Create and configure Virtual Machine following specific rules, add a shell script for monitoring the system.
- VirtualBox
- VM (Virtual Machine)
- LVM (Logical Volume Manager)
- VM configuration
- Script
- Cron
- Install Wordpress (+lighttp, MariaDB, PHP)
- Signature
- Useful links
For installation and partitioning you can follow gemartin99 guide. Just take care to convert GB to GiB when determining partition size.
VirtualBox software allows guest operating system to run on another operating system.
Do not allocate more than 50% of memory (or CPU count for processor memory) of your host system, to avoid crashing it. Video memory - as much as possible.
An ISO file (often called an ISO image), is an archive file that contains an identical copy (or image) of data found on an optical disc, like a CD or DVD.
Put the image in sgoinfre (/nfs/homes/your_username/sgoinfre) if you are installing at school. It does not have artificial limits, so we will have enough space to install.
Snapshot: save a particular state of a virtual machine and revert back to that state.
VM is a software emulation of a physical computer system. It allows you to run multiple operating systems simultaneously on a single physical machine, each in its isolated virtual environment. Normally, a VM is shown as a window on your computer’s desktop, but it can be full-screen or run on a remote computer.
LVM is a software-based approach to manage storage devices and logical volumes in Linux operating systems. Allows the creation of ‘groups’ of disks or partitions that can be assembled into a single (or multiple) filesystem.
Partitioning bonus: gigabytes to gibibytes converter (e.g. 500MiB = 524.288MB). Convert when creating partitions.
If partitions are already created, resize with the following command (XXX is the size to increment in mb) and (YYY the corresponding partition) sudo lvresize -L +XXXm /dev/LVMGroup/YYY
Resize the boot partition. Install parted: sudo apt install parted.
Resize the partition:sudo parted /dev/sda resizepart 1 XXXM (value in MB)
Resize the filesystem to make it aware of the new partition size: sudo resize2fs /dev/sda1
Check the partitions in terminal: lsblk
su command stands for substitute user or superuser. su requires the password of the target account, you gain root privileges.
sudo is used as a prefix to Linux commands, which allows the logged in user to execute commands that require root privileges.sudo requires the password of the current user. sudo option can only be used by users who belong to the sudoers group.
it is advisable to stick to sudo when performing tasks that require root privileges. By doing so, the
current user is only privileged for the specified command. On the other hand, su switches to the root user completely, exposing the entire system to potential accidental modification.
→ Write su - and insert root password ( - fully initializes the environment of the user).
apt update and apt upgrade (do every time before installing new software).
apt install sudo to install necessary packages.
sudo reboot - restart the VM.
sudo -V : check the sudo version and configuration parameters.
Change hostname: sudo hostnamectl set-hostname <new_hostname>.
Check who is host: hostnamectl status / hostname.
sudo adduser <username>.
sudo addgroup user42 - create new group called “user42”. GID - Group Identifier.
sudo adduser <username> <groupname> add user to a specific group (last two being placeholders).
getent group <groupname> : displays a list of all users in a group/check if the group was created.
cat /etc/group - see all groups and their users.
groups <username> : displays the groups of a user.
users: see users who are currently logged-in.
getent passwd: list of all users on the system, including regular user accounts, system accounts, and service accounts.
userdel -r <username>: remove user and his home directory.
id -u : displays user ID.
id -g : shows a user’s main group ID.
Change password: enter the user and type passwd in terminal.
switch from root to user: su - <username>
Adding a User to the Sudoers Group:
For a user to execute a command that requires the sudo prefix, it has to be part of the sudoers group.
To add a user to the sudoers group, run the following command (as root or an account that already has sudo privileges): usermod -aG sudo <username>(-a for append; -G for supplementary groups; -g for primary groups). Use this command to add user to any other group, if the user has been already created.
To see a list of accounts that belong to the sudoers group run: sudo getent group sudo
Git: sudo apt-get install git -y.
Check the version: git --version.
Vim: sudo apt install vim.
Check the version: vim --version.
