Programming languages

• Assembly language
  • C
    • Replace assembly in Unix (Bell Labs) 🔗
    • Kernels. 🔗
    • C++
      • является своего рода преемником оригинального языка программирования C 🔗
      • C++ появился в 1985 году на компиляторе Cfront. Бьёрн взял за основу С и добавил к нему механизмы абстракции, конструкторы, деструкторы и тому подобное. 🔗
      • C with OOP (Bell Labs) 🔗
      • Low-level systems programming. 🔗
      • Java
        • Portable, garbage collected alternative to C++ (Sun) 🔗
        • Business applications and Android. 🔗
        • C#
          • Microsoft’s own Java (Microsoft) 🔗
          • Business applications that run on Microsoft systems. 🔗
        • Groovy
        • Scala
        • Kotlin
          • считается преемником Java 🔗
          • Modern Java for Android (JetBrains) 🔗
      • Rust
        • promising replacement for C and C++, particularly for systems-level programming, infrastructure projects, embedded software development 🔗
        • Memory safety with zero overhead (Mozilla) 🔗
        • Low-level systems programming. 🔗
      • Carbon
        • позиционируют его одновременно и как замену, и как преемника C++ 🔗
    • Zig
      • Replace C with a modern and safer language 🔗
• JavaScript
  • Scripting language for the web browser (Netscape) 🔗
  • Web frontend. 🔗
  • Dart
    • полноценная альтернатива JavaScript 🔗
    • Multi-platform apps with Flutter (Google) 🔗
  • TypeScript
    • способен полностью заменить JavaScript 🔗
    • JavaScript with type safety (Microsoft) 🔗
    • Web frontend. 🔗
• Go
  • Write servers and tools at Google scale (Google) 🔗
  • High performance servers. 🔗
• Ruby
  • “True object-oriented” scripting language, popularized by Rails 🔗
  • Web backend. 🔗
• PHP
  • Web pages 🔗
  • Web backend. 🔗
• Python
  • Scripting language for web apps, tools, scientific computing and ML (CWI, CNRI) 🔗
  • Scientific computing and machine learning. 🔗
• MATLAB
  • Numeric/Scientific computing. 🔗
  • Octave
• R
  • Statistics (University of Auckland) 🔗
  • Statistics. 🔗
• Julia
  • Numeric/Scientific computing. 🔗
• FORTRAN
  • Numeric/Scientific computing. 🔗
• Objective-C
  • Swift
    • преемник Objective-C 🔗
    • Modern Objective-C for iOS and macOS (Apple) 🔗
    • Apps that run on Apple systems. 🔗
• SQL
  • PL/SQL
  • Transact-SQL
• Bourne shell
• PowerShell
• Haskell
• Lisp
  • Clojure
    • jank
  • Racket
• OCaml
  • F#
• Erlang
  • Elixir
  • Gleam
• Prolog
• D
• Perl
• Pascal
  • Object Pascal
    • Delphi
• BASIC
  • Visual Basic
    • Visual Basic .NET
• Smalltalk
• Scheme
• Lua
  • Embeddable scripting language (PUC-Rio) 🔗
  • Embedded into other languages. 🔗
• Nim
• Ada
• COBOL
  • Business applications. 🔗
• ALGOL
• Haxe

Typing

• Хабр
  • Ликбез по типизации в языках программирования
  • Объясните мне, как вы для себя разобрались в моделях типизаций — они же все размыты
• Skillbox Media / Что такое типизация
• Skillfactory / Типизация- что это такое в языках программирования: основы
• GeekBrains / Типизация в языках программирования

Ecosystem

• r/AskProgramming / What language in your opinion has the best ecosystem nowadays (including frameworks, IDE’s etc.)?
• Stack Overflow / package - Which programming languages have the most publicly available libraries?
• Quora / When comparing programming languages, what do people mean by ecosystems?
• Evolving Language Ecosystems (ELE)
• ANU School of Computing / Building a Programming Language Ecosystem

What's next

• Medium / The Future of Programming is Dependent Types — Programming Word of the Day by Marin Benčević
  • Хабр / Зависимые типы — будущее языков программирования
• dev.by / CEO Nvidia: ИИ сделал обычное человеческое общение языком программирования

misc.

