their owners seem to
prefer carrying the loads on their own backs.[947]

  [Sidenote: ZAPOTEC GOVERNMENT.]

Formerly the Zapotecs were governed by a king, under whom were caciques
or governors who ruled over certain districts. Their rank and power
descended by inheritance, but they were obliged to pay tribute to the
king, from whom they held their authority in fief. At the time of the
conquest the most powerful among them was the Lord of Cuicatlan; for the
service of his household, ten servants were furnished daily, and he was
treated with the greatest respect and homage. In later years a cacique
was elected annually by the people, and under him officers were
appointed for the different villages. Once a week these sub-officers
assembled to consult with and receive instructions from the cacique on
matters relating to the laws and regulations of their districts. In the
towns of the Miztecs a municipal form of government was established.
Certain officials, elected annually, appointed the work which was to be
done by the people, and every morning at sunrise the town-criers from
the tops of the highest houses called the inhabitants to their allotted
tasks. It was also the duty of the town-criers to inflict the punishment
imposed on all who from laziness or other neglect failed to perform
their share of work. A somewhat similar system appears to have prevailed
in Chiapas, where the people lived under a species of republican
government.[948] The Mayas were at one time governed by a king who
reigned supreme over the whole of Yucatan. Internal dissensions and
wars, however, caused their country to be divided up into several
provinces, which were ruled over by lords or petty kings, who held
complete sway, each in his own territory, owing allegiance to none, and
recognizing no authority outside of their own jurisdiction. These lords
appointed captains of towns, who had to perform their duties subject to
their lord's approval. Disputes arising, the captains named umpires to
determine differences, whose decisions were final. These people had also
a code of criminal laws, and when capital punishment was ordered, public
executioners carried the sentence into effect. The crime of adultery in
the man was punishable by death, but the injured party could claim the
right to have the adulterer delivered to him, and he could kill or
pardon him at pleasure; disgrace was the punishment of the woman. The
rape of a virgin was punished by stoning the man to death.[949]

  [Sidenote: SLAVERY AND MARRIAGE.]

Slavery existed among the tribes of Goazacoalco and Tabasco. Doña Marina
was one of twenty female slaves who were presented to Cortés by the
cacique of the latter place; and when her mother, who lived in the
province of Goazacoalco, gave her away to some traveling merchants, she,
to conceal the act, pretended that the corpse of one of her slaves who
died at that time was that of her own daughter.[950]

  [Sidenote: WEDDINGS AND FATHERS-IN-LAW.]

Among the Zapotecs and other nations who inhabit the isthmus of
Tehuantepec, marriages are contracted at a very early age; it happens
not unfrequently that a youth of fourteen marries a girl of eleven or
twelve. Polygamy is not permissible, and gentleness, affection, and
frugality characterize the marital relations. Certain superstitious
ceremonies formerly attended the birth of children, which, to a modified
extent, exist at the present day. When a woman was about to be confined,
the relatives assembled in the hut, and commenced to draw on the floor
figures of different animals, rubbing each one out as soon as it was
completed. This operation continued till the moment of birth, and the
figure that then remained sketched upon the ground was called the
child's _tona_ or second self. When the child grew old enough, he
procured the animal that represented him and took care of it, as it was
believed that health and existence were bound up with that of the
animals, in fact, that the death of both would occur simultaneously.
Soon after the child was born, the parents, accompanied by friends and
relatives, carried it to the nearest water, where it was immersed, while
at the same time they invoked the inhabitants of the water to extend
their protection to the child; in like manner they afterwards prayed for
the favor of the animals of the land. It is a noticeable trait, much to
the credit of the parents, that their children render to them as well as
to all aged people the greatest respect and obedience. That the women
are strictly moral cannot be asserted. Voluptuous, with minds
untrained, and their number being greatly in excess of the men, it is
not surprising that travelers have noted an absence of chastity among
these women; yet few cases of conjugal infidelity occur, and chastity is
highly esteemed. Illegitimate children are not common, partly the
result, perhaps, of early marriages.[951] Among the Quelenes, when a
contract of marriage was made, the friends and relatives collected at
the assembly-house common to every village. The bride and bridegroom
were then introduced by the parents, and in the presence of the cacique
and priest confessed all the sins of which they were guilty. The
bridegroom was obliged to state whether he had had connection with the
bride or with other women, and she, on her part, made a full confession
of all her shortcomings; this ended, the parents produced the presents,
which consisted of wearing-apparel and jewelry, in which they proceeded
to array them; they were then lifted up and placed upon the shoulders of
two old men and women, who carried them to their future home, where they
laid them on a bed, locked them in, and there left them securely
married.[952] Among the Mayas early marriage was a duty imposed by the
Spanish Fathers, and if a boy or girl at the age of twelve or fourteen
had not chosen a mate, the priest selected one of equal rank or fortune
and obliged them to marry. The usual presents were dresses; and a
banquet was prepared, of which all present partook. During the feast the
parents of the parties addressed them in speeches applicable to the
occasion, and afterwards the house was perfumed by the priest, who then
blessed the company and the ceremony ended. Previous to the wedding-day
the parents fasted during three days. The young man built a house in
front of that of his father-in-law, in which he lived with his wife
during the first years of his servitude, for he was obliged to work for
his father-in-law four or five years. If he failed to perform faithful
service, his father-in-law dismissed him, and gave his daughter to
another. Widowers were exempt from this servitude, and could choose whom
they pleased for a wife without the interference of relatives. It was
forbidden a man to marry a woman of the same name as his father. They
married but one wife, though the lords were permitted to make concubines
of their slaves. Mr Stephens, in his description of the inhabitants of
the village of Schawill, says: "Every member must marry within the
rancho, and no such thing as a marriage out of it had ever occurred.
They said it was impossible; it could not happen. They were in the habit
of going to the villages to attend the festivals; and when we suggested
a supposable case of a young man or woman falling in love with some
village Indian, they said it might happen; there was no law against it;
but none could marry out of the rancho. This was a thing so little
apprehended, that the punishment for it was not defined in their penal
code; but being questioned, after some consultations, they said that the
offender, whether man or woman would be expelled. We remarked that in
their small community constant intermarriages must make them all
relatives, which they said was the case since the reduction of their
numbers by the cholera. They were in fact all kinsfolk, but it was
allowable for kinsfolk to marry, except in the relationship of brothers
and sisters."

In divisions of property women could not inherit; in default of direct
male heirs the estate went to the brothers or nearest male relatives.
When the heir was a minor, one of his male relatives was appointed
guardian, until the days of his minority should have passed, when the
property was delivered up to him. The Southern Mexicans were particular
to keep a strict chronology of their lineage. Young children underwent a
kind of baptismal ceremony. The Mayas believed that ablution washed away
all evil; and previous to the ceremony the parents fasted three days,
and they were particular to select for it what they considered a lucky
day. The age at which the rite was performed was between three and
twelve years, and no one could marry until he had been baptized. Habits
of industry as well as respect for parents and aged people was strongly
impressed upon the minds of the children.[953]

The Southern Mexicans are fond of singing and dancing, though there is
not much variety either in their melancholy music or monotonous dances.
Their favorite instrument is the _marimba_, composed of pieces of hard
wood of different lengths stretched across a hollowed-out canoe-shaped
case. The pieces of wood or keys are played upon with two short sticks,
one held in each hand. The sound produced is soft and pleasing, and not
unlike that of a piano. Another instrument is the _tunkul_ or drum, made
of a hollow log with sheep-skin stretched over the end; it is struck
with the fingers of the right hand, the performer holding it under his
left arm. Their movements during their dances are slow and graceful. The
men are addicted to intoxication at their feasts, the liquor in common
use among them being mescal and aguardiente, a colorless spirit made
from the sugar-cane. Many of the natives have a small still in their
houses.[954]

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS IN OAJACA.]

The Zapotecs are exceedingly polite to one another in their common
salutations, calling each other brother, and to the descendants of their
ancient caciques or lords the utmost reverence is paid. It is related by
a Mexican writer that in a village not distant from the city of Oajaca,
whenever an aged man, the son of one of their ancient lords was seen by
the natives out walking, with a majesty that well became his fine form,
position, and age, they uncovered their heads, kissed his hands, which
he held out to them, with much tenderness, calling him _daade_ (father),
and remained uncovered until he was lost to sight. They are a theocratic
people, much addicted to their ancient religious belief and customs.
Those who live in the vicinity of Mitla entertain a peculiar
superstition; they will run to the farthest villages and pick up even
the smallest stones that formed a part of the mosaic work of that famous
ruin, believing that such stones will in their hands turn into gold.
Some of them hold the belief that anyone who discovers a buried or
hidden treasure has no right to appropriate to his own use any portion
of it, and that if he does, death will strike him down within the year,
in punishment of the sacrilege committed against the spirit of the
person who hid or buried the treasure. One of the first priests that
lived among the Zapotecs says that after they had entered the pale of
the church, they still clung to their old religious practices, and made
offerings of aromatic gums, and living animals; and that when the
occasion demanded a greater solemnity, the officiating priest drew blood
from the under part of his tongue, and from the back part of his ears,
with which he sprinkled some thick coarse straw, held as sacred and used
at the sacrifices. To warm themselves, the Chochos, or Chuchones, of
Oajaca used, in cold weather, towards the evening, to burn logs and dry
leaves close to the entrance of their caves, and blow the smoke into
their dwellings, which being quite full, all the family, old and young,
males and females, rushed in naked and closed the entrance. The natives
of Goazacoalco and other places practiced some of the Jewish rites,
including a kind of circumcision, which custom they claimed to have
derived from their forefathers; hence have arisen innumerable analogies
to prove the Jewish origin of these peoples. The Huaves still preserve
ancient customs at their feasts. It is a remarkable fact that although
nearly all these people are fishermen, very few of them can swim. The
Mijes have a habit of speaking in very loud tones; this is attributed by
some to their haughty spirit, and by others to their manner of life in
the most rugged portion of the mountains. When bound upon a journey, if
they have no other load to carry, they fill their _tonates_, or nets,
with stones. This is generally done by them on the return home from the
market-place of Tehuantepec. These loads rest upon their backs, and hang
by a band from their foreheads. In ancient times, when they were in
search of a new country to settle in, they subjected the places they had
devastated to the fire proof. This was done by putting a firebrand over
night into a hole, and if it was found extinguished in the morning, they
considered that the Sun desired his children (that is themselves) to
continue their journey. They are much given, even at the present time,
to idolatrous practices, and will make sacrifices in their churches, if
permitted, of birds as offerings to the false gods they worshiped before
their partial conversion to Christianity. The natives attribute eclipses
of the moon to an attempt by the sun to destroy their satellite, and to
prevent the catastrophe make a frightful uproar, employing therefor
everything they can get hold of.[955]

  [Sidenote: DISEASES AND MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

The diseases most prevalent among the Southern Mexicans are fevers,
measles, and severe colds. All these people possess an excellent
knowledge of medicinal herbs, and make use of them in cases of pains and
sickness. They still practice some of their mysterious ceremonies, and
are inclined to attribute all complaints to the evil influence of
bewitchments. Father Baeza, in the _Registro Yucateco_, says they
consulted a crystal or transparent stone called _zalzun_, by which they
pretended to divine the origin and cause of any sickness. When suffering
with fever or other disorders, the disease is often much aggravated and
death caused by injudicious bathing in the rivers. In ancient times
tobacco was much used as a specific against pains arising from colds,
rheumatism, and asthma; the natives found that it soothed the nerves and
acted as a narcotic. They also practiced bleeding with a sharp flint or
fish-bone. The Zapotecs attempted cures by means of a blow-pipe, at the
same time invoking the assistance of the gods.[956]

When a death occurs the body is wrapped in a cotton cloth, leaving the
head and face uncovered, and in this condition is placed in a grave.
Very few of the ancient funeral usages remain at the present day, though
some traces of superstitious ceremonies may still be observed among
them; such as placing food in the grave, or at different spots in its
immediate vicinity. Sometimes a funeral is conducted with a certain
degree of pomp, and the corpse carried to its last resting-place
followed by horn-blowers, and tunkul-drummers. As in the case of the
central Mexicans, a memorial day is observed, when much respect is shown
for the memory of the dead, at which times fruits, bread, and cakes are
placed upon the graves.[957]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER OF SOUTHERN MEXICANS.]

The character of the inhabitants of the Tehuantepec isthmus and Yucatan
is at the present day one of docility and mildness. With a few
exceptions they are kind-hearted, confiding, and generous, and some few
of them evince a high degree of intelligence, although the majority are
ignorant, superstitious, of loose morality as we esteem it, yet
apparently unconscious of wrong. Cayetano Moro says they are far
superior to the average American Indian. The Zapotecs are a bold and
independent people, exhibit many intellectual qualities, and are of an
impatient disposition, though cheerful, gentle, and inoffensive; they
make good soldiers; they are fanatical and superstitious like their
neighbors. The women are full of vivacity, of temperate and industrious
habits, their manners are characterized by shyness rather than modesty,
and they are full of intrigue. To this nation the Mijes present a
complete contrast; of all the tribes who inhabit the isthmus, they are
the most brutal, degraded, and idolatrous; they are grossly stupid, yet
stubborn and ferocious. The Chontales and Choles are barbarous, fierce,
and quarrelsome, and greatly addicted to witchcraft. The Cajonos and
Nexitzas, of Oajaca, are of a covetous and malicious nature, dishonest
in their dealings, and much inclined to thieving. The Zoques are more
rational in their behavior; although they are ignorant and intemperate
in their habits, they are naturally kind and obliging, as well as
patient and enduring. The Huaves are deficient in intelligence, arrogant
and inhospitable to strangers, and of a reticent and perverse
disposition. The Miztecs are grave and steady; they exhibit many traits
of ingenuity, are industrious, hospitable, and affable in their manners,
and retain an ardent love for liberty.[958] The Mayas exhibit many
distinguished characteristics. Although of limited intelligence, and
more governed by their senses than their reason, their good qualities
predominate. Formerly they were fierce and warlike, but these
characteristics have given place to timidity, and they now appear
patient, generous, and humane; they are frugal and satisfied with
little, being remarkably free from avarice. Herrera describes them as
fierce and warlike, much given to drunkenness and other sins, but
generous and hospitable. Doctor Young, in his History of Mexico, says:
"They are not so intelligent or energetic, though far more virtuous and
humane than their brethren of the north." The women are industrious,
have pleasing manners, and are inclined to shyness. To sum it all up, I
may say that the besetting vice of these nations is intemperance, but
the habit of drinking to excess is found to be much more common among
the mountain tribes than among the inhabitants of the lowlands. Quarrels
among themselves seldom occur, and there is abundant evidence to show
that many of them possess excellent natural qualifications both for
common labor, and artistic industry; and that there is no cause to
prevent their becoming, under favorable circumstances, useful
citizens.[959]


TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

Under the name WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, I include all the people
inhabiting the Mexican Territory from ocean to ocean, between latitude
23° north and the Central American boundary line south, including
Yucatan and Tehuantepec. The southernmost point of this division touches
the fifteenth degree of north latitude. A subdivision of this group is
made and the parts are called the _Central Mexicans_, and the _Southern
Mexicans_, respectively. In the former I include the nations north of an
imaginary line, drawn from the port of Acapulco, on the Pacific coast,
to Vera Cruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, and in the latter all those south
of this line.

Going to the fountain-head of Mexican history, I find mentioned certain
names, of which it is now impossible to determine whether they are
different names applied to the same people or different peoples, or
whether they are mythical and apply to no really existing nations. Still
less is it possible to give these strange names any definite location;
instance the Toltecs and the Chichimecs, and indeed almost all early
designations, very common names used to denote very uncommon people.
Sahagun is the only one of the oldest writers who mentions the name of
Toltecs, which in later years was used by Ixtlilxochitl and Boturini,
and after them bandied about more freely by modern writers. After the
conquest, the name Chichimecs was applied to all uncivilized and
unsettled people north of the valley of Mexico, extending to the
farthest discovered region. Of still other nations nothing further can
be said than that they occupied the cities to which their name was
applied; such were the Mexicans, or Aztecs, the Tlascaltecs, the
Cholultecs, and many others. Some general remarks respecting the
location of the principal civilized nations, will be found in vol. ii.,
chap. ii., of this work; and all obtainable details concerning the many
tribes that cannot be definitely located here are given in volume v.


  [Sidenote: OLMECS AND XICALANCAS.]

The _Quinames_ or Giants are mentioned as the first inhabitants of
Mexico. 'Los Quinametin, gigantes que vivian en esta rinconada, que se
dice ahora Nueva España.' _Ixtlilxochitl_, _Relaciones_, in
_Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. ix., p. 322; _Id._, _Hist.
Chichimeca_, in _Id._, p. 205. 'Los que hasta ahora se sabe, aver morado
estas Estendidas, y Ampliadisimas Tierras, y Regiones, de la Nueva
España, fueron vnas Gentes mui crecidas de Cuerpo, que llamaron despues
otros, Qainametin.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 34. 'Les
Quinamés, la plus ancienne des races connues de ces contrées, étaient
encore en possession de quelques localités de peu d'importance près des
villes de Huitzilapan, de Cuetlaxcohuapan et de Totomihuacan.' _Brasseur
de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i., p. 196. 'Sa domination
s'étendait sur les provinces intérieures du Mexique et du Guatémala, et,
à l'époque du débarquement des Olmèques et des Xicalancas, les
histoires nous la montrent encore en possession du plateau aztèque et
des contrées voisines du fleuve Tabasco.' _Id._, in _Nouvelles Annales
des Voy._, 1858, tom. clviii., p. 258. 'Vivian hácia las riberas del rio
Atoyac, entre la ciudad de Tlaxcala y la de la Puebla de los Angeles.'
_Veytia_, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 28, 143-4.

The _Olmecs_ and _Xicalancas_ were 'los que poseian este Nuevo Mundo, en
esta tercera edad.' _Ixtlilxochitl_, _Hist. Chichimeca_, in
_Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. ix., p. 205. 'Olmecas, Vixtoti, y
Mixtecas. Estos tales así llamados, están ácia el nacimiento del sol, y
llámanles tambien _tenime_, porque hablan lengua bárbara, y dicen que
son Tultecas.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. 136.
'Estos poblaron, donde aora està Edificada, y Poblada la Ciudad de los
Angeles, y en Totomihuacan.... Los Xicalancas, fueron tambien Poblando,
ácia Cuathazualco (que es ácia la Costa del Norte) y adelante en la
misma Costa, está oi dia vn Pueblo, que se dice Xicalanco.... Otro
Pueblo ai del mismo Nombre, en la Provincia de Maxcaltzinco, cerca del
Puerto de la Vera-Cruz, que parece averlo tambien Poblado los
Xicalancas.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 32. 'Atravesando
los Puertos del Bolcan, y Sierra-Nevada, y otros rodeandolos por la
parte de el Mediodia, hasta que venieron à salir à vn Lugar, que de
presente se llama Tochmilco. De alli, pasaron á Atlixco, Calpan, y
Huexotzinco, hasta llegar al parage, y Tierras de la Provincia de
Tlaxcallan; y haciendo asiento en el principio, y entrada de la dicha
Tierra, hicieron su Fundacion en el Pueblo, que aora se llama Nuestra
Señora de la Natividad (y en Lengua Mexicana Yancuictlalpan.) De alli,
pasaron à otro Poblado, el referido, llamado Huapalcalco, junto à vna
Hermita, que llaman de Santa Cruz, al qual llaman los Naturales,
Texoloc, Mizco, y Xiloxuchitla, donde aora es la Hermita de San Vicente,
y el Cerro de la Xochitecatl, y Tenayacac, donde estàn otras dos
Hermitas, à poco trecho vna de otra, que las llaman de San Miguél, y de
San Francisco, enmedio de las quales, pasa el Rio, que viene de la
Sierra Nevada de Huexotzinco. Y aqui en este Sitio, hicieron los
Hulmecas, su Principal asiento, y Poblaçon.' _Id._, p. 257; _Mendieta_,
_Hist. Ecles._, pp. 145-6; _Motolinia_, _Hist. Indios_, in
_Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._, tom. i., p. 7. 'Vlmecatlh poblo tambien
muchos lugares en aquella parte, a do agora esta la ciudad de los
Angeles. Y nombro los Totomiuacan, Vicilapan, Cuetlaxcoapan, y otros
assi. Xicalancatlh anduuo mas tierra, llego a la mar del norte, y en la
costa hizo muchos pueblos. Pero a los dos mas principales llamo de su
mesmo nombre. El vn Xicalanco esta en la prouincia de Maxcalcinco, que
es cerca de la Vera Cruz, y el otro Xicalanco esta cerca de Tauasco.'
_Gomara_, _Conq. Mex._, fol. 299. 'Hácia Atlisco y Itzucan los
xicalancas: y en el territorio de la Puebla, Chollolan y Tlaxcallan los
ulmecas, cuya primitiva y principal poblacion dicen haber sido la ciudad
de Chollolan.' _Veytia_, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., p. 153; _Brasseur
de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. i., pp. 110-11, 196; _Id._,
_Popol Vuh_, introd., p. xxx.; _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 119;
_Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. iii., p. 374.


The _Coras_ constitute the north-westernmost nation of the CENTRAL
MEXICANS, inhabiting the district of 'Nayarit ó reino de Nuevo
Toledo.... Al Oeste tiene los pueblos de la antigua provincia de
Acaponeta; al Este los de Colotlan, y al Sur quieren algunos que se
extienda hasta las orillas del rio Grande ó Tololotlan ... el Nayarit se
extiende entre los 21° 20´ y 23° de lat., y entre los 5° y 6° de long.
occidental de México.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 279. 'En la
Sierra del Nayarit.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 71. 'Los indios
que viven en el centro de la sierra, llamados muutzizti.... Los llamados
teakuaeitzizti viven en las faldas de la sierra que mira al Poniente ...
los coras que viven á la orilla del rio Nayarit ó de Jesus María,
conocidos por Ateakari.' _Id._, p. 83.

The _Tecoxines_ 'tenian su principal asiento en el valle de Cactlan ...
y se extendian à la Magdalena, Analco, Hoxtotipaquillo y barrancas de
Mochitiltic.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 279.

The _Cocotlanes_ were at the missions of 'Apozolco y en Comatlan.'
_Id._, p. 280.

The _Maraveres_ reside in Tlajomulco. _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. ii.,
p. 242.

The _Thorames_ and _Tzayaquecas_ dwell near the town of Zentipac. 'Dos
leguas apartado del mar, la nacion Thorama ... diez leguas de Zentipac
habia otros Indios de Nacion Tzayaqueca.' _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia,
MS._, p. 62. 'La gran poblacion y Valle de Tzenticpac, cuyo pueblo
principal está situado punto á la mar del Sur, dos leguas antes á
orillas del rio grande, y que la gente de esta provincia era de la
nacion Totorame.' _Beaumont_, _Crón. de Mechoacan, MS._, p. 197.

The _Corarus_ 'habitaban ... hacia la parte del Norte, diez leguas del
dicho pueblo de Tzenticpac.' _Ib._

The _Guicholas_ 'are settled in the village of San Sebastian, which lies
eighteen leagues to the westward of Bolaños.' _Lyon's Journal_, vol. i.,
p. 322; _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1828, tom. xl., p. 239. 'En Santa
Catarina, S. Sebastian, S. Andres Coamiat, Soledad y Tezompan,
pertenecientes á Colotlan.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 282.

The _Coronados_ 'son los del pueblo de Tuito al Sur del valle de
Banderas.' _Id._, p. 278.

The _Tiaxomultecs_ 'habitaban en Tlajomulco.' 'Estos tecuexes ... llaman
à los indios cocas de toda la provincia de Tonalan, que no eran de su
lengua, tlaxomultecas.' _Id._, p. 278.

The _Cocas_ and _Tecuexes_ 'eran los de la provincia de Tonalan.... Los
tecuexes pasaban del otro lado de Tololotlan hasta ocupar parte de
Zacatecas, derramándose por los pueblos de Tecpatitlan, Teocaltiche,
Mitic, Jalostotitlan, Mesticatan, Yagualica, Tlacotlan, Teocaltitlan,
Ixtlahuacan, Cuautla, Ocotic y Acatic.' _Id._, pp. 278-9.

The _Mazapiles_ are 'al N. E. de la zacateca.' _Hervas_, in _Id._, p.
11.

The _Cazcanes_ 'habitan hasta la comarca de Zacatecas.' _Herrera_,
_Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. xiii.; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p.
281. 'Ocupaba el terreno desde el rio Grande, confinando con los
tecuexes y los tepecanos.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 284, 49.

The _Mecos_ live in the pueblo Soledad de las Canoas, in the State of
Querétaro. _Alcedo_, _Dicc._, tom. iv., p. 567.

The _Pames_ inhabit the state of Querétaro, 'treinta leguas distante de
la expresada Ciudad de Querétaro, y se estiende á cien leguas de largo,
y treinta de ancho, en cuyas breñas vivian los Indios de la Nacion
Pame.' _Paiou_, _Vida de Junípero Serra_, p. 23. 'En la mision de Cerro
Prieto del Estado de México, se extiende principalmente por los pueblos
de San Luis Potosí, y tambien se le encuentra en Querétaro y en
Guanajuato.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 48, 256, 262, 264. 'En
San Luis de la Paz, territorio de la Sierra Gorda ... en la ciudad del
Maiz, Departamento de San Luis Potosí ... en la Purísima Concepcion de
Arnedo, en la Sierra Gorda.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 265.

  [Sidenote: THE OTOMÍS.]

The _Otomís_ are one of the most widely dispersed nations of Mexico.
'Todo lo alto de las montañas, ó la mayor parte, á la redonda de México,
están llenas de ellos. La cabeza de su señorío creo que es Xilotepec,
que es una gran provincia, y las provincias de Tollan y Otompa casi
todas son de ellos, sin contar que en lo bueno de la Nueva España hay
muchas poblaciones de estos Otomíes, de los quales proceden los
Chichimecas.' _Motolinia_, _Hist. Indios_, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de
Doc._, tom. i., p. 9. The above is copied by Torquemada, in his _Monarq.
Ind._, tom. i., p. 32. 'Estos Teochichimecas son los que aora se llaman
Otomies.... Tlaixpan, es de los que hablan esta Lengua Otomi.' _Id._, p.
261. 'La grandisima Provincia, ò Reino de los Otomies, que coge à
Tepexic, Tula, Xilotepec, Cabeça de este Reyno, Chiapa, Xiquipilco,
Atocpan, y Queretaro, en cuio medio de estos Pueblos referidos, ai otro
inumerables, porque lo eran sus Gentes.' _Id._, p. 287. 'Xilotepeque
provincia Otomiis habitata.' _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 234. 'La
Provincia degli Otomiti cominciava nella parte settentrionale della
Valle Messicana, e si continuava per quelle montagne verso tramontana
sino a novanta miglia dalla Capitale. Sopra tutti i luoghi abitati, che
v'erano ben molti, s'innalzava l'antica e celebre Città di Tollan
[oggidì Tula] e quella di Xilotepec.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del
Messico_, tom. i., p. 31. In ancient times they 'occuparono un tratto di
terra di più di trecento miglia dalle montagne d'Izmiquilpan verso
Maestro, confinando verso Levante, e verso Ponente con altre Nazioni
parimente selvaggie.' Later: 'fondarono nel paese d'Anahuac, ed anche
nella stessa Valle di Messico infiniti luoghi; la maggior parte d'essi,
e spezialmente i più grandi, come quelli di Xilotopec e di Huitzapan
nelle vicinanze del paese, che innanzi occupavano: altri sparsi fra i
Matlatzinchi, ed i Tlascallesi, ed in altre Provincie del Regno.' _Id._,
p. 148. 'Los indios de este pais (Querétaro) eran por la mayor parte
otomites.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. ii., p. 163;
_Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 77. 'Sous le nom d'Othomis, on
comprenait généralement les restes des nations primitives, répandus dans
les hautes vallées qui bornent l'Anahuac à l'occident.' _Brasseur de
Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., p. 56. 'Les traditions les
plus anciennes du Mexique nous montrent les Othomis en possession des
montagnes et de la vallée d'Anahuac, ainsi que des vastes contrées qui
s'étendent au delà, dans le Michoacan, jusqu'aux frontières de Xalizco
et de Tonalàn; ils étaient également les maîtres du plateau de
Tlaxcallan.' _Id._, tom. i., p. 160. 'Ils occupaient la plus grande
partie de la vallée d'Anahuac, avec ses contours jusqu'aux environs de
Cholullan, ainsi que les provinces que s'étendent au nord entre la
Michoacan et Tuilantzinco.' _Id._, p. 196. 'Otompan, aujourd'hui Otumba,
fut leur capitale.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, introd., pp.
xxx., cx. Querétaro 'fue siempre domicilio de los esforzados
Othomites.... Tienen poblado todo lo alto de las Montañas, que
circundan á Mexico, siendo cabecera de toda la Provincia Othomí
Xilotepec, que la hacen numerosa los Pueblos de Tepexic, Tula,
Huichiapan, Xiquilpo, Atocpan, el Mexquital, S. Juan del Rio, y
Queretaro.' _Espinosa_, _Chrón. Apostólica_, pp. 1-2. The Otomí language
'se le encuentra derramado por el Estado de México, entra en San Luis
Potosí, abraza todo Querétaro y la mayor parte de Guanajuato,
limitándose al O. por los pueblos de los tarascos; reaparece confundido
con el tepehua cerca del totonaco, y salpicado aquí y allá se tropieza
con él en Puebla y en Veracruz.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 17,
216-7, 240, 255-6, 261-4, 272. 'En todo el Estado de Querétaro y en una
parte de los de San Luis, Guanajuato, Michoacan, México, Puebla,
Veracruz y Tlaxcala.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 117. Concurrent
authorities: _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 138; _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom.
x., p. 323; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. ii., p. 345; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_,
tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 477; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 36, 188,
196-7; _Klemm_, _Cultur-Geschichte_, tom. v., p. 193; _Gallatin_, in
_Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., p. 2; _Gemelli Careri_, in
_Churchill's Col. Voyages_, tom. iv., p. 513. 'Habitait les bords du
golfe du Mexique, depuis la province de Panuco jusqu'au Nueces.'
_Domenech_, _Jour._, p. 16.

The _Mazahuas_ 'furono tempo fa parte della Nazione Otomita.... I
principali luoghi da loro abitati erano sulle montagne occidentali della
Valle Messicana, e componevano la Provincia di Mazahuacan, appartenente
alla Corona di Tacuba.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i.,
pp. 149-50; copied in _Heredia y Sarmiento_, _Sermon de Guadalupe_, p.
83. 'Mazahua, Mazahui, Matzahua, Matlazahua Mozahui, en Mexico y en
Michoacan. En tiempos del imperio azteca esta tribu pertenecia al reino
de Tlacopan; sus pueblos marcaban los límites entre su señorío y
Michoacan.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 256. 'Parece que solo
quedan algunos restos de la nacion mazahua en el distrito Ixtlahuaca,
perteneciente al Departamento de México.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom.
ii., p. 193. 'Au nord ils étendaient leurs villages jusqu'à peu de
distance de l'ancien Tollan.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat.
Civ._, tom. iii., p. 56.

The _Huastecs_, Huaxtecs, Guastecs, or Cuextecas inhabit portions of the
states of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas. 'A los mismos llamaban Panteca ó
Panoteca, que quiere decir hombres del lugar pasadero, los cuales fueron
así llamados, y son los que viven en la provincia de Panuco, que
propiamente se llaman Pantlan, ó Panotlan.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._,
tom. iii., lib. x., p. 132. 'El Huaxtecapan se extendió de Veracruz á
San Luis Potosí, y corria á lo largo de la costa del Golfo, hácia el
Norte, prolongándose probablemente muy adentro de Tamaulipas, por
lugares en donde ahora no se encuentra ni vestigio suyo.' _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 206, 19. 'Cuando llegaron los españoles, el
lugar que ocupaban era la frontera Norte del reino de Texcoco, y parte
de la del mexicano.... Hoy se conoce su pais con el nombre de la
Huaxteca: comprende la parte Norte del Estado de Veracruz y una fraccion
lindante del de San Luis, confinando, al Oriente, con el Golfo de
México, desde la barra de Tuxpan hasta Tampico.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_,
tom. i., p. 5. Further mention in _Chaves_, _Rapport_, in
_Ternaux-Compans_, _Voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. 298; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 46; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 226;
_Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 35-6; _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 316;
_Villa-Señor_, _Theatro_, tom. i., p. 122.

  [Sidenote: TOTONACS AND NAHUATLACS.]

The _Totonacs_ occupy the country east of the valley of Mexico down to
the sea-coast, and particularly the state of Veracruz and a portion of
Puebla. 'Estos Totonaques estan poblados á la parte del norte, y se dice
ser guastemas.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 131-4.
'Totonachi. Questa grande Provincia, ch'era per quella parte l'ultima
dell' imperio, si stendeva per ben centocinquanta miglia, cominciando
dalla frontiera di Zacatlan ... e terminando nel Golfo Messicano. Oltre
alla capitale Mizquihuacan, quindici miglia a Levante da Zacatlan, v'era
la bella Città di Cempoallan sulla costa del Golfo.' _Clavigero_,
_Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i., p. 34. 'Raccontavano dunque, que
essendosi eglino da principio per qualche tempo stabiliti su le rive del
lago tezcucano, quindi si portarono a popolare quelle montagne, che da
loro presero il nome di Totonacapan.' _Id._, tom. iv., p. 51. 'En Puebla
y en Veracruz. Los totonacos ocupan la parte Norte del Departamento,
formando un solo grupo con sus vecinos de Veracruz; terminan sobre la
costa del golfo, en toda la zona que se extiende entre los rios de
Chachalacas y de Cazones ó S. Márcos.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_,
pp. 214, 216. 'Están estendidos, y derramados por las Sierras, que le
caen, al Norte, à esta Ciudad de Mexico.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._,
tom. i., p. 278; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 223. 'In the
districts of Zacatlan, State of Puebla, and in the State of Vera Cruz.'
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 190; _Villa-Señor_, _Theatro_, tom. i., p.
312; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 208; _Gallatin_, in _Amer.
Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., p. 4.

The _Meztitlanecs_ inhabited the region north of Tezcuco, between the
Sierra Madre and the territory occupied by the Huastecs. 'Al Norte de
Tetzcoco existia el señorío independiente de Meztitlan, que hoy
corresponde al Estado de México.... Obedecian á Meztitlan, cabecera
principal, las provincias de Molango, Malila, Tlanchinolticpac,
Ilamatlan, Atlihuetzian, Suchicoatlan, Tianguiztengo, Guazalingo,
Yagualica. El señorío, pues, se extendia por toda la sierra, hasta el
limite con los huaxtecos: en Yahualica estaba la guarnicion contra
ellos, por ser la frontera, comenzando desde allí las llanuras de
Huaxtecapan. Xelitla era el punto mas avanzado al Oeste y confinaba con
los bárbaros chichimecas: el término al Sur era Zacualtipan y al Norte
tenia á los chichimecas.' _Chavez_, _Relacion de Meztitlan_, quoted in
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 246.

The _Nahuatlacs_ 'se diuiden en siete linajes.... Los primeros fueron
los Suchimilcos, que quiere dezir, gente de sementeras de flores. Estos
poblaron a la orilla de la gran laguna de Mexico hazia el Mediodia, y
fundaron vna ciudad de su nombre, y otros muchos lugares. Mucho despues
llegaron los del segundo linage llamados Chalcas, que significa gente de
las bocas, y tambien fundaron otra ciudad de su nombre, partiendo
terminos con los Suchimílcos. Los terceros fueron los Tepanecas, que
quiere dezir, gente de la Puente. Y tambien poblaron en la orilla de la
laguna al Occidente.... La cabeça de su provincia la llamaron
Azcapuzàlco.... Tras estos vinieron, los que poblaron a Tezcùco, que son
los de Cùlhua, que quiere dezir, gente corua.... Y assi quedò la laguna
cercada de estas quatro naciones, poblando estos al Oriente, y los
Tepanècas al Norte.... Despues llegaron los Tlatluìcas, que significa
gente de la sierra.... Y como hallaron ocupados todos los llanos en
contorno de la laguna hasta las sierras, passaron de la otra parte de
la sierra.... Y a la cabeça de su prouincia llamaron Quahunahuàc ... que
corrompidamente nuestro vulgo llama Quernauaca, y aquella prouincia es,
la que oy se dize el Marquesado. Los de la sexta generacion, que son los
Tlascaltècas, que quiere dezir gente de pan, passaron la serrania hazia
el Oriente atrauessando la sierra neuada, donde està el famoso bolcan
entre Mexico y la ciudad de los Angeles ... la cabeça de su prouincia
llamaron de su nombre Tlascàla.... La septima cueua, o linage, que es la
nacion Mexicana, la qual como las otras, salio de las prouincias de
Aztlan, y Teuculhuàcan.' _Acosta_, _Hist. de las Ynd._, pp. 454-8.
Repeated in _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. x. Also
in _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i., pp. 151-2, and in
_Heredia y Sarmiento_, _Sermon de Guadalupe_, p. 85; _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, pp. 91-2.

The _Acolhuas_ inhabited the kingdom of Acolhuacan. 'Su capital era
Tetzcoco, á la orilla del lago de su nombre.... La extension del reino
era: desde el mar del N. á la del Sur, con todo lo que se comprende á la
banda del Poniente hasta el puerto de la Veracruz, salvo la cuidad de
Tlachcala y Huexotzinco.' _Pomar_, _Relacion de Texcoco_, quoted in
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 240-2. 'Juan B. Pomar fija los
límites del reino con toda la exageracion que puede infundir el orgullo
de raza. Por nuestra parte, hemos leido con cuidado las relaciones que á
la monarquía corresponden, y hemos estudiado en el plano los lugares á
que se refieren, y ni de las unas ní de los otros llegamos á sacar jamas
que los reyes de Aculhuacan mandaran sobre las tribus avecindadas en la
costa del Pacífico, no ya á la misma altura de México, sino aun á
menores latitudes.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 242-4. See
further: _Motolinia_, _Hist. Indios_, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._,
tom. i., p. 11; _Ixtlilxochitl_, _Relaciones_, in _Kingsborough's Mex.
Antiq._, vol. ix., p. 341.

The _Ocuiltecs_ 'viven en el distrito de Toluca, en tierras y terminos
suyos.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. 130.

The _Macaoaquez_ 'viven en una comarca de Toluca, y están poblados en el
pueblo de Xocotitlan. _Ib._

The _Tarascos_ dwell chiefly in the state of Michoacan. 'La provincia de
estos, es la madre de los pescados, que es Michoacan: llámase tambien
Quaochpanme.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. 137.
Repeated in _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i., p. 148.
Their territory is bounded: 'Au nord-est, le royaume de Tonalan et le
territoire maritime de Colima eu sont séparés par le rio Pantla et le
fleuve Coahuayana, auquel s'unit cette rivière, dix lieues avant d'aller
tomber dans la mer Pacifique, dont le rivage continue ensuite à borner
le Michoacan, au sud-ouest, jusqu'à Zacatollan. Là les courbes
capricieuses du Mexcala lui constituent d'autres limites, à l'est et au
sud, puis, à l'est encore, les riches provinces de Cohuixco et de
Matlatzinco.... Plus au nord, c'étaient les Mazahuas, dont les fertiles
vallées, ainsi que celles des Matlatzincas, s'étendent dans les régions
les plus froides de la Cordillère; enfin le cour majestueux du
Tololotlan et les rives pittoresques du lac Chapala formaient une
barrière naturelle entre les Tarasques et les nombreuses populations
othomies et chichimèques des états de Guanaxuato et de Queretaro.'
_Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., pp. 53, 56. 'El
tarasco se habla en el Estado de Michoacan, exceptuando la parte
Sur-Oeste que linda con el Pacífico donde se habla el mexicano, una
pequeña parte al Nor-Este, donde se acostumbra el othomí ó el mazahua, y
otra parte donde se usa el matlatzinca. Tambien se habla en el Estado de
Guanajuato, en la parte que linda con Michoacan y Guadalajara, limitada
al Oriente por una línea que puede comenzar en Acámbaro, seguir á
Irapuato y terminar en San Felipe, es decir, en los límites con San Luis
Potosí.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 271. 'En Michoacan, Guerrero,
Guanajuato y Jalisco.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 58, 238, 264,
271-2, 281. Concurrent authorities: _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc.,
Transact._, vol. i., p. 4; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 182; _Figuier's
Hum. Race_, p. 460; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. ii., p. 675

  [Sidenote: MATLALTZINCAS AND TLAPANECS.]

The _Matlaltzincas_, Pirindas, or Tolucas inhabited the valley of
Toluca, situated between the valley of Mexico and Michoacan. 'La
Provincia dei Matlatzinchi comprendeva, oltre la valle di Tolocan, tutto
quello spazio, che v'è infino a Tlaximaloyan (oggi Taximaroa) frontiera
del regno di Michuacan.... Nelle montagne circonvicine v'erano gli
stati di Xalatlauhco, di Tzompahuacan, e di Malinalco; in non molta
lontananza verso Levante dalla valle quello d'Ocuillan, e verso Ponente
quelli di Tozantla, e di Zoltepec.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del
Messico_, tom. i., pp. 31-2, 150. 'Antiguamente en el valle de Toluca;
pero hoy solo se usa en Charo, lugar perteneciente al Estado de
Michoacan.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 499. 'In the district of
that name, sixty miles south-west of Mexico.' _Gallatin_, in _Amer.
Ethno. Soc., Transact._, tom. i., p. 4. Also in _Brasseur de Bourbourg_,
_Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., p. 56.

The _Chumbias_ inhabit the pueblos Ciutla, Axalo, Ihuitlan, Vitalata,
Guaguayutla and Coyuquilla in the State of Guerrero. _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 227.

The _Tlapanecs_, Coviscas, Yopes, Yopis, Jopes, Yopimes, Tenimes,
Pinomes, Chinquimes, Chochontes, Pinotl-Chochons, Chochos, Chuchones,
Popolocas, Tecos, Tecoxines, or Popolucas are one and the same people,
who by different writers are described under one or the other of these
names. 'Estos Coviscas y Tlapanecas, son unos ... y están poblados en
Tepecuacuilco y Tlachmalacac, y en la provincia de Chilapan.' 'Estos
Yopimes y Tlapanecas, son de los de la comarca de Yopitzinco, llámenles
Yopes ... son los que llaman propiamente tenimes, pinome, chinquime,
chochonti.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. 135; quoted
also in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 235-6, 217, 196. 'La
provincia de los Yopes lindaba al Oeste con los Cuitlateques, al Sur con
el Pacífico, al Este con los Mixtecos y al Norte con los Cohuixcas: la
division por esta parte la representaria una linea de Este à Oeste, al
Sur de Xocolmani y de Amatlan, y comprendiera à los actuales
tlapanecos.' _Montufar_, in _Id._, pp. 235-6. 'Confinava colla costa dei
Cohuixchi quella dei Jopi, e con questa quella dei Mixtechi, conosciuta
ai nostri tempi col nome di Xicayan.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del
Messico_, tom. i., p. 34; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._,
vol. i., p. 4. 'Tecamachalco era su poblacion principal, y se derramaban
al Sur hasta tocar con los mixtecos. Durante el siglo XVI se encontraban
aún popolocos en Tlacotepec y en San Salvador (unidos con los otomíes),
pueblo sujeto á Quecholac.... Por la parte de Tehuacan, el límite de
esta tribu se hallaba en Coxcatlan.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp.
217-18. The Chochos dwell in sixteen pueblos in the department of
Huajuapan in the state of Oajaca. _Id._, p. 196.

The _Cohuixcas_ dwelt in the province of the same name, which 'confinava
a Settentrione coi Matlatzinchi, e coi Tlahuichi, a Ponente coi
Cuitlatechi, a Levante coi Jopi e coi Mixtechi, ed a Mezzogiornio si
stendeva infino al Mar Pacifico per quella parte, dove presentemente vi
sono il porto e la Città d'Acapulco.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del
Messico_, tom. i., p. 32. 'La provincia comenzaba en Zacualpa, límite
con los matlaltzincas, y que, por último, los confines de esa porcion
antigua del imperio Mexicano, eran al Norte los matlaltzinques; los
tlahuiques, al Este los mixtecos y los tlapanecos, al Sur los yopes, y
al Oeste los cuitlateques.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 227-32.
Their country lies 'between Tesitzlan and Chilapan.' _Ker's Travels_, p.
233.