AppArmor is a security feature to protect your computer by restricting the actions that individual applications or processes can take. It acts like a protective shield around each application, ensuring that it can only access approved resources and perform allowed actions. AppArmor works by creating a set of rules or policies that define the permissions for each application. These policies specify which files, directories, network resources, and other system functions an application is allowed to access. AppArmor comes with Debian by default, but you can also install it if needed.
Install AppArmor: sudo apt install apparmor apparmor-profiles apparmor-utils.
Check status: sudo apparmor_status. Check if running: systemctl status apparmor.
SSH (Secure Shell) is a network protocol that gives users, particularly system administrators, a secure way to access a computer over an unsecured network. Allows two computers to communitate and share data, encrypts all traffic. Its most notable applications are remote login and command-line execution.
First sudo apt update
Install OpenSSH: sudo apt install openssh-server
Verify ssh service: sudo service ssh status and the status should be active.
Configure the files /etc/ssh/sshd_config (use nano, vim (sudo apt install vim)), you have to be root. nano /etc/ssh/sshd_config.
Remove # from lines you want to modify.
#Port 22 -> Port 4242
#PermitRootLogin prohibit-password -> PermitRootLogin no. Important to exclude root to reduce hack damage!
Now modify file /etc/ssh/ssh_config.
#Port 22 -> Port 4242 (remove spaces from front)
Restart the ssh service to update the changes sudo service ssh restart.
Check if the changes have been made sudo service ssh status.
Close VM and in VirtualBox Manager go to Settings → Netfwork → Change Attached to: Bridged Adapter.
NAT (Network Address Translation): VM shares the host system's IP address for outgoing connections. NAT is useful when you want your virtual machine to have internet access but don't need direct network visibility or communication with other devices on the local network.
Bridged Network: VM gets its own unique IP address on the same network as the host system. Bridged networking is suitable when you want your virtual machine to be seen as a separate device on the network and need it to have direct network communication with other devices.
Reboot the machine: sudo reboot.
To see the ip address ip a through VM terminal.
Enter your terminal ssh username@ipaddress -p 4242.
If get any error in the connection rm ~/.ssh/known_hosts.
Check if the machines are connected wall randomtext.
UFW (Uncomplicated Firewall). A firewall is a security measure that controls incoming and outgoing network traffic to and from your computer. It acts as a barrier/security guard, allowing or blocking connections based on predefined rules.
UFW provides a command-line tool that allows you to enable or disable firewall rules, define specific rules for different types of network traffic, and monitor the status of the firewall. Using UFW, you can specify which network ports should be open or closed on your computer.
Install sudo apt install ufw.
Activate sudo ufw enable.
Allow connections through port 4242 sudo ufw allow 4242.
Check if the changes are in place sudo ufw status.
If we use the sudo ss -tunlp command we will find that it's open to port 68, which is referring to DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol). To close this door, we need to change the machine IP address from dynamic to static.
With or without DHCP, one must assign IP addresses to devices because they contain the information used to accurately direct the transmission of data packets passed across any network. Without DHCP, computers moved to another network will have to undergo manual configuration to assign them new IP addresses. Similarly, the IP addresses assigned to computers that have left the network must be manually retrieved.
sudo ss -tunlp - check the open doors
ip a - get your current IP address
sudo nano /etc/network/interfaces
change line allow-hotplug enp0s3 to auto enp0s3
change line iface enp0s3 inet dhcp to iface enp0s3 inet static
Add the following lines
address your_current_ip
netmask 255.255.0.0
gateway 10.11.254.254
dns-nameservers 10.11.254.254 and exit the file
sudo systemctl restart networking
sudo systemctl status networking
sudo reboot
ss -tulnp
https://www.linux.com/training-tutorials/linux-101-introduction-sudo/
man sudo
If you mis-configure your /etc/sudoers file, you can damage your installation (at which point you will have to log boot in rescue mode). Sudo is VERY particular about syntax in the configuration file. Add local content in /etc/sudoers.d to avoid this issue. Else edit sudoers file with sudo visudo.