• Hyperpolyglot
• Learn X in Y Minutes: Scenic Programming Language Tours
• Rosetta Code
• wiki.c2.com
  • Everything Isa
  • Large And Small Languages
• Val is a research programming language to explore the concepts of mutable value semantics and generic programming for high-level systems programming.
• To Learn a New Language, Read Its Standard Library by Pat Shaughnessy
  • Hacker News
• Designing Libraries Like Languages by Pavel Panchekha
• The Hare programming language is a systems programming language designed to be simple, stable, and robust. Hare uses a static type system, manual memory management, and a minimal runtime.
• White House Recommends Memory-Safe Programming Languages and Security-by-Design
  • Python, Java, C#, Go, Delphi/Object Pascal, Swift, Ruby, Rust and Ada are some memory-safe programming languages
• Programming languages ranked by expressiveness by Donnie Berkholz
  • Hacker News
  • InfoQ / Study: Clojure, CoffeeScript and Haskell Are the Most Expressive General-purpose Languages
• YouTube / PapersWeLove / On the Expressive Power of Programming Languages by Shriram Krishnamurthi
• The GitHub Blog / How to use AI coding tools to learn a new programming language
• Programming Languages That Blew My Mind
  • Хабр / Языки программирования, взорвавшие мой мозг
• Задача для освоения новых языков (Александр Дëмин)
  • версия на Питоне Мультипотоковый отладчик TCP/IP соединений
  • На Erlang’e
    • TCP/IP proxy на Erlang'e
    • Улучшенный TCP/IP proxy на Erlang'e
  • TCP/IP proxy на Go
• The only way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs in it. (Dennis M. Ritchie)
• YouTube / Whitespace Programming Language Tutorial
  • Хабр / Основы Whitespace: невидимого языка программирования
• Every programming language needs its killer app to succeed by Nicolas Grilly
  • Every programming language has its 'killer' domain by Rik Huijzer
  • Хабр / Как выжить новому языку программирования?
• From math to machine
  • Хабр / От математики к машине: преобразуем функцию в машинный код

Wikipedia

• List of programming languages by type
  • Constraint programming languages
• Category:Logic programming languages
• Category:Concurrent programming languages
• Linda (coordination language)
• TIOBE index
  • Индекс TIOBE
• Structured program theorem
• Category:Programming language theory
• Interface description language
• Template:Query languages
• Comparison of programming languages
  • Comparison of programming languages (syntax)
• Sigil (computer programming)
• Syntax (programming languages)
• Standard library
• Timeline of programming languages
• Category:Formal languages
• Semantics (computer science)
  • Семантика (программирование)
    • может использоваться как для описания языка, определения свойств языка, так и для целей формальной верификации программ
• Operational semantics is a category of formal programming language semantics in which certain desired properties of a program, such as correctness, safety or security, are verified by constructing proofs from logical statements about its execution and procedures, rather than by attaching mathematical meanings to its terms (denotational semantics).
  • Structural operational semantics
    • The basic idea behind SOS is to define the behavior of a program in terms of the behavior of its parts, thus providing a structural, i.e., syntax-oriented and inductive, view on operational semantics.
• Visual programming language lets users create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually.
  • List of visual languages
• Raptor (programming language) a product of the United States Air Force, for drawing executable flowcharts.
• Passive data structure
  • Простая структура данных

Books

• Strange Code. Esoteric Languages That Make Programming Fun Again by Ronald T. Kneusel - 496 pages
• Язык компьютера (1989)
  • Лайвлиб
  • OZON

Rankings

• IEEE Spectrum
  • Top Programming Languages 2022
  • How We Judge the Top Programming Languages
• PYPL PopularitY of Programming Language index
• TIOBE Index
• RedMonk Top 20 Languages Over Time:
  • January 2022
  • January 2021

Stack Exchange

• Theoretical Computer Science Stack Exchange
  • reference request - Formal Semantics of Programming Languages
  • reference request - Books on programming language semantics
• Stack Overflow
  • java - How to deal with history-sensitivity?

Courses

• Programming Languages I Lecture Notes by University Tübingen
  • Miscellaneous
    • Object Algebras
• CSE505: Concepts of Programming Languages
• Jon Pearce
  • Lectures
    • Programming Languages: Concepts and Paradigms
      • languages3

GitHub

• ChessMax/awesome-programming-languages The list of awesome programming languages that you might be interested in.

People

• Tproger / Python, Go, Ruby — сайты создателей популярнейших языков собрали в одном месте

Expert commentary

• Larry Wall: 5 Programming Languages Everyone Should Know

Monetization

• VentureBeat / These are the best-paid programming languages for 2025 January 21, 2025
• SecurityLab.ru / Платят не за код, а за язык: рейтинг самых прибыльных технологий в IT 4 апреля, 2025

WTF

• Wat
  • Hacker News
    • Wat (2012) [video]
    • Wat [video] (2012)
  • r/programming
• Weird Lexical Syntax
  • Хабр / Самый странный лексический синтаксис, который я обнаружила, исследовав 42 языка программирования

LOLZ

• Хабр / Главный секрет успеха языков программирования