The _Cuitlatecs_ inhabit the country between the Cohuixcas and the
Pacific Coast. 'I Cuitlatechi abitavano un paese, che si stendeva più di
dugento miglia da Maestro a Scirocco dal regno di Michuacan infino al
mar Pacifico. La loro capitale era la grande e popolosa città di
Mexcaltepec sulla costa, della quale appena sussistono le rovine.'
_Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i., p. 32. 'En Ajuchitlan,
San Cristóbal y Poliutla en la municipalidad de Ajuchitlan, distrito del
mismo nombre, y en Atoyac, distrito y municipalidad de Tecpan. La
provincia de los cuitlateques ó cuitlatecos, sujeta en lo antiguo á los
emperadores de México, quedaba comprendida entre las de Zacatula y de
los cohuixques.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 233-4.


Proceeding southward, among the SOUTHERN MEXICANS, we first encounter
the _Miztecs_, whose province, Miztecapan, was in the present states of
Oajaca and Guerrero. 'La Mixtecapan, o sia Provincia dei Mixtechi si
stendeva da Acatlan, luogo lontano cento venti miglia dalla corte verso
Scirocco, infino al Mar Pacifico, e conteneva più Città e villaggi ben
popolati, e di considerabile commercio.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del
Messico_, tom. i., p. 32. 'Le Mixtecapan comprenait les régions
occidentales de l'état d'Oaxaca, depuis la frontière septentrionale
d'Acatlan, qui le séparait des principautés des Tlahuicas et de
Mazatlan, jusque sur le rivage de l'océan Pacifique. Elles se divisaient
en haute et basse Mixtèque, l'une et l'autre également fertiles, la
première resserrèe entre les montagnes qui lui donnaient son nom; la
seconde, occupant les riches territoires des bords de la mer, ayant pour
capitale la ville de Tututepec (à l'embouchure du rio Verde).' _Brasseur
de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., p. 4. 'Les Mixtèques
donnaient eux-mêmes à leur pays le nom de Gnudzavui-Gnuhu, Terre de
pluie, pour le haute Mixtèque, et Gnuundaa, Côte de la mer, à la basse.'
_Id._, pp. 5-6. 'En la antigua provincia de este nombre, situada sobre
la costa del mar Pacifico, que comprende actualmente, hácia el Norte,
una fraccion del Estado de Puebla; hácia el Este, una del de Oajaca, y
al Oeste, parte del Estado de Guerrero. <DW37>ídese la Mixteca en alta y
baja, estando la primera en la serranía, y la segunda en las llanuras
contiguas á la costa.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 37. 'Westlich
der Zapotécos, bei San Francisco Huizo im Norden und bei Santa Cruz
Miztepéc im Süden des grossen Thales von Oajáca beginnen die Mistéken,
welche den ganzen westlichen Theil des Staats einnehmen, und südlich bis
an die Küste des Austral-Oceans bei Jamiltepéc und Tututepéc
hinabreichen.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 142, 187,
192-6, 198-9, 201-2. Also in _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 163.

  [Sidenote: ZAPOTECS AND MIJES.]

The _Zapotecs_ occupy the large valley of Oajaca. 'Fue la Zapotecapan
Señora, y tan apoderada de las demas de su Orizonte, que ambiciosos sus
Reyes, rompieron los terminos de su mando, y se entraron ferozes, y
valientes, por Chontales, Mijes, y tierras maritimas de ambos mares del
Sur, y del Norte ... y venciendo, hasta Señorear los fertiles llanos de
Teguantepeque, y corriendo hasta Xoconusco.' _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._,
tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 196, tom. ii., fol. 362. 'Hasta Tepeiac,
Techamachalco, Quecholac y Teohuacan, que por aquí dicen que hicieron
sus poblaciones los zapotecas.' _Veytia_, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., p.
153. 'A Levante de' Mixtechi erano i Zapotechi, cosí chiamati dalla loro
capitale Teotzapotlan. Nel loro distretto era la Valle di Huaxyacac,
dagli Spagnuoli detta Oaxaca o Guaxaca.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del
Messico_, tom. i., p. 32. 'En una parte del Estado de Oajaca, limitada
al Sur por el Pacífico, exceptuando una pequeña fraccion de terreno
ocupada por los chontales.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 319. See
also: _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 177-87; _Murguía y Galardi_, in
_Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Boletin_, tom. vii., pp. 245-6. 'The Zapotecs
constitute the greater part of the population of the southern division
of the Isthmus (of Tehuantepec).' _Barnard's Tehuantepec_, p. 226.
'Inhabit the Pacific plains and the elevated table-lands from Tarifa to
Petapa.' _Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec_, pp. 125, 133-4; _Garay's
Tehuantepec_, p. 59; _Fossey_, _Mexique_, pp. 338, 470. 'Zapotécos,
welche die Mitte des Staates, das grosse Thal von Oajáca bewohnen, sich
im Osten über die Gebirge von Huixázo, Iztlán und Tanétze und die Thäler
Los Cajónos ausbreiten, und im Süden, im Partido Quíechápa (Depart.
Tehuantepéc) mit den Mijes, im Partido von Pochútla (Depart. Ejútla)
aber mit den Chontáles, Nachbaren jener, gränzen.' _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 141, 170, 173-6, 183-6, 189, 191, 199,
212-13; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 162. 'Les Zapotèques appelaient
leur pays Lachea.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom.
iii., p. 38; _Macgregor's Progress of America_, p. 848.

The _Mijes_ dwell in the mountains of southern Oajaca and in a small
portion of Tehuantepec. 'Antérieurement à la ruine de l'empire toltèque
... les Mijes occupaient tout le territoire de l'isthme de Tehuantepec,
d'une mer à l'autre.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Voy. Tehuantepec_, pp.
138-9. 'Toute cette région, comprenant, à l'est, les cimes de la Sierra
de Macuilapa que domine le village actuel de Zanatepec et les montagnes
qui s'étendent, du côté opposé, vers Lachixila, baignées par la rivière
de Tehuantepec, au sud, et, au nord, par celle de la Villa-Alta,
jusqu'aux savanes, oú roulent les affluents de l'Alvarado et du
Guazacoalco, appartenait à la même nation des Mixi ou Mijes ... les
Mijes vaincus demeurèrent soumis dès lors aux rois de la Mixtèque et du
Zapotecapan, à l'exception d'un petit nombre qui, jusqu'à l'époque
espagnole, continuérent dans leur résistance dans les cantons austères
qui environnent le Cempoaltepec. Ce qui reste de cette nation sur
l'isthme de Tehuantepec est disséminé actuellement en divers villages de
la montagne. Entre les plus importants est celui de Guichicovi que
j'avais laissé à ma droite en venant de la plaine de Xochiapa au
Barrio.' _Id._, pp. 105-7. 'Les Mixi avaient possédé anciennement la
plus grande partie des royaumes de Tehuantepec, de Soconusco et du
Zapotecapan; peut-être même les rivages de Tututepec leur devaient-ils
leur première civilisation.' _Id._, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., pp.
34-5. 'En algunos lugares del Departamento de Oajaca como Juquila,
Quezaltepec y Atilan.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 173. 'Les
Indiens mijes habitent une contrée montagneuse, au sud-ouest du
Goatzacoalco et au nord-ouest de Tehuantepec.... De la chaîne des monts
Mijes descend la rivière de Sarrabia, qui traverse la belle plaine de
Boca-del-Monte.' _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 49. 'The Mijes, once a powerful
tribe, inhabit the mountains to the west, in the central division of the
Isthmus, and are now confined to the town of San Juan Guichicovi.'
_Barnard's Tehuantepec_, p. 224; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 225;
_Hermesdorf_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 547. 'The
Mijes constituted formerly a powerful nation, and they still occupy the
land from the Sierra, north of Tehuantepec, to the district of Chiapas.
In the Isthmus they only inhabit the village of Guichicovi, and a small
portion of the Sierra, which is never visited.' _Garay's Tehuantepec_,
p. 60. Also _Macgregor's Progress of America_, p. 849; _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, pp. 176-7.

The _Huaves_, Huavi, Huabi, Huabes, Guavi, Wabi, etc., live on the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 'Les Wabi avaient été, dans les siècles passés,
possesseurs de la province de Tehuantepec.... Ils avaient été les
maîtres du riche territoire de Soconusco (autrefois Xoconochco ...
espèce de nopal), et avaient étendu leurs conquêtes jusqu'au sein même
des montagnes, où ils avaient fondé ou accru la ville de Xalapa la
Grande (Xalapa-del-Marques).' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat.
Civ._, tom. iii., p. 3. 'The Huaves are in all little more than three
thousand, and occupy the four villages of the coast called San Mateo,
Santa Maria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco.' _Garay's Tehuantepec_, p.
59. 'Scattered over the sandy peninsulas formed by the lakes and the
Pacific. At present they occupy the four villages of San Mateo, Santa
Maria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco.' _Barnard's Tehuantepec_, p.
227. 'San Francisco Istaltepec is the last village, inhabited by the
descendants of a tribe called Huaves.' _Hermesdorf_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 546. 'Habitent les villages du bord de la
mer au sud de Guichicovi.' _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 467. _Shufeldt's
Explor. Tehuantepec_, p. 126; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt.
i., p. 141. 'Se extienden en Tehuantepec, desde las playas del Pacífico
hasta la cordillera interior.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 173-6.

The _Beni-Xonos_ 'composaient une province nombreuse, occupant en partie
les routes qui conduisaient au Mexique et aux montagnes des Mixi....
Leur ville principale, depuis la conquête, s'appelait San-Francisco, à
15 l. N. O. de la cité d'Oaxaca.' 'Habitant sur les confins des Mixi et
des Zapotêques.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii.,
pp. 42-3. 'Les Beni-Xono sont appelés aussi Nexicha et Cajones.' _Ib._

The _Mazatecs_ live in the state of Oajaca, near the Puebla boundary. 'A
Tramontana dei Mixtechi v'era la Provincia di Mazatlan, e a Tramontana,
e a Levante dei Zapotechi quella di Chinantla colle loro capitali dello
stesso nome, onde furono i loro abitanti Mazatechi e Chinantechi
appellati.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. i., p. 33. 'In
den Partidos Teutitlán und Teutíla, Departement Teutitlán del Camíno.'
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 141, 206, 210. 'En el
Departamento de Teotitlan, formando una pequeña fraccion en el límite
con el Estado de Veracruz.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 188.

  [Sidenote: TRIBES OF OAJACA AND CHIAPAS.]

The _Cuicatecs_ dwell 'en una pequeña fraccion del Departamento de
Oajaca.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 259. 'In den Partidos
Teutitlán und Teutíla, Departement Teutitlán del Camíno.'
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 141; repeated in _Orozco
y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 188-9; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 163.

The _Pabucos_ live in the 'pueblo de Elotepec, Departamento del Centro.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 197; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom.
ii., pt. i., p. 187.

The _Soltecs_ are in the pueblo de Sola. _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_,
p. 197.

The _Pintos_ are a people inhabiting small portions of Guerrero and
Tehuantepec. 'A l'ouest, sur le versant des Cordillères, une grande
partie de la côte baignée par le Pacifique, habitée par les Indiens
Pintos.' _Kératry_, in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, Sept. 15, 1866, p. 453.
'On trouve déjà dans la plaine de Tehuantepec quelques échantillons de
cette race toute particulière au Mexique, appelée pinto, qui appartient
principalement à l'état de Guerrero.' _Charnay_, _Ruines Américaines_,
p. 502.

The _Chiapanecs_ inhabit the interior of the state of Chiapas. 'Dans
l'intérieur des provinces bordant les rives du Chiapan, à sa sortie des
gouffres d'où il s'élance, en descendant du plateau de Zacatlan.'
(Guatemalan name for Chiapas,) and they extended over the whole
province, later on. _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom.
ii., p. 87. 'À l'ouest de ce plateau, entre les Zotziles ou Quélènes du
sud et les Zoqui du nord, habitaient les Chiapanèques.' _Id._, _Popol
Vuh_, introd., pp. 157, 199. Also in _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 325;
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 39. 'En Acala, distrito del Centro, y en la
villa de Chiapa y en Suchiapa, distrito del Oeste.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 172. 'Le principali Città dei Chiapanechi erano
Teochiapan, (chiamata dagli Spagnuoli Chiapa de Indios), Tochtla,
Chamolla, e Tzinacantla.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom.
i., p. 33.

The _Tzendales_ are in Chiapas. 'De l'Etat de Chiapas.' _Brasseur de
Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, p. 364. 'The province called Zeldales lyeth
behind this of the Zoques, from the North Sea within the continent,
running up towards Chiapa and reaches in some parts near to the borders
of Comitlan, north-westward.' _Gage's New Survey_, p. 236. Also in
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 193; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 235;
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 169; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec.
iv., lib. x., cap. xi.; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 325.

The _Zotziles_ inhabit a small district in Chiapas. 'La ciudad de
Tzinacantlan, que en mexicano significa "lugar de murciélagos," fué la
capital de los quelenes, y despues de los tzotziles quienes la llamaban
Zotzilhá, que significa lo mismo; de zotzil, murciélago.' _Pimentel_,
_Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 245. Tzinacantan (Quiche Zotzilha) 'doit avoir
été le berceau de la nation zotzil, l'une des nombreuses populations du
Chiapas.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p. 88.

The _Chatinos_ live in the 'Departamentos del Centro y de Jamiltepee.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 189; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom.
ii., pt. i., pp. 196-9.

The _Chinantecs_, or Tenez, are in the 'Departamento de Teotitlan.'
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 187; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom.
ii., pt. i., p. 214. 'In the partidos of Quiechapa, Jalalog, and
Chuapan.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 40.

The _Ahualulcos_ inhabit San Francisco de Ocuapa which 'es la Cabeza de
Partido de los Indios Ahualulcos.' _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. iii.,
p. 366.

The _Quelenes_ occupied a district in Chiapas near the Guatemala
boundary line. 'La nation des Quelènes, dont la capitale était Comitan,
occupait la frontière guatémalienne.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist.
Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., p. 4. 'Au temps de la conquête, la ville
principale des Quelènes était Copanahuaztlan.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_,
_Popol Vuh_, introd., p. 157. 'Établies entre le haut plateau de Ghovel
ou de Ciudad-Real et les montagnes de Soconusco au midi.' _Ib._; and
_Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 271.

The _Zoques_ are scattered over portions of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oajaca,
and Tehuantepec. 'Se encuentran derramados en Chiapas, Tabasco y Oaxaca;
tienen al Norte el mexicano y el chontal, al Este el tzendal, el tzotzil
y el chiapaneco, al Sur el mexicano, y al Oeste el huave, el zapoteco y
el mixe.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 170. 'Occupy the mountain
towns of Santa Maria and San Miguel, and number altogether about two
thousand souls.' _Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec_, p. 126. 'Les Zotziles
et les Zoqui, confinant, au sud-est, avec les Mixi montagnards, au nord
avec les Nonohualcas, et les Xicalancas, qui habitaient les territoires
fertiles de Tabasco.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom.
iii., p. 5. 'Quorum præcipuum Tecpatlan.' _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 325.
'The Soques, who came originally from Chiapas, inhabit in the Isthmus
only the villages of San Miguel and Santa María Chimalapa.' _Garay's
Tehuantepec_, p. 60. 'La mayor de ellas está situada á tres leguas de
Tacotalpa, aguas arriba del rio de la Sierra. Ocupa un pequeño valle
causado por el descenso de varios cerros y colinas que la circuyen.'
_Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., pp. 236-8; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_,
tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 181-2; _Macgregor's Progress of America_, pp.
849-50. 'The Zoques inhabit the mountainous region to the east, from the
valley of the Chiapa on the south, to the Rio del Corte on the north.
Originally occupying a small province lying on the confines of Tabasco,
they were subjugated by the expedition to Chiapas under Luis Marin. At
present they are confined to the villages of San Miguel and Santa Maria
Chimalapa.' _Barnard's Tehuantepec_, p. 225. 'Near the Arroyo de Otates,
on the road from Tarifa to Santa Maria, stands a new settlement,
composed of a few shanties, inhabited by Zoques, which is called Tierra
Blanca.' _Hermesdorf_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p.
546.

The _Choles_, _Manches_, and _Mopanes_ are scattered through small
portions of Chiapas and Vera Paz in Guatemala. '23 leagues from Cahbón,
in the midst of inaccessible mountains and morasses, dwell the Chóls and
Manchés.' _Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 94-5.
Residen en la 'Provincia del Manché.' _Alcedo_, _Dicc._, tom. iii., p.
452. Also in _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., preface, p. 14; _Dunlop's Cent.
Amer._, p. 196; _Gavarrete_, in _Panamá Star and Herald_, _Dec. 19,
1867_. 'Los Choles forman una tribu establecida desde tiempos remotos en
Guatemala; dividos en dos fracciones ... la una se encuentra al Este de
Chiapas, y la otra muy retirada en la Verapaz.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 167. 'Tenia por el Sur la Provincia del Chòl: Por la
Parte del Oriente, y de el Norte, de igual modo, las Naciones de los
Itzaex Petenes: Y por el Poniente, las de los Lacandones, y Xoquinoès.'
_Villagutierre_, _Hist. Conq. Itza_, pp. 278-9. 'The nation of the Chol
Indians is settled in a country about 25 or 30 leagues distant from
Cahabon, the last village in Verapaz, and far removed from the Manchés.'
_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 275.

  [Sidenote: MAYAS AND ITZAS.]

The _Mayas_ inhabit the peninsula of Yucatan. 'Avant la conquête des
Espagnols, les Mayas occupaient toute la presque'île d'Yucatan, y
compris les districts de Peten, le Honduras anglais, et la partie
orientale de Tabasco.... La seule portion de pure race restant de cette
grande nation, se réduit à quelques tribus èparses, habitant
principalement les bords des rivières Usumasinta, San Pedro et Pacaitun;
la totalitè de leur territoire fait, politiquement parlant, partie du
Peten.' _Galindo_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1834, tom. lxiii.,
pp. 148-9, and in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, tom. iii., p. 59. 'En todo
el Estado de Yucatan, Isla del Cármen, pueblo de Montecristo en Tabasco,
y del Palenque en Chiapas.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., p. 3;
_Crowe's Cent. America_, pp. 46-7; _Müller_, _Amerikanische
Urreligionen_, p. 453; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 208;
_Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 142-3.

The _Itzas_ occupy a like-named district in the centre of Yucatan. 'Los
que poblaron a Chicheniza, se llaman los Yzaes.' _Herrera_, _Hist.
Gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii. 'Tienen por la parte del Mediodia, la
Provincia de la Vera-Paz, y Reyno de Guatimala; por el Norte, las
Provincias de Yucatán; por la parte del Oriente, el Mar; por la de el
Occidente, la Provincia de Chiapa; y al Sueste, la Tierra, y Provincia
de Honduras.' _Villagutierre_, _Hist. Conq. Itza_, p. 489.


FOOTNOTES:

[897] Otomí;--'_Otho_ en la misma lengua othomí quiere decir _nada_, y
_mi_, quieto, ó sentado, de manera que traducida literalmente la
palabra, significa nada-quieto, cuya idea pudiéramos expresar diciendo
_peregrino ó errante_.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 118.
Chichimecs;--'Los demas Indios les llamaban Chichimecos (que hoy lo
mismo es chichi que perros altaneros) por la ninguna residencia.'
_Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 44. Speaking of Chichimecs,
'debaxo deste nombre estan muchas naciones con dierencias de lenguas
como son Pamies, Capuzes, Samues, Zancas, Maiolias, Guamares,
Guachichiles, y otros, todos diferentes aunque semejantes en las
costumbres.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xiv.
For further etymology of tribes, see _Buschmann_, _Ortsnamen_.

[898] 'Hanno d'altezza più di cinque piedi parigini.' _Clavigero_,
_Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. iv., p. 161. 'De pequeña estatura
[cuatro piés seis pulgadas, á cinco piés cuando mas.]' _Berlandier y
Thovel_, _Diario_, p. 229. In Yalisco 'casi en todo este reyno, son
grandes, y hermosas.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 271. 'Son de estatura
alta, bien hechos y fornidos.' _Ulloa_, _Noticias Americanas_, p. 308;
_Tylor's Anahuac_, p. 182; _Burkart_, _Mexico_, tom. i., p. 49;
_Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p. 560; _Beaumont_, _Crón. de
Mechoacan, MS._, p. 236.

[899] 'In complexion, feature, hair and eyes, I could trace a very great
resemblance between these Indians and the Esquimaux.' _Lyon's Journal_,
vol. i., p. 296, see also vol. ii., pp. 199, 239. 'Son de la frente
ancha, y las cabezas chatas.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp.
133, 129. See further, _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 511;
_Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex._, vol. i., p. 200; _Almaraz_,
_Memoria_, p. 79; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., pp. 82, 86;
_Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, p. 280; _Viollet-Le-Duc._, in _Charnay_, _Ruines
Américaines_, p. 102; _Poinsett's Notes on Mex._, pp. 107-8; _Ottavio_,
in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1833, tom. lix., pp. 73-4; _Fossey_,
_Mexique_, p. 391; _Vigneaux_, _Souv. Mex._, p. 320; _D'Orbigny_,
_Voy._, p. 352; _Bonnycastle's Span. Am._, vol. i., pp. 49-50;
_Figuier's Hum. Race_, p. 455; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 38-40;
_Bullock's Mexico_, vol. i., pp. 184, 192; _Mayer's Mex. as it Was_,
pp. 142, 167, 291.

[900] In Mexico in 1698 the costume was a 'short doublet and wide
breeches. On their shoulders they wear a cloak of several colours, which
they call _Tilma_.... The women all wear the _Guaipil_, (which is like a
sack) under the _Cobixa_, which is a fine white cotton cloth; to which
they add another upon their back.... Their coats are narrow with figures
of lions, birds, and other creatures, adorning them with curious ducks'
feathers, which they call _Xilotepec_.' _Gemelli Careri_, in
_Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol. iv., p. 491. Dress of a native girl of
Mexico, 'enaguas blanquísimas, el _quisquemel_ que graciosamente cubre
su pecho y espalda ... dos largas trenzas color de ébano caen á los
lados del cuello.' _Prieto_, _Viajes_, pp. 454, 190-1, 430-1. 'Leur
costume varie selon le terrain et le climat.' _Löwenstern_, _Mexique_,
pp. 176, 339.

[901] See _Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex._, vol. ii., pp. 346-8.

[902] 'Usan de una especie de gran paño cuadrado, que tiene en el centro
una abertura por donde pasa la cabeza.' _Berlandier y Thovel_, _Diario_,
p. 229.

[903] 'Yuan muy galanes, y empenachados.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec.
iv., lib. viii., cap. i. 'Señores ó principales, traían en el labio un
bezote de chalchivite ó esmeralda, ó de caracol, ó de oro, ó de
cobre.... Las mugeres cuando niñas, tambien se rapaban la cabeza, y
cuando ya mosas dejaban criar los cabellos ... cuando alguna era ya
muger hecha y habia parido, tocabase el cabello. Tambien traían
sarcillos ó orejeras, y se pintaban los pechos y los brazos, con una
labor que quedaba de azul muy fino, pintada en la misma carne cortándola
con una navajuela.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp.
123-5, 133-4. 'En el Pueblo de Juito salieron muchos Yndios de paz con
escapularios blancos al pecho, cortado el cabello en modo de cerquillo
como Religiosos, todos con unas cruces en las manos que eran de
carrizos, y un Yndio que parecia el principal ó cacique con un vestuario
de Tunica talan.' _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 73, also, pp.
21, 44, 46, 63, 107, 150. For further description of dress and ornaments
see _Nebel_, _Viaje_, plates, nos. xxvi., xxxi., xxxvi., xli., xlvi.;
_Thompson's Recollections Mexico_, p. 29; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp.
250, 252, 281; _Lafond_, _Voyages_, tom. i., p. 211; _Alegre_, _Hist.
Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., pp. 90, 279; _Lyon's Journal_, vol. ii., pp.
64, 198; _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, p. 162; _Beaumont_, _Crón. de
Mechoacan, MS._, p. 210; _Apostólicos Afanes_, pp. 10, 67; _Alcedo_,
_Diccionario_, tom. iii., p. 299; _Vigneaux_, _Souv. Mex._, pp. 276,
296; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 55-6; _Biart_, in _Revue Française_,
Dec. 1864, pp. 478-9; _Ottavio_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1833,
tom. lix., p. 61; _Tylor's Anahuac_, p. 302; _Burkart_, _Mexico_, tom.
i., pp. 50-1.

[904] 'Les cabanes sont de véritables cages en bambous.' _Vigneaux_,
_Souv. Mex._, p. 274; _Mayer's Mex. as it Was_, p. 170; _Ward's Mexico_,
vol. ii., pp. 179, 522; _Bustamante_, in _Prieto_, _Viajes_, pp. 192,
195, 373, 437, 447; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., pp. 223-4;
_Beaufoy's Mex. Illustr._, p. 258; _Pagés Travels_, vol. i., p. 159;
_Dillon_, _Hist. Mex._, p. 47.

[905] _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 250; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_,
p. 582. 'Estos Otomies comian los zorrillos que hieden, culebras y
lirones, y todo género de ratones, comadrejas, y otras sabandijas del
campo y del monte, lagartijas de todas suertes, y abejones y langostas
de todas maneras.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp.
126-7, 123-5. In Jalisco 'Los indios de aquellas provincias son caribes,
que comen carne humana todas las veçes que la pueden aver.' _Oviedo_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p. 568.

[906] In Puebla 'Los Indios se han aplicado mas al cultivo de la tierra
y plantío de frutas y legumbres.' In Michoacan 'Cultivan mucho maiz,
frixoles y ulgodon.' _Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. i., pp. 494, 714. In
Querétaro 'viven del cultivo de las sementeras.' _Id._, tom. iii., p.
320.

[907] 'They boil the Indian wheat with lime, and when it has stood
a-while grind it, as they do the cacao.' _Gemelli Careri_, in _Churchill's
Col. Voyages_, vol. v., pp. 496, 492, 513; _Walton's Span. Col._, p.
305. For further account of food see _Tylor's Anahuac_, pp. 88-9, 156;
_Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_, p. 295; _Klemm_, _Cultur-Geschichte_, p. 102;
_Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., p. 323; _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia,
MS._, pp. 31, 44, 53, 73, 127; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., pp.
79, 87; _Larenaudière_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1824, tom.
xxiii., p. 67; _Prieto_, _Viajes_, pp. 191-2, 373; _Mex. in 1842_, pp.
46, 64, 68; _Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. 32; _Albornoz_, in
_Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._, tom. i., p. 488; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. i., pp. 185, 218-19; _Armin_, _Das Heutige Mexiko_, p.
245, with plate; _Mendoza_, _Hist. de las Cosas_, p. 310; _Malte-Brun_,
_Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 443.

[908] _Ward's Mexico_, vol. ii., pp. 268-9. 'One would think the bath
would make the Indians cleanly in their persons, but it hardly seems so,
for they look rather dirtier after they have been in the _temazcalli_
than before.' _Tylor's Anahuac_, p. 302.

[909] _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, pp. 33, 72-3; _Beaumont_,
_Crón. de Mechoacan, MS._, p. 235. 'El arco y la flecha eran sus armas
en la guerra, aunque para la caza los caciques y señores usaban tambien
de cervatanas.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 279. 'I
saw some Indians that kill'd the least birds upon the highest trees with
pellets shot out of trunks.' _Gemelli Careri_, in _Churchill's Col.
Voyages_, vol. iv., p. 512, and in _Berenger_, _Col. de Voy._, tom. ii.,
p. 397.

[910] _West und Ost Indischer Lustgart_, pt. i., p. 102; _Clavigero_,
_Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. ii., pp. 141-4, with plate; _Cartas al
Abate de Pradt_, p. 114; _Helps' Span. Conq._, vol. ii., p. 286;
_Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 89; _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom.
iii., lib. x., pp. 129, 133; _Lyon's Journal_, vol. i., pp. 149, 293;
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ii.; _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. 378. 'Una macana, á manera de porra,
llena de puntas de piedras pedernales.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom.
iii., p. 568. 'En schilden uit stijve stokjens gevlochten, van welke
sick verwonderens-waerdig dienen in den oorlog.' _Montanus_, _Nieuwe
Weereld_, pp. 225-6, and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 254.

[911] 'Siempre procuran de acometer en malos pasos, en tierras dobladas
y pedregosas.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. vii., lib. ii., cap. xii.
'Tres mil Yndios formaban en solo una fila haciendo frente á nuestro
campo.' _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 34; see further,
_Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p. 572; _Beaumont_, _Crón. de
Mechoacan, MS._, p. 235.

[912] The Chichimecs 'Flea their heads, and fit that skin upon their own
heads with all the hair, and so wear it as a token of valour, till it
rots off in bits.' _Gemelli Careri_, in _Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol.
iv., p. 513, and _Berenger_, _Col. de Voy._, tom. ii., p. 400.
'Quitandoles los cascos con el pelo, se los llevan á su Pueblo, para
baylar el mitote en compañia de sus parientes con las cabezas de sus
enemigos en señal del triunfo.' _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, pp.
179, 159-60. Further reference in _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii.,
lib. x., pp. 133-4; _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 281.

[913] _Cassel_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1830, tom. xlv., p.
338; _Vigneaux_, _Souv. Mex._, p. 274; _Prieto_, _Viajes_, p. 193;
_Tylor's Anahuac_, pp. 201-2; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., pp.
224-6, 241; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 224; and _Dapper_, _Neue
Welt_, p. 252.

[914] 'The Indians of this Countrie doe make great store of Woollen
Cloth and Silkes.' _Purchas His Pilgrimes_, vol. iv., lib. vii., p.
1433. The Otomís 'sabian hacer lindas labores en las mantas, enaguas, y
vipiles que tejian muy curiosamente; pero todas ellas labraban lo dicho
de hilo de maguéy que sacaban y beneficiaban de las pencas.' _Sahagun_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. 127; see also, _Tylor's Anahuac_,
p. 201; _Bustamante_, in _Prieto_, _Viajes_, p. 193; _Carpenter's Trav.
Mex._, p. 243; _Mex. in 1842_, p. 66; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom.
ii., pt. ii., p. 341; _Lyon's Journal_, vol. ii., p. 43; _Thümmel_,
_Mexiko_, p. 63.

[915] _Dale's Notes_, p. 24.

[916] 'In those countreys they take neither golde nor silver for
exchange of any thing, but onley Salt.' _Chilton_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._,
vol. iii., p. 459; compare _Lyon's Journal_, vol. i., p. 293, and vol.
ii., p. 198; and _Tylor's Anahuac_, p. 85.

[917] _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 98; _Tylor's Anahuac_, p.
316; _Ward's Mexico_, vol. ii., p. 237; _Lafond_, _Voyages_, tom. i., p.
131; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 243; _Mill's Hist. Mex._, p.
6; _Carpenter's Trav. Mex._, p. 243. 'Les Mexicains ont conservé un goût
particulier pour la peinture et pour l'art de sculpter en pierre et en
bois.' _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 446. 'Lo
particular de Michoacan era el arte de pintar con las plumas de diversos
colores.' _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 90. 'Son muy
buenos cantores y tañedores de toda suerte de instrumentos.' _Mendoza_,
_Hist. de las Cosas_, p. 308.

[918] _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 281; _Herrera_,
_Hist. Gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xv.; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._,
tom. iii., p. 567; _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, pp. 31, 68;
_Ottavio_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1833, tom. lix., p. 61.

[919] _Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. 296; _Villa_, in
_Prieto_, _Viajes_, pp. 428-30. 'Tenian uso y costumbre los otomíes, de
que los varones siendo muy muchachos y tiernos se casasen, y lo mismo
las mugeres.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. 127.
Chichimecs 'casanse con las parientas mas cercanas, pero no con las
hermanas.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xv.

[920] _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., pp. 246-8; _Bullock's Mexico_,
vol. i., p. 192; _Apostólicos Afanes_, pp. 21-2; _Rittner_,
_Guatimozin_, p. 81. 'El amancebamiento no es deshonra entre ellos.'
_Zarfate_, in _Alegre_, _Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., pp. 281, 335.
'Zlingerden de kinderen in gevlochte korven aen boomtakken.' _Montanus_,
_Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 219; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 246.

[921] 'La mancebía, el incesto, y cuanto tiene de mas asquerosamente
repugnante el desarreglo de la concupiscencia, se ha convertido en
hábito.' _Prieto_, _Viajes_, p. 379; _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 27;
_Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 56.

[922] _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 97; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._,
p. 160; _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. 131;
_Apostólicos Afanes_, p. 12; _Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia_, pp. 19, 127;
_Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 80; _Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 61;
_Alcedo_, _Diccionario_, tom. ii., p. 470; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_,
tom. i., p. 219; _Gemelli Careri_, in _Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol.
iv., p. 517.

[923] _Arlegui_, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_, pp. 161-2; _Mayer's Mex. as it
Was_, pp. 175-6; _Mendoza_, _Hist. de las Cosas_, p. 311; _Prieto_,
_Viajes_, p. 375; _Apostólicos Afanes_, p. 12. 'Los indios, si no todos
en su mayor parte, viven ligados por una especie de masonería.'
_Bustamante_, in _Prieto_, _Viajes_, p. 199. 'Wenn mehrere in
Gesellschaft gehen, nie neben, sondern immer hinter einander und selten
ruhig schreitend, sondern fast immer kurz trabend.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u.
Stat._, p. 39. 'L'Indien enterre son argent, et au moment de sa mort il
ne dit pas à son plus proche parent oú il a déposé son trésor, afin
qu'il ne lui fasse pas faute quand il ressuscitera.' _Cassel_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1830, tom. xlv., p. 339.

[924] 'La petite vérole et la rougeole sont deux maladies très
communes.' _Chappe d'Auteroche_, _Voyage_, p. 25. The Pintos 'marked
with great daubs of deep blue ... the decoration is natural and cannot
be effaced.' _Tylor's Anahuac_, p. 309. See further: _Fossey_,
_Mexique_, pp. 33-4, 395-6. Compare _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i.,
pp. 66, 69-70, 88; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 250; _Dapper_, _Neue
Welt_, p. 282; _Cassel_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1830, tom.
xlv., p. 340; _Löwenstern_, _Mexique_, p. 207; _Charnay_, _Ruines
Américaines_, pp. 502-3; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi.,
p. 443; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 40.

[925] 'Los Indios son grandes herbolarios, y curan siempre con ellas.'
_Mendoza_, _Hist. de las Cosas_, p. 311. 'For fevers, for bad colds, for
the bite of a poisonous animal, this (the temazcalli) is said to be a
certain cure; also for acute rheumatism.' _Calderon de la Barca's Life
in Mex._, vol. i., p. 255; _Helps' Span. Conq._, vol. ii., p. 430;
_Menonville_, _Reise_, p. 124; _Murr_, _Nachrichten_, p. 306;
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 250.

[926] 'Notant barbari, folia parti affectæ aut dolenti applicata, de
eventu morbi præjudicare: nam si firmiter ad hæreant, certum signum esse
ægrum convaliturum, sin decidant, contra.' _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p.
271; _Villa_, in _Prieto_, _Viajes_, pp. 438-9.

[927] The remains of one of their ancient kings found in a cave is thus
described; 'estaba cubierto de pedreria texida segun su costumbre en la
manta con que se cubria desde los hombros hasta los pies, sentado en la
misma silla que la fingieron el solio, con tahalí, brazaletes, collares,
y apretadores de plata; y en la frente una corona de hermosas plumas, de
varios colores mezcladas, la mano izquierda puesta en el brazo de la
silla, y en la derecha un alfange con guarnicion de plata.' _Alcedo_,
_Diccionario_, tom. iii., p. 299. See also: _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_,
tom. i., pp. 259-60; _Apostólicos Afanes_, p. 22; _Armin_, _Das Heutige
Mexiko_, p. 249.

[928] _D'Orbigny_, _Voy._, p. 353; _Calderon de la Barca's Life in
Mex._, vol. i., p. 200; _Mayer's Mex. as it Was_, pp. 170, 201;
_Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Voy. Tehuantepec_, pp. 114, 172;
_Larenaudière_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1824, tom. xxiii., p.
67; _Ottavio_, in _Id._, 1833, tom. lix., p. 71; _Rittner_,
_Guatimozin_, pp. 81-2; _Villa_, in _Prieto_, _Viajes_, pp. 446-7;
_Arizcorreta_, _Respuesta á_, pp. 24, 26; _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom.
iii., lib. x., pp. 131, 135; _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, p. 285; _Lafond_,
_Voyages_, tom. i., p. 213; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 40-1;
_Padilla_, _Conq. N. Galicia, MS._, p. 10; _Poinsett's Notes Mex._, pp.
108, 161; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., p. 445; _Gemelli
Careri_, in _Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol. iv., p. 492; _Berenger_,
_Col. de Voy._, tom. ii., pp. 383-4; _Bonnycastle's Span. Am._, vol. i.,
pp. 49-50. 'L'indigène mexicain est grave, mélancolique, silencieux,
aussi long-temps que les liqueurs enivrantes n'ont pas agi sur lui.'
_Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., pp. 94, 96. 'The most violent
passions are never painted in their features.' _Mill's Hist. Mex._, pp.
5-6, 10. 'Of a sharpe wit, and good vnderstanding, for what soeuer it
be, Sciences or other Arts, these people are very apt to learne it with
small instructing.' _Purchas His Pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. 1433.

[929] The Pintos of Guerrero are 'most ferocious savages.' _Tylor's
Anahuac_, p. 309. The Chichimecs are 'los peores de todos y los mayores
homicidas y salteadores de toda la tierra.' _Zarfate_, in _Alegre_,
_Hist. Comp. de Jesus_, tom. i., p. 281. See further, _Almaraz_,
_Memoria_, p. 18; _Kératry_, in _Revue des deux Mondes_, Sept., 1866, p.
453; _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., p. 323; _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 284; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp. 269, 280; _Combier_,
_Voy._, p. 394; _Biart_, in _Revue Française_, Dec., 1864, pp. 479, 485;
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xvi.; _Ribas_,
_Hist. de los Triumphos_, p. 721; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p.
560; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 271; _Beaumont_, _Crón. de Mechoacan,
MS._, pp. 197, 235; _Pagés' Travels_, vol. i., p. 150.

[930] The Mayas, 'Sie selbst nennen sich heute noch _Macegual_, d. h.
Eingeborene vom Maya-Lande, nie Yucatanos oder Yucatecos, was spanischer
Ausdruck für die Bewohner des Staates ist.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._,
pp. 142-3. See also _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 163, 173, 176,
196; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, preface, p. clvii.;
_Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 208; tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 140-3;
_Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 396, 400-1;
_Remesal_, _Hist. de Chyapa_, pp. 264-5; _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 14.

[931] _Barnard's Tehuantepec_, pp. 220, 224, 227; _Moro_, in _Garay_,
_Reconocimiento_, pp. 89-94; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. i., p. 215;
_Macgregor's Progress of America_, pp. 848, 850; _Hermesdorf_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 543; _Charnay_, _Ruines
Américaines_, pp. 287, 500-1; _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. ii., p. 394.
Zapotecs 'bien tallados,' Mijes 'Arrogantes, altiuos de condicion, y
cuerpo,' Miztecs 'linda tez en el rostro, y buena disposicion en el
talle.' _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 202, 271,
354, 401, tom. i., pt. ii., p. 134. 'Tehuantepec women: Jet-black hair,
silky and luxuriant, enframes their light-brown faces, on which, in
youth, a warm blush on the cheek heightens the lustre of their dark
eyes, with long horizontal lashes and sharply-marked eyebrows.'
_Tempsky's Mitla_, p. 269. The Soques, 'short, with large chests and
powerful muscles.... Both men and women have very repulsive
countenances.' _Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec_, p. 126.

[932] 'Es gente la de Yucatan de buenos cuerpos, bien hechos, y
rezios'.... The women 'bien hechas, y no feas ... no son blancas, sino
de color baço.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iv.
See further: _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 115; _Morelet_,
_Voyage_, tom. i., p. 148; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 258;
_Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 291; _Tylor's Anahuac_, p. 16.

[933] _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 285;
_Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 255; _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 288;
_Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Voy. de Tehuantepec_, p. 194; _Palacios_, in
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 166; _Leon_, in _Id._, p. 162; _Museo
Mex._, tom. ii., p. 555. 'Muchachos ya mayorcillos. Todos desnudos en
carnes, como nacieron de sus madres.... Tras ellos venian muchos Indios
mayores, casi tan desnudos como sus hijos, con muchos sartales de flores
... en la cabeza, rebuxada una toca de colores, como tocado de Armenio.'
_Remesal_, _Hist. Chyapa_, p. 292.

[934] 'With their hair ty'd up in a Knot behind, they think themselves
extream fine.' _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 114. 'Muy
empenachados y pintados.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv.,
cap. xi.; _Barnard's Tehuantepec_, pp. 221-2, 226.

[935] 'Their apparell was of Cotton in manifold fashions and colours.'
_Purchas His Pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. 885. The Maya woman's dress 'se
reduce al hipil que cubre la parte superior del cuerpo, y al fustan ó
enagua, de manta de algodon.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 158. Of
the men 'un calzoncillo ancho y largo hasta media pierna, y tal vez
hasta cerca del tobillo, de la misma manta, un ceñidor blanco ó de
colores, un pañuelo, y un sombrero de paja, y á veces una alpargata de
suela, con sus cordones de mecate.' _Registro Yucateco_, tom. i., pp.
177-8. See further: _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 267; _Galindo_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. iii., p. 59; _Wilson's Amer. Hist._, pp. 88,
114; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i., pp. 147, 179.

[936] 'Tous portaient les cheveux longs, et les Espagnols ont eu
beaucoup de peine à les leur faire couper; la chevelure longue est
encore aujourd'hui le signe distinctif des Indiens insoumis.' _Waldeck_,
_Voy. Pitt._, p. 40. 'Las caras de blanco, <DW64>, y colorado pintadas,
que llaman embijarse, y cierto parecen demonios pintados.' _Cogolludo_,
_Hist. de Yucathan_, p. 6. Compare above with _Ternaux-Compans_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1843, tom. xcvii., p. 50; _Helps' Span.
Conq._, vol. ii., p. 262.

[937] 'The buildings of the lower class are thatched with palm-leaves,
and form but one piece, without window or chimney.' _Hermesdorf_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 544. 'Cubrense las casas de
vna cuchilla que los Indios hazen de pajas muy espessas y bien
assentadas, que llaman en esta tierra jacales.' _Dávila Padilla_, _Hist.
Fund. Mex._, p. 549. See also: _Museo Mex._, tom. ii., p. 554;
_Barnard's Tehuantepec_, pp. 221, 225, with cut; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._,
p. 252; _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 197.

[938] The Chochos and Chontales 'no tenian Pueblo fundado, si no
cobachuelas estrechas en lo mas escondido de los montes.' _Burgoa_,
_Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 336. The Chinantecs lived 'en
rancherias entre barrancas, y espessuras de arboles.' _Burgoa_,
_Palestra_, _Hist._, pt. i., fol. 102; _Charnay_, _Ruines Américaines_,
p. 438.

[939] Zapotecs; 'Se dan con gran vicio sus sementeras.' Miztecs,
'labradores de mayz, y frizol.' _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. i., pt.
ii., fol. 36, 143 and 47, 165-6, 184, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 199-200,
202, 228, 282, 396, 398, 400. Zapotecs, 'grande inclinacion, y exercicio
á la caza, y monteria de animales campesinos en especial de venados.'
_Burgoa_, _Palestra Hist._, pt. i., fol. 110. See further: _Barnard's
Tehuantepec_, pp. 220-2, 225-6; _Moro_, in _Garay_, _Reconocimiento_,
pp. 90, 93-4; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Voy. Tehuantepec_, p. 196;
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 56, 61; _Galindo_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. iii., p. 59.