Create a file to store config in /etc/sudoers.d/ touch /etc/sudoers.d/sudo_config.
Create folder sudo in /var/log to store all commands executed by sudo mkdir /var/log/sudo.
Edit the sudo_config file nano /etc/sudoers.d/sudo_config. Write inside:
Defaults env_reset
Defaults passwd_tries=3
Defaults badpass_message="Knock knock...it's error"
Defaults logfile="/var/log/sudo/sudo_log"
Defaults log_input, log_output
Defaults iolog_dir="/var/log/sudo"
Defaults requiretty
Defaults secure_path="/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/snap/bin"env_reset - sudo will reset the environment to a standardized default state, providing a clean and controlled environment for the executed command.
logfile - folder where all the sudo related messages will be recorded: authentication attempts, executed commands etc.
iolog_dir - all the input and output file (previous line) will be stored in this folder.
requiretty - activate TTY (teletypewriter) mode. It provides the file name of the terminal that is currently connected to the standard input. When requiretty is set, sudo must be run from a logged-in terminal session (a tty). By enabling this option, sudo ensures that the user is physically present at the terminal to enter their password and execute commands. This prevents sudo from being used from daemons or other detached processes like cronjobs or webserver plugins. It also means you can't run it directly from an ssh call without setting up a terminal session.
secure_path - a list of directories where sudo will search for executable files when a command is executed.
Edit file /etc/login.defs
PASS_MAX_DAYS 99999 -> PASS_MAX_DAYS 30
PASS_MIN_DAYS 0 -> PASS_MIN_DAYS 2
To continue configuration install sudo apt install libpam-pwquality
Edit file /etc/pam.d/common-password.
After pam_pwquality.so retry=3 on the same line add minlen=10 ucredit=-1 dcredit=-1 lcredit=-1 maxrepeat=3 reject_username difok=7 enforce_for_root
minlen=10 - minimum number of password characters
ucredit=-1 - at least one uppercase (”-”at least, “+”not more than)
dcredit=-1 - at least one digit
lcredit=-1 - at least one lowercase
maxrepeat=3 - not more than 3 repeated characters in a row
reject_username - cannot contain username
difok=7 - at least 7 different characters compared to previous password
enforce_for_root - same rules for root.
Check settings for user and for root: chage -l <username>.
Update passwd policy for your user: sudo chage --maxdays 30 --mindays 2 --warndays 7 <username>.
Script - sequence of commands stored in a file that when executed will do the function of each command.
Wall - displays a message or the contents of a file on the terminals of all currently logged in users.
grep - grab a pattern and return the line where this pattern is found (-i ignore case).
awk - pattern scanning and processing. Splits input lines into fields and compares line/field to pattern.
wc - prints a newline (-l), word (-w), chars (-m) and byte (-c) counts for files.
- Architecture: command
uname -a(”a” stands for “all”). - How many physical processors: use the file /proc/cpuinfo,
cat /proc/cpuinfoit to see inside.grep "physical id" /proc/cpuinfo | sort | uniq | wc -l: sort and uniq guarantees that there are no duplicates (physical processor might be the same for each virtual). - How many virtual processors:
grep "^processor" /proc/cpuinfo | wc -l. ^ indicates beginning of the line = “line starting with the word processor..” Duplicates should not appear, so no need for the rule. - RAM memory available in MB and usage in %. Subject text dosn´t match subject example (one states available memory and the other one - used). I will follow the example with used memory display as it makes more sense to me. Command
free --megato see info about RAM. Current available RAM and its utilization rate as a percentage: divide used by total and display the result as percentage (multiply by 100 and add % sign). Get used memory:free --mega | grep Mem | awk '{print $3}'(get row containing Mem, and print 3rd column). Get total memory:free --mega | grep Mem | awk '{print $2}'. Display percentage:free --mega | grep Mem | awk '{printf("%.2f"), $3/$2*100}'. - Server (disk) memory available in GB and usage in %. Command