[940] Tabasco: 'Comen a sus horas concertadas, carnes de vaca, puerco, y
aues, y beué vna beuida muy sana, hecha de cacao, mayz, y especia de la
tierra, la qual llaman Zocolate.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii.,
lib. vii., cap. iii. Tortillas, 'When they are baked brown, they are
called "totoposti," and taste like parched corn.' _Shufeldt's Explor.
Tehuantepec_, p. 125. The Chontales, 'su alimento frecuente es el posole
... rara vez comen la carne de res.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p.
161-2; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. 112-14; _Hermesdorf_,
in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. 543-4.

[941] Sr Moro, speaking of the chintule, says: 'Una infusion de estas
raices comunica su fragancia al agua que los tehuantepecanos emplean
como un objeto de lujo sumamente apreciado, tanto para labar la ropa de
uso, como para las abluciones personales.' _Moro_, in _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 180. 'Toutes les parties de leur vêtement sont toujours
nouvellement blanchies. Les femmes se baignent au moins une fois par
jour.' _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 24. At Chiapas, 'Tous ces Indiens, nus ou
en chemise, répandaient dans l'atmosphère une odeur sui _generis_ qui
soulevait le coeur.' _Charnay_, _Ruines Américaines_, p. 457. The
women are 'not very clean in their habits, eating the insects from the
bushy heads of their children.' _Hermesdorf_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 543. 'No son muy limpias en sus personas, ni en
sus casas, con quanto se laban.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib.
x., cap. iv.; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i., p. 148.

[942] 'Peleauan con lanças, armadas las puntas con espinas y huessos muy
agudos de pescados.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv., cap.
xi. 'Usaban de lanzas de desmesurado tamaño para combatir.' _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 187. See also: _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom.
iii., p. 461; _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 336;
_Cogolludo_, _Hist. de Yucathan_, pp. 5-6, 11, 77; _Navarrete_, _Col. de
Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 58-59; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i., p. 179.

[943] 'Tienen enfrente deste Pueblo vn cerro altissimo, con vna punta
que descuella soberviamente, casi entre la Region de las nubes, y
coronase con vna muy dilatada muralla de lossas de mas de vn estado de
alto, y quentan de las pinturas de sus characteres historiales, que se
retiraban alli, para defenderse de sus enemigos.' _Burgoa_, _Geog.
Descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 167. 'Començaron luego á tocar las
bozinas, pitos, trompetillas, y atabalejos de gente de guerra.'
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., and lib. iv.,
cap. xi. Also see _Cogolludo_, _Hist. de Yucathan_, pp. 5, 77-8;
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 60-3; _Helps' Span.
Conq._, vol. ii., p. 263.

[944] _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 115; _Burgoa_,
_Palestra Hist._, pt. i., fol. 110; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Voy.
Tehuantepec_, p. 196; _Charnay_, _Ruines Américaines_, p. 454. 'Sobre
vna estera si la tiene, que son muy pocos los que duermen en alto, en
tapescos de caña ... ollas, ó hornillos de tierra ... casolones, ò
xicaras.' _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 294, 393.

[945] 'Los zoques cultivan ... dos plantas pertenecientes á la familia
de las _bromelias_, de las cuales sacan el _ixtle_ y la _pita_ cuyas
hebras saben blanquear, hilar y teñir de varios colores. Sus hilados y
las hamacas que tejen con estas materias, constituyen la parte principal
de su industria y de su comercio'.... The Zapotecs, 'los tejidos de seda
silvestre y de algodon que labran las mugeres, son verdaderamente
admirables.' _Moro_, in _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 170, 180. Of
the Miztecs it is said that 'las mugeres se han dado á texer con primor
paños, y huepiles, assi de algodon como de seda, y hilo de oro, muy
costosos.' _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 143, and
tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 400. Further reference in _Barnard's
Tehuantepec_, pp. 226-7; _Chilton_, in _Hakluyt's Voy._, vol. iii., p.
459; _Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. ii., p. 394; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u.
Stat._, p. 163; _Waldeck_, _Voy. Pitt._, p. 49; _Gage's New Survey_, p.
236; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 198, 209.

[946] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. ii., lib. iv.,
cap. xi.; _Cogolludo_, _Hist. de Yucathan_, p. 2; _Morelet_, _Voyage_,
tom. i., pp. 179, 214; _Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec_, p. 123. 'Their
canoes are formed out of the trunk of a single mahogany or cedar tree.'
_Dale's Notes_, p. 24. When Grijalva was at Cozumel 'vino una canoa.'
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., p. 56. The Huaves 'no
poseyendo embarcaciones propias para arriesgarse en aguas de algun
fondo, y desconociendo hasta el uso de los remos, no frecuentan mas que
los puntos que por su poca profundidad no ofrecen mayor peligro.'
_Moro_, in _Garay_, _Reconocimiento_, p. 90.

[947] _Mill's Hist. Mex._, p. 158; _Palacios_, in _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 166; _Hermesdorf_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxxii., p. 547; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Voy. Tehuantepec_, p. 108;
_Hutchings' Cal. Mag._, vol. ii., p. 394; _Macgregor's Progress of
America_, vol. i., p. 849; _Moro_, in _Garay_, _Reconocimiento_, p. 93;
_Stephens' Yucatan_, vol. ii., p. 14.

[948] 'Les seigneurs de Cuicatlan étaient, au temps de la conquête
très-riches et très-puissants, et leurs descendants en ligne directe,
décorés encore du titre de caciques.' _Fossey_, _Mexique_, pp. 338-9. At
Etla 'Herren des Ortes waren Caziken, welche ihn als eine Art von
Mannlehen besassen, und dem Könige einen gewissen Tribut bezahlen
mussten.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. 188. The
Miztecs 'tenian señalados como pregoneros, officiales que elegian por
año, para que todas las mañanas al despuntar el Sol, subidos en lo mas
alto de la casa de su Republica, con grandes vozes, llamasen, y exitasen
á todos, diziendo salid, salid á trabajar, á trabajar, y con rigor
executivo castigaban al que faltaba de su tarea.' _Burgoa_, _Geog.
Descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 151, also _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._,
dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.

[949] 'Estava sujeta á diuersos Señores, que como Reyezuelos dominaban
diuersos territorios ... pero antes auia sido toda sujeta á vn Señor, y
Rey Supremo, y asi gouernada con gouierno Monarquico.' _Cogolludo_,
_Hist. de Yucathan_, p. 60. 'En cada pueblo tenian señalados Capitanes a
quienes obedecian.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap.
ii-iv. For old customs and new, compare above with _Morelet_, _Voyage_,
tom. i., p. 168, and _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 267.

[950] 'With other presents which they brought to the conqueror were
twenty female slaves.' _Helps' Span. Conq._, vol. ii., p. 264.

[951] 'Vbo en esta juridicion grandes errores, y ritos con las paridas,
y niños recien nacidos, lleuandolos á los rios, y sumergiendolos en el
agua, hazian deprecacion á todos los animales aquatiles, y luego á los
de tierra le fueran fauorables, y no le ofendieran.' _Burgoa_, _Geog.
Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 329. 'Consérvase entre ellos la
creencia de que su vida está unida á la de un animal, y que es forzoso
que mueran ellos cuando éste muere.' _Museo Mex._, tom. ii., pp. 554-5.
'Between husband and wife cases of infidelity are rare.... To the credit
of the Indians be it also said, that their progeny is legitimate, and
that the vows of marriage are as faithfully cherished as in the most
enlightened and favored lands. Youthful marriages are nevertheless of
frequent occurrence.' _Barnard's Tehuantepec_, p. 222. Women of the
Japateco race: 'their manners in regard to morals are most blameable.'
_Hermesdorf_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 543. Moro,
referring to the women of Jaltipan, says: 'Son de costumbres sumamente
libres: suele decirse ademas que los jaltipanos no solo no las celan,
sino que llevan las ideas de hospitalidad á un raro exceso.' _Garay_,
_Reconocimiento_, p. 116; _Ferry_, _Costal L'Indien_, pp. 6-7; _Registro
Yucateco_, tom. i., p. 166.

[952] 'Iuntauanse en el Capul, que es vna casa del comun, en cada
barrio, para hazer casamientos, el Cazique, el Papa, los desposados, los
parientes: estando sentados el señor, y el Papa, llegauan los
contrayentes, y el Papa les amonestaua que dixessen las cosas que auian
hecho hasta aquella hora.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. x.,
cap. xi.

[953] _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 114; _Herrera_, _Hist.
Gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1843, tom. xcvii., p. 50; _Stephens' Yucatan_, vol.
ii., pp. 15-16; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 272; _Dicc. Univ._, tom. iv.,
p. 256; _Baeza_, in _Registro Yucateco_, tom. i., p. 166.

[954] 'Their amusements are scarcely worthy of note ... their liveliest
songs are sad, and their merriest music melancholy.' _Barnard's
Tehuantepec_, p. 222. 'Afectos á las bebidas embriagantes, conocen dos
particulares, el _chorote_, y el _balché ó guarapo_, compuesto de agua,
caña de azúcar, palo-guarapo y maiz quemado.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 162. See also: _Fossey_, _Mexique_, pp. 343, 364;
_Dampier's Voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 115; _Stephens' Yucatan_,
vol. i., pp. 144-5; _Charnay_, _Ruines Américaines_, pp. 496-7.

[955] 'Provinciæ Guazacualco atque Ylutæ nec non et Cueztxatlæ indiginæ,
multas ceremonias Iudæorum usurpabant, nam et circumcidebantur, more à
majoribus (ut ferebant) accepto, quod alibi in hisce regionibus ab
Hispanis hactenus non fuit observatum.' _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 261.
'They appear to regard with horror and avoid with superstitious fear all
those places reputed to contain remains or evidences of their former
religion.' _Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec_, p. 125. See further: _Museo
Mex._, tom. ii., pp. 554-5; _Charnay_, _Ruines Américaines_, pp. 265,
286; _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 281-2, 290,
313, 332, 335-6, 397; _Id._, _Palestra Hist._, fol. 110; _Moro_, in
_Garay_, _Reconocimiento_, pp. 90, 93; _Dicc. Univ._, tom. iv., p. 257.

[956] _Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. 329; _Baeza_,
in _Registro Yucateco_, tom. i., p. 168; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i.,
p. 313; _Hermesdorf_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p.
543. 'Ay en esta tierra mucha diuersidad de yeruas medicinales, con que
se curan los naturales.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. vii.,
cap. iii. The Maya 'sabe las virtudes de todas las plantas como si
hubiese estudiado botánica, conoce los venenos, los antídotos, y no se
lo ocultan los calmantes.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 158, 162,
178.

[957] _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1843, tom.
xcvii., p. 51; _Museo Mex._, tom. ii., p. 554. 'En Tamiltepec, los
indios usan de ceremonias supersticiosas en sus sepulturas. Se les ve
hacer en los cementerios pequeños montones de tierra, en los que mezclan
víveres cada vez que entierran alguno de ellos.' _Berlandier y Thovel_,
_Diario_, p. 231.

[958] The Miztecs 'siempre de mayor reputacion, y mas políticos.'
Zapotecs 'naturalmente apazibles, limpios, lucidos, y liberales.'
Nexitzas 'astutos, maliciosos, inclinados á robos, y desacatos, con
otros Cerranos supersticiosos, acostumbrados á aleuosias, y hechizeros.'
_Burgoa_, _Geog. Descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. 151, tom. ii., pt.
ii., fol. 202, 312, also fol. 204, 211, 228, 271, 282, 294, 335, 400.
Choles, 'nacion ... feroz, guerrera é independiente.' _Balbi_, in
_Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 167. 'Siendo los Indios Mixes de
natural feroz, barbaro, y duro, que quieren ser tratados con aspereza, y
rigor.' _Dávila_, _Teatro Ecles._, tom. i., p. 224. See further:
_Burgoa_, _Palestra Hist._, pt. i., fol. 101; _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, pp. 161-2, 186-7; _Torres_, in _Id._, p. 179; _Museo Mex._,
tom. ii., pp. 554-5; _Tempsky's Mitla_, p. 269; _Hermesdorf_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 543; _Barnard's Tehuantepec_, pp.
220-7; _Charnay_, _Ruines Américaines_, pp. 258-9, 287; _Oviedo_, _Hist.
Gen._, tom. iii., p. 439; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p.
200; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. 115-16; _Dávila
Padilla_, _Hist. Fund. Mex._, p. 294; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 325.

[959] 'Es el indio yucateco un monstruoso conjunto de religion é
impiedad, de virtudes y vicios, de sagacidad y estupidez ... tiene ideas
exactas precisas de lo bueno y de lo malo.... Es incapaz de robar un
peso, y roba cuatro veces dos reales.... Siendo honrado en casi todas
sus acciones ... se puede decir que el único vicie que le domina es el
de la embriaguez.' _Registro Yucateco_, tom. i., pp. 291-3; _Baeza_, in
_Id._, tom. i., pp. 166-8, 174; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i., p. 148;
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _Mill's Hist.
Mex._, p. 158; _Moro_, in _Garay_, _Reconocimiento_, pp. 89-34;
_Müller_, _Reisen_, tom. ii., p. 371.




  [Illustration: NATIVE RACES of the PACIFIC STATES
   CENTRAL AMERICAN GROUP]


CHAPTER VII.

WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.

      PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE--THREE GROUPAL DIVISIONS;
      FIRST, THE NATIONS OF YUCATAN, GUATEMALA, SALVADOR, WESTERN
      HONDURAS, AND NICARAGUA; SECOND, THE MOSQUITOS OF HONDURAS;
      THIRD, THE NATIONS OF COSTA RICA AND THE ISTHMUS OF
      PANAMÁ--THE POPOLUCAS, PIPILES, AND CHONTALES--THE
      DESCENDANTS OF THE MAYA-QUICHÉ RACES--THE NATIVES OF
      NICARAGUA--THE MOSQUITOS, POYAS, RAMAS, LENCAS, TOWKAS,
      WOOLWAS, AND XICAQUES OF HONDURAS--THE GUATUSOS OF THE RIO
      FRIO--THE CAIMANES, BAYAMOS, DORACHOS, GOAJIROS, MANDINGOS,
      SAVANERICS, SAYRONES, VISCITAS, AND OTHERS LIVING IN COSTA
      RICA AND ON THE ISTHMUS.


Of the WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, which territorial group completes
the line of our Pacific States seaboard, I make three divisions
following modern geographical boundaries, namely, the aborigines of
Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua, which I call _Guatemalans_; the
people of the Mosquito Coast and Honduras, _Mosquitos_; and the nations
of Costa Rica and the isthmus of Darien, or Panamá, _Isthmians_.

  [Sidenote: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL AMERICA.]

The territory occupied by this group of nations lies between the
eighteenth and the seventh parallels of north latitude, that is to say,
between the northern boundary of the Central American states, and the
river Atrato, which stream nearly severs the Isthmus from the South
American continent. This continental tract is a narrow, irregular,
indented coast-country of volcanic character, in which Guatemala and
Honduras alone present any considerable breadth. The two
cordilleras, running through Mexico and meeting on the isthmus of
Tehuantepec, continue their course through Guatemala, where they form a
broken table-land studded with elevations, of less height than the
plateaux of Mexico. After sinking considerably at the isthmus formed by
the gulf of Honduras, this mountain range takes a fresh start and offers
a formidable barrier along the Pacific coast, which sends a number of
transverse ranges into the interior of Honduras, and gives rise to
countless rivers, chiefly emptying into the Atlantic. The chain passes
at a diminished altitude through Nicaragua, where it forms a large
basin, which holds the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua; but on reaching
Costa Rica it again becomes a bold, rugged range, capped by the volcano
of Cartago. Seemingly exhausted by its wild contortions, it dwindles
into a series of low ridges on entering Veragua, and passes in this form
through the isthmus of Panamá, until it unites with the South American
Andes. The scenery of this region is extremely varied, uniting that of
most countries of the globe; lakes, rivers, plains, valleys, and bays
abound in all forms and sizes. The north-east trade winds blow the
greater part of the year, and, meeting the high ranges, deposit their
superabundant moisture upon the eastern side, which is damp, overgrown
with rank vegetation, filled with marshes, and unhealthful. The summer
here, is hot and fever-breeding. Relieved of their moisture, and cooled
by the mountains, the trade winds continue their course through the gaps
left here and there, and tend materially to refresh the atmosphere of
the Pacific <DW72> for a part of the year; while the south-west winds,
blowing from May to October, for a few hours at a time, bring short
rains to temper what would otherwise be the hot season on this coast.
Dew falls everywhere, except in the more elevated regions, and keeps
vegetation fresh. Palms, plantains, mahogany, and dye-woods abound in
the hot district; maize flourishes best in the temperate parts, while
cedars, pines, and hardier growths find a home in the tierra fria. The
animal kingdom is best represented on the Atlantic side, for here the
puma, the tiger-cat, and the deer, startled only by the climbing opossum
or the chattering monkey, find a more secure retreat. Birds of brilliant
plumage fill the forests with their songs, while the buzz of insects
everywhere is heard as they swarm over sweltering alligators, lizards,
and snakes. The manifold productions, and varied features of the country
have had, no doubt, a great influence in shaping the destiny of the
inhabitants. The fine climate, good soil, and scarcity of game on the
Pacific side must have contributed to the allurements of a settled life
and assisted in the progress of nations who had for centuries before the
conquest lived in the enjoyment of a high culture. It is hard to say
what might have been the present condition of a people so happily
situated, but the advent of the white race, bent only upon the
acquirement of present riches by means of oppression, checked the
advancement of a civilization which struck even the invaders with
admiration. Crossing to the Atlantic side we find an over-abundant
vegetation, whose dark recesses serve as a fitting shelter for the wild
beast. Here man, imbibing the wildness of his surroundings, and
oppressed by a feverish climate, seems content to remain in a savage
state depending upon natural fruits, the chase, and fishing for his
subsistence. Of a roaming disposition, he objects to the restraint
imposed by government and forms. The natives of Costa Rica and the
isthmus of Darien escaped the civilizing influence of foreign
intercourse,--thanks to their geographical isolation,--and remain on
about the same level of culture as in their primitive days.

  [Sidenote: CENTRAL AMERICAN NATIONS.]

Under the name of GUATEMALANS, I include the natives of Guatemala,
Salvador, and Nicaragua. I have already pointed out the favorable
features of the region inhabited by them. The only sultry portion of
Guatemala is a narrow strip along the Pacific; it is occupied by a few
planters and fishermen, who find most of their requirements supplied by
the palms that grow here in the greatest luxuriance. The chief part of
the population is concentrated round the various lakes and rivers of
the table-land above, where maize, indigo, cochineal, and sugar-cane are
staple products. In the altos, the banana is displaced by hardier fruits
sheltered under the lofty cedar, and here we find a thrifty and less
humble people who pay some attention to manufactures. Salvador presents
less abrupt variation in its features. Although outside of the higher
range of mountains, it still possesses a considerable elevation running
through its entire length, which breaks out at frequent intervals into
volcanic peaks, and gives rise to an abundant and well-spread water
system. Such favorable conditions have not failed to gather a population
which is not only the most numerous comparatively, but also the most
industrious in Central America. Northern Nicaragua is a continuation of
Salvador in its features and inhabitants; but the central and southern
parts are low and have more the character of the Guatemalan coast, the
climate being hot, yet not unhealthful. Its Atlantic coast region,
however, partakes of the generally unfavorable condition described
above.

The Spanish rulers naturally exercised a great influence upon the
natives, and their ancient civilization was lost in the stream of
Caucasian progress, a stream which, in this region, itself flowed but
slowly in later times. Oppressed and despised, a sullen indifference has
settled upon the race, and caused it to neglect even its traditions. The
greater portion still endeavor to keep up tribal distinctions and
certain customs; certain tribes of lesser culture, as the cognate
_Manches_ and _Lacandones_, retired before the Spaniards to the north
and north-east, where they still live in a certain isolation and
independence. The name Lacandones has been applied to a number of
tribes, of which the eastern are described to be quite harmless as
compared with the western. The _Quichés_, a people living in the altos,
have also surrounded themselves with a certain reserve, and are truer to
their ancient customs than the _Zutugils_, _Cakchiquels_, and many
others related by language to the Quichés surrounding them. The
_Pipiles_, meaning children, according to Molina, are the chief people
in Salvador, where their villages are scattered over a large extent of
territory. In Nicaragua we find several distinct peoples. The aboriginal
inhabitants seem to have been the different peoples known as
_Chorotegans_, who occupy the country lying between the bay of Fonseca
and lake Nicaragua. The _Chontales_ (strangers, or barbarians) live to
the north-east of the lakes, and assimilate more to the barbarous tribes
of the Mosquito country adjoining them. The _Cholutecs_ inhabit the
north from the gulf of Fonseca towards Honduras. The _Orotiñans_ occupy
the country south of the lake of Nicaragua and around the gulf of
Nicoya. Further information about the location of the different nations
and tribes of this family will be found at the end of this chapter.[960]


  [Sidenote: PHYSIQUE AND DRESS.]

The GUATEMALANS, that is to say the aborigines of Guatemala, Salvador,
and Nicaragua, are rather below the middle size, square and tough, with
a finely developed physique. Their hue is yellow-brown, in some parts
coppery, varying in shade according to locality, but lighter than that
of the standard American type. The full round face has a mild
expression; the forehead is low and retiring, the cheek-bones
protruding, chin and nose short, the latter thick and flat, lips full,
eyes black and small, turned upwards at the temples, with a stoical,
distrustful look. The cranium is slightly conical; hair long, smooth,
and black, fine but strong, retaining its color well as old age
approaches, though sometimes turning white. Although the beard is
scanty, natives may be seen who have quite a respectable moustache. The
limbs are muscular, the calf of the leg being especially large; hands
and feet small; a high instep, which, no doubt, partly accounts for
their great endurance in walking. The women are not devoid of good
looks, especially in Nicaragua, where, in some districts, they are said
to be stronger and better formed than the men. The custom of carrying
pitchers of water upon the head, gives to the women an erect carriage
and a firm step. The constitution of the males is good, and, as a rule,
they reach a ripe old age; the females are less long-lived. Deformed
persons are extremely rare. Guatemala, with its varied geographical
aspects, presents striking differences in physique; the highlanders
being lighter in complexion, and finer in form and features than the
inhabitants of the lowlands.[961]

  [Sidenote: GUATEMALAN DRESS AND ORNAMENTS.]

Intercourse with Spaniards seems to have produced little change in the
dress of the Guatemalans, which is pretty much the same as that of the
Mexicans. The poorer class wear a waist-cloth of white cotton, or of
_pita_, which is a kind of white hemp, or a long shirt of the same
material, with short sleeves, partly open at the sides, the ends of
which are passed between the legs, and fastened at the waist; a strip of
cotton round the head, surmounted by a dark- hat of straw or
palm-leaves, with a very wide brim, completes the attire. This cotton
cap or turban is an indispensable article of dress to the highlander,
who passes suddenly from the cold air of the hilly country, to the
burning plains below. Sumptuary regulations here obtain, as aboriginally
the lower classes were not allowed to wear anything better than pita
clothing, cotton being reserved for the nobles. The primitive dress of
the nobility is a  waist-cloth, and a mantle ornamented and
embroidered with figures of birds, tigers, and other designs, and,
although they have adopted much of the Spanish dress, the rich and
fanciful stitchings on the shirt, still distinguish them from their
inferiors. On feast-days, and when traveling, a kind of blanket,
commonly known as _serape_, _manga_, or _poncho_, is added to the
ordinary dress. The serape, which differs in style according to
locality, is closer in texture than the ordinary blanket and ,
checked, figured, or fringed, to suit the taste. It has an opening in
the centre, through which the head is passed, and hanging in loose folds
over the body it forms a very picturesque attire. Some fasten it with a
knot on one shoulder, leaving it to fall over the side from the other.
The serape also serves for rain-coat and wrapper, and, at night, it is
wound round the head and body, serving for bed as well as covering, the
other portion of the dress being made into a pillow. The carriers of
Guatemala use a rain-proof palm-leaf called _suyacal_. Shepherds are
distinguished by a black and white checked apron, somewhat resembling
the Scotch kilt. The hair, which, before the conquest of Guatemala, was
worn long, and hung in braids down the back, is now cut short, except in
the remote mountain districts, where long loose hair is still the
fashion. In Salvador and Nicaragua, on the other hand, the front part of
the hair used to be shaved off, the brave often appearing perfectly
bald. Most natives go bare-footed, except when traveling; they then put
on sandals, which consist of a piece of hide fastened by thongs. The
women, when at home, content themselves with a waist-cloth, generally
blue-checked, secured by a twisted knot; but, on going abroad, they put
on the huipil, which is a piece of white cotton, having an opening in
the middle for the head, and covering the breast and back, as far as the
waist. Some huipils are sewed together at the sides and have short
sleeves. On this part of their dress the women--who, for that matter,
attend to the manufacture and dyeing of all the clothing--expend their
best efforts. They embroider, or dye, the neck and shoulders with
various designs, whose outlines and coloring often do great credit to
their taste. In Guatemala, the colors and designs are distinct for
different villages, so that it may at once be seen to which tribe the
wearer belongs. The hair is plaited into one or two braids, interlaced
with bright- ribbons, and usually wreathed turban-fashion round
the head. The Quichés, whose red turban-dress is more pronounced than
others, sometimes vary it by adding yellow bands and tassels to the
braids, which are permitted to hang down to the heels. Thomas Gage, who
lived in Guatemala from about 1627 to 1638, relates that on gala-days
the fair natives were arrayed in cotton veils reaching to the ground.
The ancient custom of painting, and of piercing the ears and lip, to
hold pendants, is now restricted to the remote hill country, and
ornaments are limited to a few strings of beads, shells, and metal for
the arms and neck, with an occasional pair of ear-rings; the women add
flowers and garlands to their head-dress, especially on feast-days. Some
mountain tribes of Guatemala wear red feathers in their cotton
turbans--the nobles and chiefs using green ones--and paint the body
black: the paint being, no doubt, intended for a protection against
mosquitos. The apron worn by the women is made of bark, which, after
being soaked and beaten, assumes the appearance of chamois leather. The
Lacandones also wore cotton sacks adorned with tassels, and the women
had bracelets of cords with tassels. In Nicaragua, tattooing seems to
have been practiced, for Oviedo says that the natives cut their faces
and arms with flint knives, and rubbed a black powder obtained from
pine gum into the scars. Children wear no other dress than that provided
by nature: here and there, however, the girls are furnished with a strip
of cotton for the waist.[962]

  [Sidenote: GUATEMALAN DWELLINGS.]

The conquerors have left numerous records of large cities with splendid
palaces and temples of stone, but these exist now only in their ruins.
The masses had, doubtless, no better houses than those we see at
present. Their huts are made of wooden posts and rafters supporting a
thatched roof of straw or palm-leaves, the side being stockaded with
cane, bamboo, or rush, so as to allow a free passage to the air.
Generally they have but one room; two or three stones in the centre of
the hut compose the fireplace, and the only egress for the smoke is
through the door. The room is scantily furnished with a few mats, a
hammock, and some earthenware. Their villages are generally situated
upon rising ground, and, owing to the houses being so scattered, they
often extend over a league, which gives some foundation to the
statements of the conquerors reporting the existence of towns of
enormous size. The better kind of villages have regular streets, a thing
not to be seen in the ordinary hamlets; and the houses, which are often
of _adobes_ (sun-burnt bricks), or of cane plastered over, containing
two or three rooms and a loft, are surrounded by neatly kept gardens,
enclosed within hedges. When a Guatemalan wishes to build a hut, or
repair one, he notifies the chief, who summons the tribe to bring straw
and other needful materials, and the work is finished in a few hours;
after which the owner supplies the company with chocolate. Some of the
Vera Paz tribes are of a roaming disposition. They will take great
trouble in clearing and preparing a piece of ground for sowing, and,
after one or two harvests, will leave for another locality. Their
dwellings, which are often grouped in hamlets, are therefore of a more
temporary character, the walls being of maize-stalks and sugar-cane,
surmounted by a slight palm-leaf roof. During an expedition into the
country of the Lacandones, the Spaniards found a town of over one
hundred houses, better constructed than the villages on the Guatemalan
plateau. In the centre of the place stood three large buildings, one a
temple, and the other two assembly houses, for men and women
respectively. All were enclosed with fences excellently varnished. The
Nicaraguan villages seem to be the neatest; the houses are chiefly of
plaited cane or bamboo frame-work, raised a few feet from the ground,
and standing in the midst of well-arranged flowers and shrubbery.
Dollfus describes a simple but ingenious method used by the Guatemalans
to cross deep rivers. A stout cable of aloe-fibres is passed over the
stream, and fixed to the banks at a sufficient height from the surface
of the water. To this rope bridge, called _garucha_, is attached a
running strap, which the traveler passes round his body, and is pulled
across by men stationed on the opposite side.[963]

These natives are essentially agricultural, but, like all who inhabit
the warm zone, desire to live with the least possible labor. Most of
them are content with a small patch of ground round their huts, on which
they cultivate, in the same manner as did their forefathers, the little
maize, beans, and the banana and plantain trees necessary for their
subsistence. There are, however, a number of small farmers, who raise
cochineal, cacao, indigo, and cotton, thereby adding to their own and
their country's prosperity. In the more thinly settled districts,
hunting enables them to increase the variety of their food with the
flesh of wild hogs, deer, and other game, which are generally brought
down with stone-headed arrows. When hunting the wild hog, they stretch a
strong net, with large meshes, in some part of the woods, and drive the
animals towards it. These rush headlong into the meshes, and are
entangled, enabling their pursuers to dispatch them with ease.

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE GUATEMALANS.]

Beans, and tortillas of maize, with the inevitable chile for seasoning,
and plantains or bananas are their chief food. To these may be added
meat in small quantities, fish, eggs, honey, turtle, fowl, and a variety
of fruit and roots. Salt is obtained by boiling the soil gathered on the
sea-shore. Maize is prepared in several ways. When young and tender, the
ears are boiled, and eaten with salt and pepper; or a portion of them
are pressed, and the remainder boiled with the juice thus extracted.
When ripe, the fruit is soaked and then dried between the hands,
previous to being crushed to flour between two stones. It is usually
made into tortillas, which are eaten hot, with a strong sprinkling of
pepper and occasionally a slight addition of fat. _Tamales_ is the name
for balls of cooked maize mixed with beef and chile, and rolled in
leaves. A favorite dish is a dumpling made of maize and frijoles. The
frijoles, or beans, of which a stock is always kept, are boiled a short
time with chile; they are then mixed with maize, and again put into the
pot until thoroughly cooked, when they are eaten with a sauce made of
salt, chile, and water. There are a number of fluid and solid
preparations made chiefly from maize, and known as _atole_, to which
name various prefixes are added to denote the other ingredients used.
Meat, which is usually kept jerked, is a feast-day food. Gage describes
the jerking process as follows: Fresh meat is cut into long strips,
salted, and hung between posts to dry in the sun for a week. The strips
are then smoked for another week, rolled up in bundles, which become
quite hard, and are called _tassajo_ or _cesina_. Another mode of
preparing meat is described by the same author: When a deer has been
shot, the body is left until decay and maggots render it appetizing; it
is then brought home and parboiled with a certain herb until the flesh
becomes sweet and white. The joint is afterwards again boiled, and eaten
with chile. The Lacandones preserve meat as follows: A large hole is
made in the ground, and lined with stones. After the hole has been
heated, the meat is thrown in, and the top covered with leaves and
earth, upon which a fire is kept burning. The meat takes four hours to
cook, and can be preserved for eight or ten days. Cacao forms an
important article of food, both as a drink and as bread. The kernel is
picked when ripe, dried on a mat, and roasted in an earthen pan,
previous to being ground to flour. Formerly, cacao was reserved for the
higher classes, and even now the poor endeavor to economize it by adding
_sapuyal_, the kernel of the _sapote_. They observe no regularity in
their meals, but eat and drink at pleasure. When traveling, some roasted
maize paste called _totoposte_, crumbled in boiling water with an
addition of salt and pepper, and a cup of warm water, suffice for a
repast. Fire is obtained in the usual primitive manner, by rubbing two
sticks together.[964]

Most authorities agree that they are clean in their habits, and that
frequent bathing is the rule, yet it is hinted that leprosy is caused
partially by uncleanliness.[965]

  [Sidenote: WAR, WEAPONS, AND IMPLEMENTS.]

Since the Spaniards assumed control of the country, weapons, as applied
to war, have fallen into disuse, and it is only in the mountain
districts that we meet the hunter armed with bow and spear, and slung
over his shoulder a quiver full of reed arrows, pointed with stone. In
Salvador and Nicaragua, the natives are still very expert in the use of
the sling, game often being brought down by it.[966]

I find no record of any wars among the aborigines since the conquest,
and the only information relating to their war customs, gathered from
the account of skirmishes which the Spaniards have had with some of the
tribes in eastern Guatemala, is, that the natives kept in the
back-ground, hidden by rocks or trees, waiting for the enemy to
approach. As soon as the soldiers came close enough, a cloud of arrows
came whizzing among them, and the warriors appeared, shouting with all
their might. The Lacandones occasionally retaliate upon the planters on
their borders for ill-treatment received at their hands. A number of
warriors set out at night with <DW19>s of dry sticks and grass, which
are lighted as they approach the plantation, and thrown into the enemy's
camp; during the confusion that ensues, the proposed reprisal is made.
One writer gives a brief description of the ceremonies preceding and
following their expeditions. In front of the temple are burning braziers
filled with odoriferous resin; round this the warriors assemble in full
dress, their arms being placed behind them. A smaller brazier of incense
blazes in front of each warrior, before which he prostrates himself,
imploring the aid of the Great Spirit in his enterprise. On their
return, they again assemble, disguised in the heads of various animals,
and go through a war dance before the chief and his council. Sentinels
are always pacing the summit of the hills, and give notice to one
another, by trumpet blast, of the approach of any stranger. If it is an
enemy, they speedily form ambuscades to entrap him.[967]

I have already referred to the bare interior of their dwellings: a few
mats, a hammock, and some earthenware being the only apology for
furniture. The mats are plaited of bark or other fibres, and serve,
among other purposes, as a bed for the children, the grown persons
generally sleeping in hammocks attached to the rafters. Scattered over
the floor may be seen the earthen jar which the women so gracefully
balance on their head when bringing it full of water from the well; the
earthen pot for boiling plantains, with its folded banana-leaf cover;
cups made from clay, calabash, cocoa-nut, or wacal shells, with their
stands, often polished and bearing the marks of native sculpture; the
metate for grinding the family flour; the _comal_, a clay plate upon
which the tortilla is baked. A banana-leaf serves for a plate, and a
fir-stick does the duty of a candle. Their hunting or bag nets are made
of pita or bark-fibres. The steel machete and the knife have entirely
displaced their ancient silex tools, of which some relics may still be
found among the Lacandones. Valenzuela mentions that in the
meeting-house of this tribe, the conquerors found two hundred hanging
seats.[968]

These natives still excel in the manufacture of pottery, and produce,
without the aid of tools, specimens that are as remarkable for their
fanciful forms, as for their elegance and coloring. Water-jars are made
sufficiently porous to allow the water to percolate and keep the
contents cool; other earthenware is glazed by rubbing the heated vessel
with a resinous gum. Nor are they behind-hand in the art of weaving, for
most of the fabrics used in the country are of native make. The
aboriginal spinning machine is not yet wholly displaced, and consists,
according to Squier, of a thin spindle of wood, fifteen or sixteen
inches in length, which is passed through a wheel of hard, heavy wood,
six inches in diameter, and resembles a gigantic top. When used, it is
placed in a hollowed piece of wood, to prevent it from toppling over. A
thread is attached to the spindle just above the wheel, and it is then
twirled rapidly between the thumb and forefinger. The momentum of the
wheel keeps it in motion for half a minute, and meantime the thread is
drawn out by the operator from the pile of prepared cotton in her lap.
Their mode of weaving is the same as that of the Mexicans, and the
fabrics are not only durable, but tastefully designed and  to
suit the quality and price. The dyes used are, indigo for blue,
cochineal for red, and indigo mixed with lemon juice for black. The
Nicaraguans obtain a highly prized purple by pressing the valve of a
shell-fish found on the sea-shore. Baily says that they take the
material to the seaside, and, after procuring a quantity of fresh
coloring matter, dip each thread singly into it, and lay it aside to
dry. From the aloe, and pita, or silk-grass, which are very strong and
can easily be bleached, they obtain a very fine thread, suitable for
the finest weaving. Reeds and bark give material for coarser stuff, such
as ropes and nets. Mats and hammocks, which are made from any of the
last-mentioned fibres, are often interwoven with gray colors and rich
designs. Some idea may be formed of the patient industry of the native
when we learn that he will work for months upon one of the highly prized
hats made from the fibre of the half-formed _carludovica palmata_ leaf.
They drill holes in stones, for pipes and other objects, by twirling a
stick rapidly between the hands in some sand and water placed upon the
stone.[969]

  [Sidenote: GUATEMALAN CANOES.]

Canoes are the usual 'dug-outs,' made from a single cedar or mahogany
log, cedar being liked for its lightness, mahogany for its durability.
They are frequent enough on the coast, and even the north-eastern
Guatemalans used to muster fleets of several hundred canoes on their
lakes and rivers, using them for trade as well as war. Pim, when at
Greytown, particularly observed the hollowed-out boats, some upwards of
fifty feet in length, and straight as an arrow. He says that they are
very skillfully handled, and may be seen off the harbor in any weather.
The paddles, which are used both for steering and propelling, are of
light mahogany, four feet long, with very broad blades, and a cross at
the handle.[970]

Their wealth, which, since the conquest, mostly consists of household
goods, is the product of their farms and industry mentioned under food,
implements, and manufactures. The coast tribes, in Salvador, have a
source of wealth not yet referred to--balsam--and they are very jealous
of their knowledge of obtaining it. The process, as described by
Dollfus, is to make several deep incisions in the trunk of the
balsam-tree, and stuff the holes with cotton rags. When these have
absorbed sufficient balm, they are placed in jars of water, and
submitted to a moderate heat. The heat separates the substance from the
rags, and the balsam rises to the surface to be skimmed and placed in
well-closed jars for shipment. These people possess no written records
to establish ownership to their property, but hold it by ancient rights
transmitted from father to son, which are transferable. The right of
first discovery, as applied to fruit-trees and the like, is respected,
and can be transmitted. Goods and lands are equally divided among the
sons. There is a general interchange of products on a small scale, and
as soon as the farm yield is ready, or a sufficient quantity of
hammocks, mats, hats, and cups have been prepared, the native will start
on a short trading-tour, with the load on his back--for they use no
other mode of transport. The ancient custom of holding frequent markets
in all towns of any importance has not quite disappeared, for Masaya,
among other places, continues to keep a daily _tianguez_. Cacao-beans,
which were formerly the chief currency, are still used for that purpose
to a certain extent, and make up a large item in their wealth. The
Lacandones at one time drove a brisk trade on the rio de la Pasion,
employing several hundred canoes, but this has now greatly diminished,
and they seem to grow less and less inclined to intercourse. Hardcastle
relates that two shy mountain tribes of Guatemala "exchange dogs and a
species of very sharp red pepper, by leaving them on the top of the
mountain, and going to the spot in turn."[971]

  [Sidenote: ART AND GOVERNMENT.]

The native's aptitude for art is well illustrated by the various
products of his industry, decorated as they are with fanciful designs,
carvings, and coloring. The calabash cups are widely circulated, and the
artistic carving of leaves, curious lines, and figures of all
descriptions, in relief, with which the outside is ornamented, has been
much admired. No less esteemed are the small Guatemalan earthen figures,
painted in natural colors, representing the various trades and
occupations of the people, which may be said to rival European
productions of the same character. The ornaments on their pottery bear
some resemblance to the Etruscan. They are equally advanced in painting,
for many of the altar-pieces in Central America are from the native
brush, and their dishes are often richly  in various designs.
Original lyric poetry seems to flourish among them, and is not wanting
in grace, although the rendering of it may not be exactly operatic. The
subject generally refers to victorious encounters with monsters, but
contains also sarcasms on government and society.[972]

A reverential respect for authority is innate with these people, and the
chief, usually a descendant of the ancient caciques, who is also the
head of the municipal government introduced among them by the Spaniards,
receives the homage paid him with imperturbable gravity. These chiefs
form a proud and powerful noblesse, who rule with an iron hand over
their submissive followers. Although governed to all appearance by the
code of the country, they have their own laws based on custom and common
sense, which are applied to civil as well as criminal cases. Among the
Lacandones, the chief is elected by a council of old men, when death,
misconduct, or the superior abilities of some one else call for such a
step. Pontelli adds that the new chief is invested with lion-skins and a
collar of human teeth to represent his victories; a crown of feathers
or a lion-skin is his usual distinctive head-dress. The wife of the
chief is required to possess some rare qualities. These people are very
strict in executing the law; the offender is brought before the old men,
and if the crime is serious his relatives have often to share in his
punishment. The people of Salvador, according to Dollfus, have frequent
reunions in their council-house at night. The hall is then lighted up by
a large fire, and the people sit with uncovered heads, listening
respectfully to the observations and decisions of the _ahuales_--men
over forty years of age, who have occupied public positions, or
distinguished themselves in some way. Gage makes a curious statement
concerning the rio Lempa that may be based upon some ancient law. Any
man who committed a heinous crime on the one side of the river, and
succeeded in escaping to the other, was allowed to go unmolested,
provided he did not return.[973]

  [Sidenote: MARRIAGE AND CHILDBIRTH.]

Marriages take place at an early age, often before puberty, and usually
within the tribe. When the boy, in Guatemala and Salvador, has attained
the age of nine, his parents begin to look around for a bride for him,
the mother having a good deal to say in this matter. Presents are made
to the parents of the girl chosen, and she is transferred to the house
of her future father-in-law, where she is treated as a daughter, and
assists in the household duties, until she is old enough to marry. It
sometimes happens that she has by this time become distasteful to the
affianced husband, and is returned to her parents. The presents given
for her are then demanded back, a refusal naturally follows, and feuds
result, lasting for generations. Gage states that when the parties to
the betrothal are of different tribes, the chiefs are notified, and meet
in solemn conclave to consult about the expediency of the alliance. The
consultations often extend over a period of several months, during
which the parents of the boy supply the council with refreshments, and
make presents to the girl's family for her purchase. If the council
disagree, the presents are returned, and the matter drops. When the
youth has reached his sixteenth or eighteenth year, and the maid her
fourteenth, they are considered able to take care of themselves; a house
is accordingly built, and the father gives his son a start in life. The
cacique and relations are summoned to witness the marriage ceremony, now
performed by the priest, after which the pair are carried upon the
shoulders of their friends to the new house, placed in a room, and shut
in. The bride brings no dowry, but presents are made by the friends of
the families. Several tribes in Guatemala are strictly opposed to
marriages outside of the tribe, and destroy the progeny left by a
stranger. The Lacandones still practice polygamy, each wife having a
separate house and field for her support. In Nicaragua, where women are
more independent, and fewer of the ancient marriage customs have been
retained than elsewhere, the ceremony is often quickly disposed of, the
husband and wife returning to their avocations immediately after. The
life of the woman is one of drudgery; household duties, weaving, and the
care of children keeping her constantly busy, while the husband is
occupied in dolce far niente; yet their married life is not unhappy.
Although the female dresses scantily and is not over shy when bathing,
she is by no means immodest or unchaste, but bears rather a better
character than women of the superior race. Childbirth is not attended
with any difficulties, for it sometimes happens that the woman, after
being delivered on the road, will wash the child and herself in the
nearest stream, and proceed on her journey, as if nothing had occurred.
The Quichés, among others, still call in the sorcerer to take the
horoscope of the new-born, and to appeal to the gods in its behalf. He
also gives the infant the name of some animal, which becomes its
guardian spirit for life. Belly states that more boys are born to the
natives, while the whites have more girls. The mother invariably nurses
the child herself until its third year, and, when at work, carries it on
her back in a cloth passed round her body; the movements of the mother
in washing or kneading tending to rock the infant to sleep. Otherwise
the child is little cared for, and has to lie on the bare ground, or, at
most, with a mat under it. As the boy grows older the father will take
him into the field and forest, suiting the work to his strength, and
instructing him in the use of tools, while the mother takes charge of
the girl, teaching her to cook, spin, and weave. Respect for parents and
older people is inculcated, and children never presume to speak before a
grown person unless first addressed. They remain under the parents' roof
until married, and frequently after, several generations often living
together in one house under the rule of the eldest. The native is fond
of home, for here he escapes from the contempt of the other races, and
reigns supreme over a family which is taught to respect him: patriotism
has been replaced by love of home among this oppressed people.[974]

  [Sidenote: GUATEMALAN MUSIC.]

Their amusements are less common and varied than among the whites, and
are generally reserved for special occasions, when they are indulged in
to excess. Still, they have orderly gatherings round the hearth, at
which wondrous and amusing stories form the chief part of the
entertainment. Songs follow in natural order, and are loudly applauded
by the listeners, who join in repeating the last words of the verse. The
subject, as given by some local poet, or transmitted from an ancient
bard, is pleasing enough, but the rendering is in a plaintive,
disagreeable monotone. Their instrumental music is an improvement on
the vocal, in some respects, and practice has enabled the player to
execute pieces from memory with precision and accord. The _marimba_, a
favorite instrument, consists of a series of vertical tubes of different
length but equal diameter, fastened together in a line by bark fibre,
and held firm between two pieces of wood. The tubes have a lateral
opening at the base covered with a membrane, and the upper end is closed
by a small, movable elastic plate, upon which the performer strikes with
light drumsticks. The play of the plates causes a compression of air in
the tube, and a consequent vibration of the membrane, which produces a
sound differing in character according to the length of the tube. All
the parts are of wood, the tube being, however, occasionally of
terra-cotta, or replaced by calabash-shells. The marimba of usual size
is over a yard in length, and consists of twenty-two tubes ranging from
four to sixteen inches in length, forming three complete octaves. The
pitch is regulated by a coating of wax on the key-plates. Some
drumsticks are forked to strike two plates at once. Occasionally,
several persons join in executing an air upon the instrument, or two
marimbas are played in perfect accord with some song. Their usual drum
is called _tepanabaz_, described by Gage as a smooth hollow trunk with
two or three clefts on the upper side and holes at the ends. It is
beaten with two sticks, and produces a dull heavy sound. Other drums
covered with wild goat skin, tortoise-shells, pipes, small bells, and
rattles, are chiefly used at dances. The Lacandones possess a kind of
mandolin, a double-necked, truncated cone, with one string, made to pass
four times over the bridge; also a clarionet-like instrument named
_chirimiya_; their drum is called _tepanahuaste_. A dance is generally a
grand affair with the native, combining as it does dress with dramatic
and saltatory exhibitions. At the _tocontin_ dance, in Guatemala, from
twenty to forty persons dressed in white clothes richly embroidered, and
bedecked with gaudy bands,  feathers in gilt frames fastened on
the back, fanciful helmets topped with feathers, and feathers, again, on
their legs, in form of wings. The conductor stands in the centre beating
time on the tepanabaz, while the dancers circle round him, one following
the other, sometimes straight, sometimes turning half-way, at other
times fully round, and bending the body to the ground, all the time
shouting the fame of some hero. This continues for several hours, and is
often repeated in one house after another. In another dance they
disguise themselves with skins of different animals, acting up to the
character assumed, and running in and out of the circle formed round the
musicians, striking, shrieking, and hotly pursuing some particular
performer. There are also several dances like those of the Mexicans, in
which men dress in women's clothes and other disguises. The Nicaraguan
dances vary but little from the above. Several hundred people will
gather in some well-cleared spot, their arms and legs ornamented with
strings of shells, their heads with feathers, and with fans in their
hands. The leader, walking backwards, commences some movements to be
imitated by the dancers, who follow in threes and fours, turning round,
intermingling, and again uniting. The musicians beat drums and sing
songs to which the leader responds, the dancers taking up the refrain in
their turn, and shaking their calabash rattles. After a while they pass
round each other and perform the most curious antics and grimaces,
crying, laughing, posturing, acting lame, blind, and so on. Drinking is
inseparable from these reunions, and they do not usually break up until
all have attained the climax of their wishes--becoming helplessly drunk.
The principal drinks are, atole made from maize, but which assumes
different prefixes, according to the additional ingredients used, as
_istatole_, _jocoatole_, etc.; pulque, chiefly used in the highlands;
and, not least, _chicha_, made from maize and various fruits and roots,
fermented with honey or sugar-cane juice. Gage states that
tobacco-leaves and toads were added to increase the flavor. The
Nicaraguans make their favorite drink from a wild red cherry. It takes
several weeks to prepare these liquors, but by the generous aid of
friends the stock is often consumed at one carousal.[975]

  [Sidenote: CUSTOMS IN GUATEMALA AND NICARAGUA.]

Ignorant and oppressed as they are, superstition is naturally strong
among them, the evil eye, ominous import of animals and the like being
firmly believed in. Nicaraguans gave as a reason for speaking in
whispers at night, that loud talking attracts mosquitos. The Quichés, of
Istlávacan, among others, believe in certain evil and certain good days,
and arrange their undertakings accordingly. When meeting a stranger,
they present the forehead to be touched, thinking that a beneficial
power is imparted to them by this means. They still adhere to their
sorcerers, who are called in upon all important occasions, to predict
the future, exorcise evil spirits and the like, with the aid of various
decoctions and incantations. The Chontales have diviners who, with the
aid of drugs, taken after a fast, fall into a trance, during which they
prophesy. They form a sort of guild, and live alone in the mountains
with a few pupils, who support them in return for the instruction
received. Although idolatry proper is abolished, some ancient practices
still live, blended with their Christian worship, and it is said that
tribes inhabiting the remote mountain regions still keep up their old
rites in secret. Dollfus is apparently inclined to believe that the
songs he heard the natives chant every morning and evening may be the
relic of some ancient religious ceremony. The Itzas hold deer sacred,
and these animals were consequently quite familiar with man, before the
conquerors subdued the country. The Lacandones are said to have been the
last who publicly worshiped in their temple, and whose priests
sacrificed animals to idols. By the side of the temple stood two other
large buildings used as meeting-houses, one for men, the other for
women. Dogs and tame parrots formed part of their domestic
establishment. The native is very taciturn before strangers, but on
paying a visit to friends he will deliver long harangues full of
repetition. It is almost impossible to obtain a direct answer from him
to any question. Another peculiarity with many is to hoard money at the
expense of bodily comfort. It is buried in some secret place, and the
owner dies without even caring to inform his kin of the whereabouts of
his treasures. The favorite occupation of the people is to act as
porters, and Guatemala certainly possesses the most excellent carriers,
who are trained for the business from an early age. They usually go in
files, headed by a chief, all armed with long staffs and water-proof
palm-leaf mats, and travel from twenty to thirty miles a day, for days
in succession, without suffering any inconvenience. The weight varies
from one hundred to two hundred and fifty pounds, according to road and
distance, and is carried on the back, supported by straps passed over
the forehead and shoulders. They are very moderate in eating, and never
drink cold water if they can avoid it; when tired, they stretch
themselves at full length on the ground, and are speedily refreshed.
Women are also accustomed to carry burdens, and may frequently be seen
taking several filled pitchers to market in nets suspended from their
forehead and shoulders. Water they usually bring in jars balanced on the
head.[976]

  [Sidenote: MEDICAL PRACTICE.]

The ruling diseases are small-pox, which makes yearly havoc; dysentery,
which is also not uncommon in the highlands during the summer; and
leprosy, manifested by wounds and eruptions, and caused by filth,
immoral habits, and bad food. In some parts of Nicaragua, the latter
disease breaks out in horny excrescences, similar in appearance to the
tips of cow-horns. Rheumatism and chest diseases are rare, in spite of
their rough life. Superstitious practices and empirical recipes
transmitted from their ancestors are the remedies resorted to. Hot
bathing is the favorite treatment. They are skillful at blood-letting,
making very small punctures, and applying a pinch of salt to them after
the operation is ended. Cauterizing wounds to prevent inflammation is
not uncommon, and does not affect the patient much. The principal remedy
of the Chorotegans consists of a decoction from various herbs injected
by means of a tube. Some tribes of the highlands call in sorcerers to
knead and suck the suffering part. After performing a variety of antics
and grimaces, the wise man produces a black substance from the mouth,
which he announces as the cause of the sickness; the friends of the
patient take this matter and trample it to pieces amidst noisy
demonstrations.[977]

Their dead are washed, and dressed in a fresh suit; friends then
assemble to express their regard and sorrow by burning copal and
performing a wild dance round the corpse, which is buried with all its
belongings, as well as food for sustenance on the long journey. The
Itzas, inhabiting the islands in the lake Peten, are said to have thrown
their dead into the lake, for want of room.[978]

The character of the Guatemalans exhibits a number of excellent traits.
They have always been a gentle race, and easily led by kindness, but
centuries of oppression have thrown over them a timid, brooding spirit.
Far from warlike, they have nevertheless proved themselves efficient
soldiers during the late civil wars. Their honesty and faithfulness to a
trust or engagement is universally admitted, and every traveler bears
witness to their hospitality and obliging disposition. Although taciturn
before strangers, whom they naturally distrust, they are quite voluble
and merry among themselves, especially the women; their mirth, however,
wants the ring of true happiness. Looking at the darker side, it is
found that drunkenness stands preëminent, and if the native is not
oftener drunk, it is because the means for carousing are wanting.
Surrounded by a bountiful nature, he is naturally lazy and improvident,
whole days being passed in dreamy inaction, without a symptom of ennui.
He is obstinate, and clings to ancient customs, yet he will not dispute
with you, but tacitly forms his own opinion. Taught to be humble, he
does not possess much manliness, has a certain cunning, will weep at
trifles, and is apt to be vindictive, especially if his jealousy is
aroused. The highlanders form an exception to these general
characteristics in many respects. The purer air of the mountain has
infused in them a certain independent energy, and industry. Nor are the
women to be classed as lazy, for their position is rather that of slaves
than of wives, yet they are vivacious and not devoid of coquetry, but of
undisputed modesty. Many of the remoter tribes are brave, and the
Manches, for instance, behaved lately in so spirited a manner as to
compel the government to treat with them. The Itzas are said to have
been warlike and cruel, but their neighbors the Lacandones are not so
ferocious as supposed. The Quichés bear a high character for industry,
and intelligence, while those of Rabinal excel in truthfulness, honesty,
and morality. The Vera Paz tribes are less active and industrious than
those of the plateau; this applies especially to the eastern nations who
are also more stupid than the western. The Salvador people are noted
for their phlegmatic temperament, and the provoked stranger who seeks to
hurry them, is merely laughed at; otherwise they, as well as the
Nicaraguans, are more docile and industrious than the Guatemalans, but
also more superstitious. Scherzer thinks that they have all the
inclination for becoming robbers, but want the energy. The Aztec
remnants in Nicaragua are particularly patient and thrifty, but
extremely shy and brooding. The Chontales, on the other hand, are said
to have been a savage and debased race, while the Cholutecs were brave
and cruel but subject to petticoat rule. Opinions concerning the
intelligence of the natives and their prospect of advancement are
varied, some affirming that they are dull and spiritless, incapable of
making any progress, while others assign them a high character and
intelligence, which, properly directed, would give them a prominent
position.[979]


  [Sidenote: THE MOSQUITOS.]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO NATIONS.]

The MOSQUITOS, the second division of the Central American group, are at
the present day composed in part of an incongruous mixture of Carib
colonists and <DW64> importations, and in part of a pure native element.
Owing to the independent spirit of the tribes along the central chain of
mountains, which successfully resisted the attempts of Spaniards to
penetrate the territory, and to the unhealthy climate of the coast, this
country, with the exception of the northern part of Honduras, has as yet
escaped subjection to the white race. The country, aside from the
sea-shore, possesses many attractive features. The transverse ranges,
radiating from the principal chain, form a series of terraces which
gradually lessen in elevation, until they disappear in a low coast
region. Between them innumerable rivers, fed by the moisture-laden
sea-winds, now rushing boisterously from heavily wooded heights, now
sluggishly wending their way through luxuriant prairie-land, flow
through a region of most pleasing variety, and at last empty into vast
lagoons bordering the ocean. The aborigines still form the greater part
of the population, and are composed of a large number of tribes which,
while practicing agriculture to a limited extent, subsist chiefly on
natural fruits and on the products of the chase. Excepting the small
tribes of the eastern Mosquito country, Mr Squier, who has given much
patient research to their languages, includes the natives of this
sub-division among the Lenca family, at the head of which stand the
_Guajiqueros_ in western Honduras, essentially an agricultural people.
East of these are the _Xicaques_, and _Poyas_, names given to a
collection of closely related tribes, some of which have been brought
under the subjugating influences of the missionary Fathers, while others
still keep their ancient customs intact. The _Secos_ on Black River are
included by some writers with the Poyas. South and west of these are the
_Moscos_, and in the western part of the Mosquito coast, the _Woolwas_,
who still cherish a tradition of their emigration from the north-west.
East of the latter live the _Towkas_ and _Cookras_, who extend to
Blewfields, and speak dialects varying little from the Woolwa tongue,
but stand lower in the scale of humanity. Bell states that the Towkas
are merely a branch of the _Smoos_, who have many points in common with
the Poyas, though differing from them in language. Among other
aborigines may be mentioned the _Albatuinas_, _Tahuas_, _Panamekas_,
_Jaras_, _Taos_, _Gaulas_, _Itziles_, _Motucas_, and the _Ramas_ on the
Blewfields lagoon; of several others the names are either lost or
unknown. Following the coast southward we meet the _Caribs_, a strong,
hardy, but crude race at present, of varied <DW64> admixture, chiefly
descended from the turbulent natives of San Vicente island, whom the
English transported in 1796 to the island of Roatan, whence they were
brought over to Honduras. The Caribs, who have within a few decades
spread from a small colony over the whole northern coast, driving other
nations into the interior and southward, appear to be superseding the
aborigines, now fast disappearing under the annihilating effect of drink
and disease. South of the Caribs round cape Gracias á Dios are the
_Sambos_, or _Mosquitos_ proper, said to have sprung from the union of
native women with <DW64> slaves wrecked on the coast during the
seventeenth century. Owing to their geographical position they were
brought in contact with the buccaneers, and placed in a position to gain
ascendancy over other tribes from the Poyas southward, but were at the
same time inoculated with the degrading vices and disorders which are
now so rapidly bringing about their extinction. Elated by their position
as masters of the coast, they assumed the proud title of _Waiknas_, or
men, in which conceit they have been imitated by the subjected tribes,
which are gradually adopting the <DW71> tongue. Adjacent to them are the
_Toonglas_, a not very numerous offshoot of Smoos and <DW71>s.[980]

Race-mixtures in certain localities have almost obliterated aboriginal
types, which are portrayed as of medium stature, regular form, and
varying in color from light brown to dark coppery. The people about cape
Gracias á Dios are represented by the first voyagers to have been nearly
as dark as <DW64>s. The face is rather flat and oval, the head smaller
than among Europeans; forehead high and cheek-bones not very prominent;
hair long, straight, coarse, and black; beard scanty; nose very small,
thin, and usually aquiline among the coast people, but larger and
broader toward the interior. The iris of the eye is generally black, but
often verges toward brown; mouth broad, with thin lips and regular
teeth. The women present a full bust and abdomen; they are called
pretty, but early marriages soon make them old. It is suspected that
infant murder has something to do with the rarity of deformed people.
The Towkas and Ramas present the finest pure-blooded type, the former
being very fair, while the latter are large, athletic, and
stern-looking. The Poyas are copper-, short, but muscular,
broad-faced, with large forehead, bent nose, and small, mild eyes. The
Toonglas are duskier; the Smoos approach the fair Towkas in hue, though
they have a flatter head, accompanied by a stolid look. The darkest of
all are the Woolwas, whose color seems a mixture of yellow ochre and
India ink. Proceeding to Honduras, we meet the Caribs, whose varied
admixture of <DW64> blood separates them into yellow and black Caribs.
The former are distinguished by a somewhat ruddy hue, with a hooked
nose; while his duskier brother is taller, hardier, and longer-lived;
with a nose inclining to aquiline. Children are prettier as they
approach the <DW64> type. The hair varies in curl and gloss according to
purity of blood. The Mosquitos proper are more uniform in appearance,
and buccaneers have no doubt assisted in bringing out many of the
characteristics that have obtained for the <DW71> race the leading
position on the coast. They are all well-built, raw-boned, nimble, and
of a dull, dark, copper color. The face is oval, with a coarse, lustful
expression, the hair rough, wavy, and black, eyes bright and remarkably
strong; women pretty, with large eyes, and small feet and ankles.[981]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO PHYSIQUE AND DRESS.]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO HEAD-FLATTENING.]

A piece of cloth fastened at the waist in a twist or by a cord, and
reaching to the knee, constitutes the native male costume in these
parts, that of the women being somewhat shorter. This cloth is either of
cotton, sometimes woven with down, or of fibres from the inner bark of
the caoutchouc tree, beaten on stones till they become soft, and is
often large enough to serve for a covering at night. Some are quite
fanciful in color and design, and formerly they were painted. Those of
the Woolwas are usually six feet long by three broad, striped blue and
yellow; they are passed between the legs and fastened at the waist by a
thong. The Xicaques, on the contrary, wear the cloth serape-fashion, by
passing the head through a slit in the centre, and tying the folds round
the waist. Even this scanty covering is often reduced to the smallest
apron, and is dispensed with altogether in some parts, for modern
travelers speak of natives in a naked state. Women occasionally wear a
small square cloth, having an opening for the head, one part of which
covers the breast, the other the back. In some parts chiefs are
distinguished by a cotton cap, and a long sleeveless robe, open in
front and often nicely ornamented; in other places men of rank wear
turbans decorated with plumes and feathers, and dress in skins of
eagles, tigers, and other animals; these are also used by the common
people on festive occasions. The Smoos' head-dress is especially pretty,
with its embroidery and feather-work. Ordinarily the long loose hair is
deemed sufficient to protect the head, and is kept sleek and shining by
palm-oil, which they say furthers its growth. The women have longer hair
than the men, and often dress it in ringlets, seldom in a knot or
wreath. The people of northern Honduras wear a lock hanging over the
forehead; some highland chieftains, on the contrary, shave the front of
the head, but allow the back hair to grow long, while the Poyas part
theirs in the middle, keeping it in position with a band. That of the
religious men reaches to the waist, and generally falls in braids
behind. In mourning, both sides of the head are shaved, a bushy comb
being left along the middle. Formerly all hair except that on the head,
even eyebrows and lashes, was pulled out, because it was thought fit for
animals only to have hair on the body. All go barefooted, and it is only
where the native has to travel over a rough road that he puts on
_alparagats_, or sandals of bark, wood, or skin, which are fastened by
thongs round the foot. Whatever is wanting in actual dress, however, is
made up by paint and ornaments, of which both sexes are equally fond.
The face and upper part of the body are either uniformly daubed over or
tattooed with rays, fanciful lines, and designs representing animals and
the like, chiefly in red and black. Taste is not wanting in this
adornment, for the tint is often delicate, and the black circles round
the eyes indicate that they understand effect, increasing as they do the
lustre of the orbs. Esquemelin states that when visitors were expected,
the men combed the hair, and smeared the face with an ointment of oil
and black powder, the women using a red admixture. Tattooing figures on
the body by cauterization, as seen by Columbus on the Mosquito Coast,
is still practiced in certain parts of the interior. Aboriginal
Mosquitos also perforated ears, lips, and cheeks, to hold pendants of
fish-bones and green stones; the holes in the ears being as large as
eggs. The natives of Corn island not only carried large pieces of wood
in the ears, but gradually enlarged the hole in the lower lip; at
fifteen years of age the wood was removed and a tortoise-shell inserted.
Women wore a tight bandage round the ankle to increase the size of their
calves. Strings of tastefully arranged beads, bones, shells, and stones,
and gaily  bandages, were worn round the neck and wrist; the
women adorning the legs and ankles in a similar manner, and also using
feathers and flowers. Certain interior tribes, as the Smoos, esteem a
round forehead as a reproach, and hence the head is flattened, the
effect of which would be more noticeable, were it not for the thick
bushy hair. This head-flattening fashion here appears for the first time
since we left the Columbian group; we shall see it once again further
south, and that is all. The process here is essentially similar to that
of the Columbians. When the infant is a month old, it is tied to a
board, and a flat piece of wood, kept firm by bands, is placed upon the
forehead. The child remains in this painful position for several months,
the pressure increasing as the head grows.[982]

Towns there are none, except in certain parts; seldom do more than four
or five houses stand in a group; the locality being changed at intervals
for sanitary or superstitious purposes. A few upright posts planted in
parallel lines, or in a circle, and occasionally interwoven with cane or
leaves, support what may be called the hut proper, which is a sharply
sloping, well-thatched palm-leaf roof with projecting eaves, reaching to
within three or four feet of the ground. There is usually but one
apartment, the floor of which is often coated with clay, and raised a
little to avoid dampness. In the center is the fireplace, surrounded by
household ware and cackling hens, and all round may be seen hammocks and
nets suspended from the bamboo rafters. Some sleep on a frame-work of
bamboo placed upon posts. The better class of houses contain partitions
for the several families occupying it, and stand in fields enclosed by
stalk fences. A village with many of the interior tribes consists of one
large building, often one hundred feet long by thirty feet wide. The
front and end of these structures are open, but the back is partitioned
off into small closets with the bark of the cabbage-palms, each serving
as a bedroom for a married couple, or for unmarried women. A platform
immediately under the roof is used as a sleeping-place for the boys, and
an apartment at the end of the hut is set apart for women about to be
confined. Some of the Guajiquero villages contain over a hundred
substantial huts of mud, or of cane plastered over and whitewashed. The
Toonglas and Cookras, erect temporary sheds near the streams, during the
summer, but seek more secure huts in the winter. Carib dwellings are the
neatest of all; some are of cane, others of frame-work filled with mud.
Cockburn relates that, during his journey through Honduras, he came
across a bridge made of a net-work of cane, which was suspended between
trees so that the centre hung forty feet above the surface of the
stream. He found it very old and shaky, and concluded that it belonged
to the remote past.[983]

  [Sidenote: FOOD IN HONDURAS.]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO COOKERY.]

Redundant nature here leaves man so little to do, as scarcely to afford
an opportunity for development. The people of northern Honduras,
according to Herrera, cleared the ground with stone axes, and turned the
sod by main strength with a forked pole or with sharp wooden spades, and
by this means secured two or three yields every year; but the present
occupants scarcely take so much trouble. On marrying, the men prepare a
small field for a few beds of yams, beans, cassava, and squash, some
pepper, and pine-apples, besides twenty to thirty plantain and cocoa-nut
trees, leaving their wives to give it such further care as may be
required. Where maize is cultivated it is either sown two or three
grains in holes two feet apart, or broadcast over freshly cleared
woodland a little before the rainy season. The Poyas are the only people
who cultivate respectable farms. Fishing is the favorite occupation of
the coast tribes, and their dexterity with the spear and harpoon is
quite remarkable. The proper time for catching the larger species of
fish, such as the tarpom and palpa, is at night, when a fleet of
pitpans, each with a pitch-pine torch in the bow, may be seen on the
lagoon intermingling in picturesque confusion. One or two paddlers
propel the boat, another holds the torch, while the harpooneer stands at
the bow with a _waisko-dusa_, or staff, having a loosely fitting, barbed
harpoon at one end, and a piece of light wood at the other. A short line
attached to the harpoon, passes along the staff, and is rolled round
this float for convenience. The glare of the torch attracts the fish and
enables the bowman to spy his prey, which is immediately transfixed by
the harpoon. Away it darts, but the float <DW44>s its progress, and
points out its whereabouts to the boatmen, who again seize the line, and
drag it to the shore. Occasionally the tarpom is taken in strong nets,
the meshes of which require to be six inches square in order to entangle
it. Manatees or sea-cows are caught in the early morning, and to get
within striking distance of the wary animal, it is necessary to deck the
canoe with bushes and leaves, giving it the appearance of a floating
tree. The line attached to the harpoon is in this case payed out from
the canoe, which is often trailed by the manatee in a lively manner. It
generally takes several harpoons as well as lances to kill it. Smaller
harpoons, without barb, with merely quadrangular points an inch and a
half long and nearly as wide, are used for catching turtles so that the
shell may not be damaged. As the canoe approaches, the turtle slides
under the water; the bowman signalizes the oarsman how to steer, and
when the turtle rises to breathe, it is speared, dragged into the
canoes, and placed on its back. Some fishermen will jump into the water
after the animal, and bring it up in their hands, but this feat is
attended with danger, from bites and sharp coral. The hawk-bill turtle
is set free after the shell has been stripped of its scales, but the
green species is eaten, and its eggs, which are esteemed a dainty, are
sought for in the sand by poking suspected places with a stick. Smaller
fish are speared with the _sinnock_, a long pole with a fixed point. The
river people take less pleasure in fishing, and resort thereto only as
driven by necessity. Weirs of branches and clay are constructed, with a
small outlet in the middle, where men are stationed to catch the passing
fish with nets and spears. The Poyas employ a still surer method. The
water is beaten with sticks for some distance above the weir, so as to
drive the fish together; a quantity of juice extracted from a wild vine
called _pequine_, which has a stupefying effect, is thrown into the
water, and the men have merely to select the best looking, the smaller
ones being allowed to float away and recover in the unadulterated waters
below. The preserving of fish is the work of women, who cut them in
slices,--sometimes rubbing them with salt,--and place the pieces on a
framework of cane over the fire to be smoke-dried; after which they are
exposed to the sun for a day or two. Part of the fish is cooked, or
baked in oil, and eaten at once. If we except the Smoos and Xicaques,
who follow game with true precision and patience, the usual mode of
hunting is as primitive as weir-fishing. A number of men assemble and
set fire to the grass, which drives the terrified animals into a
corner, where they are shot or struck down, or the game is entrapped in
holes partly filled with water. The wild hog, the tapir, and deer supply
most of the meat, which is cured in the same way as fish: some cutting
the meat in strips, and curing it on the _buccan_, or grate of sticks,
while others prefer the barbecue method which is to smoke-dry the whole
animal. Certain old writers state that human flesh was eaten, but this
is discredited by others, who think that the error arose from seeing the
natives feast on monkeys, which, skinned, have much the appearance of
humans. The statement of their eating raw fish may also be wrong, for
the natives of the present day are very careful about thoroughly cooking
their food, and even avoid fruit not fully ripened. A well-known article
of food is the Carib bread, a sort of white hard biscuit made from
cassava or mandioc roots, which are skinned, washed, and grated on a
board set with sharp stones. The pulp is rinsed in water to extract the
poisonous juice, and when it is sufficiently whitened by this means, the
water is carefully pressed out, and the substance set to dry in the sun.
The sifted flour is made into large round thin cakes, which, after being
exposed to the sun for a while, are slowly baked over the fire. The
Poyas make large rolls, which are wrapped in leaves and baked in the
ashes. These soon become sour, and are then eaten with a relish. Others
grind cassava or maize on the metate, and bake tortillas. A gruel is
also made of the flour, and eaten with salt and chile, or syrup. One of
their dainties is _bisbire_, the name given to plantains kept in leaves
till putrid, and eaten boiled. Scalding hot cacao mixed with chile is
the favorite stimulant, of which large quantities are imbibed, until the
perspiration starts from every pore. Cacao-fruit is also eaten roasted.
Notwithstanding the richness of the soil and the variety of its
productions, the natives are accused of resorting to insects for food,
and of eating their own vermin. The coast people have the greater
selection, but trust mostly to fishing, while the interior tribes after
natural products depend upon the chase. The Cookras subsist chiefly on
the cabbage-palm. <DW71> girls have a peculiar fancy for eating charcoal
and sand, believing that their charms are improved thereby. No
regularity is observed in eating, but food is taken at any hour, and
with voracity; nor will they take the trouble to procure more, until the
whole stock is consumed, and hunger drives them from their hammocks. The
Poyas and Guajiqueros seem to be the only tribes who have any idea of
providing for the future; the latter laying up a common reserve.[984]

Frequent bathing is the rule, yet the <DW71>s, who have a better
opportunity for this, perhaps, than other tribes, are described as dirty
in their surroundings, and, when warmed by motion, emit a disagreeable
odor, arising from the use of ointments and powders. The Poyas,
Xicaques, Secos, and especially the Caribs are, on the contrary, very
cleanly in their habits.[985]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO WEAPONS AND WAR.]

The bow and arrow figures as the chief weapon of the Mosquitos, the
former being usually of iron-wood, spanned with twisted mahoe-bark, and
often six feet in length; the latter of reed or wood, hardened in fire,
and pointed with hard wood, flint, fish-bones, or teeth. They not only
handle the bow well, but some are expert in the art of defense. To
attain this dexterity, children are taught to turn aside, with a stick,
the blunt darts thrown at them, and in time they become sufficiently
expert to ward off arrows in the same manner. They also fight with cane
lances about nine feet long, with oblong diamond points, javelins,
clubs, and heavy sharp-pointed swords made of a poisonous wood, a
splinter from which causes first madness and then death. The milky
juice of the manzanilla-tree is used to poison arrows and darts.
Blowpipes, whose light arrows surely and silently bring down birds at a
hundred feet and over, are in great favor with the youth. Armor is made
of plaited reeds covered with tiger-skins, and ornamented with feathers;
besides which, the northern Mosquitos employ a breastplate of twisted
cotton, like that of the Mexicans. Mosquito women are said to be as good
archers as the men.[986]

Aboriginal wars were continually waged in Honduras without any other
object than to avenge the death of an ancestor, or to retaliate on those
who had carried away friends into slavery. Neighboring tribes, however,
agreed to a truce at certain times, to allow the interchange of goods.
Previous to starting on an expedition, turkeys, dogs, and even human
beings were sacrificed to influence the gods; blood was drawn from
tongue and ears, and dreams carefully noted, and their import
determined. Ambassadors were sent to challenge the enemy to a pitched
battle, and, if they were not responded to, the country was ravaged.
When prisoners were taken they were usually held as slaves, after having
the nose cut off. Forty thousand men sometimes composed an expedition,
operating without chief or order, devising ambushes and stratagems as it
suited them, and accompanied by women to act as porters. Mosquito
warriors blacken the face, and place themselves under the temporary
command of the bravest and most experienced. The coast people are bold
and unyielding, and usually kill their prisoners. When the <DW71>s
confederate with their neighbors, they expect their allies to pay for
friends lost in battle.[987]

Domestic utensils in the homes of the Mosquitos consist of stones for
grinding grain and roots, clay pots and plates for cooking purposes, and
gourds, calabashes, and nets for holding food and liquids. The stone
hatchet, which is fast becoming a relic, is ten inches long, four broad,
and three thick, sharp at both ends, with a groove to hold the handle
which is firmly twisted round its centre. Besides the implements already
referred to under fishing and weapons, may be mentioned the lasso, in
the use of which they are very expert, and the _patapee_, a pretty
water-tight basket that the Caribs plait of reeds. The men usually sleep
in hammocks, or on mats spread on the ground near the fire, with a stick
for a pillow, while the women prefer a platform of cane raised a few
feet from the ground, and covered with a mat or a skin.[988]

Fibres of mahoe and ule bark, pisang-leaves and silk-grass furnish
material for ropes, nets, mats, and coarse fabrics. Most of the
Mosquitos grow a little cotton, which the women spin on a rude wheel,
like that of the Guatemalans, and weave on a frame loom into strong and
neat cloths. The favorite blue color for dyeing is obtained from the
_jiquilite_ plant; the yellow from the _achiolt_ tree. Pottery is a very
ancient art among them, as may be seen from the fine specimens
discovered in the graves and ruins of Honduras. Their red cooking-pots
are very light but strong, and the water-jars, which are only slightly
burnt to permit percolation, show considerable taste in design.[989]

  [Sidenote: BOATS AND FISHERIES.]

Nowhere do we find more daring and expert boatmen than the Mosquitos,
who will venture out upon the roughest sea in a boat barely large enough
to hold a man and a boy. If the boat capsize it is at once righted,
bailed out, and the voyage resumed, and seldom is any part of the cargo
lost. The _dory_, or ordinary sea-boat is a hollowed-out tree, often
twenty-five to fifty feet long, four to six wide, and four to five deep,
round-bottomed, buoyant, and with good handling safe. The best are made
by the up-river tribes, especially the Towkas, who prepare them roughly
with axe and fire, and sell them to the coast people to be finished
according to fancy. After the dug-out has been trimmed, it is often
soaked in water for a time, so that the sides may be stretched and
secured with knees. The _pitpan_, which is used on rivers and lagoons,
differs from the dory in being flat-bottomed, with broad and gradually
rounded ends, and of less depth and width. Cedar is chiefly used for
pitpans on account of its lightness, and the stronger mahogany for
dories; but the latter are, however, soon injured by worms if kept in
the water. Small boats are propelled by a single broad-bladed paddle;
sails also are employed with the _crean_ or keeled canoe.[990]

Harpoon and canoe are the basis of the Mosquito's wealth, for with them
he obtains his food and the tortoise-shell, the principal article of
traffic. The season for catching hawk-bill turtles is from April to
August, when fleets of canoes, each manned by about twelve men, proceed
to different parts of the coast, as far south as Chiriquí, and bring
home ten thousand pounds of shell on an average. Green turtles, which
are caught near reefs, also find a good market in Blewfields and
elsewhere. All keep hogs, the Caribs more than others; many possess
cattle and horses, which are allowed to run wild over the prairies, the
horses being lassoed whenever required for riding. Their manner of
breaking them is unique. One man leads the horse with the lasso into
water, to a depth of three or four feet, when another jumps upon his
back, and responds to buckings and skittishness with blows on the head,
until in about half an hour the exhausted animal surrenders. A line of
bark-fibre serves for reins, and a few plaited palm-leaves for saddle.
Preservation of wealth is little thought of, for cattle are most
recklessly slaughtered at feasts and for offences, and fruit-trees, as
well as other property are, as a rule, destroyed on the death of the
owner. Quite a trade is carried on in these parts, the inland tribes
bringing rough canoes, calabashes, skins, cloth, honey, and cacao to the
coast people, and receiving therefor turtles, salt, English fancy and
useful articles; while many of the latter undertake lengthy coast trips
to dispose of the bartered produce, as well as their own. The Wankees
deal heavily in _bisbire_, or decomposed plantains, while sarsaparilla
and honey are the staple articles of the Secos and Poyas. A mixture of
shrewdness and simplicity characterizes their dealings. A party wishing
to dispose of hides, for instance, first produces the worst ones, which
are thrown aside by the buyer until those of the standard quality are
brought out; a sum is then offered for the whole, which is often
unhesitatingly accepted by the native who is too dazzled by the
apparently high price to consider the amount of produce given for it.
Very little value is placed upon labor, for canoes, which have taken a
considerable time to prepare, are often bartered for a mere trifle. The
people of Honduras have always a stock of cloth and honey to pay taxes
with, and set a high value on  feathers obtained from Yucatec
coast traders, who take cacao for return cargoes.[991]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO CALENDAR AND ART.]

Although versatile enough in handicrafts, their mental faculties are
exceedingly crude. With the aid of fingers and toes the <DW71> is able to
count to twenty, but anything beyond that confuses him. Time is
reckoned by _kates_, or moons, thirteen of which make a _mani_, or
year. When asked to fix the date of an event, he will say that it
occurred so many sleeps or moons ago; but when the time exceeds a year
or two, the answer is given in the rather indefinite term of "many, many
years;" consequently he is unable to tell his age. His ideas of
cosmology are equally vague; thus, stars are held to be glowing stones.
The people of Honduras call the year _iolar_, and divide it in the same
manner as the Mexicans, by whom the system has, no doubt, been
introduced. They reckon time by so many nights or twilights, not by
days, and determine the hour by the height of the sun. The song-language
of the Mosquitos differs greatly from that employed in conversation, a
quaint old-time style being apparently preserved in their lyrics.[992]

The art of extracting and melting gold has long been known to them, but,
although they wear a few ornaments of this metal, they do not seem to
prize it very highly. At the time of Cockburn's visit to Honduras, dams
were used in mining, and instruments of cane to sift the gold. The mode
employed by the Poyas to separate gold from sand is the one known in
California as panning, and is thus described by Squier: "Scooping up
some of the sand in his bowl, and then filling it with water, he whirled
it rapidly, so that a feathery stream of mingled sand and water flew
constantly over its edge. He continued this operation until the sand was
nearly exhausted, and then filled the bowl again. After repeating this
process several times, he grew more careful, balancing the bowl
skillfully, and stopping occasionally to pick out the pebbles ... after
the process was complete, the Poyer showed me a little deposit of gold,
in grains, at the bottom of the calabash." The gold dust passes into
the hands of the white trader.[993]

  [Sidenote: GOVERNMENT, SLAVERY, POLYGAMY.]

The Mosquitos proper are ruled by a hereditary king, who claims
sovereignty over the interior tribes of the Mosquito Coast, which, in
many cases, is merely nominal. Before the English made their influence
felt, this monarch, who, in these latter degenerate days, does not
possess many prerogatives, seems to have had but a small extent of
territory, for among the earlier travelers some assert that the
inhabitants of this coast lived under a republican rule, while others
observed no form of government. Each village or community has a
principal man, or judge, selected from the eldest and ablest, who
settles minor grievances, referring weightier matters to the king, and
superintends the contribution of canoes, tortoise-shells, and produce
for the support of the monarch and chiefs--for regular taxes are not
collected. Among the Poyas, the old men, who are highly respected by
their juniors, assemble every evening to deliberate upon the duties of
the following day; all members of the tribe take part in the work, and
share alike in the results. According to Young, the Mosquitos had an
officer, in whom was vested certain authority. The Caribs are also ruled
by elders, dignified by the title of captains. Their laws are in some
respects harsh: for instance, a woman who has had intercourse with a man
of another race is whipped slowly to death. <DW71>s are less particular
in this matter, the adulterer being merely mulcted in a cow. If the
decision of a chief be not satisfactory, the contestants resort to trial
by combat. The Xicaques live in communities of from seventy to one
hundred persons ruled by chiefs elected for life. The insignia of a
judge or ruler in Honduras are a white staff, often elaborately
ornamented with a golden head and tassels. Formerly each town or
province was ruled by an hereditary cacique, who administered justice
with four nobles as counselors. Theft was punished by confiscation of
property, and in graver cases the ears and hands of the culprit were cut
off; the adulterer caught in the act had his ear-rings forcibly torn
out; then he was whipped by the relatives of the injured, and deprived
of his possessions. The woman went free on the supposition that she, as
the weaker party, was not responsible.[994]

One principal object of war among the ancient nations of Honduras was to
make slaves, but the Mosquito Coast was free from this scourge,
according to all accounts.[995]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO COURTSHIP.]

Polygamy obtains, some men having six wives each, and the king yet more.
The first wife, who as a rule, is betrothed from early infancy, is
mistress commanding; her marriage is attended with festivities, and
later additions to the harem are subject to her. The custom is to marry
early, often before puberty, and it is not unusual to see a girl of
thirteen with an offspring in her arms; but the marriage tie is not very
binding, for the wife may be discarded or sold at will, on the slightest
pretence, especially if children do not follow the union. The interior
tribes, which are less given to plurality of wives, bear a pretty good
character for female chastity. The cacique of ancient Honduras married
among his own class. On behalf of a suitor not previously engaged, an
old man was dispatched with presents to the father of the chosen girl,
before whom he made a long harangue on the ancestry and qualities of
the youth. If this proved satisfactory, the presents were accepted, and
Bacchanalia followed. Next morning the bride was closely wrapped in a
gorgeously painted cloth, and, seated upon the shoulder of a man, was
conveyed to the bridegroom, a number of friends accompanying her,
dancing and singing along the road, drinking out of every rivulet, and
feasting at every stopping-place. On arrival, she was received by the
female friends of the groom, and subjected to a cleaning and perfuming
process, lasting three days, during which the friends of the two
families held a grand feast to celebrate the approaching union. She was
then delivered to the husband, who kept her three nights at his home,
and then proceeded to the house of his father-in-law, where the couple
remained three other nights, after which they returned to their own
house and renewed festivities. These were the ceremonies attending the
marriage of nobles only. An old woman acted as messenger for common
swains, and brought a present of cacao to the bride's parents, which was
consumed at the preliminary feast. The girl was then delivered to the
old woman, together with a return present of cacao to serve for two
feasts, one taking place at the house of the bridegroom, the other at
the bride's. Relationship was no impediment to marriage, and widows were
received among the wives of the late husband's brother. Immorality
ruled, and the most lascivious performances prevailed at their
festivals. On the islands in the gulf of Honduras and on the Belize
coast, the suitor had to undergo a preliminary examination by the
proposed father-in-law as to his ability to perform the duties of
husband; if satisfactory, a bow and arrow were handed him, and he at
once presented himself before the object of his affection with a garland
of leaves and flowers, which she placed upon her head instead of the
wreath always worn by a virgin. Friends thereupon met at the home of the
bride to discuss the prospects of the couple, and to witness the act of
giving her to the bridegroom, partaking, meanwhile, of some cheering
liquid. The next day the bride appeared before the mother, and tore off
her garland with much lamentation. Among the <DW71>s the betrothed suitor
must give presents of food and other articles to the parents of his
intended, as payment for their care of her until she attains the
marriageable age, when he comes to claim her. Should the parents then
refuse to give up the girl, they are bound to refund the value of the
presents twice or thrice told. The usual price paid for a wife is a cow
or its equivalent, which is also exacted from any man infringing on the
marital right, while the female for such offence is merely beaten.
Esquemelin adds that when the young man came to claim his bride, he was
questioned as to his ability to make nets and arrows, and if all went
well, the daughter was summoned to bring a calabash of wine, which the
three drained between them in token of the new relationship. The widow
was bound to supply the grave of her husband with provisions for a year,
after which she took up the bones and carried them with her for another
year, at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and then only was
she allowed to marry again. The Carib must provide a separate house and
field for each of his wives, where she not only supports herself, her
children, and her husband, but can, if she pleases, accumulate property.
The husband is expected to spend his time equally between his wives, but
not to assist in providing necessities after the marriage day; should
his help be required, the wife must pay him the customary rate of wages.
The several wives compete jealously with each other to provide the best
for their husband, and are comparatively well-behaved, owing, perhaps,
to the severe punishment of infidelity. Among the Smoos, wives of one
husband generally live together, each wife bringing her share to make up
her lord's dinner. Widows are the property of the relatives of the
husband, to whom 'widow-money' must be paid before they are allowed to
marry again. The method of courtship among the Woolwas is to place a
deer's carcass and some firewood at the door of the intended; if
accepted, marriage ensues. Each wife has usually a separate
establishment. The Towkas, who are more inclined to monogamy, have an
interesting marriage ceremony, of which Squier gives a long account. On
the betrothal of children a corresponding cotton band is fastened above
the elbow or below the knee of each. These bands are selected by the old
men so as to be distinct from others in color, and are renewed when worn
out. They also wear necklaces to which a shell or bead is added every
year, and when the boy has ten added to his string, he is called
_muhasal_, or ten, signifying half a man; when the twentieth and final
shell is added, he is considered a full man, and is called _all_,
meaning twenty. If his intended has by this time attained her fifteenth
year, preparations are at once made for the marriage. A general holiday
is taken by the villagers, who clear from grass a circular piece of
ground, which is defined by a ring of stones, and trampled smooth; a
little hut is then erected in the centre having a small opening at the
top, and another at the side facing the east. Within the hut, the
entrance of which is covered with a mat, is a heap of copal-twigs, and
without, at the edge of the circle, a canoe filled with palm-wine is
placed, having a large pile of white calabashes by its side. At noon the
villagers proceed to the home of the bridegroom, who is addressed in
turn by the old men; they then start with the youth for the house of the
bride where the young man seats himself before the closed entrance on a
bundle of presents intended for the bride. The father raps at the door
which is partly opened by an old woman who asks his business, but the
reply does not seem satisfactory, for the door is slammed in his face.
The old men try their power of persuasion with the same result, and at
last determine to call Orpheus to their aid. Music hath charms! the door
is seen to open, and a female peeps timidly out: louder swells the
music, and the bridegroom hastens to unroll his bundle containing beads
and other articles. The door opens wider and wider as each present is
handed in by the father, until it is entirely thrown back, revealing the
bride arrayed in her prettiest, seated on a crickery, in the remotest
corner. While all are absorbed in examining the presents, the bridegroom
dashes in, shoulders the girl like a sack, and trots off for the mystic
circle, which, urged on by the frantic cries of the women, he reaches
before the crowd can rescue her. The females, who cannot pass the ring,
stand outside giving vent to their despairing shrieks, while the men
squat within the circle in rows, facing outward. The old men alone
remain standing, and one of them hands a lighted stick to the couple
inside the hut, with a short speech. Soon an aromatic smoke curls up
from the copal pile, whereat the women grow silent, but when it
subsides, a sudden gayety takes possession of them, and the music is
again heard. The reason for this is that the bridegroom, if he has any
objections to the girl, may expel her while the gum is burning, but if
it burns out quietly, the groom is supposed to be satisfied and the
marriage complete. The women now pass filled calabashes to the men, who
soon become excited and start a dance which increases in wildness with
each additional cup, and does not end till most of them have bitten the
dust. After dark the crowd proceeds with lighted torches to the hut,
which is torn down, disclosing the married pair sitting demurely side by
side. The husband shoulders his new baggage and is escorted to his home.
The following day everybody presents a gift of some kind, so as to place
the couple on an equal footing with the rest of the villagers.[996]

The position of a wife is not an enviable one, as the care of the
household, the farm, and all hard and degrading work fall to her share,
while her liege lord spends most of his time in idling. When about to be
confined, she proceeds to a hut erected for this purpose in the forest,
a short distance from the village, where she remains from a week to two
months, according to the custom of the tribe, attended by female friends
who supply all her wants, since she is not allowed to handle food
herself. No one must pass to the windward of the hut, because an
obstruction of the air might cause the death of the mother and child,
and for thus offending the guilty party must pay the damages. In such
seclusion it is easy to dispose of deformed children, and it is believed
that this is done to avoid the disgrace of a nickname, which might
otherwise attach to the family. At the expiration of the period of
purification, the mother returns to the village carrying the infant tied
to her back in a cloth. The village witch has in the meantime fastened
round its neck, a _pew_ or charm, consisting of a bag of small seeds
with which to pay old Charon for ferriage across the river, in case of
an early death. The child is suckled for about two years; yucca-root pap
also forms a great part of its food in some parts, but otherwise it
receives little care. The mother delivers herself, cutting the
navel-string with her own hand; she also washes the infant's clothes,
for it is believed that the child will die if this is done by another;
after washing herself and suckling the child she returns to the village.
Formerly all children born within the year were taken to the temple by
the parents, wrapped in a net and painted cloth, and laid to sleep under
a cake made of honey and iguana-flesh. Notice was taken of dreams, and
if the child appeared well and happy, they augured riches and long life
for it, if weak and sorrowful, it would be poor and unfortunate; if no
dreams occurred, it betokened an early death. Acting on this
superstition, parents often became careless about the future of their
children, and suffered them to grow up without attention. Priests were
not allowed to marry, and the care and education of the sons of
prominent men were entrusted to them.[997]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO DIVERSIONS.]