dfstands for "disk filesystem”, it will show the disk space. To show it in MB use the flag-mand in GB use 2 flags:-Bto show the block size of the size we will ask, and-gthat makes the size in GB. Our server is the lines that start with/dev/so to get oly those lines we cangrep "^/dev/". Exclude lines that end with “boot” because we don’t have access to it:grep -v "/boot$”. Create variable “disk_used” and use the awk command and sum the value of the 4th word of each line and once all the lines are summed, print the final result of the sum:awk '{disk_used += $3} END {print disk_used}'. Used disk memory:df -Bm | grep "^/dev/" | grep -v "/boot$" | awk '{disk_used += $3} END {print disk_used}'. Total disk memory:df -Bg | grep "^/dev/" | grep -v "/boot$" | awk '{disk_total += $2} END {print disk_total}'. Calculate percentage used_space / total_space * 100:df -m | grep "^/dev/" | grep -v "/boot$" | awk '{disk_used += $3} {disk_total+= $2} END {printf("%.2f"), disk_used/disk_total*100}'. - Processors (CPU) usage percentage. Command
topalready give us the CPU %.top -bn1 | grep "^%Cpu" | awk '{printf("%.1f"), 100-$8}'. Flag-bto start in batch mode: useful for sending output from top to other programs or to a file; Flag-nthat specify the max number of iterations or frames.grep "^%Cpu"get the line that contains CPU %.awk '{printf("%.1"), 100-$8}'print the value minus idle time CPU which is field 8. - Date and time of the last reboot. Command
whowith the-bflag, as this flag will display the time of the last system boot.who -b | grep system | awk '{print $3 " " $4}'. - LVM active or not. Command
lsblkshows information about all block devices (hard drives, SSDs, memories, etc). If condition: count the number of lines in which "lvm" appears and if there are more than 0 print Yes, if there are 0 print No.
if [ $(lsblk | grep "lvm" | wc -l) -gt 0 ]; #gt - greater than, eq - equal to
then echo yes;
else echo no;
fi- Number of active TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) connections. A TCP connection represents a logical channel or session established between two devices, typically a client and a server, to facilitate the exchange of data. It provides reliable, connection-oriented communication, ensuring that data is delivered accurately and in the correct order.
netstatcommand is not used anymore, takess(socket statistics) instead.-a(all) flag not necessary, since we don’t look for non-established sockets.-tdisplays TCP sockets.ss -t | grep ESTAB | wc -l - Number the users using the network.
users | wc -w - IPv4 address of your server and its MAC (Media Access Control) address. IP address:
hostname -i(-i displays only the hosts IP / network address; -I displays all computers network IP addresses). Normally it’s in IPv4 format. If in troubleifconfig -4gets only IPv4. MAC:ip link show | grep ether | awk '{print $2}'orifconfig -a | grep ether | awk '{print $2}'(latter is deprecated) . - Number of commands executed with the sudo program. Command
journaclctlis a tool for collecting and managing the system logs. If you don’t have access to this commandsudo apt install net-tools._COMM=sudofilters the entries where the command name is “sudo”. When you start or close the root session it also appears in the log, so to finish filtering we will put agrep COMMANDand this will only show the command lines.journalctl _COMM=sudo | grep COMMAND | wc -l
You can find the script monitoring.sh in the root of this repository.
Open the folder where the script will be placed: cd /usr/local/bin(used for locally installed binaries that are not part of the core operating system).
Create monitoring.sh in this folder (nano, vim, touch..).
Give permissions to read and execute chmod +rx monitoring.sh.
Add the rule to execute the script without the sudo password. sudo visudo
Under %sudo ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL add this line to run the script without password your_username ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: /usr/local/bin/monitoring.sh (although since the script will run from root crontab and will use wall, it will execute also without this line, but it’s handy to know that we can grant access to execute commands without password).
sudo reboot
Cron is a time-based job scheduler. It allows users to schedule and automate the execution of tasks or commands at predefined intervals or specific times. Daemon - computer program that runs as a background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user.The crontab file follows a specific format with fields representing / minutes / hours / days of the month / months / and days of the week (0 and 7 are Sunday)/ followed by the command to be executed. Each field can contain a value or a wildcard (*) to match any value. For example, a line in a crontab file might look like: 30 8 * * * /path/to/command.