Drinking is the chief amusement, and to become helplessly drunk is the
sum of all enjoyment. Frequent _sihkrans_ or feasts are held, lasting
for days, at which large numbers assist to drain the canoeful of liquor
prepared for the occasion. Occasionally surrounding villagers are
invited, and a drinking-bout is held, first in one house and then in
another, until the climax is reached in a debauch by both sexes of the
most revolting character. Quarrels are generally put off for these
occasions, but, as the wives have carefully hidden all weapons, recourse
is had to the fist, with which the combatants exchange blows in turn
until one has had enough. These trials of endurance are also held in
sport; the Smoo or Woolwa, for instance, who wishes to be held most
worthy of the fair sex, engages in a _lowta_ or striking-match with a
rival, each one presenting his bent back to the other in turn, until the
bravest stands declared. Death is not unfrequently the result of such
trials. Even boys, carried away by emulation, hold lighted sticks to
each other's skin. In early times the people of Honduras held regular
festivals at the beginning of each month, at the time of electing
officers, at harvest time, and three other grand celebrations during the
year, for which much food and drink were prepared. As the wine took
effect, the participants were seized with a desire to move to the
exhilarating sound of drum, flute, and rattle, and a simple dance was
organized. That of the Carib is merely a forward and backward movement
of hands and feet, accompanied by a peculiar intonation of voice, and at
their _seekroes_, or festivals in commemoration of the departed, they
stalk in a circle, one following the other, and singing in a loud and
uncouth tone. Their pas seul is livelier, however, the performer
skipping up and down, bending the body in different ways, and making the
most grotesque movements. They are not satisfied with a mere
drinking-bout at their reunions, but spread a good table, to which
guests often bring their own liquor. The Towkas and others prefer the
circle dance, walking at a slow, swinging pace, beating their knuckles
against emptied calabashes, and joining in a refrain, at the end of
which they strike their cups one against another's. At each additional
potation, the walk is increased in speed, until it assumes a trot and
ends in a gallop, the calabashes rattling in accordance. The <DW71> dance
is like a minuet, in which the performers advance and recede, making
strange gesticulations. The women have also a dance among
themselves,--for they are not allowed to join with the men,--in which
they form a ring, holding each other round the waist with the left hand,
bending, wriggling, shaking calabash rattles, and singing until
exhausted. Dramatic representations usually accompany these saltatory
exhibitions, wherein the various phases of a lover's trials, comical
sketches, or battles are depicted. The people of Honduras are fond of
disguising themselves with feather tufts, and skins of animals, whose
actions and cries they imitate. The favorite entertainment of the <DW71>s
is to put on a head-dress of thin strips of wood painted in various
colors to represent the beak of a sword-fish, fasten a collar of wood
round the neck, from which a number of palm-leaves are suspended, and to
daub the face red, black, and yellow. Two men thus adorned advance
toward one another and bend the fish-head in salute, keeping time with a
rattle and singing, "shovel-nosed sharks, grandmother!" after which they
slide off crab-like, making the most ludicrous gestures imaginable. This
fun exhausted, fresh men appear, introducing new movements, and then the
spectators join in a 'walk around,' flourishing white sticks in their
hands, and repeating the above-mentioned refrain in a peculiar buzzing
tone produced by placing in the mouth a small tube covered with the
membrane of a nut.[998]

  [Sidenote: GUAJIQUERO DANCE.]

The Guajiqueros in an interesting performance described by Squier,
depict incidents from their history. A square piece of ground having a
tree in the centre is marked off, and two poles adorned with feathers
are erected in opposite corners, one bearing the head of a deer, the
other that of a tiger. A dull, monotonous music is heard, and two
parties of youth, fantastically dressed up and painted, move up to the
square in a slow, but not ungraceful dance, and station themselves round
the poles that bear their respective insignia. A man, stooping as if
bent with age, starts out from the deers, dances round the ground,
trying to arouse the mirth of the spectators with his grotesque
movements. The tigers also dispatch a man, who does his best to excel
the other one in contortions and grimaces. After a while they meet, and
commence a discussion which ends in open rupture, the rising passions
being well delineated. The two men who represent ambassadors then return
to their party with an account of the mission, the result of which is a
general excitement, both factions starting out, dancing backwards and
forwards, up and down the square, until they meet under the tree, in the
centre. The leader of each then steps out and recites the glories and
prowess of his tribe, amidst the applause of his own men, and the
disapproval of the others. As soon as they are worked up to the
requisite pitch of irritation, the dialogue ceases, the music strikes
up, and a mimic combat ensues, in which the armies advance and retreat,
close and separate, using short canes for weapons. At last the tigers
lose their standard and take to flight, whereat the victors execute a
dance of triumph; but finding how dearly the victory has been bought,
their joy is turned into sorrow, and they bend their head upon the
knees, breaking out in loud lament. In a few moments one of them starts
up and begins a panegyric on the fallen brave, which is followed by a
mimic sacrifice and other ceremonies. The vanquished are now seen to
approach with downcast eyes, bringing tribute, which they lay at the
feet of the victors, who receive it with imperious bearing. The music at
these entertainments is not of a very inspiring nature; drums,
consisting of a section of hollow tree covered with skin, which are
generally beaten with the hand, and flutes of bamboo with four stops on
which eight notes are played with different degrees of speed for
variety, being the usual instruments. The Guajiqueros also use the
_chirimaya_, two flutes joined in one mouthpiece; the _syrinx_, or Pan's
pipe; a long calabash with a narrow opening at the small end, into which
the performer blows suddenly, at intervals, to mark time; and a sort of
drum consisting of a large earthen jar, over the mouth of which a
dressed skin is tightly stretched. To the centre of the skin, and
passing through an opening in the bottom, is attached a string which the
performer pulls, the rebound of the membrane producing a very lugubrious
sound. In western Honduras the so-called strum-strum is much used. This
is a large gourd cut in the middle, and covered with a thin board having
strings attached. The _marimba_, and the jews-harp which has been
introduced by the trader, are, however, the favorite instruments for a
quiet reunion, and the few tunes known to them are played thereon with
admirable skill and taste. Songs always accompany their dances and are
usually impromptu compositions on suitable subjects, gotten up for the
occasion by the favorite singers of the village, and rendered in a soft,
but monotonous and plaintive tone. They have no national melodies, but
on the receipt of any good or bad message, their feelings generally find
vent in a ditty embodying the news. Talking is a passion with them, and
as soon as a piece of news is received at a village, two or three
younger men will start with their women and children for the next
hamlet, where it is discussed for hours by the assembled population, who
in their turn dispatch a messenger to the next village, and thus spread
the news over the whole country in a very short time. In story-telling,
those who concoct the biggest lies receive the most applause. Of course,
the pipe must be smoked on these occasions, but as their own tobacco has
become too mild for them, recourse is had to the vilest description of
American leaf. When this is wanting, the smoke-dried leaves of the
trumpet and papah-tree are used by men as well as women. The favorite
drink is _mishla_, prepared chiefly from cassava-roots; but others from
bananas, pine-apples, and other fruits are also used. A number of young
women provided with good teeth, untiring jaws, and a large supply of
saliva, are employed to chew about half of the boiled and peeled roots
requisite to make a canoeful of liquor, the remainder being crushed in a
mortar. This delectable compound is stirred with cold water, and allowed
to ferment for a day or two, when it assumes a creamy appearance, and
tastes very strong and sour. Plantains are kneaded in warm water, and
then allowed to stand for a few days till the mixture ferments, or the
fruit is left in the water in small pieces, and the kneading performed
in the cup previous to drinking. A fermented drink from powdered cacao
and indigenous sugar-cane juice is called _ulung_, and _pesso_ is the
name given to another made from crushed lime-rinds, maize and honey; in
early times mead was a favorite drink in Honduras. The cocoa-nut palm
yields monthly a large quantity of liquor known as _caraca_. The tip of
the undeveloped shoots are cut off, and the branch bent down so as to
allow the fluid to drip into a calabash placed beneath. Its seeds, when
crushed and steeped in hot water give the _acchioc_.[999]

  [Sidenote: BEVERAGES OF HONDURAS.]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO CUSTOMS.]

No name for a supreme good spirit is found in the vocabulary of the
Mosquitos; all their appeals are addressed to Wulasha, the devil, the
cause of all misfortunes and contrarieties that happen. The intercessors
with this dread being are the _sukias_, or sorceresses, generally dirty,
malicious old hags, who are approached with gifts by the trembling
applicant, and besought to use their power to avert impending evils.
They are supposed to be in partnership with their devil, for whom they
always exact the half of the fee before entering upon any exorcising or
divination. These witches exercise a greater power over the people than
the chief--a power which is sustained by the exhibition of certain
tricks, such as allowing poisonous snakes to bite them, and handling
fire, which they have learned from predecessors during their long
preparation for the office, passed amidst exposure and fasts in the
solitude of the wilderness. The people of Honduras had also evil
sorcerers who possessed the power of transforming men into wild beasts,
and were much feared and hated accordingly; but their priests or hermits
who live in communion with materialized gods, in small, elevated huts,
apart from the villages, enjoyed the respect of all, and their advice
was applied for on every matter of importance. None but the principal
men could approach them without the necessary offering of maize and
fowl, and they humbly knelt before them to receive their oracular
answer. Preparatory to important undertakings, dogs, cocks, and even men
were sacrificed to obtain the favor of their idols, and blood was drawn
from tongue, ears, and other members of the body. They thought it
likewise necessary to their welfare to have _naguals_, or guardian
spirits, whose life became so bound up with their own that the death of
one involved that of the other. The manner of obtaining this guardian
was to proceed to some secluded spot and offer up a sacrifice: with the
beast or bird which thereupon appeared, in dream or in reality, a
compact for life was made, by drawing blood from various parts of the
body. Caribs and Woolwas assemble at certain periods every year, to
propitiate controlling spirits with ceremonies transmitted from their
forefathers. A variety of ghosts, as Lewire, the spirit of the water,
are supposed to play their pranks at night, and it is difficult to
induce anyone to leave the hut after dark, unless in company. The belief
in dreams is so firmly rooted that their very course of life is
influenced by it. Every dream has a direct or indirect meaning; thus, a
broken calabash betokens loss of wife; a broken dish, the death of a
mother. Among other superstitions, it was believed that the lighting of
an owl upon the house-top would be followed by the death of an inmate;
when thunder roared, cotton-seed was burned; broken egg-shells and
deer-bones were carefully preserved lest the chickens or the deer should
die or disappear. Aware of the peculiar influence of the moon on man and
matter, they are careful not to sleep in its glare, nor to fish when it
is up, and mahogany-cutters abstain from felling trees at certain
periods for fear the wood may spoil. They are wonderfully good
pathfinders, and will pass through the densest forest without guiding
marks; as swimmers they are not to be surpassed. Their mode of greeting
a friend is very effusive, according to Dampier. One will throw himself
at the feet of another, who helps him up, embraces him, and falls down
in his turn to be assisted up and comforted with a pressure. Cockburn
says that the Honduras people bend one knee to the ground and clap their
hands in token of farewell.[1000]

  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO MEDICAL TREATMENT.]

Their licentious life, and fruit and fish diet, with limited use of
salt, have left their constitution very susceptible to epidemics as
well as other diseases. The most common disorders are affections of the
bowels, such as dysentery and diarrhoea, but chills, rheumatism,
consumption, and measles are not unfrequent. Children suffer much from
worms, and their abdomen is sometimes enormously swollen. A very
painful, though not dangerous eye-disease termed _unkribikun_ is
prevalent; and the burrowing of the tick in the skin causes wounds and
inflammation if the fly be not speedily removed; the _chegoe_, or
sand-flea, attacks the feet in the same manner. But small-pox and
leprosy are the greatest scourges of this country, the former having
here as elsewhere in America committed enormous ravages among the
population. Leprosy--that living death reflecting the sins of former
generations, so capricious in the selection of its victims, taking the
parent, yet leaving the child intact, or seizing upon the offspring
without touching its mother--may certainly be less destructive, but it
is nevertheless fearful in its effect; half of the natives of the
Mosquito country being more or less marked by it, either in the shape of
white or livid spots, or red, white, and scabbed _bulpis_. All sickness
and affliction is supposed to be the work of the evil spirit who has
taken possession of the affected part; sukias must, therefore, be called
in to use their incantations and herbs against the enemy. The witch
appears with her face painted in hideous devices, and begins operations
by placing some herbs beneath the pillow of the patient, blowing smoke
over him, rubbing the body with the hands, and muttering strange words.
If this is not effective, a decoction is made from the herbs, to be used
as a drink or fomentation, and the patient is fenced in with painted
sticks, with strict orders to let no one approach; the witch herself
bringing the food to the patient, whistling a plaintive strain and
muttering over the invalid for some time to chase away the evil. No
pregnant woman, or person who has lately buried a friend, must come near
the house during the illness, nor must any one pass to the windward of
it, lest the sick be deprived of breath; any presumed breach of these
injunctions leaving a safe loophole for the sorceress, in case her
remedies fail. During epidemics, the sukias consult together and note
their dreams, to ascertain the nature and disposition of the spirit.
After muttering incantations all night, and invoking all sorts of
terrible monsters, they plant small painted sticks, mounted by grotesque
figures, to the windward of the village, and announce the expulsion of
the evil. Should the scourge continue, it is supposed that the spirits
are obstinate, and the people remove to other parts, burning the
village. The instructions of the sukia are always scrupulously followed,
and the credulous native may be seen lying on the beach for days, exposed
to all weathers, smeared with blood and waiting for restoration from
ills. Scarifications are much resorted to, and fever patients throw
themselves into cold water, where they remain until dead or until the
fever leaves them. In Honduras, on the other hand, the patient is taken
out of the water after a short immersion, and rolled to and fro before a
fire, until half dead with fatigue, when he was left to be restored by
sleep; blood is let from the thighs, legs, and shoulders; vomiting is
promoted by certain herbs; vermin are administered for jaundice. In
sickness a rigid diet is observed, the patient subsisting chiefly on
iguana broth. Snake-bites are cured by chewing the guaco-root, and
poulticing the wound therewith; the Caribs apply an oil obtained from
the head of the tommy-goff as an antidote for its bite. Herrera states
that the comfort of a sick person was but little regarded; bread and
drink were placed near the patient's head, and if strong enough to
partake thereof, well and good, but if not he might die; nobody took any
notice of him after this. The Mosquitos are not entirely devoid of
affection; but their grief seems to be reserved for the dead, not the
dying.[1001]

The corpse is wrapped in a cloth and placed in one half of a pitpan
which has been cut in two; friends assemble for the funeral and drown
their grief in mushla, the women giving vent to their sorrow by dashing
themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and inflicting other
tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As it is supposed that
the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the body, musicians are
called in to lull it to sleep, while preparations are made for its
removal; all at once four naked men, who have disguised themselves with
paint, so as not to be recognized and punished by Wulasha, rush out from
a neighboring hut, and, seizing the rope attached to the canoe, drag it
into the woods, followed by the music and the crowd. Here the pitpan is
lowered into the grave with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other
implements to serve the departed in the land beyond; then the other half
of the boat is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the
grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other
articles placed there from time to time by relatives. The water that
disappears from the porous jars is thought to have been drunk by the
deceased, and if the food is nibbled by birds it is held to be a good
sign. On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is
destroyed, the cocoa-palms being cut down, and all who have taken part
in the funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut off the
hair, the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape of the neck
to the forehead; widows, according to some old writers, after supplying
the grave with food for a year, take up the bones, and carry them on the
back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night, for another year,
after which they are placed at the door, or upon the house-top. On the
anniversary of death, friends of the deceased hold a feast called
_seekroe_, at which large quantities of liquor are drained to his memory.
Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an occasion of this kind, says
that males and females were dressed in _ule_ cloaks fantastically
painted black and white, while their faces were correspondingly
streaked with red and yellow, and they performed a slow walk-around, the
immediate relatives prostrating themselves at intervals, calling loudly
upon the dead, and tearing the ground with their hands. At no other time
is the departed referred to, the very mention of his name being
superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a thread from the house of
death to the grave, carrying it in a straight line over every obstacle.
Froebel states that among the Woolwas all property of the deceased is
buried with him, and that both husband and wife cut the hair and burn
the hut on the death of either, placing a gruel of maize upon the grave
for a certain time.[1002]

  [Sidenote: CHARACTER OF THE MOSQUITOS.]

Hospitality, a gentle and obliging disposition, faithfulness in the
fulfilling of engagements, honesty and docility, balanced by an
inaptness to make any avail of natural benefits, and a supineness in
matters of veracity and judgment, by reason of which they fall into many
excesses, especially in drink, characterize both Mosquitos and Caribs.
The apathy and slowness of the unadulterated aboriginal are, however, in
striking contrast to the vivacious and impressible nature of the Caribs,
whose versatility evidences a rather higher intelligence, which is again
overshadowed by an inordinate vanity, based chiefly upon their greater
strength and stature. Both possess a certain industry, the one being
more plodding, the other more energetic though less patient; this trait
is also noticeable in their pastimes, where the native is far less
exuberant and noisy than his darker neighbor. With regard to the effect
of <DW64> admixture on character, comparisons may be made among the
Caribs themselves, when it will be found that the black race is much
more mercurial and vehement than the purer type, and possesses greater
volubility. The severe discipline kept up, and the disposition, among
the women at least, to provide for the morrow, augurs well for their
future. The bravery and love of freedom which so long kept the Spanish
invaders at bay both on the western and northern borders and on the
coast was subsequently subdued, instance the mild disposition of the
independent Xicaques, Poyas, and Secos, who are now inclined rather to
peaceful diplomacy than to warlike demonstrations; yet the Caribs
manifested considerable spirit during a late conflict with the Honduras
government, and proved themselves efficient soldiers. The character
given to the nations of this subdivision by ancient writers, contains
many unenviable qualities, for not only are they described as lazy,
vicious, lying, inconstant, but as cruel, void of affection, and of less
intelligence than the Mexicans; nevertheless they are obedient,
peaceable, and quiet. The only characteristic we have concerning the
Albatuins is that they were savage, and until of late the Ramas bore the
same character. Among the industrious Towkas we find that gentle
melancholy which characterizes some of the Guatemalans; while their
brothers, the Smoos, have the reputation of being a very simple people
whom the neighbors take delight in imposing upon, yet their women are
said to be more ingenious than the <DW71> women. Proceeding to the
Toonglas and <DW71>s, we observe a preponderance of bad qualities,
attributable, no doubt, to their intercourse with buccaneers and
traders. By most writers they are characterized as a lazy, drunken,
debauched, audacious race, given to thieving; capricious, quarrelsome,
treacherous and exacting among themselves, though obliging to strangers,
their only redeeming traits being hospitality, and a certain
impulsiveness which is chiefly exhibited in grief, and indicates
something good at heart. Their want of energy, which deters them alike
from household work and the commission of great crimes, will not prevent
them from undertaking wearisome voyages to dispose of mere trifles; and
their superstitious fears and puerility under affliction, are entirely
lost when facing the raging surf or hungry shark. Other writers take
advantage of this trait to show that they are high-spirited enough to
carry anything through when once aroused, and add that they have proved
themselves faithful to their masters, are docile and intelligent,
abhorring to appear mean and cowardly.[1003]


  [Sidenote: THE ISTHMIANS.]

The ISTHMIANS, by which name I designate all the nations occupying the
territory lying between the San Juan River and the southern shore of
Lake Nicaragua on the north, and the gulf of Urabá, or Darien, and the
River Atrato on the south, present several peculiarities when compared
with the other nations of Central America. The inhabitants of these
regions are a hardy and active race, jealous of their independence and
ever hostile to those who attempt to penetrate their country. Their
resoluteness in excluding all foreigners is materially strengthened by
the rugged and malarious nature of the country, by its deep ravines, its
miasmatic swamps, its abrupt heights, its rapid streams, its tangled
undergrowth, and densely wooded districts. The air of the table-lands
and valleys is hot and moist, the soil exceedingly fertile, but the
interior and mountainous localities have a milder and more temperate
climate with but little variation except that of the dry and wet
seasons. In the lowlands of Panamá, the swampy nature of the surface,
with the great humidity of the atmosphere, produces a luxuriant
vegetation, and the consequent quantity of decomposed vegetable matter
under the influence of a vertical sun, engenders a miasma deadly to the
unacclimated. The rich and marshy nature of the soil, however, sends
forth immense palm-trees, in the branches of which the natives build
their houses, thus obtaining a purer air and greater safety from the
numerous wild animals and dangerous reptiles that infest that region. A
great portion of the territory is rich in minerals which were once
produced by the natives in great quantities, but which, unfortunately,
were the loadstone that drew upon them the ruthless Spanish plunderers.

  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN NATIONS.]

In the northern part of Costa Rica along the head waters of the Rio Frio
the _Guatusos_, or _Pranzas_, are located. Mr Squier is inclined to
think they are of the same stock as the Nahuas. Some striking physical
peculiarities observed among them have given rise to various surmises
and startling conclusions regarding their origin. Dwelling in the
western part of the state are the _Terrabas_ and the _Changuenes_,
fierce and barbarous nations, at constant enmity with their neighbors.
In the south-east and extending to the borders of Chiriquí dwell the
_Talamancas_ composed of a number of different tribes and declared by
some to be allied in race with the Guatusos. Besides these are the
_Buricas_, _Torresques_, _Toxas_, and others.[1004] In the mountains of
Chiriquí are the _Valientes_, so called by the Spaniards from their
heroic resistance to the invaders. Many of the warlike nations who
occupied the country at the time of the discovery derived their names
from the caciques that governed them. The people who dwell along the
shore of the Caribbean Sea, between Portobello and Urabá, and occupy the
Limones, Sasardi, and Pinos islands are supposed to be a branch of the
once powerful Darien nations who to the present day remain unconquered.
Their province is situated on the western shore of the gulf of Urabá,
and their town was originally near the mouth of the River Atrato. The
town and the river as well as the province were called by the natives
Darien. This town was conquered in 1510 by a little band of shipwrecked
Spaniards under the Bachiller Enciso. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, Francisco
Pizarro, and men of like metal were there, and this was the first
successful conquest and settlement on Tierra Firme. Whence, as the
conquests of the Spaniards widened, the name Darien was at length
applied to the greater part of the Isthmus. Still further westward were
the once powerful province of _Cueva_, and the site of the ancient city
of Panamá, discovered in 1515 by Tello de Guzman. This was a famous
fishing-station, the word Panamá signifying in the native tongue a place
where many fish are taken. Along the western shore of the bay of Panamá
dwelt several independent and warlike nations, those of _Cutara_,
_Paris_, _Escoria_, besides many others who waged continual war against
each other with the object of increasing their territories and adding
lustre to their names.[1005]

Slight differences only are observable in the Isthmian physique. The
people are generally well-built, muscular, and of average height,
although old authorities, such as Herrera, Andagoya, and Gomara,
describe a tribe, whom they locate near Escoria and Quarecas, as being
very tall--veritable giants. Women, as a rule, are small and of delicate
proportions, but after attaining a certain age, incline to obesity. The
mountain tribes are generally shorter in stature, with more pleasing
features than the coast-dwellers. A notable difference between the
Isthmians and the other aborigines of the Pacific States, is the short,
rather flat nose, in contradistinction to the almost universal aquiline
cast. In color they are of a medium bronze tint, varying according to
localities, the mountain tribes being the darker. Black, straight, and
very abundant coarse hair, black or dark eyes, and excellent teeth
predominate.[1006] In Costa Rica, on the Rio Frio, is the frequently
spoken of but never accurately described nation--the _Guatusos_--whom
somewhat mythical accounts describe as of fair complexions, with light
hair and blue eyes. Likewise Albinos are spoken of by Wafer, who relates
having seen people "milk white, lighter than the colour of any
Europeans, and much like that of a white horse." Furthermore, it is said
that their bodies were covered with a milk-white down, which added to
the whiteness of their skin; hair and eyebrows white, and eyes oblong,
with the corners pointing downwards. During daylight they were
weak-sighted, restive, and lacking energy, but after sundown, their
cheerfulness, activity, and eyesight returned--the latter being
apparently as good as that of other people.[1007]

  [Sidenote: DRESS OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

Cotton textures and the bark of a certain tree, beaten in a wet state
until soft and pliant, were the materials used by the Isthmians to cover
their nakedness, if, indeed, they covered it at all. Where cotton was
used, as in parts of Costa Rica, the costume was simply a small strip of
cloth which both men and women wound round the loins or, as on the
islands in the gulf of Nicoya, the women passed it between the legs, and
fastened it to a string round the waist. These latter ornamented their
scanty raiment prettily with various designs painted in colors, and also
with seeds and shells. Near the bay of Herradura the men wore a kind of
mantle covering the whole front and back of the wearer, made of the
above-mentioned bark, in the centre of which was a hole through which
the head passed. The women of this locality only wrap themselves in a
piece of bark, without taking the trouble to fashion a mantle of it. Yet
more simple was the dress of the men near Cartago; a few cotton strings
wound round the foreskin of their virile member, sufficed them.[1008]
Near Panamá and Darien, the caciques only wore long cotton mantles
thrown over the shoulder and reaching nearly to the feet, the common
people going naked, only encasing their privy parts in a kind of funnel
made of gold, silver, shell, or bamboo, according to the wealth of the
wearer, and which was held in place by a string fastened to two holes
in the sides which was passed round the waist. Women in the same
localities wore cotton petticoats reaching to the knees, or, if ladies
of quality, to the ankles. Near the gulf of Nicoya, women wore the long
hair parted in the middle from the front to the back of the head, and
plaited into two braids which hung down on either side over the ears.
The men tied the hair up in a stiff queue with a cotton band, which was
at times arranged so as to rise straight over the crown of the head.
Necklaces of  beads or of tiger's teeth were worn as ornaments.
Like many nations of the Hyperborean group, the Chorotegans of Nicoya
pierced the lower lip and inserted a round piece of bone. Their arms
they painted with a mixture of their own blood and charcoal. In portions
of Veragua and Behetrias even the funnel or cotton strings were omitted,
and the Gugures, Mandingos, and many others on the Pacific seaboard,
like the people of Veragua, went entirely naked, the chiefs only wearing
long mantles. All of the Isthmians were fond of ornaments; among those
which deserve special notice is the nose-pendant. This was a
crescent-shaped piece of gold or silver, of various sizes for different
occasions, those used on holidays hanging down so as to cover the mouth,
while those for ordinary use only reached the upper lip. Besides the
nose-pendant were ear-rings and a number of heavy necklaces of gold,
silver, tiger's teeth,  seeds, shells, and coral, according to
the wealth of the wearer. Under their breasts the richer women also wore
gold bars as a support, which were held up by strings passed over the
shoulders. _Guanines_, or figures of animals made of gold, were worn
around the neck by the men on the coast of Veragua, Chiriquí, and Urabá;
others again wore on their heads fillets or crowns of gold or of the
claws of wild beasts, or of feathers. Thus did these naked savages
decorate themselves, often to the extent of several pounds weight. Women
considered it a mark of beauty to have thick legs, and to that end wore
bandages round them. Another Hyperborean custom is here met with--the
anointing of the body with oil--which in these tropics is extracted from
the _bixa_ or seed of the _arnotto_, and over which they sprinkled down
and feathers. Painting the body was everywhere practiced, and was
carried to a great extent, the different colors and figures employed
each having its peculiar significance.

  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN BODY-PAINTING.]

On going to war, paint was used more freely than at other times, and the
greater the warrior the thicker the paint. Among the men of Cueba
painting had a double object; it served as an ornament to the person,
and also as a mark of distinction of rank. The chief, when he inherited
or attained his title, made choice of a certain device, which became
that of all his house. Freemen were painted from the mouth downward, and
on the arms and chest, while slaves were only painted or tattooed from
the mouth upward. All the lords, servitors, and vassals who were
freemen, were painted in exactly the same manner. If the son of a chief
adopted the ancestral totem, he could not afterward change it on coming
into his inheritance, but if during his father's life-time he declined
to use the distinctive badge of his house, he could, when he became
chief, choose any new device he might fancy. A son who did not adopt his
father's totem was always hateful to him during his lifetime. The
natives on the northern coast of Chiriquí painted the body in wavy
lines, from the shoulders to the heels; through the cartilage of the
nose they stuck a porcupine-quill, and in the chin the tooth of a wild
beast. The women had holes made in their cheeks through which they stuck
little bunches of feathers; they also wore tiger's claws in their ears.
At San Blas, some of the men painted themselves in black streaks, and
the women in red. At Porto Belo, the king was painted black and all his
subjects red. The natives of Escoria tattooed breast and arms; the women
of Darien across the bridge of the nose from one cheek to the other;
they also blacken their teeth. Others have figures of birds, animals, or
trees painted all over the body, according to fancy; their favorite
colors being black, red, and yellow, which are laid on with pencils
made of wood, chewed at the end till they become soft.[1009] All the
Isthmians pull out the hair from every part of the body except the head,
and rub themselves with herbs, which prevent its further growth. Both
sexes pride themselves on the length of the hair, and most of them allow
it to grow to its full length and hang loose over their shoulders, but
keep it cut on the forehead as low as the eyebrows. The men of Cariai
and some parts of Chiriquí, bind it with fillets and wind it in rolls
round the head, fastening it with a comb made of the heart of the
palm-tree; others wear round their head a band made of bark or certain
fibres of plants, and at festivals they often wear high caps, made from
the gaudy feathers of parrots. At Tanela married women cut their hair
short. It appears that head-flattening again crops out in these parts.
Las Casas states that infants had their heads placed between two pads,
one in front and another behind, in order to increase the length of the
head and width of the forehead.[1010]

  [Sidenote: DWELLINGS ON THE ISTHMUS.]

In Costa Rica many of the natives live in small huts built of plaited
rushes. In the year 1545, Diego Gutierrez, governor of Nueva Cartago, in
Costa Rica, attempted to explore that territory. Arriving at the
province of Suere upon a river of that name at a point some twelve
leagues distant from the North Sea, he came to a village, and there
occupied a house belonging to the chief of the district. The old
Milanese chronicler, Girolamo Benzoni, who accompanied the expedition,
describing the dwelling of the cacique, says it was shaped like an egg
and was forty-five paces in length and nine in breath. The sides were of
reeds and the roof of palm-leaves all interlaced and well executed.
There were but few other houses in the village and those of inferior
character. Padre Zepeda, a jesuit, who in 1750 lived among the Guatusos
for several months, speaking of their towns and gardens, says that when
the rains commence, they construct small huts in the trees, where they
live safe from the danger of floods.[1011] Unlike most other nations,
the Isthmians do not build their villages in squares, but generally form
long streets, keeping the houses well apart from each other, probably as
a precaution against conflagrations. On many parts of the coast of
Darien and on the gulf of Urabá, the villages are built in the water.
Others are on the banks of rivers, and many of them are spacious and
constructed with great skill and attention to details. The supporting
posts of the roof are large bamboos or palm-trees. Three or four of
these are driven into the ground at equal distances, proportioned
according to the intended length of the house, and across the top is
laid the ridge-pole; on each side a number of shorter posts are sunk,
from which long rafters are laid to the ridge-pole; the whole is then
covered with palm-leaves, both roof and sides. Other houses are
plastered inside and outside with mud, and these have a flooring of open
bamboo work, raised six or eight feet from the ground. The dwellings are
divided into two or more rooms, having no doors to the entrances, which
are reached by ladders. Sometimes the house is built without walls, in
which case the roof descends to below the level of the floor, and the
structure is left open at both ends, having the appearance of an
elevated platform. The Savanerics and some others on the coast of
Veragua build circular or pyramidal dwellings, by driving strong posts
into the ground sloping toward each other, so as to unite in a point
where they are strongly bound with withes or vines, across which are
tied small sticks, some peeled, others with the bark on, or blackened,
thereby producing a pleasing effect. The walls inside are lined with
reeds beautifully interwoven. The upper portion of the structure is
thatched on the outside with straw and on the apex is placed an ornament
of baked clay. In the centre of the dwelling is a spacious apartment,
and round the walls are small rooms in which different families
reside.[1012] Each village has a public, town, or council house, or
fort, one hundred or more feet in length, constructed in the same manner
as the dwellings, but with no interior partitions; in the walls are
loop-holes for the discharge of arrows. There is an entrance at each
end, and thick doors, made of split palm-tree and bamboo strongly bound
together with withes, are kept in readiness to shut out the enemy. The
doors are kept in position by strong posts set in the ground behind
them. In the province of Veragua they build strong wooden fences or
palisades round some of the villages, to protect them from attacks of
enemies and wild beasts. During the expedition of Gaspar de Espinosa in
1517, Diego de Albitez, who invaded the province of a cacique named
Tabraba, some distance south-west from Panamá, found the inhabitants
protected by strong fortifications. Their forts are built with much
skill. The ground is first enclosed by a deep trench, upon the inner
bank of which trees are planted, and the interstices filled up with logs
and rocks. In many parts of the country the inhabitants were found
living in the tops of trees like birds, laying sticks across from one
branch to another, and building their houses upon them. In 1512, Vasco
Nuñez de Balboa surveyed several channels at the mouth of the River
Atrato in quest of gold and plunder. The surrounding country was low and
marshy, but the soil sent forth immense palm-trees, in the branches of
which the natives built their houses. Vasco Nuñez, entering an affluent
of the Rio <DW64>, discovered a large tree-top village, the name of whose
ruler was Abieiba. The houses were divided into several apartments, each
of a size sufficient to accommodate several families. They were built of
wood and willows, and were so pliable and yet so strong, that the
swaying to and fro of the branches, to which the elastic tenement
yielded, did not in the least interfere with the safety of the
occupants. Ladders, made of a single large bamboo split in two, were
used in making the ascent and descent. These were drawn up at night, or
in case of the invasion of an enemy. On the coast of Veragua Columbus
discovered similar dwellings, and he says that he could not account for
the custom, unless it was through fear of griffins which abound in that
country, or of enemies, each tribe being at war with every other tribe
along the coast. The true cause, however, of their taking to trees for
places of residence, is to place themselves beyond the reach of sudden
and violent floods, which are caused by the swelling of streams after
storms in the mountains, and also in order to be out of the reach of
reptiles and wild beasts in which that country abounds.[1013] Some of
the Isthmians built large enclosures for the chiefs, which early
contemporary writers call the king's palace. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, on
his march through the province of Comagre, situated on the northern
coast of Darien about thirty leagues from the gulf of Urabá, relates
that he visited the dwelling or palace of the cacique Comagre, which he
describes as follows: It was one hundred and fifty by eighty paces in
dimension, constructed upon heavy posts, which stood within a stone
wall. The upper part of the building was beautifully finished with
timbers, interlaced in such a manner as to strike the beholder with
amazement. The building contained various apartments--chambers, pantry,
and wine-cellar. In one very large apartment were sacredly kept the
remains of the king's ancestors arranged round the walls.[1014]

  [Sidenote: FOOD OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

The Costa Ricans live chiefly by hunting and fishing, and many of them
cultivate maize, beans, and bananas; the Talamancas, especially, are
agriculturists. According to Father Zepeda, and others who penetrated
some distance into the country of the Guatusos, they had large fields
under cultivation. Salt is seldom used by any of these tribes, and none
of them ever eat dogs, as they keep them for hunting purposes. Their
chief game is wild hogs and deer, but they are not very particular as to
their animal diet, for they eat whatever they can catch, including
reptiles. Their mode of cooking fish renders them exceedingly palatable,
which is by roasting them wrapped in plantain-leaves. Bananas are
usually pulled when green, and buried in sand to ripen.[1015] Many of
the other Isthmians are agriculturists, and grow considerable
quantities of maize, plantains, cacao, pimiento, and cocoa-nuts; their
means of subsistence are further largely supplemented by game and fish.
A staple article of food among the coast tribes is turtle, of which they
capture large numbers. Monkeys afford them a favorite meal, and they are
especially fond of iguanas, young alligators, and their eggs. From the
yucca as well as corn they make a good quality of bread. The Doraches
and Guaimies of Veragua subsist mainly on wild roots and a fruit called
_pixbaex_, somewhat resembling dates, which toasted, makes an agreeable
and wholesome food. Most of their dishes are highly seasoned with
pimiento, a kind of pepper produced by a small shrub which is very
abundant on Tierra Firme. The toocan bird lives chiefly on the berry,
which it discharges from the stomach almost immediately after swallowing
it; the natives prefer it thus, as its bitterness is partly absorbed by
the bird. It is said that the Caribs ate human flesh whenever they had
an opportunity. Herrera says that some of the Isthmians purchased
slaves, whom they sold to the Caribs for food, and the inhabitants of
Paria supplied boys to the natives of Tubrabá for the same purpose. They
cooked the flesh of their enemies, and ate it seasoned with salt and
_ají_ (chile).[1016] When a piece of ground is to be planted, a number
of the villagers collect and cut down the brushwood on a selected spot;
the seed is then scattered among the wood as it lies. In due time the
grain, which is well sheltered from the sun by the branches, springs up
and overtops them, and when fit for harvesting the ears are gathered.
After this, the underwood and corn-stalks are set on fire, and the
ground continues to be used for agricultural purposes. In hunting deer
and wild swine, dogs are used to drive them out of the dense forest; at
other times they set fire to a part of the woods, and as the animals try
to escape, they kill them with spears and arrows. Birds are killed with
a blow-pipe. When fishing they use nets made of mahoe-bark or
silk-grass, and in places where rocks prevent their using a net, they
catch them with their hands or shoot them with arrows. Fishing by
torchlight with spears is frequently practiced. The Savanerics poison
pools with pounded leaves of the barbasco, and thus obtain fish without
much labor. For duck-hunting they also employ the often-described trick
of placing a calabash on the head, and in this manner approach the game.
The men of Cueba are celebrated for making pure white salt from sea
water--an article much used in this locality. In the same province a
kind of communism obtained; all provisions were delivered to the chief,
who distributed to each his share. Part of the community were employed
as agriculturists, and part as hunters and fishermen. At his meals the
cacique was served by women, some of his principal men eating with
him.[1017]

In their personal habits the Isthmians are cleanly; they bathe generally
twice a day and sometimes oftener; but commonly at sunrise and sunset.
The interior of their dwellings has a neat appearance, and order and
cleanliness prevail in all their domestic arrangements.[1018]

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

Bows and arrows, long spears, javelins, flint-edged clubs, and
blow-pipes, are the weapons used in these parts. The bows are
beautifully made, those of the Costa Ricans being about seven feet
long, of a dark-, very hard wood, with the string of well-twisted
silk-grass. Arrows are of the same wood, very long, and pointed with a
porcupine-quill or fish-bone. The bows and arrows of those farther south
are much shorter, and of black palm-wood, as are also their lances and
javelins. The arrows are pointed with flint or fish-bone, or are
hardened in the fire and barbed; the shaft is of reed having a piece of
hard wood eight or ten inches in length inserted in the end. The
inhabitants of Coiba and some of the tribes on the western shore of the
gulf of Urabá, do not use bows and arrows. In this respect, so far as I
have observed, they form an exception; as among the almost innumerable
tribes situated between the gulf of Urabá and the Arctic Ocean I know of
none others where bows and arrows are not used. These people in battle
employ a long wooden sword, and wooden spears, the ends of which are
hardened in the fire and tipped with bone; they also make use of slings
and darts. Their javelins are thrown with much force and dexterity by
means of a stick slightly grooved to hold the projectile. It is called
_estorica_ and is held between the thumb and two fingers, there being a
small loop on the side, near the centre, in which the forefinger is
placed; the dart is cast straight from the shoulder, while the projector
is retained in the hand. I have noticed a somewhat similar contrivance
employed by the Aleutian Islanders.[1019] The blow-pipe which is used
with much effect, is about six or seven feet long, and the darts shot
from it are made of Mucaw-wood, very thin with an exceedingly sharp
point, notched, so that when an object is struck it breaks off and it is
almost impossible to extract the broken point; others are poisoned so
that a slight wound causes death in a short time. One end is wrapped
with a little cotton, until it fits the tube which is placed to the
mouth and the dart blown out. It is quite effective for a distance of
one hundred yards. Different varieties of poison have been described by
writers and travelers. Herrera speaks of one which he says was made with
certain grey roots found along the coast, which were burnt in earthen
pipkins and mixed with a species of poisonous black ant; to this
composition were added large spiders, some hairy caterpillars, the wings
of a bat, and the head and tail of sea-fish called _tavorino_, very
venomous, besides toads, the tails of snakes, and manzanillas. All these
ingredients were set over a fire in an open field and well boiled in
pots by a slave till they were reduced to a proper consistency. The
unfortunate slave who attends to the boiling almost invariably dies from
the fumes. Another poisonous composition is spoken of as having been
made of fourteen different ingredients and another of twenty-four, one
that kills in three days, another in five, and another later, and when
one was employed it was stated that sometimes the wounded lived as many
days as the poison had been made. The natives said that fire, sea water,
and continency were the antidotes against the venom, others affirmed
that the dung of the wounded person taken in pills or otherwise was a
cure. Peter Martyr writes that the poison was made by old women skilled
in the art, who were shut up for two days in a house where they boiled
the ingredients; if at the expiration of the time, the women were found
in good health instead of being half dead, they were punished and the
ointment was thrown away. Captain Cochrane in his _Journal in Colombia_,
says that they obtain the poison from a small frog called the _rana de
veneno_. These frogs are kept in a hollow cane and regularly fed. When
required for use, they take one and pass a pointed stick down its throat
and out at one of its legs. The pain brings to the back of the toad a
white froth, which is a deadly poison and in it the darts are rubbed;
below the froth a yellow oily matter is found which is carefully scraped
off, as it is also a powerful poison, but not so lasting as the first
substance, which will retain its deadly properties for a year while the
yellow matter looses its strength after five or six months.[1020] The
javelins used by the Caribs were not made pointed but square at the end,
they also have very long pikes and heavy clubs. When Bartolomé Hurtado
in 1516 visited the island of Caubaco he relates that the cacique
presented him with a golden armor valued at one thousand castellanos. At
the island of Cabo seven leagues distant, the warriors wore a thick
matted armor of cotton impervious to arrows; they were armed with pikes
and in their march were accompanied with drums, conchs, and fifes.[1021]

  [Sidenote: WEAPONS, ARMOR, AND WARS.]

Wars arise chiefly from the jealousies and ambition of rival chieftains.
Battles are frequent and sanguinary, often lasting for many days, and
are fought with tenacious courage. Throughout Darien it is customary to
place sentinels at night in the highest houses of the towns, to keep
watch and give warning of the approach of an enemy. At the commencement
of a campaign, chiefs and captains experienced in war are nominated by
the head of the tribe, to lead the men in battle and conduct the
operations; they wear certain insignia, so as to be distinguished from
the rest of the men, lofty plumes on the head, and a quantity of golden
ornaments and jewels, besides which they are painted in a different
style. All, however, adorn themselves when going to battle, with a
profusion of necklaces, bracelets, and golden corselets. The men are
cheered on to battle and encouraged during the fight by the blowing of
large shells and the beating of drums. In the province of Cueba, women
accompany the men, fighting by their side and sometimes even leading the
van. The action is commenced with the slings and estoricas, but they
soon meet at close quarters, when the heavy wooden swords and javelins
are brought into use. Certain rules and military regulations are
observed whereby the brave are rewarded, and offenders against military
discipline punished. Nobility is conferred on him who is wounded in war,
and he is further rewarded with lands, with some distinguished woman,
and with military command; he is deemed more illustrious than others,
and the son of such a father, following the profession of arms, may
inherit all the father's honors. He who disobeys the orders of his chief
in battle is deprived of his arms, struck with them, and driven from the
settlement. All booty is the property of him who captured it. The
prisoner is the slave of the captor; he is branded on the face and one
of his front teeth knocked out. The Caribs, however, used to kill and
eat their prisoners. Wafer mentions that upon some occasions, he who had
killed an enemy cut off his own hair as a distinguishing mark of
triumph, and painted himself black, continuing so painted until the
first new moon.[1022]

  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN DISHES AND IMPLEMENTS.]

The Isthmians sleep in hammocks, often beautifully made, and suspended
between two trees or upright posts. Owing to the material of which they
are composed they are exceedingly cool and well adapted to the climate.
Gourds, calabashes, and cocoa-nut shells are employed for water-bowls
and drinking-cups. Their other household utensils consist of earthen
jars, flint knives, stone hatchets and boxes ingeniously made of
palm-leaves, and covered with deer or other skins. Drums of different
sizes, some very large, others small, are made of the hollow trunk of a
tree covered at the ends with deer's hide. Those of the largest size are
kept at the chief's residence or at the town-house. Hammocks are made of
finely woven cloth, or more frequently of plaited grass of various
colors and curiously ornamented. Wooden mortars, made from the knotty
part of a tree, are used to pound yucca, from which they make their
cassava. The metate or rubbing-stone is also in use among them. They
have nets of different kinds for both fishing and hunting. At night, as
a light for their dwellings they use torches made from palm-wood dipped
in oil and beeswax. The lords and principal men of the provinces of
Darien and Urabá are reputed to have drunk from golden cups of rich and
beautiful workmanship. Peter Martyr gives an account of golden trumpets
and a great number of bells found by the Spaniards in a town situated on
the River Dabaiba (Atrato). The bells were used at ceremonies and
festivals, giving forth a sweet and pleasant sound; the tongues or
clappers were beautifully made, of fish-bones. In another part of the
country, on the gulf of Urabá, says Peter Martyr, as rendered by the
ancient translator: "They founde also a great multitude of shetes, made
of the silke or cotton of the gossampine tree; likewise diuers kindes of
vessels and tooles made of wood, and many of earth; also many brest
plates of gold, and ouches wrought after their manner."[1023]

They manufacture strong cords from the bark of the mahoe-tree, which is
taken off in long strips, beaten with sticks, cleaned, and then twisted.
A finer description of thread is made from a species of pita, of which
the leaves undergo a somewhat similar process in preparation as flax,
being steeped in water for several days, then dried in the sun and
afterwards beaten, producing fine silky threads, from which their
hammocks and finer kinds of nets for catching small fish are made. From
the same plant they make excellent baskets and matting; the materials
are first dyed in different colors, prettily mixed and woven together so
closely as to hold water. They are of a soft texture and exceedingly
durable. The Dorachos are famed for the manufacture of pottery,
water-bottles, and other household utensils, elegantly shaped and
prettily painted. Cotton cloths are woven by women, and considering the
rude and simple implements they work with, the fineness of texture and
blending of colors present a marvel of skill and patience. The process
of weaving is thus described by Wafer: "The Women make a Roller of Wood,
about three Foot long, turning easily about between two Posts. About
this they place Strings of Cotton, of 3 or 4 yards long, at most, but
oftner less, according to the use the Cloth is to be put to, whether for
a Hammock, or to tie about their Waists, or for Gowns, or for Blankets
to cover them in their Hammocks, as they lie in them in their Houses;
which are all the Uses they have for Cloth: And they never weave a piece
of Cotton with a design to cut it, but of a size that shall just serve
for the particular use. The Threads thus coming from the Roller are the
Warp; and for the Woof, they twist Cotton-yarn about a small piece of
_Macaw_-wood, notch'd at each end; And taking up every other Thread of
the Warp with the Fingers of one Hand, they put the Woof through with
the other Hand, and receive it out on the other side: and to make the
Threads of the Woof lie close in the Cloth, they strike them at every
turn with a long and thin piece of _Macaw_-wood like a Ruler, which lies
across between the Threads of the Warp for that purpose."[1024]

  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN BOATS AND NAVIGATION.]

The canoes and rafts of the Isthmians are admirably adapted to the
navigation of their rivers and gulfs, and the men who manage them are
skillful boatmen. The canoes vary in size; some are dug out from the
single trunk of a tree, others are constructed of bark. The largest are
thirty-five feet in length by three in breadth, and are capable of
carrying many persons, besides a considerable amount of cargo. They are
so lightly built that little difficulty is experienced in passing them
over obstructions, and those of smaller size are often carried on the
head. They draw very little water, and are propelled with paddles by two
persons, one in the stern, the other in the bow. When passing over
rapids, palancas, or poles, are used, with crotchets attached, which
answer the purpose of a boat-hook in laying hold of the bank or
overhanging branches of trees, where the depth of water prevents the
pole reaching the bottom. The rafts are made from an exceedingly light
and soft timber similar to cork-wood. Three or four logs are bound
together with ropes and across them are laid smaller timbers of the
same wood, fastened down with hard wooden pegs that are easily driven
through. The rafts are chiefly employed for fishing or crossing large
rivers. Canoes are, however, quite as frequently used for fishing
purposes.[1025]

The native products are gold, pearls, tortoise-shell, ivory-nuts, cacao,
caoutchouc, corozo-nuts, cocoa-nuts, dried venison, lard, and
deer-skins; these are offered in considerable quantities to foreigners,
and in exchange they receive salt and ironware, besides various trinkets
and such domestic utensils as they are in need of. The value of the
pearls was lessened on account of their practice of throwing oysters
into the fire in order to open them, which partially destroyed their
lustre. The natives of the coast carry into the interior dried fish and
salt, which they barter for gold dust and other products. At Pueblo
Nuevo sarsaparilla forms a principal article of trade. The native
traders are very shrewd, and as a rule practice fair dealing. On his
march through the country, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa found the people in
possession of large quantities of gold, jewelry, and pearls. Everywhere
along his route he received presents of gold; indeed, in some places he
found this metal in greater abundance than food.[1026]

The streams of this region are subject to frequent swellings, caused by
heavy rains. After the subsiding of these floods, the natives procure
gold from the river-beds; they also burn the grass in the mountains and
pick up the metal left exposed on the surface in large quantities. In
the district of Veragua and in Darien they have workers in gold,
crucibles for melting metals, and implements of silversmiths. They
understand the alloying of gold, from which they make vases and many
kinds of ornaments in the shape of birds and different varieties of
animals. The relics which from time to time have been exhumed in
Chiriquí and other parts of the Isthmus, prove that the natives had an
excellent knowledge of the art of working and also of sculpturing in
gold and stone. Painting and glazing on jars and other descriptions of
pottery was an art in which the men of Chiriquí were famous.[1027] The
Isthmians possessed only a very slight knowledge of the computation of
time. They calculate the hour of the day by the height of the sun in the
heavens, and have no division of time into years, months, or weeks.
Their enumeration is limited to twenty, and beyond that they count by
twenties to one hundred; their knowledge of numbers does not go
further.[1028]

  [Sidenote: ARTS AND GOVERNMENT.]

In the provinces of Cueba, Comagre, and other parts of Darien the eldest
son succeeded to the government upon the death of his father. As soon as
the funeral ceremonies were over, the heir received the congratulations
of the attendant nobles, the highest and most aged of whom conducted him
to a chamber and laid him in a hammock. His subjects then came to offer
their submission accompanied with presents, which consisted of large
stores of edibles and fruits of every kind. They greeted him with
triumphal songs in which they recounted the deeds of his ancestors, as
well as those of other lords of the land, telling him who were his
friends and who his enemies. Much wine was consumed and the rejoicing
lasted several days. Afterwards ambassadors were dispatched to inform
all the neighboring caciques of the new accession, desiring their good
will and friendship for the future. In the province of Panamá upon the
death of the lord, the eldest brother succeeded him, and if there were
no brothers the succession went to a nephew by the sister's side. The
chiefs held undisputed authority over their people and were implicitly
obeyed. They received no tribute but required personal service for
house-building, hunting, fishing, or tilling the ground; men so employed
were fed and maintained by the chief. In Cueba the reigning lord was
called _quebi_, in other parts he was called _tiba_. The highest in rank
after the _tiba_ had the title of _sacos_, who commanded certain
districts of the country. _Piraraylos_ were nobles who had become famous
in war. Subject to the sacos were the _cabras_ who enjoyed certain lands
and privileges not accorded to the common people. Any one wounded in
battle, when fighting in presence of the _tiba_, was made a cabra and
his wife became an _espave_ or principal woman. A constable could not
arrest or kill a cabra; this could be done only by the tiba; once struck
by the tiba, however, any person might kill him, for no sooner was he
wounded by his chief than his title and rank dropped from him.
Constables were appointed whose duty it was to arrest offenders and
execute judgment on the guilty. Justice was administered without form by
the chief in person who decided all controversies. The cases must be
stated truthfully, as the penalty for false testimony was death. There
was no appeal from the decision of the chief. Theft was punishable with
death and anyone catching a thief in flagrante delicto, might cut off
the offender's hands and hang them to his neck. Murder was also punished
by death; the penalty for adultery was death to both parties. In
Darien, he who defloured a virgin had a brier thrust up his virile
member, which generally caused death. The facts had to be proved on
oath, the form of taking which was to swear by their tooth. As I have
said, a constable could not arrest or kill a noble; consequently if one
committed a crime punishable with death, the chief must kill him with
his own hand, and notice was given to all the people by beating the
large war drum so that they should assemble and witness the execution.
The chief then in presence of the multitude recited the offence, and the
culprit acknowledged the justice of the sentence. This duty fulfilled,
the chief struck the culprit two or three blows on the head with a
macana until he fell, and if he was not killed, any one of the
spectators gave him the finishing stroke. Criminals who were executed
were denied the right of burial. The Caribs had no chiefs, every man
obeyed the dictates of his own passions, unrestrained by either
government or laws.[1029]

  [Sidenote: PUNISHMENTS AND SLAVERY.]

Slavery was in force among the various nations inhabiting the Isthmus,
and every principal man retained a number of prisoners as bondsmen; they
were called _pacos_, and, as I have already mentioned, were branded or
tattooed with the particular mark of the owner on the face or arm, or
had one of their front teeth extracted. When traveling, the slaves had
to carry their lord's effects, and a dozen or more were detailed to
carry his litter or hammock, which was slung on a pole and borne on the
shoulders of two men at a time, who were relieved at intervals by two
others, the change being made without stopping. On his march across the
Isthmus in 1513, Vasco Nuñez found some <DW64> slaves belonging to the
cacique of Quarecas, but the owner could give no information relative to
them, except that there were more of that color near the place, with
whom they were continually at war.[1030]

  [Sidenote: FAMILY RELATIONS OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

Caciques and lords married as many wives as they pleased. The marriage
of the first wife was celebrated with a great banquet, at the close of
which the bride was handed over to her husband. Subsequent wives were
not married with ceremonies or rejoicings, but took the place of
concubines, and were subject to the orders of the first wife. The number
of wives was limited only by the wealth of the lord. Vasco Nuñez took
prisoner the cacique Tumanamá with all his family, among which were
eighty wives. The children of the first wife were legitimate, while
those of others were bastards and could not inherit. Marriage was not
contracted with strangers or people speaking a different language, and
the tiba and lords only married with the daughters of noble blood.
Divorces were brought about by mutual consent and for slight causes, and
sometimes wives were exchanged. If a woman was barren, they promptly
agreed upon a separation, which took place when the woman had her
menstrual period, in order that there might be no suspicion of
pregnancy. When a maiden reached the age of puberty, she was kept shut
up, sometimes for a period of two years. In some parts of Darien, when a
contract of marriage was made, all the neighbors brought presents of
maize or fruits, and laid them at the door of the bride's father; when
the offerings were all made, each one of the company was given a
calabash of liquor; then followed speeches and dancing, and the
bridegroom's father presented his son to the bride, and joined their
hands; after which the bride was returned to her father, who kept her
shut up in a house with him for seven days. During that time all the
friends assisted in clearing a plantation and building a house for the
couple, while the women and children planted the ground. The seven days
having elapsed, another merrymaking took place, at which much liquor was
drunk. The bridegroom took the precaution to put away all weapons which
were hung to the ridge-pole of his house, in order to prevent any
serious fighting during their drunken orgies, which lasted several days,
or until all the liquor was consumed. If a man had several wives, he
often kept each one in a separate house, though sometimes they all lived
together; a woman who was pregnant always occupied a house to
herself.[1031] Women are easily delivered, and the young infant is tied
to a board on its back or between two pillows, and is kept so confined
until able to walk, the board being removed only to wash the child. Male
children are early accustomed to the use of weapons, and when able to
carry a few provisions for themselves, they accompany their fathers on
hunting expeditions. Girls are brought up to household duties, cooking,
weaving, and spinning. Prostitution was not infamous; noble ladies held
as a maxim, that it was plebeian to deny anything asked of them, and
they gave themselves up to any person that wooed them, willingly,
especially to principal men. This tendency to licentiousness carried
with it extremes in the use of abortives whereby to avoid the
consequence of illicit pleasures, as well that they might not be
deprived of them, as to keep their breasts from softening; for, said
they, old women should bear children, not young ones, who have to amuse
themselves. Sodomy was practiced by the nations of Cueba, Careta, and
other places. The caciques and some of the head men kept harems of
youths, who, as soon as destined to the unclean office, were dressed as
women, did women's work about the house, and were exempt from war and
its fatigues. They went by the name of _camayoas_, and were hated and
detested by the women.[1032]

  [Sidenote: INTOXICATING LIQUORS.]

Their public amusements were called _areitos_, a species of dance very
nearly resembling some in the northern provinces of Spain. They took
place upon occasions of a marriage or birth, or when they were about to
go forth on a hunting expedition, or at the time of harvest. One led the
singing, stepping to the measure, and the rest followed, imitating the
leader. Others again engaged in feats of arms and sham battles, while
singers and improvisatori related the deeds of their ancestors and
historical events of the nation. The men indulged freely in fermented
liquors and wines, the drinking and dancing lasting many hours and
sometimes whole days, until drunk and exhausted they fell to the ground.
Actors in appropriate costumes counterfeited the various pursuits of
fishing, hunting, and agriculture, while others, in the guise of jesters
and fools, assisted in enlivening the scene. Their principal musical
instruments were drums and small whistles made of reeds; they had also
javelins with holes pierced in them near the end, so that when cast into
the air a loud whistling noise was produced.[1033] They have various
kinds of wines and liquors both sweet and sour. One is obtained from a
species of palm-tree, by tapping the trunk near the top, and inserting a
leaf into the cut. The liquor drawn off soon ferments, and in two or
three days is fit to drink; or it is boiled with water and mixed with
spices. Another kind called _chicha_ is made from maize; a quantity of
the grain is soaked in water, then taken out and left to sprout, when it
is bruised and placed in a large vessel filled with water, where it is
allowed to remain until it begins to turn sour. A number of old women
then collect and chew some of the grain, which they spit out into large
gourds until they have a sufficient quantity; this, as soon as it
ferments, is added to the water in the vessel, and in a short time the
whole undergoes fermentation. When the liquor is done working it is
drawn off from the sediment, and a strongly intoxicating liquor is thus
produced, which is their favorite beverage. They have another method of
making chicha, by boiling the sprouted grain in water till the quantity
is considerably reduced; it is then removed from the fire and left to
settle and cool. In two days it becomes clear and fit to drink, but
after five or six days it begins to acidify so that only a moderate
quantity is made at a time. Different varieties of wines and liquors are
made from dates, bananas, pineapples, and other fruits, and we are told
that the first Spanish explorers of the country found large quantities
of fermented liquors buried beneath the ground under their house-tree,
because if stored in their houses the liquor became turbid from constant
agitation. The cellar of the king Comagre is described as being filled
with great vessels of earth and wood, containing wine and cider. Peter
Martyr, in his account of the visit of Vasco Nuñez and his company to
the king, says "they drunke wines of sundry tastes both white and
black." Tobacco is much used by the Isthmians; the natives of Costa Rica
roll the leaf up in the form of a cigar, and tie it with grass threads;
they inhale the smoke, and, retaining it for a short time, pass it out
through the mouth and nostrils. The cigar used by the natives of the
isthmus of Panamá is much larger. Mr Wafer thus describes their manner
of making and smoking it: "Laying two or three Leaves upon one another,
they roll up all together side-ways into a long Roll, yet leaving a
little hollow. Round this they roll other Leaves one after another, in
the same manner but close and hard, till the Roll be as big as ones
Wrist, and two or three Feet in length. Their way of Smoaking when they
are in Company together is thus: A Boy lights one end of a Roll and
burns it to a Coal, wetting the part next it to keep it from wasting too
fast. The End so lighted he puts into his Mouth, and blows the Smoak
through the whole length of the Roll into the Face of every one of the
Company or Council, tho' there be 2 or 300 of them. Then they, sitting
in their usual Posture upon Forms, make, with their Hands held hollow
together, a kind of Funnel round their Mouths and Noses. Into this they
receive the Smoak as 'tis blown upon them, snuffing it up greedily and
strongly as long as ever they are able to hold their Breath, and seeming
to bless themselves, as it were, with the Refreshment it gives them."
After eating heartily, more especially after supper, they burn certain
gums and herbs and fumigate themselves to produce sleep.[1034]

The Isthmians are good walkers, their tread firm, but light and soft as
a cat, and they are exceedingly active in all their movements. When
traveling they are guided by the sun, or ascertain their course by
observing the bark of the trees; the bark on the south side being always
the thickest. When fatigued by travel they scarify their legs with a
sharpened reed or snakes' teeth. They are very expert swimmers and the
dwellers on the coast pass much of their time in the water. In
salutation they turn their backs to each other. No one will accept a
gift from a stranger unless with the especial permission of the
chief.[1035]

  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN SORCERERS.]

They believe largely in spirits and divinations, and have sorcerers
called _piaces_ who are held in much respect and awe. The piaces profess
to have the power of foretelling the future and raising spirits. When
putting in practice their arts they retire to a solitary place, or shut
themselves up in a house, where, with loud cries and unearthly sounds
they pretend to consult the oracle. Boys destined to be piaces are taken
at the age of ten or twelve years to be instructed in the office; they
are selected for the natural inclination or the peculiar aptitude and
intelligence which they display for the service. Those so chosen are
confined in a solitary place where they dwell in company with their
instructors. For two years they are subjected to severe discipline, they
must not eat flesh nor anything having life, but live solely on
vegetables, drink only water, and not indulge in sexual intercourse.
During the probationary term neither parents nor friends are permitted
to see them; at night only are they visited by professional masters, who
instruct them in the mysteries of the necromantic arts. In the province
of Cueba masters in these arts are called _tequinas_. It is asserted of
the piaces that they could foretell an eclipse of the moon three months
before the time. The people were much troubled with witches, who were
supposed to hold converse with evil spirits, and inflicted many ills
especially upon children.[1036]

  [Sidenote: MEDICAL PRACTICE.]

The Isthmians are a healthful and long-lived race. The ills most common
to them are fevers and venereal disease. The latter, as Oviedo affirms,
was introduced into Europe from Hayti, or Española, where it was
prevalent as well as throughout Tierra Firme. This is a subject that has
given rise to much contention among authors, but the balance of
testimony seems to indicate that the venereal disease in Europe was not
of American origin, although the disease probably existed in America
before the coming of Europeans. The remedies employed by the Isthmians
for the complaint were _guayacan_ wood, and other medicinal herbs known
to them. They are much troubled with a minute species of tick-lice that
cover their limbs in great numbers, from which they endeavor to free
themselves by applying burning straw. Another insect, more serious in
its consequences and penetrating in its attacks, is the _chegoe_, or
_pulex penetrans_; it burrows under the skin, where it lays its eggs,
and if not extracted will in time increase to such an extent as to
endanger the loss of the limb. The natives remove it with any
sharp-pointed instrument. They are liable to be bitten by venomous
snakes, which are numerous in the country and frequently cause death.
Whenever one is bitten by such a reptile, the sufferer immediately ties
above the wounded part a ligature made from plants well known to the
natives, and which they usually carry with them; this enables him to
reach a village, where he procures assistance, and by means of herbal
applications is often cured. Some of them are subject to a skin disease
somewhat similar in its appearance to ringworm; it spreads over the
whole body until eventually the skin peels off. Those who are thus
afflicted are called _carates_. These people are generally very hardy
and strong, with great powers of endurance. The piaces, as medicine-men,
consult their oracles for the benefit of all those who require their
services. The sucking cure obtains in these parts as well as northward.
When summoned to attend a patient, if the pain or disease is slight, the
medicine-man takes some herbs in his mouth, and applying his lips to the
part affected, pretends to suck out the disorder; suddenly he rushes
outside with cheeks extended, and feigns to spit out something, cursing
and imprecating at the same time; he then assures his patient that he
has effected a cure by extracting the cause of the pain. When the
sickness is of a more serious nature, more elaborate enchantments are
enacted, ending in the practitioner sucking it out from the sick
person's body, not, however, without undergoing infinite trouble, labor,
and contortions, till at last the piace thrusts a small stick down his
own throat, which causes him to vomit, and so he casts up that which he
pretends to have drawn out from the sufferer. Should his conjurations
and tricks not prove effectual, the physician brings to his aid certain
herbs and decoctions, with which he is well acquainted; their knowledge
of medicine is, however, more extensive in the treatment of external
than of internal diseases. The compensation given to the piace is in
proportion to the gravity of the case, and the ability of the individual
to reward him. In cases of fever, bleeding is resorted to; their mode of
practicing phlebotomy is peculiar and attended with much unnecessary
suffering. The operator shoots a small arrow from a bow into various
parts of the patient's body until a vein be accidentally opened; the
arrow is gauged a short distance from the point to prevent its
penetrating too far.[1037] Oviedo tells us that in the province of Cueba
the practice of sucking was carried on to a fearful extent, and with
dire consequences. The persons, men and women, who indulged in the habit
were called by the Spaniards _chupadores_. They belonged to a class of
sorcerers, and the historian says they went about at night visiting
certain of the inhabitants, whom they sucked for hours, continuing the
practice from day to day, until finally the unfortunate recipients of
their attentions became so thin and emaciated that they often died from
exhaustion.[1038]

  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN GRAVES AND MOURNING.]

  [Sidenote: FUNERAL RITES ON THE ISTHMUS.]

Among certain nations of Costa Rica when a death occurs the body is
deposited in a small hut constructed of plaited palm-leaves; food,
drink, as well as the weapons and implements that served the defunct
during life are placed in the same hut. Here the body is preserved for
three years, and upon each anniversary of the death it is redressed and
attended to amidst certain ceremonies. At the end of the third year it
is taken out and interred. Among other tribes in the same district, the
corpse after death is covered with leaves and surrounded with a large
pile of wood which is set on fire, the friends dancing and singing round
the flames until all is consumed, when the ashes are collected and
buried in the ground. In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs,
one for the principal men constructed with flat stones laid together
with much care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled
with food and wines for the dead; those for plebeians were merely
trenches, in which were deposited with the occupant some gourds of maize
and wine and the place filled with stones. In some parts of Panamá and
Darien only the chiefs and lords received funeral rites. Among the
common people a person feeling his end approaching either went himself
or was led to the woods by his wife, family, and friends, who, supplying
him with some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, there left him
to die alone, or to be assisted by wild beasts. Others with more respect
for their dead, buried them in sepulchres made with niches where they
placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. With some, a mother
dying while suckling her infant, the living child was placed at her
breast and buried with her in order that in her future state she might
continue to nourish it with her milk. In some provinces when the cacique
became sick, the priests consulted their oracles as to his condition and
if they received for answer that the illness was mortal, one half of his
jewelry and gold was cast into the river as a sacrifice to the god they
reverenced, in the belief that he would guide him to his final rest; the
other half was buried in the grave. The relatives of the deceased shaved
the head as a sign of mourning and all his weapons and other property
were consumed by fire in order that nothing should remain as a
remembrance of him. In Panamá, Nata, and some other districts, when a
cacique died, those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that
he loved ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed
themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order that they
might wait upon him in the land of spirits. They held the belief that
those who did not accompany him then, would, when they died a natural
death, lose the privilege of being with him afterwards, and in fact that
their souls would die with them. The privilege of attending on the
cacique in his future state was believed to be only granted to those who
were in his service during his lifetime, hence such service was eagerly
sought after by natives of both sexes, who made every exertion to be
admitted as servants in his house. At the time of the interment, those
who planted corn for him during his lifetime had some maize and an
implement of husbandry buried with them in order that they might
commence planting immediately on arrival in the other world. In Comagre
and other provinces the bodies of the caciques were embalmed by placing
them on a cane hurdle, hanging them up by cords, or placing them on a
stone, or log; and round or below the body they made a slow fire of
herbs at such a distance as to dry it gradually until only skin and bone
remained. During the process of embalming, twelve of the principal men
sat round the body, dressed in black mantles which covered their heads,
letting them hang down to their feet; at intervals one of them beat a
drum and when he ceased he chanted in monotonous tones, the others
responding. Day and night the twelve kept watch and never left the body.
When sufficiently dried it was dressed and adorned with many ornaments
of gold, jewels, and feathers, and set up in an apartment of the palace
where were kept ranged round the walls the remains of his ancestors,
each one in his place and in regular succession. In case a cacique fell
in battle and his body could not be recovered, or was otherwise lost,
the place he would have occupied in the row was always left vacant.
Among other tribes the body after being dried by fire was wrapped in
several folds of cloth, put in a hammock, and placed upon a platform in
the air or in a room. The manner in which the wives, attendants, and
servants put themselves to death was, with some, by poison; in such
case, the multitude assembled to chant the praises of their dead lord,
when those who were to follow drank poison from gourds, and dropped dead
instantly. In some cases they first killed their children. With others
the funeral obsequies of a principal chief were conducted differently.
They prepared a large grave twelve or fifteen feet square and nine or
ten feet deep; round the sides they built a stone bench and covered it
with painted cloth; in the middle of the grave they placed jars and
gourds filled with maize, fruit, and wines, and a quantity of flowers.
On the bench was laid the dead chief dressed, ornamented, and jeweled,
while around him sat his wives gaily attired with ear-rings and
bracelets. All being prepared the assembled multitude raised their
voices in songs declaring the bravery and prowess of the deceased; they
recounted his liberality and many virtues and highly extolled the
affection of his faithful wives who desired to accompany him. The
singing and dancing usually lasted two days and during its continuance
wine was freely served to the performers and also to the women who were
awaiting their fate. At the expiration of such time they became entirely
inebriated and in a senseless condition, when the final act was
consummated by throwing dead and doomed into the grave, and filling it
with logs, branches, and earth. The spot was afterwards held in sacred
remembrance and a grove of trees planted round it. At the end of a year
funeral honors were celebrated in memory of the dead. A host of friends
and relatives of equal rank with the deceased were invited to
participate, who upon the day appointed brought quantities of food and
wine such as he whose memory they honored delighted in, also weapons
with which he used to fight, all of which were placed in a canoe
prepared for the purpose; in it was also deposited an effigy of the
deceased. The canoe was then carried on men's shoulders round the court
of the palace or house, in presence of the deceased, if he was embalmed,
and afterwards brought out to the centre of the town where it was burned
with all it contained,--the people believing that the fumes and smoke
ascended to the soul of the dead and was pleasing and acceptable to
him.[1039] If the body had been interred they opened the sepulchre; all
the people with hair disheveled uttering loud lamenting cries while the
bones were being collected, and these they burned all except the hinder
part of the skull, which was taken home by one of the principal women
and preserved by her as a sacred relic.

  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN CHARACTER.]

The character of the Costa Ricans has ever been that of a fierce and
savage people, prominent in which qualities are the Guatusos and
Buricas, who have shown themselves strongly averse to intercourse with
civilization. The Talamancas are a little less untameable, which is the
best, or perhaps the worst, that can be said. The Terrabas, also a cruel
and warlike nation, are nevertheless spoken of by Fray Juan Domingo
Arricivita as endowed with natural docility. The natives of Boca del
Toro are barbarous and averse to change. In Chiriquí they are brave and
intelligent, their exceeding courage having obtained for them the name
of _Valientes_ or _Indios Bravos_ from the early discoverers; they are
also noted for honesty and fair dealing. The same warlike and
independent spirit and fearlessness of death prevails among the nations
of Veragua, Panamá, and Darien. The inhabitants of Panamá and Cueba are
given to lechery, theft, and lying; with some these qualities are
fashionable; others hold them to be crimes. The Mandingos and natives of
San Blas are an independent and industrious people, possessing
considerable intelligence, and are of a docile and hospitable
disposition. The inhabitants of Darien are kind, open-hearted, and
peaceable, yet have always been resolute in opposing all interference
from foreigners; they are fond of amusements and inclined to indolence;
the latter trait is not, however, applicable to all, a noticeable
exception being the Cunas and Chocos of the Atrato Valley, who are of a
gentle nature, kind, hospitable, and open-hearted when once their
confidence is gained; they are likewise industrious and patient, and M.
Lucien de Puydt says of the former: "Theft is altogether unknown amongst
the Cunas." Colonel Alcedo, speaking of their neighbors, the Idibaes,
calls them treacherous, inconstant, and false. In the interior and
mountain districts the inhabitants are more fierce than those from the
coast; the former are shy and retiring, yet given to hospitality. On the
gulf of Urabá the people are warlike, vainglorious, and
revengeful.[1040]


Thus from the icy regions of the north to the hot and humid shores of
Darien I have followed these Wild Tribes of the Pacific States, with no
other object in view than faithfully to picture them according to the
information I have been able to glean. And thus I leave them, yet not
without regret: for notwithstanding all that has been said I cannot but
feel how little we know of them. Of their mighty unrecorded past, their
interminable intermixtures, their ages of wars and convulsions, their
inner life, their aspirations, hopes, and fears, how little do we know
of all this! And now as the eye rests upon the fair domain from which
they have been so ignobly hurried, questions like these arise: How long
have these backings and battlings been going on? What purpose did these
peoples serve? Whence did they come and whither have they
gone?--questions unanswerable until Omniscience be fathomed and the
beginning and end made one.


TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

The WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, the last groupal division of this
work, extend from the western boundary of Guatemala, south and eastward,
to the Rio Atrato. I have divided the group into three subdivisions,
namely: the _Guatemalans_, the _Mosquitos_, and the _Isthmians_.


The GUATEMALANS, for the purposes of this delineation, embrace those
nations occupying the present states of Guatemala, Salvador, and
portions of Nicaragua.

The _Lacandones_ are a wild nation inhabiting the Chammá mountains on
the boundary of Guatemala and Chiapas. 'Mountains of Chammá, inhabited
by the wild Indians of Lacandón ... a distinction ought to be drawn
between the Western and Eastern Lacandónes. All the country lying on the
W., between the bishopric of Ciudad Real and the province of Vera Paz,
was once occupied by the Western Lacandónes.... The country of the
Eastern Lacandónes may be considered as extending from the mountains of
Chammá, a day and a half from Cobán, along the borders of the river de
la Pasion to Petén, or even further.' _Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 93-4. Upon the margin of the Rio de la Passion.
_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 271. 'Un tribu de Mayas sauvages appelés
Lacandons, qui habitent un district immense dans le centre du continent,
embrasse toute la partie occidentale du Peten; erre sur les bords
supérieurs de l'Usumasinta et le pays qui se trouve au sud de l'endroit
d'où j'écris.' _Galindo_, in _Antiq. Mex._, tom. i., <DW37>. ii., p. 67.
'The vast region lying between Chiapa, Tabasco, Yucatan, and the
republic of Guatemala ... is still occupied by a considerable body of
Indians, the Lacandones and others.' _Squier_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol.
iv., p. 65, 'The vast region embracing not less than from 8000 to 10,000
square miles, surrounding the upper waters of the river Usumasinta, in
which exist the indomitable Lacandones.' _Id._, p. 67. 'Mais la contrée
qui s'étendait au nord de Cahabon, siége provisoire des Dominicains, et
qui comprenait le pays de Dolores et celui des Itzas, était encore à peu
près inconnue. Là vivaient les Choles, les belliqueux et féroces Mopans,
les Lacandons et quelques tribus plus obscures, dont l'histoire a
négligé les noms.' _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 78, tom. i., p.
318. 'They are reduced to-day to a very insignificant number, living on
and near Passion river and its tributaries.' _Berendt_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1867, p. 425. 'In the north of Vera Paz, to the west of Peten,
and all along the Usumacinta, dwell numerous and warlike tribes, called
generally Lacandones.' _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pref., p. xvi.;
_Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 471; _Pimentel_, _Mem. sobre la Raza Indígena_,
p. 197.

  [Sidenote: THE MAMES OF GUATEMALA.]

The _Mames_ 'occupied the existing district of Güegüetenango, a part of
Quezaltenango, and the province of Soconusco, and in all these places
the Mam or Pocoman language is vernacular. It is a circumstance not a
little remarkable, that this idiom is also peculiar to places very
distant from the country of the Mams: viz. in Amatitan, Mixco, and
Petapa, in the province of Sacatepeques; Chalchuapa, in St. Salvador;
Mita, Jalapa, and Xilotepeque, in Chiquimula.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._,
p. 169. 'El Mame ó Pocoman le usan los mames ó pocomanes, que parecen no
ser mas que dos tribus de una misma nacion, la cual formaba un estado
poderoso en Guatemala. Se extendió por el distritó de Huehuetenango, en
la provincia de este nombre, y por parte de la de Quetzaltenango, así
como por el distrito de Soconusco en Chiapas. En todos estos lugares se
hablaba mame ó pocoman, lo mismo que en Amatitlan, Mixco y Petapa, de la
provincia de Zacatepec ó Guatemala; en Chalchuapa, perteneciente á la de
San Salvador; y en Mita, Jalapa y Jiloltepec, de la de Chiquimula.'
_Balbi_, in _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 81. 'Leur capitale était
Gueguetenango, au nord-est de la ville actuelle de Guatemala, et les
villes de Masacatan, Cuilco, Chiantla et Istaguacan étaient enclavées
dans leur territoire.' _Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1857,
tom. cliii., p. 177. 'A l'ouest, jusqu'aux frontières de Chiapas,
s'étendaient les Mams, proprement dits Mam-Yoc, dans leurs histoires,
partagés en plusieurs familles également puissantes qui gouvernaient
souverainement cette contrée, alors désignée sous le nom commun d'Otzoya
(de otzoy, sortes d'écrevisses d'or): c'étaient d'un côté les Chun-Zak-Yoc,
qui avaient pour capitale Qulaha, que son opulence et son étendue
avaient fait surnommer Nima-Amag ou la Grande-Ville, dite depuis
Xelahun-Quieh, ou Xelahuh, et Quezaltenango; les Tzitzol, dont la
capitale était peut-être Chinabahul ou Huehuetenango, les Ganchebi (see
note below under Ganchebis) et les Bamaq. Ceux-ci, dont nous avons connu
les descendants, étaient seigneurs d'Iztlahuacan (San-Miguel-Iztlahuacan),
dont le plateau est encore aujourd'hui parsemé de ruines au milieu
desquelles s'élève l'humble bourgade de ce nom: au dessus domine, à une
hauteur formidable, Xubiltenam (ville du Souffle).... Ganchebi, écrit
alternativement Canchebiz, Canchevez et Ganchebirse. Rien n'indique
d'une manière précise où régnait cette famille: mais il se pourrait que
ce fût à Zipacapan ou à Chivun, dont les ruines existent à trois lieues
au sud de cette dernière localité; là était l'ancien Oztoncalco.'
_Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, introd., pp. 264-5. 'Habitaban el
Soconusco, desde tiempos remotos, y era un pueblo autócton; los olmecas
que llegaron de la parto de México, les redujeron á la servidumbre, y
una fraccion de los vencidos emigró hasta Guatemala.' _Orozco y Berra_,
_Geografía_, p. 168. The Mamey, Achi, Cuaahtemalteca, Hutateca, and
Chirichota 'en la de los Suchitepeques y Cuaahtemala.' _Palacio_, in
_Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., p. 7. Mame 'Parlé dans les
localités voisines de Huehuetenango.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _MS.
Troano_, tom. ii., p. viii. 'On retrouve encore aujourd'hui leurs restes
parmi les Indiens de la province de Totonicapan, aux frontières de
Chiapas et des Lacandons, an nord-ouest de l'état de Guatémala. La place
forte de Zakuléu (c'est-à-dire, Terre blanche, mal à propos
orthographié Socoléo), dont on admire les vastes débris auprès de la
ville de Huéhuétenango, resta, jusqu'au temps de la conquête espagnole,
la capitale des Mems. Cette race avait été antérieurement la maîtresse
de la plus grande partie de l'état de Guatémala.' _Brasseur de
Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., pp. 119-20.

The _Pokomams_, or Pokonchis, lived in the district of Vera Paz in
Guatemala, 'sous le nom d'Uxab et de Pokomam, une partie des treize
tribus de Tecpan, dont la capitale était la grande cité de Nimpokom,
était maîtresse de la Verapaz et des provinces situées au sud du Motagua
jusqu'à Palin' (2 leagues N. W. of Rabinal). _Brasseur de Bourbourg_,
_Popol Vuh_, introd., p. 264. Ils 'paraissent avoir occupé une grande
partie des provinces guatémaliennes.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist.
Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., pp. 84, 506. 'Toute la rive droite du Chixoy
(Lacandon ou haut Uzumacinta), depuis Coban (écrit quelquefois Coboan)
jusqu'au fleuve Motagua, les montagnes et les vallées de Gagcoh
(San-Cristoval), de Taltic, de Rabinal et d'Urran, une partie des
départements actuels de Zacatépec, de Guatémala et de Chiquimulà,
jusqu'au pied des volcans de Hunahpu (volcans d'Eau et de Feu),
devinrent leur proie.' _Id._, pp. 121-2. 'Le pocomchi, le pokoman, le
cakchi, semés d'Amatitan à Coban.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _MS.
Troano_, tom. ii., introd., p. viii. In 'La Verapaz, la poponchi, caechi
y colchi.' _Palacio_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., p. 7.
'La lengua pocomana se habla en Amatitán, Petapa, San Chrisobal,
Pinula, y Hermita ó Llano de la Culebra de Guatemala.' _Hervás_,
_Catálogo_, tom. i., p. 305. 'A la nacion Poconchi pertenecen los
lugares ó misiones ... llamadas Santa Cruz, San Christobal, Taktik,
Tucurú, y Tomasiú.' _Ib._

The _Quichés_ inhabit the centre of the state of Guatemala. 'Quiché then
comprehended the present districts of Quiché, Totonicapan, part of
Quezaltenango, and the village of Rabinal; in all these places the
Quiché language is spoken. For this reason, it may be inferred with much
probability, that the greater part of the province of Sapotitlan, or
Suchiltepeques, was a colony of the Quichées, as the same idiom is made
use of nearly throughout the whole of it.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p.
168. 'Les Quichés, or Utletecas, habitaient la frontière du sud, les
chefs de Sacapulus et Uspatan à l'est, et les Lacandones indépendants au
nord. Ils occupaient probablement la plus grande partie du district
actuel de Totonicapan et une portion de celui de Quesaltenango.'
_Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1857, tom. cliii., p. 177.
'Leurs postes principaux furent établis sur les deux côtés du Chixoy,
depuis Zacapulas jusqu'à Zactzuy.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat.
Civ._, tom. ii., pp. 131-2; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 286, 288,
291.

The _Cakchiquels_ are south of the Quichés. 'The territory of the
Kachiqueles was composed of that which now forms the provinces of
Chimaltenango and Sacatepeques, and the district of Sololá; and as the
Kachiquel language is also spoken in the villages of Patulul,
Cotzumalguapan, and others along the same coast, it is a plausible
supposition that they were colonies settled by the Kachiquels, for the
purpose of cultivating the desirable productions of a warmer climate
than their own.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 169. 'La capitale fut, en
dernier lieu, Iximché ou Tecpan-Guatemala, lors de la déclaration de
l'indépendence de cette nation.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_,
introd., p. 270. 'Der westliche Theil der Provinz [Atitan] mit 16
Dörfern in 4 Kirchspielen, von Nachkommen der Kachiquelen und Zutugilen
bewohnt.' _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 338. 'Los paises de la nacion
Cakchiquila son Chimaltenango, Zumpango, Tejar, Santo Domingo, San Pedro
las Huertas, San Gaspar, San Luis de las Carretas, y otros diez lugares,
todos pertenecientes á las misiones de los PP. dominicos; y á las de los
PP. observantes de san Francisco pertenecen Isapa, Pason,
Tepan-guatemalan Comalapa, San Antonio, San Juan del Obispo, y otros
quince lugares á lo menos de la misma nacion Cakchiquila, cuyas
poblaciones estan al rededor de Guatemala.' _Hervás_, _Catálogo_, tom.
i., p. 305.

The _Zutugils_ dwelt near the lake of Atitlan. 'The dominion of the
Zutugiles extended over the modern district of Atitan, and the village
of San Antonio, Suchiltepeques.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 169. 'La
capital de los cachiqueles era Patinamit ó Tecpanguatemala, ciudad
grande y fuerte; y la de los zutuhiles, Atitan, cerca de la laguna de
este nombre y que se tenia por inexpugnable.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom.
ii., pp. 121-2.