System-wide crontab files are typically located in the /etc directory and are used for tasks that should run regardless of the user logged in. User-specific crontab files can be managed with the crontab command and are located in each user's home directory.
To edit crontab file: sudo crontab -u root -e (-user, -edit). */10 * * * * /usr/local/bin/monitoring.sh will run the script every 10 minutes / stands for step. But it will run on fixed minutes, e.g., 15:00, 15:10 etc. To take into account the boot time we need to add a delay that is the same amount that the second digit of minutes that we started the system: sleep $(who -b | awk '{split($4, time, ":"); print time[2]%10}')m split the 4th field by delimiter “:” and print %10 of the 2nd field. Note: who-b script fetches minutes, but sleep works with seconds. Create a file with this script in the same folder as monitoring.sh /usr/local/bin/sleep_mon.sh, add +rx permissions and add the path to sleep delay. The full line: */10 * * * * /usr/local/bin/sleep_mon.sh; /usr/local/bin/monitoring.sh.
To make the script run after reboot add @reboot /usr/local/bin/monitoring.sh under the 10 min line. Add the sleep for 10 seconds to allow other system services and processes to initialize properly before executing the script. @reboot sleep 10; /usr/local/bin/monitoring.sh.
To check scheduled cronjobs: sudo crontab -u root -l.
If after saving VM in Current State it will boot with the same date and time when it was logged off previously (fails to update time), install and config NTP (Network Time Protocol) to sync your date: sudo apt install ntp.
Edit NTP config file: sudo nano /etc/ntp.conf.
Find lines that start with “server” and add several servers (will depend on your country). For Portugal, add these lines:
server pt.pool.ntp.org
server ntp02.fccn.pt
server ntp04.fccn.ptsudo systemctl restart ntp.
Check if your time is updated: date.
You can follow installation and configuration from gemartin99.
Lighttpd is open-source web server software. It's designed specifically for environments with limited resources since it consumes minimal CPU and RAM.
MariaDB: open source database solution.
PHP: general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for web development.
Some of my comments:
Add new port connection: sudo ufw allow 80. Port 80 is default port for HTTP traffic. For future fererence port 443 is the default port for HTTPS traffic.
Check UFW status: sudo ufw status.
Download latest version of Wordpress: sudo wget https://wordpress.org/latest.zip.
Set permissions for html folder: sudo chmod -R 777 html (e.g., to be able to ulpoad files to wp).
Check if MariaDB is working: systemctl status mariadb.
Check if PHP is working with lighttpd, create a file in /var/www/html named info.php. In that php file, write:
<?php
phpinfo();
?>Then in your browser enter <IP.address>/info.php and a page with PHP info should appear.
Extra service Fail2Ban: security tool that protects your server from brute-force attacks by monitoring log files and blocking IP addresses that show suspicious activity.
You can follow this guide of mcombeau to install and configure.
Check if installed and working: sudo systemctl status fail2ban. Check status: sudo fail2ban-client status.
To see banned IP addresses for SSH: sudo fail2ban-client status sshd.
Turn off VM: sudo shutdown now.
Open terminal and cd into the path where is the .vdi of virtual machine. sha1sum <VM_name>.vdi
It will display a line that is the ID of our VM. Copy it into signature.txt.
It is important not to reopen the VM from this point on, because that will change the signature number. Take a snapshot or clone the machine for evaluation.
VirtualBox manual: http://download.virtualbox.org/virtualbox/UserManual.pdf
Guide to VirtualBox: https://www.saashub.com/videos/sB_5fqiysi4/modal
Guide and evaluation questions (outdated version): https://github.com/benmaia/42_Born2beRoot_Guide/tree/master
Linux Directories Explained in 3mins: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42iQKuQodW4
Sudo crash course: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=07JOqKOBRnU
AWK: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/awk-command-unixlinux-examples/