The _Chortis_ live on the banks of the Motagua River. The Chiquimula
'Indians belong to the Chorti nation.' _Gavarrete_, in _Panamá Star and
Herald_, Dec. 19, 1867; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 48.

  [Sidenote: GUATEMALANS.]

Brasseur de Bourbourg describes quite a number of very ancient nations,
of some of which he endeavors to fix the localities, and which I insert
here. Dan or Tamub founded a monarchy on the Guatemalan plateau. Their
'capitale, Amag-Dan, existait, suivant toute apparence, entre les monts
Tohil et Mamah, à trois lieues à peine au nord d'Utlatlan.' _Popol Vuh_,
introd., pp. 148, 262. 'Ilocab étendait sa domination à l'ouest et au
sud de Tamub, et la cité d'Uquincat, siége principale de cette maison,
occupait un plateau étroit, situé entre les mêmes ravins qui ceignent un
peu plus bas les ruines d'Utlatlan.' 'La ville d'Uquincat (forme
antique). Avec le filet (à mettre le maïs), était sur un plateau au
nord-ouest de ceux d'Utlatlan, dont elle n'était séparée que par ses
ravins; on en voit encore les ruines connues aujourd'hui sous le nom de
P'-Ilocab, en Ilocab.' _Id._, p. 263. Agaab, 'dont les possessions
s'étendaient sur les deux rives du Chixoy ou Lacandon.' 'C'était une
nation, puissante dont les principales villes existaient à peu de
distance de la rive gauche du fleuve Chixoy ou Lacandon (Rio Grande de
Sacapulas). L'une d'elles était Carinal, dont j'ai visité le premier, en
1856, les belles ruines, situées sur les bords du Pacalag, rivière qui
se jette dans le Lacandon, presque vis-à-vis l'embouchure de celle de
Rabinal, dans la Vérapaz.' _Ib._ Cabinal, 'la capitale était à Zameneb,
dans les montagnes de Xoyabah ou Xolabah, [Entre les rochers].' _Id._,
p. 270. Ah-Actulul, 'sept tribus de la nation Ah-Actulul, qui s'étaient
établies sur des territoires dépendants de la souveraineté d'Atitlan.'
'Ces sept tribus sont: Ah-Tzuque, Ah-Oanem, Manacot, Manazaquepet,
Vancoh, Yabacoh et Ah-Tzakol-Quet ou Queh.--Ac-Tulul peut-être pour
Ah-Tulul.' _Id._, p. 274. 'Ah-Txiquinaha, ceux ou les habitants de
Tziquinaha (Nid d'oiseau), dont la capitale fut Atitlan, sur le lac du
même nom.' _Id._, p. 296. Acutee, 'nom aussi d'une ancienne tribu dont
on retrouve le souvenir dans Chuvi-Acutec, au-dessus d'Acutec, sur le
territoire de Chalcitan, près de Malacatan et de Huehuetenango.' _Id._,
pp. 342-3. Cohah, 'nom d'une tribu antique dans l'orient des Quichés.'
_Id._, p. 353.

The _Chontales_ dwell in the mountain districts N.E. of Lake Nicaragua,
besides having miscellaneous villages in Guerrero, Oajaca, Tabasco,
Guatemala, and Honduras. 'En el Departamento de Tlacolula ... y se
encuentran chontales en Guerrero, en Tabasco y en Guatemala.' _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 186-7. In San Salvador, Choluteca, Honduras,
Nicaragua. _Palacio_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., pp. 7,
26, 35. 'Quiéchápa 20 Leguas südöstlich von Oajáca und 10 Leguas
südwestlich von Nejápa.... An den Gränzen des Landes der Chontáles.' ...
'Tlapalcatepéc. Hauptort im Lande der Chontáles.' _Mühlenpfordt_,
_Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 172-3, 175, 192. 'Les Chontáles
s'étaient vus en possession de toute la contrée qui s'étend entre la mer
et la chaîne de Quyecolani ... étaient en possession non seulement de
Nexapa, mais encore de la portion la plus importante de la montagne de
Quiyecolani.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., pp.
3, 47. 'Au nord-ouest du grand lac, les Chondals occupaient le district
montagneux appelé encore aujourd'hui Chontales, d'après eux.'
_Holinski_, _La Californie_, p. 290. 'Inhabitants of the mountainous
regions to the north-east of the lake of Nicaragua.' _Froebel's Cent.
Amer._, p. 52. 'Au nord des lacs, les Chontales barbares habitaient la
cordillère.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p.
110. 'The Chontals covered Chontales, northward of Lake Nicaragua, and
lying between the tribes already given, and those on the Caribbean Sea.'
_Stout's Nicaragua_, p. 114. 'Bewohner der Gebirgsgegenden nordöstlich
vom See von Nicaragua.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amer._, tom. i., p. 285. 'In
Nicaragua die Chontales im Hochlande im N. des Managua-Sees.' _Wappäus_,
_Geog. u. Stat._, p. 246. 'Deste lugar [Yztepeque] comiençan los
Chontales.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x. 'The
Chondals or Chontals, the third great division mentioned by Oviedo,
occupied the wide, mountainous region, still bearing the name of
Chontales, situated to the northward of Lake Nicaragua, and midway
between the nations already named and the savage hordes bordering the
Caribbean Sea.' _Squier's Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 311. 'On
the northern shores of the Lake of Nicaragua.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p.
48. 'The Lencas ... under the various names of Chontals, and perhaps
Xicaques and Payas, occupying what is now the Department of San Miguel
in San Salvador, of Comayagua, Choluteca, Tegucigalpa, and parts of
Olancho and Yoro in Honduras, including the islands of Roatan, Guanaja,
and their dependencies.' _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 252.

The _Pipiles_ 'n'y occupaient guère quelques cantons sur les côtes de
l'océan Pacifique, dans la province d'Itzcuintlan et ne s'internaient
que vers les frontières de l'état de San-Salvador, le long des rives du
rio Paxa.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p. 120.
'Welche den ganzen westlichen Theil des heutigen Staates von S. Salvador
südlich vom Rio Lampa, das sogen. Reich Cozcotlan bewohnten.' _Wappäus_,
_Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 322, 326. 'Are settled along the coasts of the
Pacific, from the province of Escuintla to that of St. Salvador.... In a
short time these Pipiles multiplied immensely, and spread over the
provinces of Zonzonate, St. Salvador, and St. Miguel.' _Juarros' Hist.
Guat._, pp. 202, 224. Among 'los Izalcos y costa de Guazacapan ... San
Salvador ... Honduras ... Nicaragua.' _Palacio_, in _Pacheco_, _Col.
Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., p. 7.

_Nonohualcas._ 'Á la falda de un alto volcan (San Vicente) están cuatro
lugares de indios, que llaman los Nunualcos.' _Id._, p. 25.

_Tlascaltecs._ 'In mehreren Puncten San Salvadors, wie z. B. in Isalco,
Mexicanos, Nahuisalco leben noch jetzt Indianer vom Stamme der
Tlaskalteken.' _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, p. 456.

  [Sidenote: NATIONS OF NICARAGUA.]

The _Cholutecs_ 'occupied the districts north of the Nagrandans,
extending along the Gulf of Fonseca into what is now Honduras
territory.' _Stout's Nicaragua_, p. 114. 'The Cholutecans, speaking the
Cholutecan dialect, situated to the northward of the Nagrandans, and
extending along the Gulf of Fonseca, into what is now the territory of
Honduras. A town and river in the territory here indicated, still bear
the name of Choluteca, which however is a Mexican name.' _Squier's
Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310. These Soconusco exiles settled
'dans les terres qui s'étendent au nord et à l'ouest du golfe de
Conchagua, aux frontières de Honduras et de Nicaragua.' _Brasseur de
Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p. 79. 'Beyond them
(Nagrandans) on the gulf of Fonseca, a nation called the Cholutecans had
their seats.' _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p. 53.

_Maribios_, a tribe formerly inhabiting the mountain region about Leon.
'Ihre Wohnsitze bildeten die Provinz Maribichoa.' _Froebel_, _Aus
Amer._, tom. i., p. 333.

'Ay en Nicaragua cinco leguajes ... Coribici ... Chorotega ... Chondal
... Orotiña ... Mexicano.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 264. 'Hablauan
en Nicaragua, cinco lenguas diferentes, Coribizi, que lo hablan mucho en
Chuloteca ... Los de Chontal, ... la quarta es Orotina, Mexicana es la
quinta.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. 'In
Nicaragua there were fiue linages, and different languages: the
Coribici, Ciocotoga, Ciondale, Oretigua, and the Mexican.' _Purchas his
Pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. 887; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iv., p. 35;
_Buschmann_, _Ortsnamen_, p. 132.

The _Chorotegans_ 'occupied the entire country north of the Niquirans,
extending along the Pacific Ocean, between it and Lake Managua, to the
borders, and probably for a distance along the shores of the gulf of
Fonseca. They also occupied the country south of the Niquirans, and
around the gulf of Nicoya, then called Orotina.' _Squier's Nicaragua_,
(Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310. 'Welche die Gegenden zwischen der Südsee
und dem Managua-See von der Fonseca-Bai südwärts bis zu den aztekisch
sprechenden Indianern bewohnen und auch südlich von den Niquirians bis
zur Bai von Nicoya sich ausbreiten.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p.
246. 'North of the Mexican inhabitants of Nicaragua (the Niquirans),
between the Pacific Ocean, Lake Managua, and the Gulf of Fonseca.'
_Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 48. Before the conquest they occupied 'les
régions aujourd'hui à peu près désertes qui s'étendent entre le
territoire de Tehuantepec et celui de Soconusco, sur les bords de
l'Océan Pacifique.' ... To escape the Olmec tyranny they emigrated to
'golfe de Nicoya; de là, ils retournèrent ensuite, en passant les monts,
jusqu'au lac de Nicaragua et se fixèrent sur ses bords.' Driven off by
the Nahuas 'les uns, se dirigeant au nord-ouest, vont fonder Nagarando,
au bord du lac de Managua, tandis que les autres contournaient les
rivages du golfe de Nicoya, que l'on trouve encore aujourd'hui habités
par leurs descendants.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, introd.,
pp. cc., ccii. 'Als die Spanier nach Nicaragua kamen, war diess Volk an
der Küste verbreitet ... wohnten längs der Küste des Austroloceans.'
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp. 397-8.

The _Dirians_ 'occupied the territory lying between the upper extremity
of Lake Nicaragua, the river Tipitapa, and the southern half of Lake
Managua and the Pacific, whose principal towns were situated where now
stand the cities of Granada, (then called Salteba,) Masaya, and Managua,
and the villages of Tipitapa, Diriomo and Diriamba.' _Squier's
Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310. 'Groupés dans les localités
encore connues de Liria, de Diriomé, de Diriamba, de Monbacho et de
Lenderi, sur les hauteurs qui forment la base du volcan de Mazaya.'
_Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p. 111. 'Occupied
Masaya, Managua, Tipitapa, Diriomo, and Diriamba.' _Stout's Nicaragua_,
p. 114; _Froebel_, _Aus Amer._, tom. i., p. 287.

The _Nagrandans_. 'Entre les Dirias et la Choluteca était située la
province des Mangnés ou Nagarandas (Torquemada dit que Nagarando est un
mot de leur langue. Oviedo les appelle Nagrandas), dont les fertiles
campagnes s'étendaient, au nord et à l'ouest du lac de Managua, jusqu'à
la mer; on y admirait les cités florissantes de Chinandéga, de
Chichigalpa, de Pozoltega, de Telica, de Subtiaba, de Nagarando, appelée
aussi Xolotlan, de Matiares et une foule d'autres, réduites maintenant,
pour la plupart, à de misérables bourgades.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_,
_Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., pp. 111-12. 'The Nagrandans occupied the
plain of Leon between the northern extreme of Lake Managua and the
Pacific.' _Stout's Nicaragua_, p. 114. 'An welche sich weiter
nordwestwärts (the last mention was Dirians) die Bewohner der Gegend von
Leon, welche Squier Nagrander nennt ... anschlossen.' _Froebel_, _Aus
Amer._, tom. i., p. 287. 'Chorotega tribe of the plains of Leon,
Nicaragua.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 130; _Squier's Nicaragua_, (Ed.
1856,) vol. ii., p. 310.

The _Niquirans_ 'settled in the district of Nicaragua, between the Lake
of Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 134. 'Au
centre du pays, sur le lac Nicaragua, appelé Cocibolca par les
indigènes, vivaient les Niquirans.' _Holinski_, _La Californie_, p. 290.
Ometepec. 'This island was occupied by the Niquirans.' _Squier's
Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 313; _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., p.
74.

The _Orotiñans_ occupied 'the country around the Gulf of Nicoya, and to
the southward of Lake Nicaragua.' _Squier's Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856,) vol.
ii., p. 310. 'Am Golfe von Orotina oder Nicoya.... Unter den
geographischen Namen im Lande der Orotiner stösst man auf den Vulkan
Orosi, im jetzigen Costa Rica, während einer der Vulkane in der Kette
der Maribios, bei Leon, also im Lande der Nagrander, Orota heisst.'
_Froebel_, _Aus Amer._, tom. i., p. 287. 'Les Orotinas, voisins du golfe
de Nicoya, dont les villes principales étaient Nicoya, Orotina, Cantren
et Choroté.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., pp.
110. 'Settled the country south of Lake Nicaragua around the Gulf of
Nicoya.' _Stout's Nicaragua_, p. 114.


  [Sidenote: MOSQUITO NATIONS.]

The MOSQUITOS, as a subdivision of this group, inhabit the whole of
Honduras, the eastern portion of Nicaragua, and all that part of the
coast on the Caribbean Sea known as the Mosquito Coast.

The _Xicaques_ 'exist in the district lying between the Rio Ulua and Rio
Tinto.... It seems probable that the Xicaques were once much more
widely diffused, extending over the plains of Olancho, and into the
Department of Nueva Segovia, in Nicaragua.' _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p.
244. 'Se rencontrent principalement dans le département de Yoro ...
(some) à l'embouchure de la rivière Choloma, et le reste est dispersé
dans les montagnes à l'ouest de la plaine de Sula. Dans le département
de Yoro, ils sont répandus dans le pays depuis la rivière Sulaco jusqu'à
la baie de Honduras.' _Id._, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1858, tom.
clx., pp. 133-4. Yoro department; 'Welche am oberen Lauf der Flüsse und
in dem Berg- und Hügellande zwischen der Küste und dem Thale von Olancho
wohnen.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 317.

The _Poyas_. 'In the triangle between the Tinto, the sea, and the Rio
Wanks, or Segovia.' _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 244. 'Inhabit the Poyer
mountains, beyond the Embarcadero on the Polyer River.' _Young's
Narrative_, p. 80. 'Den westlichen Theil des Distrikts Taguzgalpa,
zwischen den Flüssen Aguan und Barbo.' _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 389.
'Inhabit the heads of the Black and Patook rivers.' _Bell_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 258.

The _Towkas_, 'bewohnen die südlichen Gegenden des Distrikts
(Taguzgalpa) und das Gebirge.' _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp. 390-1. 'Their
principal residence is at the head of Patook River.' _Young's
Narrative_, p. 87. 'They dwell along the Twaka river which is a branch
of the Prinz Awala.' _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii.,
p. 258.

The '_Toonglas_ inhabit along the other branch of the same river.' _Ib._

The _Smoos_ 'inhabit the heads of all the rivers from Blewfields to
Patook.' _Id._, p. 256.

The _Cookras_ 'reside about one hundred and thirty miles from its mouth'
(the Rio Escondido). _Strangeways' Mosquito Shore_, p. 30.

The _Caribs_ 'now occupy the coast from the neighborhood of the port of
Truxillo to Carataska Lagoon.... Their original seat was San Vincent,
one of what are called the Leeward Islands, whence they were deported in
a body, by the English, in 1798, and landed upon the then unoccupied
island of Roatan, in the Bay of Honduras.' They afterwards removed to
the main land 'in the vicinity of Truxillo, whence they have spread
rapidly to the eastward. All along the coast, generally near the mouths
of the various rivers with which it is fringed, they have their
establishments or towns.' _Bard's Waikna_, p. 316. 'Now settled along
the whole extent of coast from Cape Gracias à Dios to Belize.'
_Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p. 185. 'Dwell on the sea coast, their first
town, Cape Town, being a few miles to the westward of Black River.'
_Young's Narrative_, pp. 71, 122, 134. In Roatan: 'Die Volksmenge
besteht aus Caraiben und <DW71>s, deren etwa 4,000 auf der Insel seyn
sollen.' _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 386. 'Unter den Caraibendörfern sind
zu nennen: Stanu Creek ... unfern im S. von Belize und von da bis zur
Südgrenze Settee, Lower Stanu Creek, Silver Creek, Seven Hills und Punta
Gorda.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 300. See also: _Sivers_,
_Mittelamerika_, pp. 154, 179; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 289.

The _Ramas_ extend from Greytown to Blewfields, a region 'uninhabited
except by the scanty remnant of a tribe called Ramas.' 'Inhabit a small
island at the southern extremity of Blewfields Lagoon; they are only a
miserable remnant of a numerous tribe that formerly lived on the St.
John's and other rivers in that neighbourhood. A great number of them
still live at the head of the Rio Frio, which runs into the St. John's
River at San Carlos Fort.' _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxxii., pp. 242, 259. 'Rama Cay, in Blewfiels Lagoon. This small island
is the refuge of a feeble remnant of the once powerful Rama tribe.' _Pim
and Seemann's Dottings_, p. 278.

The _Mosquitos_ inhabit 'the whole coast from Pearl Key Lagoon to Black
River, and along the banks of the Wawa and Wanx, or Wanks Rivers for a
great distance inland.' _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxxii., p. 250. 'L'intérieur du pays est occupé par la nation sauvage et
indomptable des Mosquitos-Sombos. Les côtes, surtout près le cap Gracias
à Dios, sont habitées par une autre tribu d'Indiens que les navigateurs
anglais ont appelés Mosquitos de la côte.' _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la
Géog._, tom. vi., p. 472. 'An dem Ende dieser Provinz (Honduras), nahe
bey dem Cap, Gratias-a-Dios, findet man die berühmte Nation der
Mosquiten.' _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., p. 404. 'Nearly the whole
coast of Honduras; and their most numerous tribe exists near the Cape
Gracios á Dios.' _Bonnycastle's Span. Amer._, vol. i., p. 172. 'Ocupan
el terreno de mas de sesenta leguas, que corren desde la jurisdiccion de
Comaniagua, hasta la de Costa-Rica.' _Revista Mex._, tom. i., p. 404.
'Die <DW71>, oder eigentlichen Mosquitoindianer welche den grössten Theil
der Seeküste bis zum Black river hinauf und die an derselben gelegenen
Savannen bewohnen.' _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, p. 19. 'Inhabiting on the
Main, on the North side, near Cape Gratia Dios; between Cape Honduras
and Nicaragua.' _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., p. 7. 'Inhabit a
considerable space of country on the continent of America, nearly
extending from Point Castile, or Cape Honduras, the southern point of
the Bay of Truxillo, to the northern branch of the river Nicaragua,
called usually St. Juan's; and comprehending within these limits nearly
100 leagues of land on the sea coast, from latitude 11 to 16 deg.'
_Henderson's Honduras_, pp. 211-12. The <DW71>s 'inhabit the country from
Sandy Bay to Potook.' _Strangeways' Mosquito Shore_, p. 330. 'The
<DW71>s, or Mosquitians, inhabit the sea coast, and the savannas inland,
as far west as Black River.' _Young's Narrative_, p. 71. 'The increase
and expansion of the Caribs has already driven most of the <DW71>s, who
were established to the northward and westward of Cape Gracias á Dios,
into the territory of Nicaragua, southward of the Cape.' _Squier's
Honduras_ [Lond., 1870,] p. 169; _Id._, _Cent. Amer._, p. 228.


  [Sidenote: ISTHMIAN NATIONS.]

The ISTHMIANS, the last sub-division of this group, embrace the people
of Costa Rica, together with the nations dwelling on the Isthmus of
Panamá, or Darien, as far as the gulf of Urabá, and along the river
Atrato to the mouth of the Napipi, thence up the last-named river to the
Pacific Ocean. 'The Indian tribes within the territory of Costarrica,
distinguished by the name of Parcialidades, are the Valientes, or most
eastern people of the state; the Tiribees, who occupy the coast from
Bocatoro to the Banana; the Talamancas and Blancos, who inhabit the
interior, but frequent the coast between the Banana and Salt Creek; the
Montaños and Cabecares, who are settled in the neighbourhood of the high
lands bounding Veragua, and the Guatusos, inhabiting the mountains and
forest between Esparsa and Bagases, and towards the north of these
places.' _Galindo_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. vi., p. 134. From
Boca del Toro towards the west coast dwell the Viceitas, Blancos,
Valientes, Guatusos, Tiribis, and Talamancas. _Wagner and Scherzer_,
_Costa Rica_, p. 554. Blancos, Valientes, and Talamancas 'entlang der
Ostküste zwischen dem Rio Zent und Boca del Toro, im Staate Costa Rica.'
_Id._, p. 573.

The _Guatusos_ 'vom Nicaragua-See an den Rio Frio aufwärts und zwischen
diesem und dem San Carlos bis zum Hochlande.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u.
Stat._, p. 357. 'Inhabit a territory lying between the Merivales
mountains on the west, the lake of Nicaragua and the San Juan river on
the north, the Atlantic shore on the east, and the table land of San
José upon the south.' ... The Rio Frio 'head-waters are the favorite
haunt or habitation of the Guatusos ... occupy the north-east corner of
Costa Rica.' _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xix., p. 298.
They inhabit 'the basin of the Rio Frio.' _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p.
405; _Id._, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1856, tom. cli., p. 5;
_Id._, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. iv., p. 65; _Vigne's Travels_, vol. i., p.
77.

The _Guetares_ 'viven ençima de las sierras del puerto de la Herradora é
se extienden por la costa deste golpho al Poniente de la banda del Norte
hasta el confin de los Chorotegas.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii.,
p. 108.

The _Blancos_ 'welche ungefähr 5 Tagereisen südöstlich von Angostura in
den Bergen hausen.' _Wagner and Scherzer_, _Costa Rica_, pp. 556, 554.

The _Valientes_ and _Ramas_, 'zwischen dem Punta Gorda und der Lagune von
Chiriqui.' _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, p. 9.

Inhabiting the Isthmus were numerous tribes speaking different
languages, mentioned by early writers only by the name of the chief,
which was usually identical with that of both town and province. In the
province of Panamá there were 'quatro señores de lenguas diferentes....
De alli se baxaua a la prouincia de Natá ... treynta leguas de Panamá
... otro llamado Escoria, ocho leguas de Natá.... Ocho leguas mas
adelante, la buelta de Panamá, auia otro Cazique dicho Chirú, de lengua
diferente: y otras siete leguas mas adelante, házia Panamá, estaua el de
Chamé, que era el remate de la lengua de Coyba: y la prouincia de Paris
se hallaua doze leguas de Natá, Les hueste.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._,
dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. Westward from the gulf of Urabá 'hay una
provincia que se dice Careta ... yendo mas la costa abajo, fasta
cuarenta leguas desta villa, entrando la tierra adentro fasta doce
leguas, está un cacique que se dice Comogre y otro que se dice
Poborosa.' _Balboa_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., p.
366. 'En la primera provincia de los darieles hay las poblaciones
siguientes: Seraque, Surugunti, Queno, Moreri, Agrazenuqua, Occabayanti
y Uraba.' _Hervás_, _Catálogo_, tom. i., p. 280. 'Treinta y tantas
leguas del Darien habia una provincia que se decia Careta, y otra cinco
leguas de ella que se dice Acla.... La primera provincia desde Acla
hácia el ueste es Comogre.... En esta tierra está una provincia que se
llama Peruqueta, de una mar á otra, y la isla de las Perlas, y golfo de
S. Miguel, y otra provincia, que llamamos las Behetrías por no haber en
ella ningun señor, se llama Cueva: es toda una gente y de una lengua....
Desde esta provincia da Peruqueta hasta Adechame que son cerca de 40
leguas todavía al ueste, se llama la provincia de Coiba, y la lengua es
la de Cueva ... desde Burica hasta esta provincia, que se dice
Tobreytrota, casi que cada señor es diferente de lengua uno de otro....
Desde aquí tornando á bajar cerca de la mar, venimos á la provincia de
Nata ... está 30 leguas de Panamá ... tenia por contrario á un señor que
se decia Escoria, que tenia sus poblaciones en un rio grande ocho leguas
de Meta.... Esta es lengua por sí. Y ocho leguas de allí hácia Panamá
está otro señor que se dice Chiru, lengua diferente. Siete leguas de
Chiru, hácia Panamá, está la provincia de Chame: es el remate de la
lengua de Coiba ... Chiman ... dos leguas de Comogre ... desde esto
Chiman ... la provincia de Pocorosa, y de allí dos leguas la vuelta del
ueste ... la de Paruraca, donde comienza la de Coiba, y de allí la misma
via cuatro leguas ... la de Tubanamá, y de allí á ocho leguas todo á
esta via ... la de Chepo, y seis leguas de allí ... la de Chepobar, y
dos leguas delante ... la de Pacora, y cuatro de allí ... la de Panamá,
y de allí otras cuatro ... la de Periquete, y otras cuatro adelante ...
la de Tabore, y otras cuatro adelante ... la de Chame, que es remate de
la lengua y provincia de Coiba ... de Chame á la provincia del Chiru hay
ocho leguas ... y este Chiru es otra lengua por sí.' _Andagoya_, in
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 397-8, 407-8, 410.

The _Guaimies_. 'En la provincia de Veraguas, situada á 9 grados de
latitud boreal, está la nacion de los Guaimies ó Huamies.' _Hervás_,
_Catálogo_, tom. i., pp. 280-1. 'Los quales indios, segun decian, no
eran naturales de aquella comarca: ántes era en antigua patria la tierra
que está junto al rio grande de Darien.' _Cieza de Leon_, in _Id._, p.
281.

'The Indians who at present inhabit the Isthmus are scattered over Bocas
del Toro, the northern portions of Veraguas, the north-eastern shores of
Panamá, and almost the whole of Darien, and consist principally of four
tribes, the Savanerics, the San Blas Indians, the Bayanos, and the
Cholos. Each tribe speaks a different language.' _Seemann's Voy.
Herald_, vol. i., p. 317. 'Les Goajiros, les Motilones, les Guainetas et
les Cocinas, dans les provinces de Rio-Hacha, de Upar et de
Santa-Marta; et les Dariens, les Cunas et les Chocoes, sur les rives et
les affluents de l'Atrato et les côtes du Darien.' _Roquette_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1855, tom. cxlvii., pp. 24-5.

'The _Savanerics_ occupy the northern portion of Veraguas.' _Ib._

The _Dorachos_ occupied western Veragua. _Id._, p. 312.

The _Manzanillo_, or San Blas Indians, 'inhabit the north-eastern
portion of the province of Panama.' _Id._, p. 320. 'The chief settlement
is about San Blas, the rest of the coast being dotted over with small
villages.' _Gisborne's Darien_, p. 156. 'Their principal settlements are
on the upper branches of the Chepo, Chiman, and Congo, on the Tuquesa,
Ucurganti, Jubuganti, and Chueti, branches of the Chuquanaqua, and on
the Pucro and Paya.' _Cullen's Darien_, p. 69. 'The whole of the Isthmus
of Darien, except a small portion of the valley of the Tuyra, comprising
the towns of Chipogana, Pinogana, Yavisa, and Santa Maria, and a few
scattering inhabitants on the Bayamo near its mouth, is uninhabited
except by the San Blas or Darien Indians.... They inhabit the whole
Atlantic coast from San Blas to the Tarena, mouth of the Atrato, and in
the interior from the Sucubti to the upper parts of the Bayamo.'
_Selfridge's Darien Surveys_, p. 10.

The _Mandingos_ 'occupy the coast as far as the Bay of Caledonia.'
_Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 92;
_Reichardt_, _Cent. Amer._, p. 161; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 61.

The _Bayanos_, 'about the River Chepo.' _Id._, p. 18; _Seemann's Voy.
Herald_, vol. i., p. 321.

The _Cholos_, 'extending from the Gulf of San Miguel to the bay of
Choco, and thence with a few interruptions to the northern parts of the
Republic of Ecuador.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i., p. 321.
'Inhabiting part of the Isthmus of Darien, east of the river
Chuquanaqua, which is watered by the river Paya and its branches in and
about lat. 8° 15´ N., and long. 77° 20´ W.' _Latham_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xx., p. 189.

'The _Cunas_ have established themselves on the shores of the Gulf of
Urabá, near the outlets of the Atrato.' _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 92.

The _Cunacunas_, 'on the south-easterly side of the Isthmus.' _Ludewig's
Ab. Lang._, p. 59. 'The remnants of the Chucunaquese who in 1861 dwelt
on the banks of the river which bears their name ... have gone up
towards the north.' _Ib._

The _Chocos_, 'on the Leon and the different tributaries of the Atrato.'
_Michler's Darien_, p. 26.

The _Caimanes_, 'between Punta Arenas and Turbo.' _Ib._

The _Urabás_, 'en las selvas y bosques de la Provincia de Urabá.'
_Alcedo_, _Dicc._, tom. v., p. 258.

The _Idibas_ 'del Reyno de Tierra-Firme y Gobierno de Panamá, son
confinantes con los Chocoes y los Tatabes.' _Id._, tom. ii., p. 413.

The _Payas_ 'on the river of that name.' _Selfridge's Darien Surveys_,
p. 86.


FOOTNOTES:

[960] The Lacandones are of one stock with the Manches, and very
numerous. They were highly civilized only one hundred and fifty years
ago. _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., preface, pp. 14-17. 'The old Chontals were
certainly in a condition more civilised.' _Id._, pp. 286-95, 265-70.
'Die Chontales werden auch Caraiben genannt.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u.
Stat._, pp. 243-8, 265, 283-90, 311, 321, 326, 330, 335. It seems there
existed in Nicaragua: Chorotegans, comprising Dirians, Nagrandans, and
Orotiñans; Cholutecans and Niquirans, Mexican colonies; and Chondals.
_Squier's Nicaragua_, vol. ii., pp. 309-12. Examine further: _Müller_,
_Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 454; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. i.,
pp. 285-92; _Puydt_, _Rapport_, in _Amérique Centrale_, p. 69;
_Benzoni_, _Hist. del Mondo Nuovo_, fol. 104; _Malte-Brun_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1858, tom. clviii., p. 200; _Berendt_, in
_Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 425; _Crowe's Cent. Amer._, p. 40;
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp. 357-8, 370; _Dollfus and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy.
Géologique_, pp. 18-19; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i., pp. 202, 208, 272,
tom. ii., pp. 49, 125, 313; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._,
tom. ii., pp. 79, 110-11; _Valois_, _Mexique_, pp. 288, 299-300;
_Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 89-97.

[961] _Crowe's Cent. Amer._, pp. 40-1; _Squier's Nicaragua_, pp. 268,
278-9; _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, pp. 33-4; _Dunn's Guatemala_, pp. 277-8;
_Reichardt_, _Nicaragua_, pp. 106-7; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p.
272; _Lafond_, _Voyages_, tom. i., p. 338; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i.,
p. 260, tom. ii., pp. 126, 197; _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de
Viages_, tom. iii., p. 414; _Belly_, _Nicaragua_, tom. i., pp. 200-1;
_Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, pp. 52-3; _Foote's Cent. Amer._, p. 104.
Round Leon 'hay más indios tuertos ... y es la causa el contínuo polvo.'
_Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iv., p. 64. In Guatemala, 'los hombres muy
gruessos.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. v., caps. xi., xii.,
dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv. 'Ceux de la tierra fria sont petits,
trapus, bien membrés, susceptibles de grandes fatigues ... ceux de la
tierra caliente sont grands, maigres, paresseux.' _Dollfus and
Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp. 47, 21. 'Kurze Schenkel, langen
Oberleib, kurze Stirne und langes struppiges Haar.' _Bülow_,
_Nicaragua_, p. 78. 'The disproportionate size of the head, the coarse
harsh hair, and the dwarfish stature,' of the Masayas. _Boyle's Ride_,
vol. ii., pp. 8-9.

[962] _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 407,
414. In Salvador, the women's 'only garment being a long straight piece
of cotton cloth without a seam.' _Foote's Cent. Amer._, pp. 103-4. The
Nicaraguans 'se rasent la barbe, les cheueux, et tout le poil du corps,
et ne laissent que quelques cheueux sur le sommet de la teste.... Ils
portent des gabans, et des chemises sans manches.' _D'Avity_,
_L'Amérique_, tom. ii., p. 93. 'The custom of tattooing, it seems, was
practiced to a certain extent, at least so far as to designate, by
peculiarities in the marks, the several tribes or caziques ... they
flattened their heads.' _Squier's Nicaragua_, vol. ii., pp. 341, 345;
_Id._, _Nicaragua_, pp. 273-4; _Valenzuela_, in _Id._, _Cent. Amer._, p.
566; _Tempsky's Mitla_, pp. 363-5, 368; _Dollfus and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy.
Géologique_, pp. 19-20, 46-9, 56-60; _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, pp. 193-5;
_Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp. 302-5; _Valois_, _Mexique_, pp. 278-9;
_Gage's New Survey_, pp. 316-8; _Montgomery's Guatemala_, pp. 98-9;
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _Morelet_,
_Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 102, 126, 145, 171, 227, 245, 253; _Galindo_, in
_Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1834, tom. lxiii., p. 149; _Orozco y
Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 166; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 263.

[963] The Lacandones have 'floating gardens which can navigate the
lagoons like bolsas,' and are often inhabited. They have stone
sepulchres highly sculptured. _Pontelli_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 7,
1862_. 'In these ancient Chontales villages the houses were in the
centre, and the tombs, placed in a circle around.... The Indians who
before the Spanish conquest inhabited Nicaragua did not construct any
large temples or other stone buildings.' _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_,
pp. 126-7. They live like their forefathers 'in buildings precisely
similar ... some huts of a single room will monopolise an acre of land.'
_Boyle's Ride_, vol. ii., pp. 6-8; _Gage's New Survey_, pp. 318-19;
_Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, pp. 75, 430, 496; _Puydt_, _Rapport_, in
_Amérique Centrale_, pp. 69-70; _Valois_, _Mexique_, p. 278; _Benzoni_,
_Hist. Mondo Nuovo_., fol. 86, 102; _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, pp. 89, 96;
_Dollfus and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp. 19, 55; _Herrera_,
_Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _Berendt_, in _Smithsonian
Rept._, 1867, p. 425; _West und Ost Indischer Lustgart_, pt. ii., pp.
380, 390; _Valenzuela_, in _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 566.

[964] They 'vivent le plus souvent de fruits et de racines.' _Dollfus
and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp. 47, 20-2, 69. 'Tout en faisant
maigre chère, ils mangent et boivent continuellement, comme les
animaux.' _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 104, 92, 102, 132, 134,
145, 240, tom. i., pp. 205-6. Nicaraguans 'essen auch Menschenfleisch
... alle Tag machet nur ein Nachbar ein Fewer an, dabei sie alle kochen,
vnd dann ein anderer.' _West und Ost Indischer Lustgart_, pt. i.,
p. 390. 'Perritos pequeños que tambien los comian, y muchos venados y
pesquerías.' _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii.,
pp. 413-14, 407. Hunting alligators: a man dives under, and fastens a
noose round the leg of the sleeping monster; his companions then haul it
on shore and kill it. _Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_, pp. 139, 130. Compare
further: _Findlay's Directory_, vol. i., p. 253; _Gage's New Survey_,
pp. 319-23; _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, pp. 412-13, 494; _Benzoni_,
_Hist. Mondo Nuovo_, fol. 103-4; _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, pp. 196-7;
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vii.-ix., lib. x.,
cap. xiv.; _Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 91;
_Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 320; _Waldeck_, _Voy. Pitt._, pp. 42-3.

[965] _Dunlop's Cent. Amer._, p. 337; _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, p. 173.

[966] The Lacandones 'emploient des flèches de canne ayant des têtes de
cailloux.' _Galindo_, in _Antiq. Mex._, tom. i., <DW37>. ii., p. 67. See
also, _Bülow_, _Nicaragua_, pp. 79-80; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 305;
_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, pp. 195, 278; _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, pp.
413, 430; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. i., p. 358.

[967] _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 31; _Pontelli_, in _Cal.
Farmer_, _Nov. 7, 14, 1862_.

[968] _Valois_, _Mexique_, pp. 278, 287; _Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_, p.
130; _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, p. 430; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p.
279; _Squier's Nicaragua_, pp. 272-3; _Valenzuela_, in _Id._, _Cent.
Amer._, p. 567. The Lacandon hut contained 'des métiers à tisser, des
sarbacanes, des haches et d'autres outils en silex.' _Morelet_,
_Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 79, 104, 197, 211. 'Duermen en vna red, que se
les entra por las costillas, o en vn cañizo, y por cabecera vn madero:
ya se alumbran con teas.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. x.,
cap. xiv., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. At Masaya, 'Leur mobilier se
compose de nattes par terre, de hamacs suspendus, d'un lit de cuir et
d'une caisse en cèdre, quelquefois ornée d'incrustations de cuivre.'
_Belly_, _Nicaragua_, tom. i., pp. 197-8.

[969] 'Le principe colorant est fixé an moyen d'une substance grasse que
l'on obtient par l'ébullition d'un insecte nommé age.' _Morelet_,
_Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 130, 197. Consult further, _Squier's Nicaragua_,
pp. 269-73; _Baily's Cent. Amer._, pp. 124-5; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._,
dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vii., ix., lib. x., cap. xiv.; _Crowe's Cent.
Amer._, pp. 44; _Squier_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 215; _Dollfus and
Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, p. 47; _Dunlop's Cent. Amer._, p. 338;
_Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 274.

[970] _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp. 241-2; _Lafond_, _Voyages_, tom.
i., p. 317; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 31; _Dollfus and
Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp. 47-8. In their trade, the
Lacandones 'are said to have employed not less than 424 canoes.'
_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 271.

[971] The Quichés 'portent jusqu'au Nicaragua des hamacs en fil
d'agave.' _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 145, 92, 130-1, 198, tom.
i., pp. 260, 318, 320; _Dollfus and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp.
18, 60; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. v., cap. xii.;
_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, pp. 68, 271, 475; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._,
pp. 248, 345; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 319; _Hardcastle_, in _Hist.
Mag._, vol. vi., p. 153; _Gage's New Survey_, p. 319.

[972] Among the Nahuatls 'mechanical arts are little understood, and, of
course, the fine arts still less practiced.' _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p.
320; _Id._, _Nicaragua_, pp. 270-3. The Masayans have 'une caisse en
cèdre, quelquefois ornée d'incrustations de cuivre.' _Belly_,
_Nicaragua_, pp. 197-8. See also, _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 130;
_Puydt_, _Rapport_, in _Amérique Centrale_, p. 134; _Gage's New Survey_,
p. 329; _Valois_, _Mexique_, pp. 287, 420-6; _Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_,
pp. 127, 295; _Funnell's Voy._, p. 113; _Dunn's Guatemala_, p. 281;
_Pontelli_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 7, 1862_.

[973] _Dollfus and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp. 20, 49-51;
_Puydt_, _Rapport_, in _Amérique Centrale_, p. 134; _Hassel_, _Mex.
Guat._, p. 398; _Gage's New Survey_, pp. 318-9, 417; _Pontelli_, in
_Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 7, 1862_. 'Chacun d'eux vint ensuite baiser la main
du chef, hommage qu'il reçut avec une dignité imperturbable.' _Morelet_,
_Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 245-6, 134.

[974] 'Leur dernier-né suspendu à leurs flancs.' _Morelet_, _Voyage_,
tom. ii., pp. 198, 126, tom. i., pp. 204-5, 318. In Salvador, the
'bridegroom makes his wife's trousseau himself, the women, strange to
say, being entirely ignorant of needlework.' _Foote's Cent. Amer._, p.
103. Further reference in _Valois_, _Mexique_, pp. 280, 288; _Belly_,
_Nicaragua_, pp. 200-1, 253; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp. 303-4; _Revue
Brit._, 1825, in _Amérique Centrale_, p. 23; _Bülow_, _Nicaragua_, p.
80; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 272; _Gage's New Survey_, p. 319;
_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, pp. 195-6; _Tempsky's Mitla_, p. 365; _Dollfus
and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp. 20, 47; _Scherzer_,
_Wanderungen_, p. 66; _Id._, _Die Indianer von Istlávacan_, p. 11.

[975] _Gage's New Survey_, pp. 323, 347-50; _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_,
_Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., p. 415; _Valois_, _Mexique_, pp. 279-80,
420-6; _Dollfus and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, p. 48; _Froebel's
Cent. Amer._, pp. 78-81; _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, pp. 306, 312;
_Valenzuela_, in _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 567; _Juarros' Hist. Guat._,
pp. 447-9; _Coreal_, _Voyages_, tom. i., pp. 88-9; _Arricivita_,
_Crónica Seráfica_, p. 34; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 320-2; _Pontelli_,
in _Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 14, 1862_. 'Les Indiens ne fument pas.' _Belly_,
_Nicaragua_, p. 164. 'Ihr gewöhnliches Getränke ist Wasser.' _Hassel_,
_Mex. Guat._, p. 304. 'Je n'ai entendu qu'à Flores, pendant le cours de
mon voyage, des choeurs exécutés avec justesse.' _Morelet_, _Voyage_,
tom. ii., pp. 42-4, 325, tom. i., p. 196.

[976] The Lacandon chief received me with 'the emblem of friendship
(which is a leaf of the fan-palm).' _Pontelli_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Nov.
14, 1862_. See _Tempsky's Mitla_, pp. 364-5; _Valois_, _Mexique_, pp.
407-8; _Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 91;
_Thümmel_, _Mexiko_, p. 394; _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 197; _Foote's
Cent. Amer._, p. 122; _Dollfus and Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp.
48-9; _Scherzer_, _Die Indianer von Istlávacan_, pp. 7-15; _Reichardt_,
_Nicaragua_, pp. 106, 234; _Valenzuela_, in _Squier's Cent. Amer._, pp.
566-7; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i., p. 206, tom. ii., pp. 58, 101-2,
104, 197; _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pp. 293-4, vol. ii., pp. 11-12, 48.

[977] At Masaya, 'The death-rate among children is said to be
excessive.' _Boyle's Ride_, vol. ii., p. 10. 'Alle Glieder der Familie
hatten ein äusserst ungesundes Aussehen und namentlich die Kinder, im
Gesicht bleich und mager, hatten dicke, aufgeschwollene Bäuche,' caused
by yucca-roots. _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, pp. 494, 173-4; _Morelet_,
_Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 109-10, 152; _Gage's New Survey_, p. 318;
_Puydt_, _Rapport_, in _Amérique Centrale_, p. 49; _Froebel_, _Aus
Amerika_, tom. i., pp. 345-6; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp. 302, 398;
_Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 91; _Scherzer_,
_Die Indianer von Istlávacan_, pp. 10-11.

[978] _Scherzer_, _Die Indianer von Istlávacan_, pp. 11-12; _Morelet_,
_Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 63; _Valois_, _Mexique_, p. 408.

[979] 'La somme des peines est donc limitée comme celle des jouissances;
ils ne ressentent ni les unes ni les autres avec beaucoup de vivacité.'
_Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. i., pp. 205-7, 196, tom. ii., pp. 104, 132,
198, 200, 253. 'When aroused, however, they are fierce, cruel, and
implacable ... shrewd ... cringing servility and low cunning ... extreme
teachableness.' _Crowe's Cent. Amer._, pp. 42-3. 'Melancholy ... silent
... pusillanimous ... timid.' _Dunn's Guatemala_, p. 278.
'Imperturbability of the North American Indian, but are a gentler and
less warlike race.' _Foote's Cent. Amer._, pp. 104-5. Nicaraguans 'are
singularly docile and industrious ... not warlike but brave.' _Squier's
Nicaragua_, p. 268. For further reference concerning these people see
_Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 555; _Bülow_, _Nicaragua_, pp. 79-81;
_Juarros' Hist. Guat._, pp. 197-8; _Belly_, _Nicaragua_, pp. 109, 160;
_Puydt_, _Rapport_, in _Amérique Centrale_, pp. 70, 135-6; _T' Kint_, in
_Id._, pp. 157-8; _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 471; _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i.,
pref., p. xiv., and p. 75; _Gage's New Survey_, pp. 311-12, 333;
_Valois_, _Mexique_, pp. 238-9, 277, 288, 299, 430; _Dollfus and
Mont-Serrat_, _Voy. Géologique_, pp. 47-9, 69; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._,
tom. iv., p. 35; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap.
vii.; _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, pp. 53, 61, 455, 464-5; _Dunlop's Cent.
Amer._, pp. 211, 337-8. The Lacandones are very laconic, sober,
temperate and strict. _Pontelli_, in _Cal. Farmer_, _Nov. 7, 1862_.

[980] The name Mosquito is generally supposed to have arisen from the
numerous mosquito insects to be found in the country; others think that
the small islands off the coast, "which lie as thick as mosquitoes,"
may have caused the appellation; while a third opinion is that the name
is a corruption of an aboriginal term, and to substantiate this opinion
it is said that the natives call themselves distinctly Misskitos.
_Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 134, 19-23. The Carib name is pronounced
"Kharibees" on the coast. _Macgregor's Progress of America_, vol. i.,
pp. 770, 775. 'Il existe chez eux des langues très différentes, et nous
avons remarqué qu'à cent lieues de distance ils ne se comprennent plus
les uns les autres.' _Varnhagen_, _Prem. Voy. de Amerigo Vespucci_, p.
40. See further: _Stout's Nicaragua_, p. 113; _Squier's Nicaragua_, vol.
ii., p. 308; _Id._, _Cent. Amer._, pp. 241, 244-7; 252-3; _Bülow_,
_Nicaragua_, p. 77; _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 346; _Galindo_, in _Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. iii., p. 290; _Bell_, in _Id._, vol. xxxii.,
pp. 258-9; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 123, 201-2, 243; _Pim and Seemann's
Dottings_, pp. 395-6; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 36, 86; _Wappäus_, _Geog.
u. Stat._, pp. 243-7, 303, 347-50; _Henderson's Honduras_, p. 216;
_Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pp. xii-xiii., 269, 287; _Sivers_,
_Mittelamerika_, pp. 179-80, 287-8.

[981] 'Die Backenknochen treten nicht, wie bei andern amerikanischen
Stämmen, auffallend hervor ... starke Oberlippe.' _Mosquitoland_,
_Bericht_, pp. 134-6, 59, 70, 151. Consult also: _Squier's Cent. Amer._,
pp. 230, 251, 597-8; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp. 388-9; _Froebel_, _Aus
Amerika_, tom. i., pp. 397-8; _Varnhagen_, _Prem. Voy. de Amerigo
Vespucci_, pp. 40-1. The pure type has 'schlichte, gröbere, schwarze
Haare und feinere Lippen.' _Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_, pp. 74, 177, 180,
287-8; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 26, 28-9, 72, 75, 79, 82, 87, 123;
_Uring's Hist. Voy._, p. 226; _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxxii., pp. 256-9; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp. 248, 305, 403;
_Colon_, _Hist. Almirante_, in _Barcia_, _Historiadores_, tom. i., p.
104; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 127, 298, 317; _Strangeways' Mosquito Shore_,
p. 329. The natives of Corn island are 'of a dark copper-colour, black
Hair, full round Faces, small black Eyes, their Eye-brows hanging over
their Eyes, low Foreheads, short thick Noses, not high, but flattish;
full Lips, and short Chins.' _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., pp. 31-2,
7-8.

[982] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii.,
cap. iii., v.; _Esquemelin_, _Zee-Roovers_, pp. 150-1; _Squier_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xix., p. 614; _Id._, in _Nouvelles Annales des
Voy._, 1858, tom. clx., p. 134; _Martin's Brit. Col._, vol. ii., p. 412;
_Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp. 248-50, 280, 308, 403, 415;
_Macgregor's Progress of Amer._, vol. i., p. 772; _Dampier's Voyages_,
vol. i., pp. 11, 32; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 127, 253-6, 298;
_Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 116-17, 136-7; _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. 256-60; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 12, 26,
29, 32, 72, 77, 83, 122, 133. 'Alcuni vsano certe camiciuole com'quelle,
che vsiamo noi, lunghe sino al belico, e senza manche. Portano le
braccia, e il corpo lauorati di lauori moreschi, fatti col fuoco.'
_Colombo_, _Hist. del Ammiraglio_, pp. 403-5.

[983] _Strangeways' Mosquito Shore_, p. 334; _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p.
185; _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 660; _Id._, in _Harper's Mag._, vol.
xix., p. 613; _Id._, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1858, tom. clx.,
p. 134; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 13, 77, 98-9, 125; _Pim and Seemann's
Dottings_, pp. 279, 295, 415-6; _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._,
vol. xxxii., pp. 258-9; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 293-4, 318-9;
_Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 20, 137-9; _Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_, pp.
167, 178; _Cockburn's Journey_, pp. 23, 55-7.

[984] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.-v.;
_Macgregor's Progress of Amer._, vol. i., pp. 774-5; _Squier_, in
_Harper's Mag._, vol. xix., p. 613; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 14, 18, 21,
61, 74-7, 96, 98, 106; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 100-11, 132-6, 297-303, 320;
_Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_, pp. 75-6, 87, 168-74. The Woolwas had fish
'which had been shot with arrows.' _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp.
403, 248-50, 300-1, 407, 412-13; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., pp. 9-13,
35-7.

[985] _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pref., p. 18; _Young's Narrative_, pp.
76, 99, 133; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 335.

[986] Of the people of Las Perlas islands it is said; 'Aen't endt van
haer geweer een hay-tandt, schieten met geen boogh.' _Esquemelin_,
_Zee-Roovers_, pp. 71, 150. Also see: _Colon_, _Hist. Almirante_, in
_Barcia_, _Historiadores_, tom. i., p. 105; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._,
dec. iii., lib. ix., cap. x., and dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.;
_Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., pp. 7-8; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 120, 128.

[987] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.;
_Esquemelin_, _Zee-Roovers_, p. 153; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., p. 8;
_Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., p. 406; _Strangeways' Mosquito Shore_,
p. 331.

[988] 'Hammocks, made of a Sort of Rushes.' _Cockburn's Journey_, pp.
64, 23. 'El almohada vn palo, o vna piedra: los cofres son cestillos,
aforrados en cueros de venados.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib.
viii., cap. v. Consult also: _Young's Narrative_, pp. 76-7; _Dampier's
Voyages_, vol. i., p. 85; _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 660;
_Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 100, 116, 123, 138, 173.

[989] _Sivers, Mittelamerika_, p. 167; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 127, 298-9.
'Auf irgend eine Zubereitung (of skins) verstehen sich die Indianer
nicht.' _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 190, 148. 'They make large Jars
here, one of which will hold ten Gallons, and not weigh one Pound.'
_Cockburn's Journey_, p. 83.

[990] _Young's Narrative_, pp. 11, 19, 76, 160-1; _Martin's West
Indies_, vol. i., pp. 155-6; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., pp. 35, 85.
'Der Tuberose tree der Engländer liefert die stärksten Baumstämme, deren
die Indianer sich zur Anfertigung ihrer grössten Wasserfahrzeuge
bedienen.' _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 116, 70, 147.

[991] The Mosquitos have 'little trade except in tortoise-shells and
sarsaparilla.' _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 659. Compare _Bard's Waikna_,
p. 317; _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 252;
_Strangeways' Mosquito Shore_, p. 337; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 16, 82,
86-7, 91, 126; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.,
v.; _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 148, 171-4, 190.

[992] The Mosquitos 'divisaient l'année en 18 mois de 20 jours, et ils
appellaient les mois _Ioalar_.' _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom.
vi., p. 472. 'Dit konense reeckenen by de Maen, daer van sy vyftien voor
een jaer reeckenen.' _Esquemelin_, _Zee-Roovers_, p. 152. 'Für die
Berechnung der Jahre existirt keine Aera. Daher weiss Niemand sein
Alter.' _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 142, 267-8. See also _Bard's
Waikna_, pp. 244-5; _Young's Narrative_, p. 76; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._,
dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vi.

[993] _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 292-3; _Cockburn's Journey_, p. 37; _Gomara_,
_Hist. Ind._, fol. 63. The natives of Honduras had 'pedaços de Tierra,
llamada _Calcide_, con la qual se funde el Metal.' _Colon_, _Hist.
Almirante_, in _Barcia_, _Historiadores_, tom. i., p. 104.

[994] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v.;
_Cockburn's Journey_, p. 45; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., pp. 10-11;
_Esquemelin_, _Zee-Roovers_, p. 150; _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., p.
406; _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p. 184; _Crowe's Cent. Amer._, p. 49;
_Winterfeldt_, _Mosquito-Staat_, p. 22; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 231, 297-8;
_Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, pp. 258-9; _Squier_, in _Harper's
Mag._, vol. xix., p. 614; _Id._, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1858,
tom. clx., p. 134; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 71, 98; _Mosquitoland_,
_Bericht_, pp. 171-2. 'Sie stehen unter eignen Kaziken, die ihre
Anführer im Kriege machen und welchen sie unbedingt gehorchen.' Poyas,
'Ihre Regierungsform ist aristokratisch.' _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, pp.
388, 390. Mosquito 'conjurers are in fact the priests, the lawyers and
the judges ... the king is a despotic monarch.' _Bonnycastle's Span.
Amer._, vol. i., p. 174.

[995] _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 335.

[996] _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 127, 129-30, 202-11, 236, 243, 299-300,
321-3; _Strangeways' Mosquito Shore_, pp. 332, 336; _Froebel's Cent.
Amer._, p. 137; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p. 216. 'They marry
but one Wife, with whom they live till death separates them.' _Dampier's
Voyages_, vol. i., p. 9. 'Doch besitzen in der That die meisten Männer
nur ein Weib.' _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 144-6, 133-9; _Salazar y
Olarte_, _Hist. Conq. Mex._, tom. ii., p. 312.

[997] Esquemelin relates that the natives on the Belize coast and
adjacent islands carried the new-born infant to the temple, where it was
placed naked in a hole filled with ashes, exposed to the wild beasts,
and left there until the track of some animal was noticed in the ashes.
This became patron to the child who was taught to offer it incense and
to invoke it for protection. _Zee-Roovers_, pp. 64-9, 149. The genitals
are pierced as a proof of constancy and affection for a woman. _Id._,
pp. 151-3. Compare _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi.,
lib. viii., cap. iii.-vi.; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 73, 75, 123, 125;
_Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. 251, 254-5,
257-8; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp. 249, 306-8; _Torquemada_,
_Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 335; _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., p. 409;
_Crowe's Cent. Amer._, pp. 49, 245-7.

[998] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., vi.;
_Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 255-6. The Woolwas
'haben gewisse Jahresfeste bei welchen weder ein Fremder noch Weiber und
Kinder des eignen Stammes zugelassen werden. Bei diesen Festen führen
sie mit lautem Geschrei ihre Tänze auf, "wobei ihnen ihr Gott
Gesellschaft leistet."' _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. i., pp. 407-8.

[999] _Squier_, in _Harper's Mag._, vol. xix., pp. 603-6, 613; _Sivers_,
_Mittelamerika_, pp. 171-2, 174-6; _Martin's West Indies_, vol. i., p.
155; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 337; _Uring's Hist. Voy._, pp. 223-5;
_Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., pp. 10, 127; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 205-9,
226-9, 232-3, 299; _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 108, 141-2, 146-7,
196, 201-2, 267; _Crowe's Cent. Amer._, p. 247; _Pim and Seemann's
Dottings_, pp. 306, 405; _Young's Narrative_, pp. 30-3, 72, 77-8, 125,
132-5; _Esquemelin_, _Zee-Roovers_, pp. 150-1. The natives of Honduras
kept small birds which 'could talk intelligibly, and whistle and sing
admirably.' _Cockburn's Journey_, pp. 52-3, 46, 70-2, 88-90.

[1000] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iv.-vi.;
_Cockburn's Journey_, pp. 36, 45-6; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., pp.
8-9, 86; _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 142-3; _Martin's Brit. Col._,
vol. ii., p. 413; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 228-32, 239-43, 256-8, 273-4.
Sivers was thought possessed of the devil, and carefully shunned,
because he imitated the crowing of a cock. _Sivers_, _Mittelamerika_, p.
178.

[1001] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v., dec. v.,
lib. i., cap. x.; _Crowe's Cent. Amer._, pp. 245-7; _Young's Narrative_,
pp. 23, 26, 28, 73, 82; _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxxii., pp. 253, 260-1; _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 132, 148-51;
_Bard's Waikna_, pp. 243-4.

[1002] The dead 'are sewed up in a mat, and not laid in their grave
length-ways, but upright on their feet, with their faces directly to the
east.' _Amer. Span. Settl._, p. 46. 'Ein anderer Religionsgebrauch der
alten Mosquiten war, dass sie bey dem Tode eines Hausvaters alle seine
Bedienten mit ihm begruben.' _Delaporte_, _Reisen_, tom. x., p. 408.
_Bard's Waikna_, pp. 68-73, 245-6; _Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 136,
143-4; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp. 307-8; _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxii., p. 255; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, tom. i., p.
407; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v.-vi.;
_Esquemelin_, _Zee-Roovers_, pp. 152-3.

[1003] _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. viii., cap. vii., dec.
iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; _Young's Narrative_,
pp. 78-82, 85, 87, 122, 133; _Bell_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxxii., pp. 250-2, 257-8; _Bard's Waikna_, pp. 245, 317, 324;
_Mosquitoland_, _Bericht_, pp. 135, 139-40, 144-5, 236; _Strangeways'
Mosquito Shore_, p. 329; _Puydt_, _Rapport_, in _Amérique Centrale_, p.
71; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp. 248-9, 279, 308-9; _Boyle's Ride_,
vol. i., pref., pp. 13, 18; _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., pp. 240, 289,
302; _Crowe's Cent. Amer._, pp. 49, 243.

[1004] The Guatusos 'are said to be of very fair complexion, a statement
which has caused the appellation of _Indios blancos_, or _Guatusos_--the
latter name being that of an animal of reddish-brown colour, and
intended to designate the colour of their hair.' _Froebel's Cent.
Amer._, p. 24; _Id._, _Aus Amer._, tom. i., p. 244. Speaking of Sir
Francis Drake's mutineers and their escape from Esparsa northward, he
says: 'It is believed by many in Costa Rica that the white Indians of
the Rio Frio, called Pranzos, or Guatusos ... are the descendants of
these Englishmen.' _Boyle's Ride_, vol. ii., pp. 210, 27, and vol. i.,
pref., pp. xx-xxii. 'Talamanca contains 26 different tribes of Indians;
besides which there are several neighbouring nations, as the Changuenes,
divided into thirteen tribes; the Terrabas, the Torresques, Urinamas,
and Cavecaras.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 373; _Squier's Cent. Amer._,
p. 413; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 407; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._,
tom. i., pp. 331-3.

[1005] 'The indians who at present inhabit the Isthmus are scattered
over Bocas del Toro, the northern portions of Veraguas, the
north-eastern shores of Panama and almost the whole of Darien, and
consist principally of four tribes, the Savanerics, the San Blas
Indians, the Bayanos, and the Cholos.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i.,
p. 317. 'At the time of the conquest of Darien, the country was covered
with numerous and well-peopled villages. The inhabitants belonged to the
Carribbee race, divided into tribes, the principal being the
Maudinghese, Chucunaquese, Dariens, Cunas, Anachacunas, &c. On the
eastern shore of the Gulf of Uraba dwelt the immense but now nearly
exterminated tribe of the Caimans,--only a few remnants of the
persecutions of the Spaniards, having taken refuge in the Choco
Mountains, where they are still found.... The Dariens, as well as the
Anachacunas, have either totally disappeared or been absorbed in other
tribes.' _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., pp. 91-2;
_Fitz-Roy_, in _Id._, vol. xx., pp. 163-4; _Roquette_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1855, tom. cxlvii., p. 30; _Bateman_, in _N. Y.
Century_, _6th Decem., 1860_; _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de
Viages_, tom. iii., p. 406; _Macgregor's Progress of Amer._, vol. i., p.
823; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, introd., p. ccii. See Tribal
Boundaries.

[1006] Savanerics, 'a fine athletic race.' _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol.
i., p. 318. 'Tienen los cascos de la cabeça gruessos.' _Oviedo_, _Hist.
Gen._, tom. iii., p. 138. 'The Chocós are not tall nor remarkable in
appearance, but always look well conditioned.' _Michler's Darien_, p.
65. 'Son apersonados.' _Dávila_, _Teatro Ecles._, tom. ii., fol. 56;
_Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 77, 87; _Selfridge's Darien Surveys_, pp.
10, 36; _Colon_, _Hist. Almirante_, in _Barcia_, _Historiadores_, tom.
i., p. 107; _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., pp.
95-7; _Peter Martyr_, dec. viii., lib. vi; _Gisborne's Darien_, p. 155;
_Cockburn's Journey_, p. 235; _D'Avity_, _L'Amérique_, tom. ii., p. 98;
_Winthrop's Canoe and Saddle_, p. 365; _Macgregor's Progress of Amer._,
vol. i., p. 823; _Fransham's World in Miniature_, p. 25. 'Afirmaua
Pasqual de Andagoya, auer visto algunos tan grandes, que los otros
hombres eran enanos con ellos, y que tenian buenas caras, y cuerpos.'
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi.; _Andagoya_, in
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., p. 412; _Gage's New Survey_,
p. 174; _Darien_, _Defence of the Scots' Settlement_, pp. 69-70;
_Cullen's Darien_, pp. 65, 67.

[1007] Golfo Dulce. 'Modicæ sunt staturæ, bene compositis membris,
moribus blandis et non invenustis.' _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 329. 'It
is a universal belief along the Atlantic coast, from Belize to
Aspinwall, that the Frio tribe have white complexions, fair hair, and
grey eyes.' _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pp. 20, 236, and pref., pp.
xxi-xxii.; _Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1856, tom. cli.,
pp. 6, 12; _Id._, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. iv., p. 62; _Wafer's New Voy._,
pp. 131-7.

[1008] 'El miembro generativo traen atado por el capullo, haçiéndole
entrar tanto adentro, que á algunos no se les paresçe de tal arma sino
la atadura, que es unos hilos de algodon allí revueltos.' _Oviedo_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 109-11, 179. See also: _Cockburn's
Journey_, pp. 181-3, 188; _Wagner and Scherzer_, _Costa Rica_, pp.
557-9; _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., p. 251. Referring to Vasco Nuñez de
Balboa, 'La gente que hallo andaua en cueros, sino eran señores,
cortesanos, y mugeres.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 82, 66, 87. Urabá;
'Ex gentibus ijs mares nudos penitus, foeminas uero ab umbilico
gossampina contectas multitia repererunt.' _Peter Martyr_, dec. ii.,
lib. i., also dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib.
vi., viii.; _Quintana_, _Vidas de Españoles_ (_Balboa_), p. 9; _Wafer's
New Voy._, pp. 37, 87, 102, plate, 132-4, 138-48, plate; _Wallace_, in
_Miscellanea Curiosa_, vol. iii., p. 418; _Warburton's Darien_, p. 322;
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., p. 26; _Andagoya_, in _Id._,
pp. 307-8, 407, 412; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap.
v., vi., and dec. iv., lib. i., cap. x.; _Michler's Darien_, pp. 43,
65-6, 86.

[1009] _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i., pp. 314, 316; _Porras_, in
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. i., p. 285; _Colon_, in _Id._, p.
298; _Cockburn's Journey_, pp. 240-1; _Gage's New Survey_, p. 191;
_Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, pp. 88, 284; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_,
pp. 99, 319; _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., pp.
95-8; _Selfridge's Darien Surveys_, p. 10; _Cullen's Darien_, pp. 67-8;
_Esquemelin_, _Zee-Roovers_, p. 142; _Las Casas_, _Hist. Apologética,
MS._, cap. ccxlii.-ccxliv. The women of Cueba 'se ponian una barra de oro
atravessada en los pechos, debaxo de las tetas, que se las levanta, y en
ella algunos páxaros é otras figuras de relieve, todo de oro fino: que
por lo menos pessaba çiento é çinqüenta é aun dosiçentos pessos una
barreta destas.... Destos caracoles grandes se haçen unas conteçicas
blancas de muchas maneras, é otras coloradas, é otras negras, é otras
moradas, é cañuticos de lo mesmo: é haçen braçaletes en que con estas
qüentas mezclan otras, é olivetas de oro que se ponen en las muñecas y
ençima de los tobillos é debaxo de las rodillas por gentileça: en
espeçial las mugeres.... Traen assimesmo çarçillos de oro en las orejas,
é horádanse las nariçes hecho un agugero entre las ventanas, é cuelgan
de allí sobre el labio alto otro çarçillo.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom.
iii., pp. 126, 138.

[1010] Their hair 'they wear usually down to the middle of the Back, or
lower, hanging loose at its full length.... All other Hair, except that
of their Eye-brows and Eye-lids, they eradicate.' _Wafer's New Voy._, pp.
132-3; _Gisborne's Darien_, p. 155; _Macgregor's Progress of Amer._, p.
824; _D'Avity_, _L'Amérique_, tom. i., p. 98.

[1011] _Benzoni_, _Hist. Mondo Nuovo_, fol. 86; _Squier_, in _Nouvelles
Annales des Voy._, 1836, tom. cli., p. 9; _Froebel_, _Aus Amer._, tom.
i., p. 246; _Id._, _Cent. Amer._, p. 26; _Wagner and Scherzer_, _Costa
Rica_, p. 253.

[1012] _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 95;
_Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i., pp. 319, 321-2; _Pim and Seemann's
Dottings_, p. 151; _Michler's Darien_, p. 84; _Wafer's New Voy._, pp.
149-52; _Cockburn's Journey_, pp. 234-5. On the banks of the Rio Grande,
the Spaniards under Johan de Tavira found 'muchas poblaçiones en
barbacoas ó casas muy altas, fechas é armadas sobre postes de palmas
negras fortíssimas é quassi inexpugnables'.... 'Hay otra manera de
buhíos ó casas en Nata redondos, como unos chapiteles muy altos.'
_Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 50, 131, 8, 46. 'En otras muchas
partes hacian sus casas de madera y de paja de la forma de una campana.
Estas eran muy altas y muy capaces que moraban en cada una de ellas diez
y mas vecinos.' _Las Casas_, _Hist. Apologética, MS._, cap. 43.

[1013] 'Hallaron muchos pueblos cercados, con palenques de madera.'
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. ix., dec. i., lib.
ix., cap. ii., vi. 'Tengano le lor case in cima de gli alberi.'
_Benzoni_, _Hist. Mondo Nuovo_, fol. 160. See also: _Irving's Columbus_,
vol. iii., p. 176; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 75; _Colon_, _Hist.
Almirante_, in _Barcia_, _Historiadores_, tom. i., p. 108.

[1014] Of Comagre's palace it is said, 'Longitudinem dimensi passuum
centum quinquaginta, latitudinem uero pedum octoginta, in uacuo
dinumerarunt: laquearibus et pauimentis arte eximia laboratis.' _Peter
Martyr_, dec. ii., lib. iii. Compare further: _Montanus_, _Nieuwe
Weereld_, pp. 64-5, 87; _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, pp. 71-2, 98; _Darien_,
_Defence of the Scots' Settlement_, p. 81.

[1015] _Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1856, tom. cli., p.
11; _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xxiii.; _Hassel_, _Mex.
Guat._, p. 407; _Cockburn's Journey_, pp. 204, 224-5; _Wagner and
Scherzer_, _Costa Rica_, pp. 558-9. On the Chara Islands, 'comen los
indios en estas islas muchos venados é puercos, que los hay en
grandissima cantidad, é mahiz, é fésoles muchos é de diversas maneras, é
muchos é buenos pescados, é tambien sapo ... é ninguna cosa viva dexan
de comer por suçia que sea.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p. 110.

[1016] 'Hanno la maggior parte di questa costiera per costume di mangiar
carne humana e quando mangiauano de gli Spagnuoli, v'erano di coloro che
ricusauano di cibarsene, temendo ancora che nel lor corpo, non gli
facessero quelle carni qualche danno.' _Benzoni_, _Hist. Mondo Nuovo_,
fol. 49. On the coast 'they live principally upon fish, plantains, and
bananas, with Indian corn and a kind of cassava.' _Selfridge's Darien
Surveys_, pp. 10, 20. Compare _Colon_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_,
tom. i., p. 308; _Balboa_, in _Id._, tom. iii., pp. 364-5; _Alcedo_,
_Dicc._, tom. v., p. 293; _Cullen's Darien_, pp. 65, 68-9; _Colombo_,
_Hist. Ammiraglio_, p. 412; _Meyer_, _Nach dem Sacramento_, pp. 20-2.

[1017] 'Cogen dos y tres vezes al año maiz, y por esto no lo
engraneran.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 82, 88. 'Seguian mucho la caça
de venados, y de aquellos puercos con el ombligo al espinazo.'
_Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v., xv. For further
details see _Michler's Darien_, pp. 65, 68, 81; _Andagoya_, in
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 403, 407; _Montanus_,
_Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 71; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 79; _Seemann's
Voy. Herald_, vol. i., pp. 315, 319; _Peter Martyr_, dec. viii., lib.
vii.; _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 132-3, 136, 139; _Wafer's
New Voy._, pp. 88, 101, 106-7, 129-130, 152-6, 170-7.

[1018] _Michler's Darien_, p. 65; _Cockburn's Journey_, p. 236. 'Tienen
por costumbre, assi los indios como las indias, de se bañar tres ó
quatro veçes al dia, por estar limpios é porque diçen que descansan en
lavarse.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 135-6.

[1019] In Cueva, 'no son flecheros, é pelean con macanas é con lanças
luengas y con varas que arrojan, como dardos con estóricas (que son
cierta manera de avientos) de unos bastones bien labrados.' _Oviedo_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 127, 129. 'Sunt autem ipsorum arma, non
arcus, non sagittæ uenenatæ, uti habere indígenas illos trans sinum
orientales diximus. Cominus hi certant ut plurimum, ensibus oblongis,
quos macanas ipsi appellant, ligneis tamen, quia ferrum non assequuntur:
et præustis sudibus aut osseis cuspidibus, missilibus etiam ad præluim
utuntur.' _Peter Martyr_, dec. ii., lib. iii., also, dec. iv., lib. x.,
dec. v., lib. ix. Compare further, _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. i.,
lib. ix., cap. vi., lib. x., cap. i.; _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_, _Col.
de Viages_, tom. iii., p. 403; _Parras_, in _Id._, tom. i., p. 285;
_Cockburn's Journey_, p. 225; _D'Avity_, _L'Amérique._, p. 98; _Otis'
Panamá_, pp. 77-8; _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii.,
pp. 95, 98.

[1020] 'The pipe was made of two pieces of reed, each forming a half
circle; these being placed together left a small hole, just large enough
for the admission of the arrow.... The arrows are about eight inches
long ... the point very sharp, and cut like a corkscrew for an inch
up.... This is rolled in the poison.... The arrow will fly one hundred
yards, and is certain death to man or animal wounded by it; no cure as
yet having been discovered. A tiger, when hit, runs ten or a dozen
yards, staggers, becomes sick, and dies in four or five minutes. A bird
is killed as with a bullet, and the arrow and wounded part of the flesh
being cut out, the remainder is eaten without danger.' _Cochrane's
Journal in Colombia_, vol. ii., pp. 405-7. 'That poyson killeth him that
is wounded, but not suddenly.... Whoso is wounded, liues a miserable and
strict life after that, for he must abstaine from many things.' _Peter
Martyr_, dec. viii., lib. viii. 'Some woorali (corova) and poisoned
arrows that I obtained from the Indians of the interior were procured by
them from Choco ... their deadly effect is almost instantaneous.'
_Cullen's Darien_, p. 67. 'We inquired of all the Indians, both men and
boys, at Caledonia Bay and at San Blas for the "curari" or "urari"
poison ... they brought us what they represented to be the _bona-fide_
poison.... It turned out to be nothing but the juice of the manzanillo
del playa. So, if this is their chief poison, and is the same as the
"curari", it is not so much to be dreaded.' _Selfridge's Darien
Surveys_, pp. 136-7. See further, _Fitz-Roy_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xx., p. 164; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. i., lib. vii.,
cap. xvi.; _Michler's Darien_, p. 77; _Dampier's Voyages_, vol. i., p.
41.

[1021] _Acosta_, _N. Granada_, p. 6; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 88;
_Carli_, _Cartas_, pt. i., p. 17. 'Traian suscoseletes fechos de
algodon, que les llegaban é abaxaban de las espaldas dellos, é les
llegaban á las rodillas é dende abaxo, é las mangas fasta los codos, é
tan gruesos como un colchon de cama, son tan fuertes, que una ballesta
no los pasa.' _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. ii., p. 516.

[1022] 'Cuando iban á la guerra llevaban coronas de oro en las cabezas y
unas patenas grandes en los pechos y braceletes y otras joyas en otros
lugares del cuerpo.' _Las Casas_, _Hist. Apologética, MS._, cap. lxv.,
ccxliv. 'El herido en la guerra es hidalgo, y goza de grandes
franquezas.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 88. 'A los que pueden matar
matan, é á los que prenden los hierran é se sirven dellos por esclavos.'
_Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 129, 126. See further:
_Quintana_, _Vidas Españoles_ (_Balboa_), p. 8; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._,
dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.; _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de
Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 399, 403, 412; _Peter Martyr_, dec. iii., lib.
iv., dec. viii., lib. viii.; _Wafer's New Voy._, p. 133.

[1023] 'La manta de la hamaca no es hecha red, sino entera é muy gentil
tela delgada é ancha.... Hay otras, que la manta es de paja texida é de
colores é labores.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 131, 136,
138, 142, 181. 'Muy buenas redes con anzuelos de hueso que hacen de
concha de tortuga.' _Vega_, _Hist. Descub. Amer._, p. 145. 'Tenian los
Reyes y Señores ricos y señalados vasos con que bebian.' _Las Casas_,
_Hist. Apologética, MS._, cap. lxv. Compare further: _Herrera_, _Hist.
Gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap. i., dec. ii., lib.
ii., cap. i.; _Peter Martyr_, dec. ii., lib. i., dec. vii., lib. x.;
_Michler's Darien_, pp. 66, 77; _Meyer_, _Nach dem Sacramento_, pp.
21-2.

[1024] _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, p. 348; _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i.,
p. 320; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, p. 29; _Cockburn's Journey_, pp.
172-3, 243-4; _Wafer's New Voy._, pp. 92-4, 160-2. Referring to Chiriquí
earthen relics; 'The vessels ... are neatly and sometimes very
gracefully formed of clay.... Several bear resemblance to Roman,
Grecian, and Etruscan jars.... Dr. Merritt mentioned that the natives of
the Isthmus now make their rude earthen utensils of a peculiar black
earth, which gives them the appearance of iron.' _Hist. Mag._, vol. iv.,
p. 176. In Veragua 'vide sábanas grandes de algodon, labradas de muy
sotiles labores; otras pintadas muy sútilmente a colores con pinceles.'
_Colon_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. i., p. 308.

[1025] 'En estas islas de Chara é Pocosi no tienen canoas, sino
balsas'.... In the Province of Cueba 'tienen canoas pequeñas, tambien
las usan grandes ... hay canoa que lleva çinquenta ó sessenta hombres é
mas.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 110, 159. See also:
_Michler's Darien_, pp. 48, 66-7; _Wafer's New Voy._, p. 96; _Montanus_,
_Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 67; and _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 75; _Puydt_, in
_Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 99; _Acosta_, _N. Granada_,
p. 43.

[1026] _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 74, 88; _Balboa_, in _Navarrete_,
_Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 364-5; _Peter Martyr_, dec. viii., lib.
vi.; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. x.,
cap. iii.; _Belcher's Voyage_, vol. i., p. 250; _Selfridge's Darien
Surveys_, pp. 10-11; _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol.
xxxviii., p. 99; _Gisborne's Darien_, p. 154; _Otis' Panamá_, p. 77;
_Cullen's Darien_, pp. 65-6. 'Quando los indios no tienen guerra, todo
su exerciçio es tractar é trocar quanto tienen unos con otros ... unos
llevan sal, otros mahiz, otros mantas, otros hamacas, otros algodon
hilado ó por hilar, otros pescados salados; otros llevan oro.' _Oviedo_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., p. 140, tom. ii., p. 340.

[1027] 'Este cacique Davaive tiene grand fundicion de oro en su casa;
tiene cient hombres á la contina que labran oro.' _Balboa_, in
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 364-5. 'Hay grandes
mineros de cobre: hachas de ello, otras cosas labradas, fundidas,
soldadas hube, y fraguas con todo su aparejo de platero y los crisoles.'
_Colon_, in _Id._, tom. i., p. 308. In Panamá, 'grandes Entalladores, y
Pintores.' _Dávila_, _Teatro Ecles._, tom. ii., fol. 56. Compare
further: _Benzoni_, _Hist. Mondo Nuovo_, fol. 88; _Herrera_, _Hist.
Gen._, dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. x.; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, pp.
29-30; _Peter Martyr_, dec. iii., lib. iv.; _Bidwell's Isthmus_, p. 37.

[1028] _Wafer's New Voy._, pp. 178-86; _Lussan_, _Jour. du Voy._, p. 46;
_Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 99.

[1029] 'Besan los pies al hijo, o sobrino, que hereda, estando en la
cama: que vale tanto como juramento, y coronacion.' _Gomara_, _Hist.
Ind._, fol. 255-6, 88. 'Todos tenian sus Reies, y Señores, á quien
obedecian.' _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., p. 346. 'Los hijos
heredauan a los padres, siendo auidos en la principal muger.... Los
Caziques y señores eran muy tenidos y obedecidos.' _Herrera_, _Hist.
Gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. x. See
also, _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 129-30, 142, 156-7;
_Quintana_, _Vidas de Españoles_, (_Balboa_), p. 9; _Andagoya_, in
_Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., p. 399; _Wafer's New Voy._, p.
163; _Dapper_, _Neue Welt_, p. 73; _Wallace_, in _Miscellanea Curiosa_,
vol. iii., p. 418; _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii.,
p. 97; _Funnell's Voyage_, pp. 131-2; _Selfridge's Darien Surveys_, p.
20.

[1030] _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 8, 126, 129; _Gomara_,
_Hist. Ind._, fol. 77; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 66; _Dapper_,
_Neue Welt_, p. 74.

[1031] _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 98;
_Macgregor's Process of Amer._, pp. 823-5, 829; _Las Casas_, _Hist.
Apologética, MS._, cap. ccxliv. 'Casauanse con hijas de sus hermanas: y
los señores tenian muchas mugeres.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. i.,
lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. x. 'De las mugeres
principales de sus padres, y hermanas ó hijas guardan que no las tomen
por mugeres, porque lo tienen por malo.' _Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_,
_Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 402-3. Of wives: 'They may haue as many
as they please, (excepting their kindred, and allies) vnlesse they be
widdowes ... in some place a widdow marryeth the brother of her former
husband, or his kinsman, especially if hee left any children.' _Peter
Martyr_, dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. viii.

[1032] The women 'observe their Husbands with a profound Respect and
Duty upon all occasions; and on the other side their Husbands are very
kind and loving to them. I never knew an Indian beat his Wife, or give
her any hard Words.... They seem very fond of their Children, both
Fathers and Mothers.' _Wafer's New Voy._, pp. 156-66. 'Tienen mancebias
publicas de mugeres, y aun de hombres en muchos cabos.' _Gomara_, _Hist.
Ind._, fol. 87. See also: _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 18, 20,
133-4; _Quintana_, _Vidas de Españoles_, (_Balboa_), pp. 9-10.

[1033] 'Pipes, or fluites of sundry pieces, of the bones of Deere, and
canes of the riuer. They make also little Drummes or Tabers beautified
with diuers pictures, they forme and frame them also of gourdes, and of
an hollowe piece of timber greater than a mannes arme.' _Peter Martyr_,
dec. viii., lib. viii. See also: _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp.
127, 130, 137, 156; _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 88; _Darien_, _Defence
of the Scots' Settlement_, pp. 72-3; _Macgregor's Progress of Amer._,
pp. 825, 832; _Warburton's Darien_, p. 321; _Las Casas_, _Hist.
Apologética, MS._, cap. ccxliii.

[1034] In Comagre, 'vinos blancos y tintos, hechos de mayz, y rayzes de
frutas, y de cierta especie de palma, y de otras cosas: los quales vinos
loauan los Castellanos quando los beuian.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec.
i., lib. ix., cap. ii. 'Tenia vna bodega con muchas cubas y tinajas
llenas de vino, hecho de grano, y fruta, blanco, tinto, dulce, y agrete
de datiles, y arrope.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 73. 'Hacian de maiz
vino blanco i tinto.... Es de mui buen sabor aunque como unos vinos
bruscos ó de gascuña.' _Las Casas_, _Hist. Ind., MS._, tom. ii., cap.
xxvi. See also: _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 136-7, 141-2;
tom. iv., pp. 96-7; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, pp. 64, 285; _Dapper_,
_Neue Welt_, pp. 71, 321; _Wafer's New Voy._, pp. 87, 102-3, 153-5, 164,
169-70; _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 96.

[1035] 'Quando hablan vno con otro, se ponen do espaldas.' _Colon_,
_Hist. Almirante_, in _Barcia_, _Historiadores_, tom. i., p. 111;
_Wafer's New Voy._, pp. 177-9.

[1036] _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 255; _Peter Martyr_, dec. vii., lib.
x., dec. viii., lib. viii.; _Wafer's New Voy._, pp. 37-9; _Herrera_,
_Hist. Gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.; _Selfridge's Darien
Surveys_, pp. 10-11; _Vega_, _Hist. Descub. Amer._, p. 145. 'Deste
nombre tequina se haçe mucha diferençia; porque á qualquiera ques mas
hábil y experto en algun arte, ... le llaman tequina, que quiere deçir
lo mesmo que maestro: por manera que al ques maestro de las responsiones
é inteligencias con el diablo, llámenle tequina en aquel arte, porque
aqueste tal es el que administra sus ydolatrías é çerimonias é
sacrifiçios, y el que habla con el diablo.' _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom.
iii., p. 127. 'Tenian ó habia entre estas gentes unos sacerdotes que
llamaban en su lengua "Piachas" muy espertos en el arte mágica, tanto
que se revestia en ellos el Diabolo y hablaba por boca de ellos muchas
falsedades, conque los tenia cautivos.' _Las Casas_, _Hist. Apologética,
MS._, cap. ccxlv.

[1037] The priests 'comunmente eran sus médicos, é conosçian muchas
hiervas, de que usaban, y eran apropriadas á diversas enfermedades.'
_Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 126, 138-9, 141, tom. i., pp.
56-7. 'According to the diuers nature, or qualitie of the disease, they
cure them by diuers superstitions, and they are diuersly rewarded.'
_Peter Martyr_, dec. viii., cap. viii. Compare further; _Gomara_, _Hist.
Ind._, fol. 88; _Las Casas_, _Hist. Apologética, MS._, cap. ccxlv.;
_Wafer's New Voy._, p. 28; _Selfridge's Darien Surveys_, p. 10; _Puydt_,
in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 97; _Purchas his
Pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. 893.

[1038] 'Quédame de deçir que en aquesta lengua de Cueva hay muchos
indios hechiçeros é en espeçial un çierto género de malos, que los
chripstianos en aquella tierra llaman chupadores.... Estos chupan á
otros hasta que los secan é matan, é sin calentura alguna de dia en dia
poco á poco se enflaquesçen tanto, que se les pueden contar los huesos,
que se les paresçen solamente cubiertos con el cuero; y el vientre se
les resuelve de manera quel ombligo traen pegado á los lomos y espinaço,
é se tornan de aquella forma que pintan á la muerte, sin pulpa ni carne.
Estos chupadores, de noche, sin ser sentidos, van á haçer mal por las
casas agenas: é ponen la boca en el ombligo de aquel que chupan, y están
en aquel exerçiçio una ó dos horas ó lo que les paresçe, teniendo en
aquel trabaxo al paçiente, sin que sea poderoso de se valer ni defender,
no dexando de sufrir su daño con silençio. É conosçe el assi ofendido, é
vee al malhechor, y aun les hablan: lo qual, assi los que haçen este mal
como los que le padesçen, han confessado algunos dellos; é diçen questos
chupadores son criados é naborias del tuyra, y quél se los manda assi
haçer, y el tuyra es, como está dicho, el diablo.' _Oviedo_, _Hist.
Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 159-60.

[1039] 'Ay muchos, que piensan, que no ay mas de nacer, y morir: y
aquellos tales no se entierran con pan, y vino, ni con mugeres, ni
moços. Los que creen la immortalidad del alma, se entierra: si son
Señores, con oro, armas, plumas, si no lo son, con mayz, vino, y
mantas.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 255, 88. 'Huius reguli penetrale
ingressi cameram reperiunt pensilibus repletam cadaueribus, gossampinis
funibus appensis. Interrogati quid sibi uellet ea superstitio: parentum
esse et auorum atauorumque Comogri regulea cadauera, inquiunt. De quibus
seruandis maximam esse apud eos curami et pro religione eam pietatem
haberi recensent: pro cuiusque gradu indu, menta cuique cadaueri
imposita, auro gemmisque superintexta.' _Peter Martyr_, dec. ii., lib.
iii., dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. ix.
'Viendo la cantidad é número de los muertos, se conosçe qué tantos
señores ha avido en aquel Estado, é quál fué hijo del otro ó le subçedió
en el señorio segund la órden subçesiva en que están puestos.' _Oviedo_,
_Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., pp. 155-6, 142. For further accounts see
_Wagner and Scherzer_, _Costa Rica_, pp. 556, 560; _Cockburn's Journey_,
p. 183; _Seemann's Voy. Herald_, vol. i., pp. 314, 316, 319; _Pim and
Seemann's Dottings_, p. 30; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. i., lib. vii.,
cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap. ii., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v., dec. iv.,
lib. i., cap. xi.; _Quintana_, _Vidas de Españoles_, (_Balboa_), p. 10;
_Andagoya_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. de Viages_, tom. iii., pp. 401-2;
_Carli_, _Cartas_, pt. i., pp. 105-6; _Las Casas_, _Hist. Apologética,
MS._, cap. ccxlii., ccxlvii.; _Purchas His Pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. 894.

[1040] The Terrabas 'naciones ... las mas braves é indómitas de todas
... Indios dotados de natural docilidad y dulzura de genio.'
_Arricivita_, _Crónica Seráfica_, p. 19. Speaking of the natives of
Panamá; 'muy deuotos del trabajo, y enemigos de la ociosidad.' _Dávila_,
_Teatro Ecles._, tom. ii., p. 56. Darien: 'Son inclinados a juegos y
hurtos, son muy haraganes.' _Gomara_, _Hist. Ind._, fol. 88. San Blas
tribes: 'They are very peaceable in their natures'.... Chucunas and
Navigandis: 'The most warlike' ... Coast tribes, 'from contact with
foreigners, are very docile and tractable'.... The Sassardis: 'As a
whole, this tribe are cowardly, but treacherous.' _Selfridge's Darien
Surveys_, pp. 10-11, 36. Compare further, _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p.
24; _Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales Voy._, 1856, tom. cli., p. 6;
_Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pref., p. xii.; _Wagner and Scherzer_, _Costa
Rica_, p. 557; _Gage's New Survey_, p. 426; _Michler's Darien_, p. 26;
_Alcedo_, _Dicc._, tom. ii., p. 413; _Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. 96; _Macgregor's Progress of Amer._, p. 830;
_Otis' Panamá_, p. 77; _Cullen's Darien_, pp. 65-6, 68-9.


END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.





End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft,
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